Selected Annotated Bibliography 

)n .Asphalt-Bearing Rocks of the 

United States and Canada, 

to 1970 

ly MARJORIE C. MULLENS and ALBERT E. ROBERTS 

:iEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1352 

A comp£/ation of about 600 selected 

--eferences pertaining to the geology 

znd occurrence of asphalt-bearing rocks 

JNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1972 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

ROGERS C. B. MORTON, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

V. E. McKelvey, Director 

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 72-600019 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printinl! Office 

Washinl!ton, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.25 (paper cover) 

Stock Number 2401-2110 
CONTENTS 

Page 

Abstract............................................................................................................. 1 

Introduction....................................................................................................... 1 

References......................................................................................................... 8 

Serial list........................................................................................................... 9 

General reference publications...................................................................... 15 

United States.................................................................................................... 41 

Alabama..................................................................................................... 41 

Alaska........................................................................................................ 43 

Arizona...................................................................................................... 51 

Arkansas.................................................................................................... 52 

California.................................................................................................. 54 

Colorado..................................................................................................... 85 

Illinois........................................................................................................ 93 

Indiana....................................................................................................... 94 

Kansas........................................................................................................ 94 

Kentucky.................................................................................................... 95 

Michigan.................................................................................................... 102 

Mississippi................................................................................................. 103 

Missouri..................................................................................................... 104 

Montana..................................................................................................... 110 

New Mexico............................................................................................... 113 

New York.................................................................................................. 115 

Ohio............................................................................................................ 115 

Oklahoma................................................................................................... 117 

Oregon........................................................................................................ 130 

Pennsylvania............................................................................................. 131 

South Dakota............................................................................................ 131 

Tennessee ............................. _-···································································· 131 

Texas.......................................................................................................... 132 

Utah ............................................................... ,............................................ 142 

West Virginia........................................................................................... 169 

Wyoming.................................................................................................... 169 

Canada............................................................................................................... 179 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

FIGURE 1. Photograph of asphaltic sandstone........................................ 3 

2. Photograph showing top of bituminous sand uncovered 

by erosion.................................................................................. 4 

3. Photograph of gilsonite vein.................................................... 4 

n1 
IV CONTENTS 

FIGURE 4. Photograph of La Brea tar pit, Los Angeles 

Page 

County, Calif·-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5 

5. Map showing distribution of asphalt-bearing rocks 

in the United States·------------------------------------------------------------- 6 

TABLE 

TABLE 1. Asphalt deposits in the United States with reserves Page 

of at least 1 million barrels·------------------------------------------------- 8 
SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON 

ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS OF THE UNITED STATES 

AND CANADA, TO 1970 

By MARJORIE C. MULLENS and ALBERT E. ROBERTS 

ABSTRACT 

Surface and near-surface deposits of asphalt-bearing rocks in the United 

States and Canada are a potential source of energy. Economic conditions and 

technological advances indicate that these deposits may supplement future 

petroleum production. Energy planning and research for future needs should 

include a balanced program of the various energy resources. Because implementation of such a program requires an assemblage of pertinent data on 

asphalt-bearing rocks, this annotated bibliography was prepared. 

INTRODUCTION 

Asphalt-bearing rocks have been recognized for many years 

as a potential source of synthetic-crude oil. The expanding 

search for new supplies of energy during recent years and an 

advancing technology for the recovery of petroleum products 

from these rocks have revived interest in their possible development. Large-scale production from the giant Canadian Athabaska 

deposit began in 1967. At present, a few of the larger United 

States deposits are being worked on an experimental basis ; however, as recovery methods improve and economic conditions become more favorable, many of these deposits are expected to 

become commercial. 

Bituminous substances range in form from liquid petroleum 

through semisolid varieties that are partly insoluble in organic 

solvents but are higher in fixed carbon and less fusible, to solid 

asphaltic pyrobitumens that are nearly insoluble and infusible 

and are high in fixed carbon. The widely differing characteristics 

of asphalt-bearing rocks make it difficult to describe them with 

one all-inclusive , definition. Such terms as albertite, asphalt, 

asphaltite, asphaltum, bitumen, brea, chapapote, gilsonite, grahamite, maltha, mineral wax, oil seepages, pitch, resin, and 

tar sands have been used somewhat indiscriminately in the literature in descriptions of widely divergent types of deposits. For 

a comprehensive review of terminology and classification of 

1 
2 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

bituminous substances, the reader is referred to Herbert Abraham's (1960, chap. 2, v. 1, 6th ed.) "Asphalts and Allied Substances," or to "Nomenclature and terms," by W. E. Hansen, in 

"Bituminous Materials -Asphalts, Tars, and Pitches," volume 1, 

edited by A. J. Hoiberg (1964). 

The term "asphalt-bearing rock" is used in this bibliography 

for any deposit that is impregnated with the very heavy and 

highly viscous hydrocarbon, commonly known as "asphalt," or 

"tar." The hydrocarbon can generally be extracted from the 

entrapping rock. by organic solvents, hot- or cold-water washing, 

low-temperature retorting, or centrifuge treatment. Extracted 

hydrocarbon can be processed to yield oil, natural gas, gasoline, 

liquefied-petroleum gas, and solids as accessory products. In practice, the distinction between asphalt sands and sands containing 

heavy-crude oil is not easily made. The principal difference between 

asphalt-bearing rocks and oil shale is that the hydrocarbon in the 

more porous asphalt-bearing rocks can be removed by ordinary 

organic solvents, whereas the hydrocarbon in oil shale cannot. 

Asphalt-bearing deposits most commonly occur around the 

margins of oil-producing basins in which the oil-containing formations are near the surface. The locations of many of the early 

discovery oil wells were on or near outcrops of asphalt-bearing 

rocks. Asphalt deposits also occur within the basins where folds 

and faults have brought these asphalt-bearing formations to the 

surface. Prior to production of petroleum from wells, such deposits were mined for recovery of petroleum products and for 

road material. A few asphalt-bearing rocks are being mined at 

the present time for the asphalt; however, 90 percent of the 

asphalt used in the United States is produced from the refining of 

crude petroleum. 

The deposits of asphalt-bearing rock have become immobile 

in relatively porous rocks by proces,ses that are not as yet clearly 

understood. The presence of asphalt in widely divergent lithologic 

rock types of both marine and nonmarine origin suggests that, 

at many localities, the parent hydrocarbons have migrated from 

source rocks into the porous reservoirs, from which the lighter, 

more volatile constituents subsequently escaped, leaving behind 

the highly viscous and relatively inert residue of petroleum. The 

permeability of the clastic rocks may be a dominant factor in 

the localization of the asphalt, although other factors, such as 

texture, cementation, jointing, faulting, folding, tilting, and the 

position of the water table, all may exert some control in the accumulation of asphalt. In some deposits hydrocarbon is undoubtedly 

the residuum from evaporation of the light volatile end-fraction, 
INTRODUCTION 3 

but in other deposits the hydrocarbons contain high percentages 

of light-end low-boiling fractions. The parent crude oil in some 

deposits may be immature and, therefore, unlikely to have undergone compression from excessive overburden pressure ; or in other 

deposits it may be old, having lost its light volatile ends after 

originating at considerable depth and migrating to its present 

position. Source material and source environment may have 

influenced the type of original crude formed; and the destructive 

role of bacteria may have influenced the chemical constituents 

formed. Also, in a few deposits, possibly little or no migration 

has occurred, and the hydrocarbons are indigenous to the present 

reservoir rocks. For a modern review of hypotheses for organic 

and inorganic origins of petroleum, the reader is referred to 

"Sourcebook for Petroleum Geology," compiled by R. H. Dott, 

Sr., and M. J. Reynolds (1969). 

Many asphalt deposits are obviously due to seepage of petroleum at or near the surface into a porous rock (fig. 1), whereas 

other deposits appear to be in-situ oil accumulations uncovered 

by erosion (fig. 2). In some deposits there are veinlike fillings of 

solid hydrocarbons, such as gilsonite, which are often associated 

with faulting and folding and occasionally occur as asphaltbearing sandstone dikes and sills (fig. 3). Some deposits are 

FIGURE 1.- Asphaltic sandstone, viewed at close range. Streaks are asphalt 

that has oozed from the rock and trickled down the sloping surfaces. Outcrop is in Zavalla County, Tex. Photograph by L. W. Stephenson. 
4 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

FIGURE 2.- Top of bituminous sand at Carpinteria, Calif., exposed by erosion. 

Photograph taken by George H. Eldridge in 1901. _ 

FIGURE 3.- Cowboy gilsonite vein, viewed toward the northwest along vein in 

sec. 22, T. 9 S., R. 25 E., Uintah County, Utah. Platform (foreground) is 

approximately 10 feet wide. Photograph taken by W. B. Cashion in 1967. 
INTRODUCTION 5 

FIGURE 4.- North side of lagoon at La Brea tar pit, Los Angeles County, 

Calif. Photograph made by Ralph Arnold in 1906. 

evidently the result of flowage of plastic hydrocarbons into 

localities of less pressure (fig. 4). Deposits vary from semiliquid 

to hard brittle material. Available evidence indicates that the 

now solid or plastic asphaltlike substances had the same origin 

as crude oil and were, in fact, liquid petroleum when emplaced. 

The index map (fig. 5) shows the distribution of asphaltbearing rocks in the United States (excluding Hawaii), and table 

1 details the deposits in which the reserves total at least 1 

million barrels of oil. 

This selected bibliography, compiled in support of the U.S. 

Geological Survey organic-fuels investigations, is an attempt to 

condense the broad published record into brief annotated refer-
6 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

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,' ,' ------------- r I ) +-1- __ l __________ T __ , 

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..,. \ I: ------:Lt--t- + + + I 

KANSAS 

\ f-j I _______ +__ l 

\1 i + + ~-~--_,--------

\ I I I OKLAliOMA 

;J ARIZONA -1-1 + 11 I : -1- ----· 

---::: / M;:~o ~ ~-,!!j~~~~ 

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"'---+1_;---l.------J '", + 

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TEXAS 

+ + ', ,---, ~~.... '\12 + + 

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FIGURE 5.- Distribution of asphalt-bearing rocks in the United States. After 

ences listed by State, that will be helpful to future researchers 

of asphalt-bearing rocks. The selected publications include most 

of the geologic and geochemical literature on asphalt-bearing 

rocks of the United States and Canada prior to 1970. Detailed 

geologic information concerning asphalt-bearing rocks is sparse 

and fragmented, although general descriptions are numerous. 

Most of the general descriptions are in reports concerned primarily with other subjects, and the treatment of asphalt-bearing 
INTRODUCTION 7 

Ball Associates, Ltd. (1965). Numbers refer to deposits listed in table 1. 

rocks is incidental. For reports concerned primarily with other 

subjects, only material pertaining to asphalt is described, and 

brackets are used to indicate the pages pertinent to asphaltbearing rocks in the bibliographic reference. 

Where possible, the author's abstract or text was used in 

condensed form and a notation to this effect follows the reference. If no notation follows, the abstracting was written by 

Marjorie Mullens. 
8 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

TABLE 1.-Asphalt deposits in the United States with reserves of at least 

1 million bar1·els 

[Source of data: Utah, Ritzma (1969); other States, Ball Associates, Ltd. (1965)] 

Deposit No. (fig. 5 map) Name of deposit 

California 

1 ................................. Edna ........................................................ . 2 ................................. South Casmalia ..................................... . 3 ................................. North Casmalia ..................................... . 4 ................................. Sisquoc .................................................... . 5 ................................. Santa Cruz ............................................. . 6 ................................. McKittrick .............................................. . 7 ................................. Point Arena ............................................ . 

Kentucky 

8 ................................. Kyrock area ........................................... . 9 ................................. Davis-Dismal area ................................. . 10 ................................. Bee Spring area .................................... . 

New Mexico 

11 ................................. Santa Rosa ............................................. . 

Texas 

12 ................................. Uvalde ..................................................... . 

Utah 

13 ................................. Tar Sand Triangle ............................... . 14 ................................. P. R. Springs ......................................... . 15 ................................. Sunnyside ............................................... . 16 ................................. Circle Cliffs ............................................ . 17 ................................. Asphalt Ridge ........................................ . 18 ................................. Whiterocks ............................................. . 

Reserves (millions of barrels) 

141.4- 166.4 

46.4 

40.0 

26.0- 50.0 

10.0 

4.8- 9.0 

1.2 

18.4 

7.5- 11.3 

7.6 

57.2 

124.1- 140.7 

3,500 -5,000 

3,700 

2,000 -3,000 

1,000 -1,300 

1,000 -1,200 

65.0- 125.0 

More than one reference is made to the same report if the 

report contains detailed descriptions of two or more important 

asphalt deposits. Each annotated list of publications that contains more than two or three references is preceded by a separate 

subject index. 

The nomenclature used . in this report is from many sources 

and may not conform with that in use by the U.S. Geological 

Survey. 

REFERENCES 

Abraham, Herbert, 1960, Asphalts and allied substances -their occurrence, 

modes of production, uses in the arts, and methods of testing, v. 1 of 

Historical review and natural raw materials [6th ed.]: Princeton, N.J., 

D. Van Nostrand Co., 370 p. 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Surface and shallow oil-impregnated 

rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. Mines Mon. 

12, 375 p. 

Dott, R. H., Sr., and Reynolds, M. J., compilers, 1969, Sourcebook of petroleum 

geology: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Mem. 5, 471 p. 
SERIAL LIST 9 

Hoiberg, A. J.; ed., 1964, General aspects, v. 1 of Bituminous materialsAsphalts, tars, and pitches: New York, Interscience Publishers, 432 p. 

Ritzma, H. R., 1969, Oil-impregnated sandstone deposits of. Utah- A progress 

report: Interstate Oil Compact Comm. Committee Bull., v. 11, no. 2, p. 

24-38. 

SERIAL LIST 

Publications cited here in abstract form are available in most 

geological libraries, and most theses are available on microfilm 

from University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich. 48104. A list 

of the journals commonly cited in this and other Geological Survey publications may be obtained by writing to the U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. 20242. 

Alabama Geol. Survey Circ.- Geological Survey of Alabama Circular. University, Ala. 

Alabama Geol. Survey Special Rept. - Geological Survey of Alabama Special 

Report. University, Ala. 

Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull.- Bulletin of the American Association 

of Petroleum Geologists. Tulsa, Okla. 

Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Mem. - Memoir of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Tulsa, Okla. 

Am. Chern. Soc. Jour.-Journal of American Chemical Society. Washingtop., 

D.C. 

Am. Inst. Mining Eng. Trans. See Am. Inst. Mining, Metall., Petroleum 

Engineers Trans. 

Am. Inst. Mining and Metall. Engineers Contr.- Contributions of American 

Institute Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, New York, N.Y. 

Am. Inst. Mining, Metall., Petroleum Engineers Trans.- Transactions of 

the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. New York, N.Y. 

Am. Soc. Testing and Materials Proc.- American Society for Testing and 

Materials Proceedings. Philadelphia, Pa. 

Anal. Chemistry- Analytical Chemistry. American Chemical Society. Washington, D.C. 

Arizona Bur. Mines Bull. -Arizona Bureau of Mines Bulletin. Tucson, Ariz. 

Arizona State Land Dept. Rept.- Arizona State Land Department Report. 

Phoenix, Ariz. 

Arizona Univ. Bull.- University of Arizona Bulletin. Tucson, Ariz. 

Arkansas Geol. Comm. Bull.- Arkansas Geological Commission Bulletin. 

Little Rock, Ark. 

Arkansas Geol. Survey, Bull. See Arkansas Geol. Comm. Bull. 

Arkansas Geol. Survey, County Mineral Rept. See Arkansas Geol. Comm. Bull. 

Bull. Canadian Petroleum Geology- Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, 

Published by Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists, Edmonton Geological Society, and Saskatchewan Geological Society. Alberta Society of 

Petroleum Geologists. Calgary, Alberta, Canada. 

California Div. Mines and Geology Bull.- California Division of Mines and 

Geology Bulletin. San Francisco, Calif. 

California Div. Mines and Geology County Rept. - California Division of 

Mines and Geology County Report. San Francisco, Calif. 
10 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

California Div. Mines and Geology Mineral Inf. Service- California Division 

of Mines and Geology Mineral Information Service. San Francisco, Calif. 

California Jour. Mines and Geology- California Journal of Mines and Geology (after Oct. 1958 incorporated in California State Mineralogist 

Rept.). San Francisco, Calif. 

California Oil Fields- Summary Operations- California oil fields- Summary of operations. State of California Resources Agency, Department 

of Conservation, Division of Oil and Gas. Sacramento, Calif. 

California State Mineralogist Rept.- California State Mineralogist Report. 

San Francisco, Calif. 

California State Mining Bur. Bull. See Calif. Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 

Canada Dept. Energy, Mines and Resources Mines. Br. Inf. Circ.- Canada 

Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Mines Branch Information 

Circular. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. 

Canada Dept. Energy, Mines and Resources Mines Br. Rept. Inv.- Canada 

Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Mines Branch Report of 

Investigations. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. 

Canada Dept. Energy, Mines and Resources Mines Br. Research Rept.-

Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Mines Branch, Research Report. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. 

Canada Dept. Mines, Mines Br. Rept. Inv. See Canada Dept. Energy Mines 

and Resources Mines Br., Rept. Inv. 

Canada Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. See Canada Geol. Survey Summary Rept. 

Canada Geol. Survey Econ. Geology Rept. - Geological Survey of Canada 

Economic Geology Report. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. 

Canada Geol. Survey Rept. of Progress. See Canada Geol. Survey Summary 

Rept. 

Canada Geol. Survey Rept. - Geological Survey of Canada Summary Report. 

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. 

Canadian Inst. Mining and Metallurgy Trans.- Transactions of the Canadian 

Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and of the Mining Society of Nova 

Scotia. Montreal, Quebec, Canada. 

Canadian Mining and Metall. Bull. - The Canadian Mining and Metallurgical 

Bulletin. The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Montreal, 

Que bee, Canada. 

Canadian Oil and Gas Indus.- Canadian Oil and Gas Industries. National 

Business Publications, Ltd. Gardenvale, Quebec, Canada. 

Carnegie In st. Washington Pub. - Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication. Washington, D.C. 

Colorado Geol. Survey Bull. -Colorado Geological Survey Bulletin. Boulder, 

Colorado. 

Colorado School Mines Quart. - Quarterly of the Colorado School of Mines. 

Golden, Colo. 

Econ. Geology - Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists. The Economic Geology Publishing Company. Blacksburg, Va. 

Eng. and Mining Jour.- Engineering and Mining Journal. McGraw-Hill 

Publishing Co., New York, N.Y. 

Franklin Inst. Jour.-Journal of the Franklin Institute. Philadelphia, Pa. 

Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta - Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. Pergamon 

Press, London, England. 
SERIAL LIST 11 

Geol. Soc. America Bull.- Geological Society of America Bulletin. Boulder, 

Colo. 

Geol. Soc. America Proc.- Geological Society of America Proceedings. Boulder, Colo. 

Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Socs. Trans. -Gulf Coast Association of Geological 

Societies Transactions. New Orleans, La. 

Hopper. See Oklahoma Geology Notes. 

Indus. and Eng. Chemistry-Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. 

Inst. Petroleum Jour.- The Institute of Petroleum Journal. London, England. 

Internat. Geol. Congress, 20th, Mexico City, 1956, Rept.- International Geological Congress, Report of the 20th Session. Mexico City, Mexico. 

Interstate Oil. Compact Comm. Committee Bull.-Interstate Oil Compact 

Commission Committee Bulletin. Oklahoma City, Okla. 

Jour. Alberta Soc. Petroleum Geologists. See Bull. Canadian Petroleum 

Geology. 

Jour. Canadian Petroleum Technology- The Journal of Canadian Petroleum 

Technology. The Petroleum Society of C.I.M.M. The Canadian Institute 

of Mining and Metallurgy. Montreal, Quebec, Canada. 

Jour. Geology-Journal of Geology. University of Chicago Press. Chicago, 

Ill. 

Jour. Petroleum Technology- Journal of Petroleum Technology. Society of 

Petroleum Engineers of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, 

and Petroleum Engineers. Dallas, Tex. 

Jour. Sed. Petrology-Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. A Division of The American 

Association of Petroleum Geologists. Tulsa, Okla. 

Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. - State Geological Survey of Kansas Bulletin. 

University of Kansas. Lawrence, Kans. 

Kentucky Geol. Survey Bull.- Kentucky Geological Survey Bulletin. University of Kentucky. Lexington, Ky. 

Kentucky Geol. Survey [Rept.]- Kentucky Geological Survey [Report]. University of Kentucky. Lexington, Ky. 

Kentucky Geol. Survey Rept. Progress - Kentucky Geological Survey Report 

of Progress. Lexington, Ky. 

Los Angeles County Mus. Contr. Sci.- Los Angeles County Museum Contributions in Science. Los Angeles, Calif. 

Los Angeles Mus. Pub. See Los Angeles County Mus. Contr. Sci. 

Michigan Geol. Survey Pub. See Michigan Geol. Survey Bull. 

Michigan Geol. Survey Bull.- Michigan Geological Survey Bulletin. Lansing, 

Mich. 

Mines and Minerals- Mines and Minerals. Scranton, Pa., and De~ver, Colo. 

Mining and Metallurgy. See Mining Engineering. 

Mining Eng.- Mining Engineering. American Institute Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. New York, N.Y. 

Mississippi GeoL Econ. and Topog. Survey Bull. -Mississippi Geological, 

Economic and Topographical Survey Bulletin. Jackson, Miss. 

Mississippi Geol. Survey Bull. See Mississippi Geol. Econ. and Topog. Survey 

Bull. 

Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines [Rept.] See Missouri Div. Geol. Survey 

and Water Resources [Rept.]. 
12 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Missouri Div. Geol. Survey and Water Resources Inf. Circ.- Missouri Division of Geological Survey and Water Resources Information Circular. 

Rolla, Mo. 

Missouri Div. Geol. Survey and Water Resources [Rept.]- Missouri Division 

of Geological Survey and Water Resources [Report]. Rolla, Mo. 

New Mexico Bur. Mines and Mineral Resources Bull. -New Mexico Bureau 

of Mines and Mineral Resources Bulletin. New Mexico Institute of Mining 

and Technology. Socorro, N.Mex. 

Ohio Div. Geol. Survey Bull.- Ohio Division of Geological Survey Bulletin. 

Columbus, Ohio. 

Ohio State Geologist Rept. See Ohio Div. Geol. Survey Bull. 

Oil and Gas Jour.- Oil and Gas Journal. Petroleum Publishing Company. 

Tulsa, Okla. 

Oil Weekly. See World Oil. 

Oklahoma Geol. Survey Bull.- Oklahoma Geological Survey Bulletin. Norman, Okla. 

Oklahoma Geol. Survey Circ.- Oklahoma Geological Survey Circular, Norman, Okla. 

Oklahoma Geol. Survey Map- Oklahoma Geological Survey Map. Norman, 

Okla. 

Oklahoma Geol. Survey Mineral Rept.- Oklahoma Geological Survey Mineral 

Report. Norman, Okla. 

Oklahoma Geology Notes- Oklahoma Geology Notes. Oklahoma Geological 

Survey. University of Oklahoma. Norman, Okla. 

Research Council Alberta Circ.- Research Council of Alberta Circular. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 

Research Council Alberta Inf. Ser.- Research Council of Alberta Information Series. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 

Research Council Alberta Mem.- Research Council of Alberta Memoir. 

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 

Research Council Alberta Rept. - Research Council of Alberta Report. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 

Royal Soc. Canada Trans.- Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. 

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. 

Saskatchewan Dept. Mineral Resources Rept.- Saskatchewan Department of 

Mineral Resources Report. Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada. 

Sci. American- Scientific American. Scientific American, Inc. New York, N.Y. 

Sci. Monthly. See Science. 

Science-Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 

Washington, D.C. 

Soc. Petroleum Engineers A.I.M.E. Trans.-Transactions of the Society of 

Petroleum Engineers of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, 

and Petroleum Engineers. Dallas, Tex. 

Tennessee Div. Geology Bull.- Tennessee Division of Geology Bulletin. 

Tennessee Department of Conservation. Nashville, Tenn. 

Texas Geol. Survey Ann. Rept.-Texas Geological Survey Annual Report. 

Austin, Tex. 

Texas Univ. Bur. Econ. Geology Mineral Resource Survey Circ.-University 

of Texas Bureau of Economic Geology Mineral Resource Survey Circular. 

Austin, Tex. 

Texas Univ. Mineral Survey Bull. See Texas Univ. Pub. 
SERIAL LIST 13 

Texas Univ. Pub.-The University of Texas Publication. The University of 

Texas, Bureau of Economic Geology. Austin, Tex. 

U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ.-United States Bureau of Mines Information 

Circular. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Bur. Mines Minerals and Geology Work Group Rept.-U.S. Bureau Mines 

Minerals and Geology Work Group Report. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Bur. Mines Mon.-United States Bureau of Mines Monograph. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv.-United States Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Bur. Mines Tech. Paper-United States Bureau of Mines Technical 

Paper. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept.-United States Geological Survey Annual Report. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.- United States Geological Survey Bulletin. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map-United States Geological Survey 

Geologic Quadrangle Map. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Geol. Survey Geologic Atlas-United States Geological Survey Folios 

of the Geologic Atlas of the United States. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources of the United States-United States 

Geological Survey Mineral Resources of the United States. Washington, 

D.C. 

U.S. Geol. Survey Missouri River Basin Studies Map-United States Geological Survey Missouri River Basin Interagency Committee. Washington, 

D.C. 

U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Chart-United States Geological Survey 

Oil and Gas Investigations Chart. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map-United States Geological Survey 

Oil and Gas Investigations Map. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper-United States Geological Survey Professional 

Paper, Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Senate Doc.-United States Senate Document. Washington, D.C. 

Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters Proc.-Proceedings of the Utah Academy 

of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Provo, Utah. 

Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey BulL-Utah Geological and Mineralogical 

Survey Bulletin. University of Utah, College of Mines and Mineral 

Industries. Salt Lake City, Utah. 

Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey Map-Utah Geological and Mineralogical 

Survey Map. University of Utah, College of Mines and Mineral Industries. Salt Lake City, Utah. 

Utah Geol, and Mineralog. Survey Spec. Studies- Utah Geological and 

Mineralogical Survey Special Studies. University of Utah, College of 

Mines and Mineral Industries. Salt Lake City, Utah. 

Virginia Univ. Philosophical Soc. Bull.- Virginia University Philosophical 

Society Bulletin. Charlottesville, Va. 

Washington Acad. ·Sci. Jour.-Journal of the Washington Academy of 

Sciences. Washington, D.C. 

West Virginia Geol. Survey County Repts. - West Virginia Geological Survey 

County Reports. Wheeling, W.Va. 

World Oil-World Oil. Gulf Publishing Company. Houston, Tex. 

Wyoming Geol.. Survey BulL-Wyoming Geological Survey Bulletin. University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. 

460-209 0 - 72 - 2 

GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 

SUBJECT INDEX 

Analyses 

Coal 

Clerc, R. J ., and O'Neal, M. J ., Jr., 1960 

Erickson, R. L., Myers, A. T., and Horr, C. A., 1954 

Hail, W. J., Jr., Myers, A. T., and Horr, C. A., 1956 

Cameron, R. J., 1968 

Exploration 

Taylor, F. B., 1967 

Geochemistry 

Composition of asphalt 

Baker, E. G., 1962 

Ball, J. S., Whisman, M. L., and Wenger, W. J., 1951 

Bell, K. G., 1960 

Betts, R. L., and Wirsig, H. D., 1943 

Bonham, L. C., 1956 

Clerc, R. J., and O'Neal, M. J., 1960 

Erickson, Theodore, 1918 

Hodgson, G. L., and Baker, B. L., 1957 

Hubbard, R. L., and Stanfield, K. E., 1948 

Katz, D. 1., and Beu, K. E., 1945 

Knowles, E. C., and Levin, Harry, 1941 

LeMaire, G. W., 1953 

Martin, R. L., Winters, J. C., and Williams, J. A., 1963 

Moore, J. W., and Dunning, H. N., 1957 

O'Donnell, Gordon, 1951 

Shirey, W. B., 1931 

Thode, H. G., Monster, Jan, and Dunford, H. B., 1958 

Thurston, R. R., and Knowles, E. C., 1941 

Traxler, R.N., 1961 

Witherspoon, P. A., and Winniford, R. S., 1967 

Physical properties of asphalt 

Beal, Carlton, 1946 

Bencowitz, 1., and Boe, E. S., 1936 

Clarke, F. W., 1924 

Eckert, G. W., and Wectman, B., 1947 

Henderson, J. H., and Weber, L., 1965 

Hoiberg, A. J., and Garris, W. E., 1944 

Holmes, A., Collins, J. 0., and Child, W. C., 1936 

Hubbard, R. L., and Stanfield, K. E., 1949 

Nevitt, H. G., and Krchma, L. C., 1937 

Oliensis, G. L., 1933 

Saal, R.N. J., Heukelom, W., and Blokker, P. C., 1940 

15 
16 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Geochemistry-Continued 

Physical properties of asphalt- Continued 

Gilsonite 

Saal, R.N. J., Meinema, K., and Blokker, P. C., 1940 

Schweyer, H. E., Coombs, C. E., and Traxler, R.N., 1936 

Spencer, G. B., Eckard, W. E., and Johnson, F. S., 1969 

Stanfield, K. E., and Hubbard, R. L., 1949a 

Stanfield, K. E., and Hubbard, R. L., 1949b 

Thurston, R. R., and Knowles, E. C., 1936 

Traxler, R.N., and Schweyer, H. E., 1936 

Young, R. S., 1954 

Cottingham, P. L., Tihen, S. S., Brown, J. F., Kindschy, E. 0., Jr., 

Kelley, R. E., Schunter, W. E., and Murphy, W. I. R., 1955 

Erickson, Theodore, 1918 

Richardson, Clifford, 1916 

Grahamite 

Clarke, F. W., 1924 

Richardson, Clifford, 1916 

Humic acids 

Haseman, J. D., 1921 

Manufactured asphalt 

LeMaire, G. W., 1953 

Nickel 

Hodgson, G. W., and Baker, B. L., 1957 

Oil shale 

Cameron, R. J., 1968 

Hartley, F. L., and Brinegar, C. S., 1957 

Oil se~ps 

Origin 

Link, W. K., 1952 

Baker, E. G., 1960 

Haseman, J.D., 1921 

Haseman, J. D., 1930 

Powers, Sidney, and Clapp, F. G., 1932 

Rubey, G. M., 1923 

White, David, 1915 

Petroleum technology 

Henderson, J. H., and Weber, L., 1965 

Porphyrins 

Dunning, H. N., Moore, J. W., Myers, A. T., 1954 

Hodgson, G. W., and Baker, B. L., 1957 

Radioactivity 

Bell, K. G., Goodman, Clark, and Whitehead, W. L., 1940 

Breger, I. A., and Whitehead, W. L., 1951 

Recovery methods 

Howard, J. V., ~965 

Landrum, B. L., Smith, J. E., and Crawford, P. B., 1960 

Oil and Gas Journal, 1964 

Reed, R. L., Reed, D. W., and Tracht, J. H., 1960 

Spencer, G. B., Eckard, W. E., and Johnson, F. S., 1969 

Szasz, S. E., and Thomas, G. W., 1965 

World Oil, 1964 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 

Resources 

Uranium 

Ayres, Eugene, and Scarlott, C. A., 1952 

Dietzman, W. D., Carrales, M., and Jirik, C. J., 1965 

Duncan, D. C., 1951 

Duncan, D. C., 1960 

McKelvey, V. E., and Duncan, D. C., 1967 

Phizackerley, P. H., and Scott, L. 0., 1967 

Spencer, G. B., Eckard, W. E., and Johnson, F. S., 1969 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1967 

U.S. Geological Survey, 1951 

Bell, K. G., 1960 

Erickson, R. L., Myers, A. T., and Horr, C. A., 1954 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Hail, W. J., Jr., Myers, A. T., and Horr, C. A., 1956 

Hyden, H. J ., 1956 

Vanadium 

Bird, R. M., and Calcott, W. S., 1914 

Hodgson, G. W., and Baker, B. L., 1957 

Hyden, H. J., 1956 

AUTHOR LIST 

17 

Ayres, Eugene, and Scarlott, C. A., 1952, Energy sources -the wealth of the 

World: New York, McGraw Hill, Inc., 344 p. [p. 74-76]. 

The largest known deposit of tar in North America is the Athabaska deposit 

in northern Alberta. The highest estimate of fuel content of this deposit is 

500 billion barrels. The highest estimate for fuel content of tar deposits in the 

U.S. is 5 billion barrels. Most of this is in the Uinta Basin of Utah, with 

about one-tenth as much in California. 

Baker, E. G., 1960, A hypothesis concerning the accumulation of sediment 

hydrocarbons to form crude oil: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 19, 

no. 4, p. 309-317. 

Small amounts of hydrocarbons, similar to those present in petroleum, are 

known to be dispersed throughout Recent marine sediments. Their importance 

as major constituents of crude oil is still being debated. It is significant that 

crude oils and the sediments being deposited today contain certain identical 

kinds of hydrocarbons. From an awareness of this close relationship and from 

a knowledge of the distributional differences which exist between Recent 

sediments and crude oil hydrocarbons, the process of forming oil appears 

mainly to be a physical one. Consequently, no extensive chemical alterations 

would be required by this hypothesis. A study of hydrocarbon solubility in 

dilute colloidal electrolyte solutions suggested the nature of the physical 

process by which sediment hydrocarbons may be selectively removed from the 

source sediments and deposited in the correct proportions to form crude oil. 

The process appears to involve the solution, migration, and release of hydrocarbons in waters containing natural solubilizers. The similarity between the 

relative abundance of certain hydrocarbons in crude oil and the relative solubility of the same hydrocarbons in colloidal electrolyte solutions provides 

presumptive evidence that crude oils consist of Recent sediment hydrocarbons 

that were once solubilized in formation waters. Author's abstract. 
18 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Baker, E. G., 1962, Distribution of hydrocarbons in petroleum: Am. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 46, no. 1, p. 76-84. 

Most hydrocarbons in the gasoline range of petroleum have either a monomodal or a bimodal lognormal distribution. All the very water soluble hydrocarbons ( C5 and below), however, are normally distributed. The distribution 

of hydrocarbons in petroleum appears to reflect variations in t~e kind and 

size of the micelles in which hydrocarbons selectively dissolve. The subsequent 

release of the solubilized hydrocarbons from aqueous solution results in the 

formation of crude-oil droplets. Such a geochemical process of oil formation 

explains the characteristic proportions of certain homologous and isometric 

hydrocarbons present in a particular crude oil; it also accounts for the statistical nature of the variation in their absolute amounts-from one crude oil 

to another. Author's abstract condensed. 

Ball, J. S., Whisman, M. L., and Wenger, W. J., 1951, Nitrogen content of 

crude petroleums: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, v. 43, no. 11, p. 2577-2581. 

Nitrogen contents of 153 crude petroleums from all parts of the United 

States were investigated in this study. In general, the more asphaltic crude 

oils contained the higher nitrogen, and the bulk of the nitrogen was in the 

high-molecular-weight portion of the oils. Correlations were developed between the Conradson carbon residue of the oil and the nitrogen content for 

oils from particular geological periods. Correlations of nitrogen content with 

geologic age may give clues as to the origin and process of conversion of 

petroleum. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Beal, Carlton, 1946, The viscosity of air, water, natural gas, crude oil, and its 

associated gases at oil-field temperatures and pressures: Am. Inst. Mining 

Eng. Trans., v. 165, p. 94-115. 

This paper contains charts for conversion of various viscosimeter units into 

centipoises and graphically summarizes published investigations of the viscosity of air, water, and natural gas at high temperatures and pressures. 

Where possible, charts and correlations were constructed to cover a range of 

temperature (60°-300°F) and pressure (14.7 lbs/sq. in. abs. to 8,000 lbs/sq. 

in. gauge) encountered in oil fields. Correlation charts were constructed from 

an analysis and correlation of 1,332 viscosity and solubility observations from 

953 crude-oil samples taken from 747 oil fields. Results show that crude-oil 

viscosity at various reservoir conditions can be predicted, with average deviations varying from 24.2 percent for gas-free crude oil to as little as 2.7 percent 

for undersaturated crude oil "above the bubble point." The solubility of crude 

oil may be predicted from oil gravity and saturation pressure, with an average 

deviation of 22.0 percent from observed values. In conclusion, it is shown 

that the viscosity of a gas and gas-saturated crude oil may be predicted within 

the accuracy of most reservoir computations. Author's abstract condensed. 

Bell, K. G., 1960, Uranium and other trace elements in petroleum and rock 

asphalts: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 356-B, p. 45-65 [1961]. 

Uranium is a minor trace-element constituent of petroleums and their 

natural derivatives. The average uranium content for all crude oil is estimated 

to be about 1 part per billion, or about one-third that of the average content 

of sea water. Mixed-base and asphalt-base crude oils, in general, contain a 

slightly greater quantity of uranium than paraffin-base crude oils. There is a 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 19 

rough positive correlation between specific gravity and uranium content. Crude 

oils from one region are no more uraniferous than those from any other, 

except perhaps as a result of local predominance of heavy aromatic and 

asphaltic constituents. The bituminous constituents of rock asphalts contain 

as much as a few thousand parts per billion of uranium, the average being 

about 1,000 ppb, a concentration that is about a thousandfold increase over 

that in crude oils and probably a somewhat smaller increase over that in 

petroleums. It is believed that the bitumens extract uranium from the host 

rocks. There seems to be a positive correlation between the uranium content 

of the bitumens and that of the host rocks. Crude oil is not a practical source 

material for uranium; the total uranium content of the crude-oil reserves of 

the United States does not exceed 5 tons. The bitumens of the rock asphalt 

deposits of the United States contain several hundred tons of uranium, but, 

because they are dispersed in several billion tons of rock, they are not practical source materials for uranium. Author's abstract condensed. 

Bell, K. G., Goodman, Clark, and Whitehead, W. L., 1940, Radioactivity of 

sedimentary rocks and associated petroleum: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 24, no; 9, p. 1529-1547. 

Determinations of the radioactivity of 21 sedimentary rocks and seven 

associated crude oils have been made by the precision method developed by 

R. D. Evans. The specimens consisted of cuttings and cores from wells in the 

Bartlesville, Cromwell, Frio, Woodbine, and Viola-Simpson formations. Considerable variability in radioactivity was found in the sandstones ( 1.4 to 

0.19 X 10-12 g Ra/g) and limestones (1.3 to 0.18 X 10-12 g Ra/g). The radium 

content of limestones decreases with increasing purity. The shales were 

uniform (1.2 to 1.0 X 10-12 g Ra/g). Apparently, discrete mineral particles 

in sandstone and impurities in limestone account for their occasional high 

radioactivity. The radon content of the crude oils was in one sample 38 times, 

and for all samples averaged 10 times, the amount being in equilibrium with 

the radium present. The results corroborate the inferences of former investigators that radon tends to concentrate in crude oils. Authors' abstract 

condensed. 

Bencowitz, 1., and Boe, E. S., 1936, Change of penetration with temperature 

of various asphalts: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, Anal. Ed., v. 8, no. 3, 

p. 157-162. 

The susceptibility of asphalts to temperature changes is probably the most 

important characteristic of these substances. To be able to evaluate this 

coefficient with precision is essential. In this investigation, a simple equation, 

p =A+ B X Ct, was found to express the variation of the penetration of 13 

asphalts with the temperature, where p is the penetration, in decimillimeters; 

t, is the temperature, in degrees Centigrade; and A, B, and Care constants 

characteristic of each asphalt. The equation can be solved when three penetrations obtained with the same weight and for the same period of time at 

different temperatures are known. By means of this equation, a simple index, 

pz - p,, was found to represent adequately the order and the relative magnitude of the temperature and susceptibility of the 13 asphalts. Authors' 

abstract condensed. 

Betts, R. L., and Wirsig, H. D., 1943, Determination of wax in asphalt: Indus. 

and Eng. Chemistry, Anal. Ed., v. 15, p. 478-483. 
20 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

The sulfuric acid and aluminum chloride treating methods each yield 

producible results, and either method would serve to classify asphalt with 

respect to both quantity and melting point of waxes present. The acid method, 

however, gave higher yields of wax, sometimes nearly twice as great, and the 

melting points were nearly always lower than those obtained by the aluminum 

chloride method. Preliminary work indicated that sulfuric acid was prone to 

react with wax and resins, giving sulfonated products that did not possess 

sharp melting points. On treating with aluminum chloride no particular difficulty was noted with any of the asphalts examined. Both methods indicate 

that asphalts contain larger amounts of waxes having higher melting points 

than can be obtained by the Holde procedure. 

Bird, R. M., and Calcott, W. S., 1914, The association of vanadium with 

petroleum and asphalt: Virginia Univ. Philosophical Soc. Bull., v. 1, 

no. 18, p. 365-371. 

The results of the authors' experiments led them to conclude that the 

association of petroleum with vanadium compounds and of asphalt with 

vanadium ores may come about in the following way: Vanadates in solution 

in ground water come in contact with oils bearing hydrogen sulfide, and yield 

vanadium sulfide. This finely divided vanadium sulfide may travel with the 

oil, and be deposited when meeting carbon dioxide. Precipitated vanadium 

sulfide and atmospheric oxygen may change the accumulating mass of oil into 

asphalt. This sequence of events involves the usual occurrences of materials 

and conditions - vanadates and carbon dioxide dissolved in ground waters, 

oil containing hydrogen sulfide, and conditions permitting the oxidation of 

accumulating petroleum with the aid of vanadium oxide acting as an oxygen 

carrier. Authors' text condensed. 

Bonham, L. C., 1956, Geochemical investigation of crude oils: Am. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 40, no. 5, p. 897-908. 

A spectrochemical study was made of 66 crude-oil samples from different 

parts of the United States to investigate the geologic significance of trace 

metals in oils. Among the oils analyzed, those from some basins contain 

distinctively different trace-metal suites, but oils from basins of similar age 

and environment do not show characteristic differences. A detailed study was 

made of Lower Pennsylvanian oils from the Seminole area, Okla. The traceelement content of these oils did not serve to correlate producing strata from 

pool to pool or to differentiate producing strata. However, the areal distribution of vanadium and nickel concentrations in the Seminole area is closely 

related to paleogeographic trends - the concentrations are greatest near the 

shoreline and decrease basinward. The decrease in concentration may be 

attributed to adsorption of the polar-metal-bearing organic constituents during migration or to different metal contents of oils that originated in 

different parts of the basin. Author's abstract. 

Breger, I. A., and Whitehead, W. L., 1951, Radioactivity and the or1gm of 

petroleum: World Petroleum Congress Proc., 3d, sec. 3, p. 421-427. 

Since 1942 the American Petroleum Institute has sponsored a project at the 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology to investigate the effect of radioactivity on the transformation of marine organic materials into petroleum 

hydrocarbons. To date it has been possible to (1) convert fatty acids into 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 21 

aliphatic hydrocarbons; (2) convert a naphthenic acid into a cyclic hydrocarbon by means of alpha-particle bombardment; and (3) produce gaseous 

hydrocarbons found in association with crude oils. Work is being carried out 

to determine the relationship between the organic matter and radioactive 

elements in marine organic shales. Studies have also been carried out to 

establish the radioactivity of a number of important geological strata associated with crude oils. Authors' text condensed. 

Cameron, R. J ., 1968, A comparative study of oil shale, tar sands, and coal as 

sources of oil, in Symposium on petroleum economics and evaluation: 

Soc. Petroleum Engineers of A.I.M.E., Dallas, Texas, 1968, 28 p. 

Comparing the technologies of each potential source of synthetic fuels 

reveals two significant features: (1) They all involve large-scale low-cost 

mining of a relatively low-valued mineral. (2) The "hydrocarbons" in each 

instance are hydrogen-deficient and contain substantial percentages of sulfur, 

nitrogen, and oxygen; thus, hydrogenation is a common technology, and the 

cost of hydrogen is a significant economic factor. New technology is now being 

developed for oil shale and coal primarily in the liquefaction step; tar-sands 

technology uses conventional mineral-processing techniques and equipment. 

In-situ oil recovery is most likely for tar sands, more difficult for oil shale, 

and quite unlikely for coal. Commercial production from oil shale and coal is 

5 to 10 years away. Only tar-sands processing is sufficiently advanced to 

contribute significantly to the North American petroleum supply during the 

next decade. Author's summary condensed. 

Clarke, F. W., 1924, The natural hydrocarbons, in The data of geochemistry: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 770, 841 p. [p. 731-755]. 

The solid hydrocarbons found in nature are generally not given specific 

names, but are known generically as asphalt or bitumen. The pasty, viscid 

varieties are called maltha. There are also mixtures of these substances with 

sandstones, shales, and limestones forming asphalt rocks from which oil or 

tar can be separated by distillation or melting. The exact nature of these 

hydrocarbons is yet to be determined. Some authors attribute them to the 

oxidation of lighter oils; others regard them as residues from a natural distillation of the petroleum. The oxidation theory is borne out by the fact that in 

an experiment aspirating air through Pennsylvania petroleum for several 

hours the petroleum was partly converted to a substance resembling 

grahamite. 

Clerc, R. J., and O'Neal, M. J., Jr., 1960, The mass spectrometric analysis of 

asphalt-A preliminary investigation: Anal. Chemistry, v. 33, no. 3, 

p. 380-382. 

A preliminary investigation has indicated that mass spectometric techniques can be applied to the analysis of asphalt and other residual petroleum 

fractions. Although the individual mass peaks were not resolved above mass 

600, a molecular-weight distribution of the unresolved peaks was obtained. 

Some insight into the composition of asphalt from straight-run residue was 

gained. This particular sample of asphalt had a molecular-weight range of 

500 to 1,900, and a mean value of about 900. Fragment ions indicated that 

certain heterocyclic and aromatic nuclei were the predominant molecular 

structural groups. Authors' abstract condensed. 
22 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Cottingham, P. L., Tihen, S. S., Brown, J. F., Kindschy, E. 0., Jr., Kelley, 

R. E., Schunter, W. E., and Murphy, W. I. R., 1955, Gilsonite as a source 

of synthetic fuels: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, v. 47, no. 2, p. 328-332. 

Distillate prepared by coking gilsonite is similar in many respects to distillate prepared by coking N-T-U shale oil, but it contains considerably less 

sulfur. Its high pour point might be troublesome in pipeline transportation. 

The straight-run naphtha fraction could be used in gasoline blends after mild 

chemical treatment to reduce gum and improve stability and color. The 

straight-run, high-boiling fraction would be a poor diesel fuel stock and, 

because of its high nitrogen content, probably a poor catalytic cracking stock. 

It can be hydrogenated, under relatively mild conditions, to an ultimate yield 

of approximately 85 percent of stable low-sulfur naphtha that, on blending 

with less than 3 milliliters of tetraethyllead per gallon, will have octane 

numbers high enough to meet regular-grade-gasoline specifications. There are 

insufficient quantities of C4-plus hydrocarbons in the gas formed in the two 

hydrogenation steps to blend the combined naphthas to a Reid vapor pressure 

of 10 pounds per square inch. The boiling-range distribution of the combined 

naphthas produced in these experiments is such that they might also require 

blending with other stocks to produce desirable volatility characteristics. 

Even after two passes through the hydrogenation unit, the portion of the 

product boiling above the naphtha range appears to have few poor diesel-fuel 

properties. Authors' conclusions. 

Dietzman, W. D., Carrales, M., and Jirik, C. J., 1965, Heavy crude oil reservoirs in the United States- A survey: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 8263, 

53 p. 

This report was prepared to present general information on more than 

2,000 heavy-oil reservoirs in more than 1,500 fields in 26 States. Information 

on each heavy-oil deposit includes field and formation, location, average or 

range of depth, average API gravity of oil, average thickness of formation, 

areal extent of field, total productive wells drilled in field, discovery date of 

field, field status in 1963, cumulative production to January 1, 1964, and all 

known types of secondary-recovery operations initiated (active and terminated) in the reservoirs. As of January 1, 1964, 75 percent of the heavy-oil 

reservoirs in the United States had produced more than 10 billion barrels of 

oil and are estimated to contain over 9o billion barrels of oil in place. It is 

also estimated that if the derosits which have had little or no production, 

such as the one in Missouri, were included, the total amo~nt of heavy oil in 

reservoirs would exceed 150 billion barrels. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Duncan, D. C., 1951, Bituminous rock and related asphaltic deposits, in Fuel 

resources of the United States- A statement prepared by the U.S. 

Geological Survey at the request of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, U.S. Senate, 82d Cong., 1st sess., Cong. Doc. 80424, p. 

38-39. 

Production of asphalt in the United States was mainly from natural 

asphalt or bituminous-rock deposits until about 1907, when refinery residues 

from petroleum became the chief source. Total production of natural asphalt 

and bituminous rock in the United States has been on the order of magnitude 

of 20 million tons containing possibly 1.5 million tons of bitumen, and the 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 23 

total gilsonite production has been about 1.6 million tons. This report contains reserve figures for the deposits at Vernal and Sunnyside, Utah; Edna, 

Santa Cruz, and McKittrick, Calif.; and Uvalde, Tex. Author's text condensed. 

Duncan, D. C., 1960, Resources of coal, petroleum, natural gas, oil shale, and 

tar sands in the United States and Allied and neutral countries: Prepared by the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, United States 

Congress, Cong. Doc. 1507, p. 1536-1547. 

In the United States, selected tar-sand resources in Utah, Texas, and 

California are estimated to contain about 2 t~ 3 billion barrels of bitumen 

in near-surface parts of the deposits; and about 10 billion barrels has been 

postulated for the entire United States. The Athabaska tar sands in Alberta, 

Canada, have been estimated to contain 300 l?illion barrels of oil. Report 

tabulates coal, petroleum, natural gas, oil shale, and tar-sand resources. 

Dunning, H. N., Moore, J. W., and Myers, A. T., 1954, Properties of porphyrins in petroleum: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, v. 46, no. 9, p. 2000-

2009. 

A heavy California crude oil was subjected to a water-spray extraction 

procedure supplemented by solvent extraction. The pentane extraction of the 

water-spray extract accomplished a considerable concentration of the ash, 

nickel, vanadium, and porphyrin contents of the crude oil. In the final 

pentane-insoluble portion of the water-spray extract, the concentrations of 

ash, nickel, vanadium, and porphyrin aggregate were respectively, 35.4, 4.8, 

4.9, and 3.2 times the concentration of these constituents in the original 

crude oil. The water-spray extraction procedure is accompanied by a decrease in the interfacial activity of the crude oil and an increase in the 

interfacial activity and film formation of the extract. The interfacial activities 

of the various fractions parallel the porphyrin, nitrogen, and metal contents 

of these fractions. This correlation indicates the important role of these substances in determining the interfacial properties of the crude oil. Author's 

conclusions condensed. 

Eckert, G. W., and Wectman, B., 1947, Mean molecular weights of asphalts 

and their constituents: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, v. 39, no. 11, p. 1512-

1516. 

The molecular-weight method based on the viscosity of dilute solutions 

was investigated fot; its applicability to asphalts and their constituents. The 

values for nsp/c and log nr/c for oils and resins do not chang-e appreciably 

with increase in concentration, but values for asphaltenes show a gradual 

increase in nsp/c and log nr/c with increase in concentration. For concentrations of asphaltenes in benzene less than 1.0 gram per 100 milliliters of 

benzene, differences between [log nrlc]c and [log nr/c]c=O are less than 5 

percent of [log nr/c]c=O. The molecular weights of asphaltenes increase 

with increase in time of air blowing of the original asphalts. Author's summary condensed. 

Erickson, R. L., Myers, A .T., and Horr, C. A., 1954, Association of uranium 

and other metals with crude oil, asphalt, and petroliferous rock: Am. 

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 38, no. 10, p. 2200-2218. 
24 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Some crude oil, natural asphalt, and petroliferous rock are appreciably 

radioactive, but little is known about the actual uranium content and chemical 

nature of the uranium compound, or compounds, in these materials. Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses of the ash in 29 samples of crude oil, 

22 samples of natural asphalt, and 27 samples of oil extracted from petroliferous rock indicate that metals such as vanadium, nickel, copper, cobalt, 

molybdenum, lead, chromium, manganese, and arsenic are consistently present-at some places in exceptionally high concentrations-in this type of 

organic matter. The chemical analyses show that the uranium coptent of 

crude oil is consistently much lower than the uranium content of the natural 

asphalt and oil extracted from petroliferous rock. The uranium content of 

the ash in these 78 samples ranges from about 0.001 percent to about 10 

percent; the uranium content of the total oil or asphalt ranges from less 

than 0.001 to 32,410 parts per million (3.24 percent). The association of-' 

uranium with organic materials may have a direct bearing on the genesis 

of some types of uranium deposits. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Erickson, Theodore, 1918, The destructive distillation of gilsonite: Utah Acad. 

Sci., Arts and Letters Proc., v. 1, p. 216-217. 

When subjected to destructive distillation at atmospheric pressure, gilsonite 

yields about 50 percent of its weight in a thin black oil; about 30 percent of 

its weight appears as gas, and about 20 percent remains in the retort as 

coke. The gas yields about 0.25 percent of ammonia. Author's text condensed. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957, Reconnaissance for uranium in asphalt-bearing rocks 

in the Western United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1046-E, p. 55-85. 

An appraisal of asphalt-bearing rocks as potential sources of uranium was 

made in 45 areas of California, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, New Mexico, Texas, 

Oklahoma, and Missouri. The oldest rocks sampled are Ordovician in age, and 

the youngest are Recent. Although none of the deposits are of value at this 

time as a source of uranium, some of the deposits may constitute a low-grade 

uranium resource, but recovery of the uranium will depend upon the primary 

use of the asphalt. Significant amounts of uranium in the ash of oil extracted 

from these rocks were found in samples from seven of the 45 areas examined. 

These areas are Chalone Creek, McKittrick, Edna, and Los Alamos, Calif.; 

Vernal, Utah; Sulphur, Okla.; and Ellis, Mo. Average uranium content of the 

ash of the extracted oil of samples from these areas ranges from 0.028 to 

0.376 percent. All except the Chalone Creek area contain large estimated 

reserves of asphalt-bearing rock, ranging from 15 million to 2 billion tons. 

The uranium content of samples from 13 additional areas ranges from 0.020 

to 0.068 percent in the ash of the extracted oil. Many of these areas contain 

very large reserves of asphalt-bearing rock. Most of the asphalt deposits are 

believed to be oil residues, and the uranium is believed to have been introduced 

during or after the late stages of oil movement and loss of the lighter fractions. Author's abstract. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., Myers, A. T., and Horr, C. A., 1956, Uranium in asphalt-bearing 

rocks of the Western United States, in Page, L. R., Stocking, H. E., and 

Smith, H. B., compilers, Contributions to the geology of uranium and 

thorium by the United States Geological Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for the United Nations International Conference on Peaceful 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 25 

Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 300, 739 p. [p. 521-526]. 

Asphalt-bearing rocks in 45 areas in California, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, 

New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Missouri were examined as potential 

sources of uranium. The oldest rocks sampled were Ordovician in age, and the 

youngest, Recent. Host rocks containing the asphalt include sandstone, arkose, 

conglomerate, limestone, diatomite, and alluvium. The asphalt was extracted 

from the host rock, reduced to dry ash, analyzed chemically for uranium, and 

analyzed spectrographically for other elements by semiquantitative methods. 

Significant amounts of uranium in the ash of the extracted oil, whose average 

uranium content ranges from 0.028 to 0.376 percent, were found in samples 

from seven of the 45 areas examined. All except one area contain large 

estimated reserves of asphalt-bearing rock, ranging from 15 million to almost 

2 billion (109) tons. The average uranium content of samples from 13 additional areas ranges from 0.02 to 0.68 percent uranium in the ash of the 

extracted oil. Many of the areas contain large reserves of asphalt-bearing 

rock. Most of the uranium present is believed to be an original constituent 

of the oil or to have been introduced during the migration of the oil. Authors' 

abstract condensed. 

Hartley, F. L., and Brinegar, C. S., 1957, Oil shale and bituminous sand: Sci. 

Monthly, v. 84, p. 275-289. 

The governments of Canada and the United States are sponsoring research 

to develop the technology to extract oil from both oil shale and bituminous 

sands. Several private oil companies are also doing research on the problems 

of processing these two types of deposits. Brazil and the United States have 

deposits of oil shale large enough to be of worldwide significance. The Green 

River formation in the Piceance Creek Basin in northwest Colorado contains 

an estimated 960 billion barrels of shale oil; however, the recoverable reserve 

is about 65-70 billion barrels. In the United States there are probably five or 

six deposits of bituminous sands rich enough (20-40 gallons per ton) to have 

commercial significance. These are Vernal and Sunnyside, Utah; Uvalde, 

Tex.; and Edna, Calif. A few other California deposits, including the Sisquoc 

deposit, are of possible importance. The total quantity of oil contained in these 

formations is estimated to be 2-3 billion barrels. Thus, in the United States, 

the bituminous sand reserve is insignificant in comparison to the oil-shale 

reserve. The Athabaska deposit in northern Alberta is the only bituminous 

sand deposit large enough to be of worldwide importance. The total reserve 

for this deposit is 100-300 billion barrels. However, the greatest part of this 

deposit is beneath 500 to 1,800 feet of overburden, and the amount that can 

be recovered is debatable. Authors' text condensed. 

Haseman, J.D., 1921, The humic acid origin of asphalt: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 5, no. 1, p. 75-79. 

Plants are considered to be the chief source of the hydrocarbons of crude 

oil. Data on certain swamp materials indicate that asphalt is a derivative of 

humic acid. The decay of plants in muddy swamps and in coarse sandy swamps 

is entirely different. In these latter swamps, such as the Okefenokee, decaying 

plants form humic acids; humic acids incorporate nitrogen and form azohumic acids, which in turn take up some silica and form azo-silico-humic acids. 
26 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Some of these acids form dopplerite, which forms cassel or vandyke brown 

and asphalt under special conditions. Author's text condensed. 

Haseman, J. D., 1930, Origin and environment of source sediments of petroleum deposits: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 14, no. 11, 

p. 1465-1468. 

Three fundamental geochemical factors are connected with the origin and 

environment of petroleum deposits: (1) The vast amount of humic acids that 

are made only in swampy regions where there is more sand than clay; (2) the 

actual origin of asphalt and hydrocarbons from humic acid in a Florida vandyke-brown lime; and (3) natural activation or energizing of silicon- and 

carbon-containing materials, which causes them to emit subatomic energy 

which then produces chemical reactions at ordinary temperatures and pressures by means of specific ions. Author's text condensed. 

Henderson, J. H., and Weber, L., 1965, Physical upgrading of heavy crude oils 

by the application of heat: Jour. Canadian Petroleum Technology, v. 4, 

no. 4, p. 206-212. 

Subjecting a heavy crude oil to mild thermal-cracking conditions effects a 

permanent and significant reduction in its viscosity and specific gravity. 

Although all crudes are susceptible to cracking, the temperatures and times 

required generally exceed those required to crack heavy crudes such as those 

found in the Athabaska tar sands. For temperatures below 1,000°F, cracking 

of both pure hydrocarbons and petroleum can be described by first-order 

kinetic equations. From laboratory tests on a variety of crude oils, estimates 

can be made of the time-temperature history necessary to produce specific 

degrees of viscosity reduction for each. As a result, the feasibility can be 

estimated of utilizing heat in the reservoir to facilitate the production of 

heavy oil or of using heat to facilitate the surface handling of oil already 

produced. The permanent upgrading in physical properties occurs so slowly 

at 500°F that the use of temperatures below this level, as currently practiced 

with heated pipelines, will effect only a temporary improvement in oil fluidity. 

At temperatures greater than 700°F coking may present serious operating 

problems, unless residence times are kept very short. Author's abstract condensed. 

Hodgson, G. W., and Baker, B. L., 1957, Vanadium, nickel and porphyrins in 

thermal geochemistry of petroleum: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 

Bull., v. 41, no: 11, p. 2413-2426. 

The thermal degradation of compounds containing vanadium and nickel in 

crude oil has been examined in order to throw light on the significance of 

trace metals in the geochemistry of petroleum. Almost identical first-orderreaction rates were observed for the removal of the two metals, and extrapolation of the data to geological times and temperatures showed that present-day 

reservoir temperatures are too low to permit a significant thermal contribution to the changes which appear to have occurred in the maturation of crude 

oil. A study was made of the degradation of porphyrin compounds which are 

responsible, in part, for the presence of metals in oil. The rate of the porphyrin degradation at 358°C was 0.020 hr-1, considerably greater than that 

for the removal of vanadium, 0.013 hr-1 and nickel, 0.012 hr-1. The activation energy, which is a measure of the temperature dependence of the reaction, 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 27 

was 52.5 Kcal/mole for porphyrin degradation; 58.6 Kcal/mole for vanadium 

removal; and 57.5 Kcal/mole for nickel removal. These data indicate that the 

spread between porphyrin degradation rates and metal removal rates would 

increase at all lower temperatures. Consequently, if thermal action were 

responsible for the maturation of crude oil in nature, the porphyrin material 

in a maturing oil would be lost very rapidly, as compared with the removal 

of metals. The relatively constant proportion existing between porphyrin content and metal content found for a widely varying suite of Canadian oils 

shows that this has, in fact, not happened. This observation tends to confirm 

the conclusion that thermal action has little to do with the maturation of oil. 

Authors' abstract. 

Hoiberg, A. J., and Garris, W. E., 1944, Analytical fractionation of asphalts: 

Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, Anal. Ed., v. 16, p. 294-302. 

A procedure is described for the solvent separation of asphalts into five 

fractions: hexane-insolubles, hard resins, soft resins, oils, and waxes. Because 

all the solvents used boil above room temperature, the method requires only 

ordinary laboratory glassware. All fractions are recoverable, an advantage 

in that they may be studied to characterize the asphalt further. The accuracy 

and precision of the method are discussed. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Holmes, A., Collins, J. 0., and Child, W. C., 1936, Measuring the susceptibility 

of asphalts to temperature changes: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, Anal. 

Ed., v. 8, no. 2, p. 100-104. 

No single factor has thus far been evolved which will adequately express 

the temperature susceptibility of an asphalt over the wide range of temperatures encountered in the commercial applications of asphalts. A combination 

of factors or indexes is suggested by which a definite measure of the temperature-susceptibility characteristics of a wide range of asphalts can be determined. The softening-point-penetration index indicates this characteristic for 

a narrow range of normal atmospheric temperatures, the ratio of penetration 

at 25°C to penetration at ooc at subnormal, and the fluidity index at elevated 

temperatures. These methods are equally applicable to straight reduced and 

oxidized asphalts and are easily determined by means of tests which are in 

common use. Authors' conclusions condensed. 

Howard, J. V., 1965, Thermal recovery comes of age: World Oil, v. 160, no. 1, 

p. 95-104. 

Thermal recovery has vast potential. For example, the Athabaska tar sands 

in Alberta are estimated to contain some 300 billion barrels of oil. This reservoir cannot be produced conventionally at economic rates. However, thermalrecovery techniques make it possible to produce 50-100 billion barrels of this 

oil. Most major oil provinces contain huge quantities of heavy oil at reasonably shallow depths. There are vast deposits in the Eastern Venezuelan Basin 

and in Argentina, Canada, and northern Iraq. The famous asphalt ridge of 

Utah is a major deposit in the United States. Author's text condensed. 

Hubbard, R. L., and Stanfield, K. E., 1948, Determination of asphaltenes, oils 

and resins in asphalt: Anal. Chemistry, v. 20, p. 460-465. 

A method is described for the quantitative determination of the three 

groups of constituents - asphaltenes, oils, and resins - in petroleum and 
28 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

native asphalts. The asphaltene (benzene-soluble, pentane-insoluble) fraCtion 

is obtained by extracting the asphalt with n-pentane. The pentane-soluble 

portion is further fractionated by adsorption on anhydrous alumina and 

extraction first with pentane to obtain the oil fraction and then with a 

methanol-benzene solution to obtain the resin fraction. In contrast to most 

proposed methods, the three asphalt constituents are recovered and may be 

used for further study. A complete analysis can be made in one 8-hour day 

after the sample has been dispersed in pentane and allowed to stand approximately 12 hours, or overnight. Authors' abstract. 

Hubbard, R. L., and Stanfield, K. E., 1949, Laboratory study of asphalts from 

native bitumens and bituminous sandstone: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 

4523, 22 p. 

Fourteen straight-run asphalts were prepared in the laboratory from bitumens obtained from three sources: ( 1) Native asphalt from Rozel Point, 

Utah, (2) bitumen extracted from Athabaska bituminous sandstone at Alberta, Canada, and (3) bitumen extracted from Edna bituminous sandstone 

outcrops in San Luis Obispo County, Calif. Three to seven asphalts with 

penetrations ranging from 19 to 287 at 77oF were prepared from each bitumen. The yields of the prepared asphalts ranged from 7 4.5 percent for a 

27-penetration asphalt from the Athabaska bitumen to 99.5 percent for a 

271-penetration asphalt from the Rozel Point bitumen. The asphalts were 

further analyzed by separating them quantitatively into asphaltenes, oils, 

and resins. The asphalts contained 21.0 to 30.4 percent asphaltenes, 29.7 to 

48.9 percent oils, and 27.7 to 37.9 percent resins. In general, the characteristics 

of the asphalts were intermediate between those of the Tampico, Mex., and 

those of the Kern River, Calif., crude oils and were similar to those made 

from Oregon Basin, Wyo., crude oils which had been treated previously. 

Authors' text condensed. 

Hyden, H. J., 1956, Uranium and other trace metals in crude oils of the 

Western United States, in Page, L. R., Stocking, H. E., and Smith, H. B., 

compilers, Contributions to the geology of uranium and thorium by the 

United States Geological Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for the 

United Nations International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic 

Energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, 

739 p. [p. 511-519]. 

A total of 107 samples of crude oil and 16 samples of oil-refinery residues 

was collected in the Western United States for uranium and other trace-metal 

determinations. The crude-oil and refinery residues were converted by ignition 

to ash. The uranium content was determined fluorimetrically, and the content 

of vanadium, nickel, and copper was determined spectrographically. Results 

of the study show that uranium is not preferentially distributed with respect 

to age, lithologic character, or geographic location of the reservoir rocks, nor 

does it show any preferential distribution with respect to oil types as established from U.S. Bureau of Mines crude-petroleum analyses. The uranium 

content of crude oil is insufficient for commercial production, but may serve 

as a prospecting guide to uranium deposits. Vanadium and nickel are known 

to exist in crude oils as metallo-organic porphyrin complexes. A comparison 

of vanadium-nickel and vanadium-uranium ratios in the present investigation 

shows that most of the uranium is not present as a porphyrin complex in 

crude oil. Author's abstract. 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 29 

Katz, D. L., and Beu, K. E., 1945, Nature of asphaltic substances: Indus. and 

Eng. Chemistry, v. 37, no. 2, p. 195-200. 

Thin films of asphalt and oil have been examined in the electron microscope 

in a search for colloidal asphaltene particles. These films seem to be free from 

particles, but numerous particles appear when suspensions of asphalt in benzene and petroleum either are examined. Micrographs at 156,000 diameters 

indicate asphaltene particles, if present in undiluted oils and asphalt, are less 

than 65 A in diameter. Authors' abstract. 

Knowles, E. C., and Levin, Harry, 1941, Determination of wax in asphaltic 

products: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, Anal. Ed., v. 13, p. 314-317. 

This method comprises separating the asphaltene-resin fraction from the 

oil-wax fraction by hot-liquid propane under pressure and determining the 

wax in the oil-wax fraction by crystallization at low temperatures from solution in methyl isobutyl ketone (hexane). Hexane possesses the necessary 

properties of an outstanding reagent for wax determination -namely, high 

oil-solvent power, low wax-solvent power, and good filtration rates. Authors' 

abstract condensed. 

Landrum, B. L., Smith, J. E., and Crawford, P. B., 1960, Calculations of 

crude oil recoveries by steam injection: Soc. Petroleum Engineers A.I.M.E. 

Trans., v. 219, p. 251-256. 

A method by which the displacement efficiency of a steam-injection process 

may be determined is presented in this paper. This method consists of a 

determination of the position of the steam front at a particular time and the 

application of the Buckley Leverett theory to the hot and cold regions of the 

reservoir with the appropriate hot or cold fluid properties. A uniform linear.:. 

flow system is assumed for this study. The primary properties which affect 

the results of a steam-injection process are the oil viscosities at steam and 

reservoir temperatures, injection rate, pay thickness, and oil saturation. The 

efficiency of steam injection is compared with that of water injection for a 

10-acre, linearly flooded reservoir. In reservoirs where the oil viscosity is 

about 35 times the water viscosity, the steam process yields recoveries about 

20 percent higher than the water flood. Where the oil viscosity is near 500 cp, 

the steam process may recover from three to four times as much oil as a 

water flood. Authors' abstract condensed. 

LeMaire, G. W., 1953, A study of asphalts and asphaltic materials: Colorado 

School Mines Quart., v. 48, no. 2, 89 p. 

This bulletin discusses manufactured asphalts. 

Link, W. K., 1952, Significance of oil and gas seeps in world oil exploration: 

Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 36, no. 8, p. 1505-1540. 

A look at the exploration history of the important oil areas of the world 

proves conclusively that oil and gas seeps gave the first clues to most oilproducing regions. Many great oil fields are the direct result of seepage 

drilling. Seepages are most numerous in the youngest sediments (especially 

where they have been folded, faulted, and eroded) and are on the margins 

of basins. Many seepages are the result of destruction of major accumulations 

of oil reservoirs. Oil and gas seeps, a prerequisite for a region if it is to 

produce oil, are indicative of the presence of source rocks. Because large seeps 

460-209 0 - 72 - 3 
30 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

generally result from pool destruction, they also indicate reservoir rocks and 

structure. Recent illustrations of the value of seeps in geologic thinking are 

the development in western Canada, the Uinta Basin of Utah, and Cuyama 

Valley in California. This report contains cross sections illustrating the five 

main types of oil seeps and maps showing worldwide occurrences of oil seeps. 

Author's abstract condensed. 

Martin, R. L., Winters, J. C., and Williams, J. A., 1963, Composition of crude 

oils by gas chromatography, geological significance of hydrocarbon distribution: World Petroleum Congress Proc., 6th, sec. 5, p. 231-260. 

Eighteen crude oils with varying geological histories were analyzed using 

gas chromatography and supplementary techniques. Individual saturates 

through C7 and alkylbenzenes through C10 were determined with capillary 

columns. Normal paraffins through C35 and the C19 and C2o saturated isoprenoid hydrocarbons were determined with packed columns. Also, hydrocarbon 

types were determined by mass spectrometry in distillation fractions boiling 

to 430° C. The data show extremes in composition and define isomer-distribution patterns; these patterns are more complex than commonly suspected. 

There is an apparent correlation between composition and geological age. 

Component analyses in the naphtha range cannot be used to predict composition in the gas-oil range. Clues to the origin and maturation of crude oils are 

discerned. Thermal cracking, rather than catalytic cracking, is suggested as 

the dominant process in the formation of the naphtha fraction. A variability 

in source material also is suggested. Oils extracted from source rocks show 

different hydrocarbon distributions from the crude oils from nearby reservoirs. Authors' abstract condensed. 

McKelvey, V. E., and Duncan, D. C., 1967, United States and world resources 

of energy, in Symposium on the development of petroleum resources of 

Asia and the Far East, 3d, Tokyo, 1965, Proc.: New York, United Nations, 

Mineral Resources Devel. Ser. 26, v. 2, p. 9-16. 

Domestic resources of the fossil fuels of the types now considered usable 

contain 950 billion to more than 22 trillion barrels of oil equivalent, and if 

very low grade organic-rich deposits are included, the potential may be nearly 

350 trillion barrels of oil equivalent. World resources contain about 3.9 trillion 

to more than 80 trillion barrels of oil equivalent, and if very low grade 

resources are considered, the potential may be about 4.3 quadrillion. In a table 

called "Provisional Estimates of U.S. Resources of Fossil Fuels," the known 

recoverable reserves of oil in bituminous rock are listed as 1.3 X 109 barrels. 

The undiscovered marginal and submarginal resources of oil in bituminous 

rock is 10 X 109 barrels. Known recoverable resources include minimal estimates of some deposits. Assumed recovery is 50 percent of the oil in place. 

Authors' text condensed. 

Moore, J. W., and Dunning, H. N., 1957, Metal-porphyrin complexes in an 

asphaltic midcontinent crude oil: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 5370, 24 p. 

An extensive laboratory study was made to determine optimum conditions 

for removing nitrogeneous, metallic, and asphaltic materials from a midcontinent crude oil to precipitation with propane. The propane deasphalting 

process removes much of the ash, nickel, vanadium, and nitrogen from the 

oil and markedly decreases the oil's viscosity and carbon residue. Vanadium-
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 31 

and nickel-porphyrin complexes were identified in the various extracts and 

concentrated in the final chromatographic fractions. The amounts of porphyrin complexes in each of the major extracts are roughly proportional to 

the other polar materials, such as the metals determined and other ash-forming constituents. The presence of these residues of chlorophyll and (or) 

hemoglobin is indicative of the biological origin of oil. The occurrence of trace 

metals, such as vanadium and nickel, as stable metal-porphyrin complexes in 

petroleum stocks prevents their complete removal by usual methods of treatment. However, propane precipitation removes much of the nitrogen, metals, 

ash-forming materials and metal-porphyrin complexes from the major portion 

of the crude oil. Therefore, the deleterious effects that these metallic and 

nitrogeneous substances have on processing and utilization may be minimized 

by propane-deasphalting processes. Authors' summary condensed. 

Nevitt, H. G., and Krchma, L. C., 1937, Effect of temperature on the consistency of asphalts: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, Anal. Ed., v. 9, no. 3, p. 

119-122. 

Because the absolute measure of consistency is viscosity, the authors point 

out that the change in consistency of an asphalt with temperature would be 

more logically measured as the change of viscosity with temperature. The 

viscosity-temperature susceptibility coefficient is presented as a more fundamental viscosity-temperature index based on the ASTM viscosity-temperature 

formula and is mathematically represented as: 

1 (log ILt + 0.8) 

S = 0.221 og log IL; ..,+ 0.8 ' 

log-=- Tt 

where S is the viscosity-temperature susceptibility coefficient, and 1L1 and 1L2 

are the kinematic viscosities at absolute temperatures T1 and T2. Data presented indicate that the viscosity-temperature susceptibility coefficient is 

applicable to a wide range of temperatures and viscosities. Authors' abstract 

condensed. 

O'Donnell, Gordon, 1951, Separating asphalt into its chemical constituents: 

Anal. Chemistry, v. 23, no. 6, p. 894-898. 

The method developed to separate asphalt into its constituent parts involved 

molecular distillation to yield a size separation. Silica gel chromatography 

was used to separate saturates, aromatics and resins; solvent dewaxing of 

the saturates to determine wax content, urea complex formation to separate 

long-chain paraffins; alumina chromatography to separate monocyclic aromatics; peroxide oxidation followed by chromatography to remove thiophene 

analogs; and thermal diffusion in the liquid state to segregate naphthenes on 

the basis of ring number. This method of analysis has proved satisfactory for 

establishing the concentration of paraffins, naphthenes, aromatics, resins, 

and asphaltenes in an asphalt, as well as their distribution, on the basis of 

molecular size. Author's abstract. 

Oil and Gas Journal, 1964, Polymers raise waterfl.ood efficiency: Oil and Gas 

Jour., v. 62, no. 18, p. 46-47. 

Dow Chemical Co. and Union Oil Co. developed the "pusher" flood process 

of heavy-oil recovery. In this process, polymers are added to injection water 
32 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

to decrease its mobility to nearly that of the in-place oil. The more favorable 

water-to-oil mobility ratio results in an improved reservoir sweep. There is a 

possibility of recovering twice as much oil in some low-gravity fields if the 

water-soluble polymers are added to the injection fluid. 

Oliensis, G. L., 1933, A qualitative test for determining the degree of heterogeneity of asphalts: Am. Soc. Testing and Materials Proc., v. 33, pt. 2, 

p. 715-728. 

A test has been developed for determining qualitatively the degree of 

physical heterogeneity in asphalt. The test depends upon the precipitation 

that occurs when such asphalts are dissolved in or dispersed by 5.1 times 

their volume of certain petroleum naphthas. The term "carbenoids" is proposed as the name of the precipitated bodies. Author's abstract condensed. 

Phizackerley, P. H., and Scott, L. 0., 1967, Major tar sand deposits of the 

World: World Petroleum Cong. Proc., 7th, v. 3, p. 551-571. 

Details of the stratigraphy, lithology, facies and structure of 20 major 

tar-sand accumulations, in Canada, Venezuela, Malagasy, U.S.A., Albania, 

Trinidad, Rumania, and the U.S.S.R. are given, together with reserve figures 

where known. The relationship of the tar-oil impregnations to the geological 

setting and presumed origin of the oil are discussed. Only four of the major 

tar-sand deposits discussed- La Brea (Trinidad), Selenizza (Albania), 

Derna (Rumania), and Cheildag (U.S.S.R.) -are currently being exploited. 

The first commercial development of the Athabaska tar sands is scheduled 

to start in September 1967. Mining will be by the open cast method. The 

Oficina-Temblador (Venezuela) tar-belt area, the Bemolanga sands ( Malagasy), the Utah and some of the California deposits have attracted the 

interest of oil companies at various times. Steam or hot-water injection or 

in-situ cracking by fire flooding has been tried with some technical success, 

but in competition with conventional crudes, their application is as yet uneconomic. Authors' text condensed. 

Powers, Sidney, and Clapp, F. G., 1932, Nature and origin of occurrences of 

oil, gas, and bitumen in igneous and metamorphic rocks: Am. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 16, no. 8, p. 719-726. 

Oil, gas, and residues of petroleum ranging from asphalt to graphite are 

found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. More than 15 million barrels of 

oil have been produced from igneous and metamorphic rocks; one gas field 

produces from a basalt flow, and millions of tons. of asphalt, representing 

the residue of more than 200 million barrels of oil are known in serpentine 

in northern and northwestern Cuba. Seepages of oil connected with igneous 

intrusions led to the discovery- in Mexico- of some of the world's largest 

oil fields. Seepages and traces of oil, gas, and bitumen in igneous rocks point 

to the possibility of commercial production in many parts of the world where 

oil has not yet been found. 

Reed, R. L., Reed, D. W., and Tracht, J. H., 1960, Experimental aspects of 

reverse combustion in tar sands: Soc. Petroleum Engineers A.I.M.E. 

Trans., v. 219, p. 99. 

In the process known as "forward combustion," the combustion zone advances in a direction which is generally the same as that of the airflow. In 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 33 

"reverse combustion," the combustion zone moves in a direction generally 

opposite that of the airflow. Forward combustion is an ideal combustion 

process, in that a minimum of the most undesirable fraction of the oil is 

consumed as fuel in the form of coke, a clean sand is left behind, and generated heat is used as efficiently as possible. However, the applicability of 

forward combustion is limited. Because the products of combustion, vaporized 

oil and connate water, must flow into relatively cold regions of the reservoir, 

there is an upper limit on the viscosity of oil that can be moved by this 

process. In reverse combustion, the vaporized oil and water, together with the 

products of combustion, are characteristically produced through sand that is 

already hot and has had its mobile liquid content eliminated. Thus, there is 

no upper limit on oil viscosity; indeed, the oil may be an entirely immobile 

semisolid. However, fuel for the process is an intermediate fraction of the 

original oil, and the most undesirable fraction remains on the sand surface 

as a substantial deposit of coke. Authors' text condensed. 

Richardson, Clifford, 1916, Gilsonite and grahamite -The result of the metamorphism of petroleum under a particular environment: Indus. and Eng. 

Chemistry, v. 8, no. 6, p. 493-494. 

Gilsonite and grahamite are found in fissure veins which approach the 

vertical and afford conditions favorable for the metamorphism of petroleum 

into these materials. Gilsonite is the product of metamorphic changes in 

petroleum, and grahamite is the product of metamorphic changes in gilsonite. 

The environment is the governing condition. Under different conditions true 

asphalt would be formed. Both gilsonite and asphalt have had a common 

origin in petroleum, but the environments to which they have been subjected 

have been so different as to result in entirely different products. The bitumen 

in which gilsonite originated has been confined in narrow veins. Asphalt has 

spread out horizontally and has been subjected to very different conditions, 

with the result that the asphalt contains more than 20 percent saturated 

hydrocarbon, whereas gilsonite and grahamite contain only a relatively small 

amount. As metamorphism proceeds, there is a gradual decrease in the hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which are soluble in naphtha, and a corresponding increase in the residual coke, which they yield on ignition. Melting point 

and specific gravity increase correspondingly as the degree of metamorphism 

increases. 

Rubey, G. M., 1923, Peculiar phases of oil saturation in certain sandstones: 

Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 7, no. 5, p. 473-481. 

The lower part of the Green River formation, though devoid of "oil shale," 

contains several sandstones which show remarkable saturation in some places. 

This saturation can be found almost entirely around the Uinta Mountains and 

along the Grand Hogback in Colorado. The conglomerate contains cavities 

filled with asphaltum in which no sand can be found. The Green River "oil 

sands" were examined in detail, and a hypothesis for the origin of the "oil 

cavities" was formed. This hypothesis was based on concurrent deposition of 

sand and oil. Fresh oil escaping from a seepage floats for a time on the water, 

the more volatile constituents are lost by evaporation, and the mass sinks and 

is rolled along by the current. After a flood, the streambed is practically free 

from "oil rolls," whereas during a period 9f steady flow, every hole in the 

stream is floored with oil, and the oil, carried along with the sand and clay, 
34 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

is deposited with it. Where oil has escaped in large quantities, there is a constant flow down the stream into the lake or sea; there, it would spread out in 

the same manner as other sediments. If the oil floated on the surface of the 

lake or sea, its destination would depend on the prevailing currents and winds. 

In this manner, a sheet of asphaltum might be deposited in clay and fine sands 

and not be associated with the sediments carried by the stream which also 

carried the oil. Author's text condensed. 

Saal, R. N. J., Heukelom, W., and Blokker, P. C., 1940, Physical constants of 

asphaltic bitumens, Pt. 1: Inst. Petroleum Jour., v. 26, no. 195, p. 29-39. 

This paper gives a survey of the following physical properties of asphaltic 

bitumens: specific gravity, coefficient of cubical expansion, specific heat, thermal conductivity, permeability to water vapor, surface tension, and total 

surface energy. The methods by which these properties were determined are 

described in detail. 

Saal, R. N. J., Meinema, K., and Blokker, P. C., 1940, Physical constants of 

asphaltic bitumens, Pt. 2: Inst. Petroleum Jour., v. 26, no. 199, p. 246-255. 

This paper gives a survey of the following electrical properties of asphaltic 

bitumens: Dielectric strength, angle of dielectric loss, dielectric constant, and 

electrical conductivity. The methods by which these properties were determined are described in detail. 

Schweyer, H. E., Coombs, C. E., and Traxler, R.N., 1936, The susceptibility of 

asphalts to temperature change: Am. Soc. Testing and Materials Proc., 

v. 36, pt. 2, p. 531-534. 

At processing temperatures where the asphalts have viscosities ranging 

from 1 to 5 poises and at service temperatures (15° to 35°C, 59° to 95°F) a 

log viscosity versus temperature plot is a straight line, within the limits of 

experimental error. A new simple and logical way of expressing susceptibility 

based on the percentage change of viscosity for a 1 oc rise in temperature is 

proposed and is called the Asphalt Viscosity Index. Using the Saybolt Furol 

viscosimeter for measuring consistencies between 1 and 5 posies (approximately 50 to 250 Furol seconds) and the falling coaxial cylinder viscometer 

for evaluating viscosities at service temperatures (15° to 35oc; 59o to 95°F), 

the susceptibility of an asphalt in terms of absolute units can be determined 

very quickly. 

Shirey, W. B., 1931, Metallic constituents of crude petroleum: Indus. and 

Eng. Chemistry, v. 23, no. 10, p. 1151-1153. 

There is a loose quantitative ratio between the vanadium and nickel contents of the petroleum ashes that were analyzed. Nickel apparently occurs to 

some extent in the ash of all crudes, whereas vanadium appears to associate 

itself more strictly with the asphaltic crudes. Vanadium may appear in only 

the most minute traces, or not at all, in some of the paraffin-base crudes. The 

analysis did not reveal common occurrence of metal in sufficient amounts to 

make petroleum ash of interest as a source of rarer metals. Author's text 

condensed. 

Spencer, G. B., Eckard, W. E., and Johnson, F. S., 1969, Domestic tar sands 

and potential recovery methods- A review: Interstate Oil Compact 

Comm. Committee Bull., v. 11, no. 2, p. 5-12. 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 35 

This report reviews and evaluates present knowledge of Unites States 

tar-sand deposits, including occurrence, physical properties, resources, and 

recovery methods. 

Stanfield, K. E., and Hubbard, R. L., 1949a, Asphalts from Rocky Mountain 

crude oils- Laboratory preparation and comparison: U.S. Bur. Mines 

Tech. Paper 717, 77 p. 

An apparatus and procedure are described for preparing straight-run 

asphalts from asphalt-bearing crude oils by distillation at atmospheric and 

reduced pressure. Crude oils from Wyoming, Arkansas, California, and Montana and from Mexico were used. The yields of the prepared asphalts ranged 

from 7.8 percent for a 29-penetration asphalt from Wertz, Wyo., to 77.2 

percent for a 176-penetration asphalt from Tampico, Mexico. The yields and 

general properties of straight-run asphalts from different types of crude oils 

are useful in comparing the properties of the less common asphalts from 

crude oils of Wyoming and Montana with the properties of commercially 

important asphalts from other sources. In general, the characteristics of the 

asphalts from the Wyoming, Arkansas, and Montana crude oils are intermediate between those of the Tampico, Mexico, and the Kern River, Calif., 

crude oils. Authors' summary condensed. 

Stanfield, K. E., and Hubbard, R. L., 1949b, Laboratory study of asphalts from 

native bitumens and bituminous sandstones: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 

4523, 22 p. 

Fourteen straight-run asphalts were prepared in the laboratory from bitumens obtained from the following three sources: ( 1) Native bitumen from 

Rozel Point, Utah; (2) bitumen extracted from Athabaska bituminous sandstone at Alberta, Canada; and (3) bitumen extracted from Edna bituminous 

sandstone outcropping in San Luis Obispo County, Calif. The properties of 

the asphalts were determined by commonly accepted asphalt tests and are 

tabulated in this report. Authors' summary condensed. 

Szasz, S. E., and Thomas, G. W., 1965, Principles of heavy oil recovery: Jour. 

Canadian Petroleum Technology, v. 4, no. 4, p. 188-195. 

The cost of finding new oil reserves has prompted greater interest in the 

large known deposits of heavy oil on this continent. Because of the high oil 

viscosities in such reservoirs, recoveries are poor, fluid drives are inefficient, 

and production rates are uneconomical. Viscosity can best be reduced by heating the reservoir. The basic aspects of reservoir heating are reviewed in this 

paper. Conduction-heating processes appear to be the most promising. One 

such process is the cyclic steam-soak process. A simple method is presented 

for estimating the performance from the first cycle of steam injection into the 

formation, assuming gravity as the only driving energy. An example calculation for a typical heavy-oil reservoir is given. The results yield conservative 

estimates. Fracture-heating processes hold great promise, provided that we 

can develop means for creating fractures having controlled orientation and 

direction. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Taylor, F. B., 1967, Outlook for shallow oil exploration and development, 

United States: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 51, no. 1, 

p. 134-141. 
36 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

More than 120,000 wildcat wells in 14 States were drilled and their records 

examined during 1950-63. Of these, 22,928 (19 percent) were classified as 

shallow tests. Of that number 2,274 were discovery wells. Seven succer,sful 

tests were completed at depths less than 100 feet. From this depth, the number of discoveries increases in virtually a straight-line progression to 2,000 

feet, at which depth there were 213 successful completions. Author's text condensed. 

Thode, H. G., Monster, Jan, and Dunford, H. B., 1958, Sulphur isotope abundances in petroleum and associated materials: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 42, no. 11, p. 2619-2641. 

A study has been made of sulfur isotope ratios for petroleum from many 

different oil fields in the United States and Canada. The S34/S32 ratio for 

petroleum varies by about 4.5 percent as- compared with a total spread of 

about 9 percent for terrestrial sulfur. Oils from widely separated locations in 

Alberta, found in the same reservoir rock, have similar sulfur isotope ratios. 

On the other hand, actual sulfur content of these oils may vary by a factor 

of 10. This result indicates that there is little or no fractionation of the sulfur 

isotopes in the maturation of the oil, during which sulfur is lost. The very 

high S34 content of the petroleum in the recent sediments of the Uinta Basin 

in Utah confirms the nonmarine origin of these deposits. The decrease in S34 

content with age and depth of petroleum deposit in the basin suggests a 

gradual S34 enrichment of the sulfate over a period of time in the enclosed 

lake, probably due to bacterial action. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Thurston, R. R., and Knowles, E. C., 1936, Oxygen absorption tests on asphalt 

constituents: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, v. 28, no. 1, p. 88-91. 

Soft and air-blown Mexican asphalt, gilsonite, and other asphalts were 

examined, and groups of constituents were separated- asphaltous resins, 

asphaltenes, petroleum resins, asphaltic resins, and oils. The original asphalts 

and the constituents of soft Mexican asphalt were subjected to treatment with 

oxygen in a closed system at 200°C and under atmospheric pressures. The 

volume of oxygen absorbed was measured and the distribution of it in the 

products of the reaction determined. The solid constituents, the asphaltenes, 

oxidized most readily, and the oils were more resistant. Authors' abstract. 

Thurston, R. R., and Knowles, E. C., 1941, Asphalt and its constituents: Indus. 

and Eng. Chemistry, v. 33, no. 3, p. 320-324. 

Under weathering conditions, asphalt surfaces undergo oxidation. This 

photo-oxidation property of asphalt and its constituents has been studied by 

exposing samples in oxygen-filled sealed Pyrex containers under a sunlamp 

at temperatures approximating 170°F (77°C). The constituents, identified as 

asphaltenes, resins, naphthalene oil, paraffin oil, and wax, were obtained from 

three typical petroleum residua. All constituents absorbed oxygen, the resin 

and naphthalene oil being a little more readily oxidized. Constituent source 

was also a factor. Part of the used oxygen was eliminated as water and 

carbon dioxide, and all residues showed weight increase. The method is applicable to paving and roofing asphalts. Authors' abstract. 

Traxler, R.N., 1961, Asphalt, its composition, properties and uses: New York, 

Reinhold Publishing Corp., 294 p. 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 37 

This book contains chapters on composition and physical properties of 

asphalt, but most of it is on asphalt manufacture and uses. 

Traxler, R. N., and Schweyer, H. E., 1936, Increase in viscosity of asphalts 

with time: Am. Soc. Testing and Materials Proc., v. 36, pt. 2, p. 544-550. 

When asphalts are maintained undisturbed at 25°C (77°F), the viscosities 

are found to increase with time. This aging phenomenon has been studied by 

means of the falling coaxial cylinder viscometer for a number of asphalts of 

various origins and methods of processing. An asphalt aging index is proposed which quantitatively evaluates the rate of increase in viscosity with 

time. Development of a thermally unstable structure within the asphalt is 

probably the cause of the age-hardening phenomenon. Reheating a timehardened sample in-situ returned the asphalt to its original viscosity, provided 

that not too long a time had elapsed. However, in samples that had aged for 

several thousand hours, permanent changes were also found to have occurred 

in the asphalt, and reheating of these samples did not eliminate all the 

viscosity developed during aging. 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1967, Heavy crude oil, resource, reserve, and potential 

production in the United States: U.S. Bur. Mines. Inf. Circ. 8352, 76 p. 

This report presents data pertaining to proved reserves, production, and 

total resources of heavy-crude oil (API gravity of 25° or less) in the United 

States. Information is presented for 22 heavy-oil-producing States. This study 

was confined to subsurface reservoirs containing heavy oils that are mobile 

at reservoir conditions. Heavy-crude-oil resource on January 1, 1966, was 

106.8 billion stb (stock-tank barrels), of which 45.9 billion stb was in reservoirs having characteristics considered to be most favorable for thermalrecovery operations. Estimated recoverable or proved reserve by operating 

methods, in effect, on this date was 5.2 billion bbl (barrels). Heavy-oil production forecast for the years 1966-80 is 5,816 million bbl, about 16 percent 

of which is expected to be recovered from thermal operations. 

U.S. Geological Survey, 1951, Bituminous rock and related deposits, in Fuel 

reserves of the United States: U.S. Congressional Committee on Interior 

and Insular Affairs, 82d Congress, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 49 p. 

[p. 38]. 

Deposits of asphaltic sandstones, bituminous limestone, and bituminous 

siltstone constitute a large potential source of liquid fuel, although interest 

in them in the past has been directed toward their suitability for road surfacing and other construction purposes. Total production of natural asphalt 

and bituminous rock in the United States has been on the order of 20 million 

tons containing possibly 1.5 million tons of bitumen, and total production of 

gilsonite has been about 1.6 million tons. Reserves are listed for the deposits 

at Vernal and Sunnyside, Utah, Edna, Santa Cruz, and McKittrick, Calif., 

and Uvalde, Tex. Author's text condensed. 

White, David, 1915, Some relations in origin between coal and petroleum: 

Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 5, p. 189-212. 

The effect of progressive regional dynamic alteration is marked by a concentration of hydrogen in the distillates and a concentration of carbon in the 
38 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

residual debris (coal, carbonaceous shale, and so forth). Thus, the oil is of 

light grade where the carbon content of the coal is high, and the oil is heavy 

where the carbon content is low. If metamorphism has not progressed sufficiently, the carbonaceous material which is the source of the oil and gas will 

not be sufficiently altered to cause the formation of oil or gas. However, if 

metamorphism has progressed beyond a certain stage, the oil and gas will, to 

a large extent, be destroyed, and, according to E. R. Lilley, dry gases composed almost entirely of methane and residual carbon will be formed. Ultimately, if the pressure becomes too severe, the methane is destroyed, and the 

volatile hydrogen gas is evolved. Because of the small size of the hydrogen 

molecule, this gas easily escaped from the beds containing it and is lost. 

Author's text condensed. 

Witherspoon, P. A., and Winniford, R. S., 1967, The asphaltic components of 

petroleum, in Nagy, B., and Colombo, U., eds., Fundamental aspects of 

petroleum geochemistry: Amsterdam, Netherlands, Elsevier Publishing 

Co., p. 260-297. 

The asphaltic components of petroleum consist of aggregates of a large 

number of compounds that contain the highest molecular-weight fractions 

and have the most complicated structure of any of the compounds that make 

up this fluid. They are in the general classification of nonhydrocarbons because they contain, in addition to hydrogen and carbon, significant amounts 

of nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. These components differ significantly from 

other constituents of petroleum not only in their chemical composition and 

structure, but also because of their occurrence as colloidal particles. Because 

geologically younger crude oils are often more asphaltic than the older oils, 

some workers have proposed that the transformations of the organic matter 

involve a youthful stage of heavy asphaltic oils which are further altered by 

low-temperature physicochemical processes to a mature paraffinic stage. Other 

workers have proposed that hydrocarbons are transported in aqueous solutions and that the final accumulation is dependent on the solubility characteristics of the various hydrocarbons which make up petroleum. Authors' text 

condensed. 

World Oil, 1964, Thermal recovery projects spur lease play in three-State 

area: World Oil, v. 159, no. 1, p. 103-105. 

Following initiation of Shell Co.'s secret hot-water and steam injection work 

in Vernon County, Mo., in December 1963, more than 20 major and independent companies have leased large blocks of acreage throughout western 

Missouri, southeastern Kansas, and northeastern Oklahoma. The chief area of 

interest is underlain by the Bartlesville and Bluejacket Sandstones of Pennsylvanian age. These shallow sands (depth 175-400 feet) contain large 

amounts of low-gravity, high-viscosity crude which has defied extraction by 

more conventional secondary-recovery techniques. 

Young, R. S., 1954, Preliminary X-ray investigation of solid hydrocarbons: 

Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 38, no. 9, p. 2017-2020. 

Specimens of naturally occurring solid hydrocarbons were subjected to 

X-ray study in an attempt to determine whether enough inherent structural 

differences existed to provide a basis for classification. The specimens were 

asphalt, gilsonite, asphaltum, grahamite, albertite, and several unidentified 
GENERAL REFERENCE PUBLICATIONS 39 

materials. On the basis of X-ray pattern variations, several inferences can be 

drawn concerning the structure of asphaltites and pyrobitumens. Apparently 

gilsonite is composed of large "bitumen" molecules arranged in nearly complete disorder. Metamorphism, ~ven in an extremely mild form, has two immediate effects: (1) Partial breakdown of the "bitumen" lamellae into 

"carbonlike" crystallites and a gaseous product; and (2) a tendency toward 

a definite and relatively immobile arrangement of the "carbonlike" crystallites. 

Therefore, with the application of heat and pressure, it is probable that in 

time a petroleum asphalt will convert to gilsonite, albertite, grahamite, and 

perhaps even impsonite. Author's text condensed. 

UNITED STATES 

ALABAMA 

Subject Index 

Carboniferous 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Ordovician 

Trenton limestone 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Origin 

Utterback, D. D., 1954 

Resources 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Clark, C. H., 1925 

Jones, W. B., 1928 

Semmes, D. R., 1929 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Alabama, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 8-18 [p. 10]. 

The Mississippian limestones and sandstones of northwest Alabama contain 

a number of asphalt impregnated beds, which extend from northwest to 

southeast for 70 miles across Colbert, Lawrence, and Morgan Counties. 

Asphalt impregnates several limestones and sandstones of the Bangor Limestone, the Hartselle Sandstone, the Gasper Limestone (or Oolite) and the 

Bethel Sandstone. These formations are within the upper 700 feet of the 

1,000-foot-thick Mississippian rocks of northwest Alabama. Several deposits 

have been worked for paving asphalt, although most mining ceased in the 

1940's. The Trenton Limestone (Ordovician) is reported to be impregnated 

with oil in the Coosa Valley (probably in Blount County), and oil seeps and 

associated oil-impregnated rocks are known in the Knox Dolomite (Ordovician) near Cooks Springs, St. Clair County. Author's text condensed. 

Ball, M. W., 1951, Report on oil-impregnated strippable deposits in Alabama 

as of May 22, 1950, Appendix C, in The synthetic liquid-fuel potential of 

Alabama: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Summary report for the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior: Ford, Bacon & Davis, Inc., 

Engineers. 

The important deposits in Alabama are scattered throughout an area 70 

miles long and 8 miles wide in Morgan, Lawrence, and Colbert Counties. The 

deposits occur in the Bangor and Gasper limestones and the Bethel and 

41 
42 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Hartselle sandstones in the Mississippian Chester group. The Bangor limestone occurrences are in Morgan County and are mostly tar springs and 

seeps. Those in the Gasper limestone are in Colbert County near Margerum 

and Cherokee. The only known deposit in the Bethel sandstone is the bituminous area south of Cherokee, in Colbert County. Hartselle sandstone 

deposits extend discontinuously from Hartselle in Morgan County through 

Lawrence and Colbert Counties. The asphaltic sandstone covers a larger area 

than the asphaltic limestone, but its occurrence is erratic. Reported thicknesses seldom exceed 10 to 12 feet, but range up to 20 feet. Bitumen content 

also varies within short distances, and ranges from 3 to 9 percent by weight. 

All the deposits appear to be thin or small or under heavy overburden. 

Author's text condensed. 

Clark, G. H., 1925, Rock asphalts of Alabama and their use in paving: 

Alabama Geol. Survey Spec. Rept. 13, 96 p., 14 pls. 

Asphaltic sandstones crop out in five counties of northern Alabama: Colbert, Lawrence, Morgan, Cullman, and Winston. Asphaltic limestone crops 

out in Colbert County. The asphaltic deposits occur in Bangor and Gasper 

limestones and the Bethel and Hartselle sandstones in the Mississippian 

Chester group. The asphaltic sandstones are sandstones originally containing 

crude petroleum with which they were more or less saturated. The value of 

these asphaltic sandstones lies in the fact that the petroleum uniformly coated 

each individual grain of sand. The resulting asphalt, with its attained viscosity and capacity for compaction, is uniformly distributed through the mass, 

a condition difficult to duplicate artificially. The geology of the region is not 

complex. Its sedimentary strata are, for the most part, flat lying and show 

no changes from heat or pressure. The bitumen content ranges from 1 to 15 

percent. Author's text condensed. 

Jones, W. B., 1928, Summary of the distribution and occurrence of the rockasphalt deposits of Alabama: Alabama Geol. Survey Circ. 5, 19 p., 7 pis. 

Rock-asphalt deposits in Alabama include both sandstones and limestones 

and are found in the Bangor, Hartselle, Gasper, and Bethel formations. The 

Hartselle and Bethel are sandstones, whereas the Bangor is a massive, highly 

fossiliferous limestone, and the Gasper is an oolitic limestone. The occurrence 

of asphalt in the Bangor probably does not reach commercial proportions, 

inasmuch as the known areas are scattered and exist merely as springs and 

seeps. The asphaltic zones in the Hartselle cover a larger area than the 

others. The thickness ranges from a few inches to 20 feet, and the asphaltic 

content varies from a trace to an abundance of "frog eyes" of pure asphalt 

standing out all over the exposed surface. Commercial deposits of rock asphalt 

in the Gasper are confined to Colbert County and extend from Cherokee westward to the State line. The thickest outcrop observed by the author was 20 

feet thick, 4 miles south of Margerum. The outcrop area of the Bethel is 

approximately the same as that of the Gasper, although the Bethel extends 

much farther eastward. In general, the asphaltic content of the Bethel is 

somewhat higher than that of the Gasper, owing to the sandstone's greater 

porosity. Author's text condensed. 

Semmes, D. R., 1929, Oil and gas in Alabama: Alabama Geol. Survey Spec. 

Rept. 15, 408 p., 76 figs., 13 maps [p. 64-67, 73, 126, 161]. 
ALASKA 43 

In Colbert County, rather extensive asphaltic impregnations occur in the 

Hartselle sandstone in the vicinity of Littleville and Cherokee and in the 

Gasper limestone near Margerum. In 1924 two deposits were being mined. 

The asphalt content ranged from 4.6 to 10.6 percent. At several localities in 

Lawrence County, the Hartselle sandstone shows extensive asphaltic impregnation ranging from 3 to 10 percent. Asphaltic impregnations and tar springs 

occur in the Bangor limestone near Copsey Creek. In Morgan County in the 

Hartselle sandstone, tar springs, asphalt, and maltha showings are abundant. 

The Hartselle sandstone has asphaltic showings near the town of Hartselle 

and is impregnated with asphalt in the vicinity of Flint. The upper crinoidal 

limestones of the Bangor also contain asphalt in Morgan County. 

Utterback, D. D., 1954, New questions on origin of oil: Oil and Gas Jour., 

v. 53, no. 16, p. 121-124. 

The author investigated surface outcrops of limestones and sandstones 

containing asphalt or heavy oil. The purpose of this work was to develop 

positive information on the nature of these occurrences that would add to 

knowledge of their origin. Four conclusions were reached by the author 

regarding the origin of the deposits in the Gasper limestone in Colbert 

County, Alabama. (1) The asphalt in the Gasper limestone is contained in 

and around oolites, but is absent in the matrix and in cavities in large fossil 

fragments. (2) The occurrence is not a residual oil pool. (3) Because of the 

absence of openings in and around asphaltic material, the asphalt probably 

was originally deposited as a viscous mass having about the same density as 

at present. ( 4) It is unlikely that the asphalt was formed by oxidation of oil 

carried downstream from an eroded oil pool. Author's text condensed. 

ALASKA 

Subject Index 

Areal geology 

Chignik Lagoon area 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Keller, A. S., and Case, J. T., 1956 

Iniskin-Chinitna Peninsula 

Moffit, F. H., 1927 

Kamishak Bay region 

Mather, K. F., 1925 

Okpikruak and Kiruktogiak Rivers area 

Patton, W. W., Jr., and Tailleur, I. L., 1950 

Upper Siksikpuk-Nanushuk Rivers area 

Patton, W. W., Jr., and Keller, A. S., 1950 

U tukok-Corwin region 

Chapman, R. M., and Sable, E. G., 1960 

Cretaceous 

Point Barrow region 

Paige, Sidney, Foran, W. T., and Gilluly, James, 1925 

Jurassic 

Point Barrow region 

Paige, Sidney, Foran, W. T., and Gilluly, James, 1925 
44 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Petroleum seepages 

Alaskan Arctic slope 

Ebbley, Norman, Jr., 1944 

Smith, P. S., 1927 

Payne, T. G., 1948 

Aniakchak district 

Knappen, R. S., 1929 

Canning River region 

Leffingwell, E. deK., 1919 

Controller Bay 

Martin, G. C., 1907 

Martin, G. C., 1921 

Cook Inlet 

Brooks, A. H., 1914 

Gryc, George, Miller, D. J., and Payne, T. G., 1951 

Martin, G. C., 1921 

Katalla-Yakataga area 

Brooks, A. H., 1914 

Foran, W. T., 1952 

Gryc, George, Miller, D. J., and Payne, T. G., 1951 

Maddren, A. G., 1914 

Miller, D. J., 1957 

Miller, D. J., Payne, T. G., and Gryc, George, 1959 

Taliaferro, N. L., 1932 

Malaspina district 

Plafker, George, and Miller, D. J., 1957 

Pacific Coast region 

Martin, G. G., 1905 

Point Barrow region 

Paige, Sidney, Foran, W. T., and Gilluly, James, 1925 

Smith Bay area 

Brooks, A. H., 1909 

Snug Harbor district 

Moffit, F. H., 1927 

Tertiary 

Miocene 

Controller Bay 

Martin, G. C., 1907 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Alaska in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 18-41 [p. 20]. 

Petroleum-impregnated rocks crop out throughout Alaska: In the Arctic 

Foothills province, north of the Brooks Range; along the southern and 

western coastal areas; and along the central Alaska-Yukon border. Cretaceous and Tertiary sandstones and Mississippian and Triassic limestones are 

host rocks. The most significant accumulation is in the Chignik Lagoon area, 

on the east side of the Alaska Peninsula. Author's text condensed. 
ALASKA 45 

Brooks, A. H., 1909, The mining industry in 1908: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

379-A, p. 21-62 [p. 61]. 

Petroleum residue occurs near Smith Bay, east of Point Barrow. The material occurs in a mound that is several hundred yards in diameter and stands 

about 150 feet above the level of the tundra. The material resembles asphalt, 

but contains considerable vegetable matter and silt. It apparently is the 

residue from petroleum which had impregnated peat and from which the 

volatile constituent had evaporated. This material resembles that described by 

G. C. Martin from Cold Bay, Alaska Peninsula, which was formed by the 

soaking of a peat bog by petroleum seepage. At Cold Bay, however, the 

petroleum has a paraffin base, whereas at Smith Bay it has an asphalt base. 

So far as is known, the region near Smith Bay is underlain by Tertiary beds. 

Author's text condensed. 

Brooks, A. H., 1914, The mineral deposits of Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

592-A, p. 18-44 [p. 40]. 

Petroleum seepages occur (1) near Katana on the Pacific Coast, and (2) 

near Yakataga, 60 miles to the east. At Katalla there has been small production from two or three wells. The surface rocks of the Katalla field are closely 

folded and faulted Tertiary shales and sandstones. Nothing is known as to 

the source of the oil. Petroleum seepages also occur on the west side of Cook 

Inlet near Iniskin Bay, where the rocks, Jurassic in age, are chiefly shales 

and sandstones. These lie in broad open folds, a condition favorable to petroleum accumulation, but are broken by faults. Similar conditions prevail at 

Cold Bay, 160 miles to the southwest, where petroleum seepages also occur. 

Some petroleum residue has been found near the south end of Smith Bay, an 

indentation on the Arctic Coast of Alaska, east of Point Barrow. Author's 

text condensed. 

Chapman, R. M., and Sable, E. G., 1960, Geology of the Utukok-Corwin region, 

northwestern Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 303-C, p. 47-167 

[p. 154] [1961]. 

Three sandstone beds near the U tukok River in the Carbon Creek anticline 

contain petroleum residues. A sample collected from a petroliferous sandstone 

bed at about 3.65 miles southeast of Omicron Hill yielded a very pale strawcolored cut and a pale-yellow residue when treated with CCl4. A sample from 

a petroliferous sandstone bed on a sharp north bend of the Utukok River 

about 6 miles west of Carbon Creek, when treated with CCl4 yielded a very 

pale straw-colored cut and a pale-yellow residue. A sample from a sandstone 

bed on Omicron Hill in the lowest part of the Kukpowruk formation yielded 

a black cut and a brownish-black residue when treated with CCl4. A small 

fault cuts this bed, and for a distance of 100 feet on each side of this fault, 

the sandstone is moderately dark brownish gray. Beyond these limits, the 

dark color is absent. All three samples are of low permeability. One 7-foot 

silty sandstone bed in the Corwin formation, exposed along the Kakolik River 

just north of the Oilsand syncline axial zone, has a high asphaltic content. 

Stratigraphically, the oil sand lies in a coaly sequence of the Corwin about 

2,400 feet above the base. Authors' text condensed. 

Ebbley, Norman, Jr., 1944, Oil seepages on the Alaskan Arctic slope: Mining 

and Metallurgy, v. 25, no. 453, p. 415-419. 

460-209 0 - 72 - 4 
46 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Petroleum seepages occur over a wide area in northern Alaska, but little 

is known of the oils or of their mode of occurrence and distribution. Only 

about one-third of the area where seepages are found has been covered by 

geological reconnaissance surveys. The seven following Arctic slope petroleum seepages were visited and are described in this report: The Umiat 

Mountain area, the Fish River Seep, the Dease Inlet Seep, Cape Simpson 

area, Barter Island area, Un-goon Point area, and White Mountain area. 

Locations of these seepages are shown on an accompanying map. 

Foran, W. T., 1952, Southeastern Alaska's Katalla-Yakataga oil province: 

Oil and Gas Jour., v. 50, no. 49, p. 166, 168, 171 [p. 124-126]. 

Seepages of the Katalla-Yakataga areas seem to be the result of slightly 

fractured pools that have related fault vents to the surface. This occurrence 

strongly suggests localized accumulations in the subadjacent areas. Source 

material for this area may be oil residue occurring in seepages and in fractures of the underlying Mesozoic formation. Porosity, sand, and shale conditions are well suited to the migration and pooling of oil. Analysis of the 

residue and seepage oil at Katalla and Yakataga shows extremely low sulfur 

content and suggests that it is comparable to the Salt Creek, Wyo., oil. 

Author's text condensed. 

Gryc, George, Miller, D. J., and Payne, T. G., 1951, Alaska, in Ball, M. W., 

ed., Possible future petroleum provinces of North America: Am. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 35, no. 2, p. 151-168. 

Alaska's small production of petroleum, aggregating about 154,000 barrels, 

was obtained between 1902 and 1933 from 60 acres near Katalla on the south 

coast. Production ceased when the small refinery burned in December 1933. 

In several large areas oil seepages, gas, and residues have been known for 

years. These are Northern Alaska, Katalla-Yakataga, Cook Inlet-Alaskan 

Peninsula, Bristol Bay, Interior Alaska, and the Continental Shelf. Authors' 

text condensed. 

Keller, A. S., and Cass, J. T., 1956, Petroliferous sand of the Chignik formation at Chignik Lagoon, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 5 p., 

2 figs. 

The petroleum-bearing sand is exposed along the northwest side of Chignik 

Lagoon. The rocks in this area are sandstone, siltstone, shale, and conglomerate of the Chignik and Naknek formations. This report describes the stratigraphic section in which the sands are found, gives the results of porosity and 

permeability tests, and lists the fossils found in the sands. 

Knappen, R. S., 1929, Geology and mineral resources of the Aniakchak district: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 797-F, p. 161-223 [p. 210]. 

North of the Aniakchak district in the vicinity of Portage and Cold Bays, 

oil seepages are known in the Shelikof formation (Upper Jurassic). This 

formation probably underlies certain folds northwest of Portage Bay, which 

were drilled for oil. The possible petroliferous formations in the Aniakchak 

district perhaps lie in or below the Shelikof formation. Author's text condensed. 
ALASKA 47 

Leffingwell, E. deK., 1919, The Canning River region, northern Alaska: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 109, 251 p. [p. 178]. 

At Cape Simpson on the west side of Smith Bay, there are two conspicuous 

mounds. Petroleum residue is reported from one of them. The deposit is near 

the shore, and the natives say that a considerable amount could easily be dug 

out with spades. Natives also report another petroleum mound between 

Humphry Point and Aichillik River, near the coast. According to current 

reports an oil seepage has been discovered in northern Alaska near Wainwright Inlet, about 100 miles southwest of Point Barrow. If this report is 

confirmed, it may indicate an oil field between Wainwright Inlet and Smith 

Bay. Author's text condensed. 

Maddren, A. G., 1914, Mineral deposits of the Yakataga district: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 592-E, p. 119-153. 

The best-known petroleum seepages of the Yakataga district are located 

near the base of the seaward slopes of the coastal ridge of Robinson Mountains. These seepages are distributed along a line extending from a point 

near Yakataga Reef to Johnston Creek, a distance of about 18 miles. They 

are %-2 miles from the beach. About a dozen seepages are distributed at 

irregular intervals along this line. The extreme easternmost seepage, on 

Johnston Creek about 1% miles above its mouth, is the only one of considerable volume. Most of these seepages are little more than meager indications of oil in the form of sulfurous coatings or exudations along joints. 

Thick oily residue has accumulated in notable quantity only at the seepage 

on Johnston Creek. Author's text condensed. 

Martin, G. C., 1905, The petroleum fields of the Pacific Coast of Alaska, with 

an account of the Bering River coal deposits: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

250, 64 p. 

Petroleum seepages are very abundant in the Controller Bay region. Those 

best known are about 4 miles east of Katalla. The flow of oil has caused 

large pools to form on the surface. Another group of seepages is on the 

headwaters of Burls Creek, where the petroleum may be seen oozing from 

joints and bedding planes of the carbonaceous shales and volcanic ash beds 

exposed in the deep ravines. Cold Bay is located on the south shore of the 

Alaska Peninsula, opposite the west end of Kodiak Island. Seepages of 

petroleum occur about 5 miles inland from Cold Bay. The petroleum runs 

down the hillsides in the watercourses, collecting at the bottom in peat bogs. 

Having lost enough of its volatile constituents by evaporation to render it 

immobile, it remains there, impregnating the peat and forming a thick coating of black paraffin wax over the surface. The deposit has an area of 

about 1% acres. The material has been dug to a depth of 3 feet, sometimes 

without reaching bottom. Another deposit discovered in this vicinity covers 

an area of 3 acres and is at least 10 feet thick. Author's text condensed. 

Martin, G. C., 1907, Petroleum at Controller Bay: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

314-E, p. 89-103 [p. 92-93]. 

Oil seepages occur within a long, narrow belt-, about 4 miles wide, extending from the edge of the Copper River delta to Bering Glacier, a distance 
48 ·ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

of about 28 miles from east to west. The seepages west of Katalla are 

associated with metamorphic rocks, the oil reaching the surface either 

through joints and bedding or through cleavage planes of the slate and 

graywacke or through surficial deposits which probably overlie such rocks. 

The author suggests that the metamorphic rocks, which are known to be 

separated from the Tertiary shales by a fault, are overthrust upon the 

shales along a fault plane of low hade, and that the oil of the seepages is 

coming through the metamorphic rocks from underlying shales. The seepages 

at the head of Katalla Slough and on Redwood, Burls, and Chilkat Creeks 

are all in the soft shales that have been called the Katalla formation. Those 

between Redwood and Burls Creeks are associated with conglomerates, 

presumably higher in the section. The Cape Yakataga seepages are said to 

be in Miocene sandstones and shales. Author's text condensed. 

Martin, G. C., 1921, Preliminary report on petroleum in Alaska: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 719, 83 p. [p. 9-75]. 

Indications of petroleum have been found in five districts in Alaska. Four 

are on the Pacific Coast- the Katalla or Controller Bay field, the Yakataga 

district, the Iniskin Bay district on Cook Inlet, and the Cold Bay district 

on the Alaskan Peninsula. The fifth, which includes areas near Smith Bay, 

is on the Arctic Coast. The petroleum on the Pacific Coast of Alaska, as it 

is known from wells near Katalla and from seepages in the Yakataga, 

Iniskin, and Cold Bay districts, is a high-grade refining oil with a paraffin 

base. The petroleum found near Smith Bay appears to have an asphaltic base. 

Some of the seepages of petroleum on the hillsides near Cold Bay are continuous; others are intermittent. The petroleum runs down the hillsides into 

the watercourses and collects at the bottom of peat bogs. Losing enough of 

its volatile constituents by evaporation to become immobile, it remains 

there, impregnating the peat and forming a thick coating of a black paraffin 

wax over its surface. Author's text condensed. 

Mather, K. F., 1925, Petroleum on Alaska Peninsula- Mineral resources of 

the Kamishak Bay region: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 773-D, p. 159-181 

[p. 176-177]. 

During fieldwork on which this report is based, no seepages of oil were 

observed in the Kamishak Bay region, but reliable reports indicate an oil 

seepage near Bruin Bay within the mapped area. According to these reports, 

there is a small oil seepage about 50 yards off the point on the south side 

of the entrance to Bruin Bay. Bubbles of gas come from the clean sand and, 

breaking at the water surface, spread a film of oil over a considerable area. 

The odor of gas and oil is very distinct. The locality is approximately on 

the crest of the Chenik anticline, if that anticline extends northeastward from 

the locality at which it disappears beneath the water of Kamishak Bay. 

Author's text condensed. 

Miller, D. J., 1957, Geology of the southeastern part of the Robinson Mountains, Yakataga district, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map 

OM-187. 

All the known oil and gas seeps in this region are in the southeastern part 

of the Robinson Mountains and are shown on this map. The seeps are near 

the coast, in a narrow belt extending along the axis of the Sullivan anticline 
ALASKA 49 

from Johnston Creek to a point near the west end of Brower Ridge. One oil 

seep is present on the north side of the Yakataga River Valley, between the 

Yakataga River and Porcupine Creek. Beds of sandstone or siltstone having 

a petroliferous odor, some yielding a small amount of oil when treated with 

CC14, were found in outcrops of the Yakataga formation near the mouth of 

Kulthieth River in the western part of the Robinson Mountains. At one 

locality on the north branch of the White River, near the axis of the White 

River syncline, oil is entrapped in calcite veinlets that fill fractures in sandstone of the Yakataga formation. About 75 percent of the known oil seeps 

and all the large gas seeps occur on outcrops of the Poul Creek formation. 

The remaining oil seeps and other indications of petroleum are associated 

with the Yakataga formation. In the Samovar Hills area of the Malaspina 

district, however, large oil seeps have been found in outcrops of coal-bearing 

strata with the Kulthieth formation. Author's text condensed. 

Miller, D. J., Payne, T. G., and Gryc, George, 1959, Geology of possible petroleum provinces in Alaska, with an annotated bibliography, by E. H. Cobb: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1094, 131 p. (Supersedes Map I-84.) 

In the Katalla district the known oil seeps and the indications of oil in 

wells are confined to a narrow eastward-trending belt near the coast. Investigations have shown that most of the oil seeps are in the outcrop area of the 

middle part of the Katalla formation, which locally includes a petroliferous, 

highly organic shale. In the western part of the Katalla district, oil seeps 

from hard siltstone and sandstone of probable early Tertiary age and, also, 

from pre-Tertiary metamorphic rocks near the contact with the lower 

Tertiary(?) strata. In the Yakataga district, the known oil seeps occur in the 

outcrop area of the Poul Creek formation and the lower part of the Yakataga 

formation. Nearly all the oil seeps are on or near the faulted crest of the 

Sullivan anticline, which lies near the coast. Authors' text condensed. 

Moffit, F. H., 1927, The Iniskin-Chinitna Peninsula and the Snug Harbor 

district, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 789, 71 p. [p. 52]. 

In the Iniskin-Chinitna Peninsula, the oil seepages and drill holes showing 

oil are within the area of the Tuxedni sandstone (Middle Jurassic). So far 

as is known, none of the seepages - except the gas spring at Dry Bay- are 

within areas of the Chinitna shale or the Naknek formation (Upper Jurassic). 

The source of the oil is therefore believed to be within the Tuxedni sandstone 

or possibly at some lower horizon. Two of the drill holes at Oil Bay are 

reported to have penetrated oil-bearing sands at depths of 500-700 feet and 

to have shown a considerable quantity of oil. Author's text condensed. 

Paige, Sidney, Foran, W. T., and Gilluly, James, 1925, A reconnaissance of 

the Point Barrow region, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 772, 33 p. 

[p. 23]. 

The Cape Simpson oil seepages consist of two occurrences on the margin 

of the Arctic Ocean. A low moss-covered ridge stretches for 2 miles along the 

Arctic Ocean, its southeast terminal about 1 mile northwest of Cape Simpson. 

Its highest point is about 50 feet above the sea. Seepage No. 1 occurs near the 

island base of this ridge, one-third of a mile from the ocean and 20 feet above 

tidewater, from which it is visible. In an irregular area several hundred feet 

in diameter, the mass is soaked with petroleum which slowly seeps from the 
50 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

gentle slope. Seepage No. 2 is on top of a small double knob 40 feet high, 

3 miles south of seepage No. 1 and 11,4. miles ;vest of Smith Bay. The residue 

from the seepage covers several acres. The main petroleum flow moves southward down the slope 600 to 700 feet to a lake. This active channel is 6 to 10 

feet wide, though the area covered by residue is several hundred square feet 

and indicates that a considerable flow comes from this seepage. The rocks 

from which petroleum seeps are believed to be Upper Jurassic or Lower 

Cretaceous. Authors' text condensed. 

Patton, W. W., Jr., and Keller, A. S., 1950, Preliminary report on the stratigraphy and structure of the Upper Siksikpuk-Nanushuk Rivers area, 

Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, Geological Investigations 

Naval Petroleum Reserve No.4, 20 p., 6 pls., 3 figs. 

Asphaltic material is common in seams and fractures in the Kingak, Okpikruak (Jurassic-Cretaceous), and Torok (Cretaceous) formations. Soft 

gummy asphaltic matter that burns readily commonly occurs interbedded with 

chert in the Kingak formation. Some of the paper shales of the Shublik 

(Triassic) formation give off a strong petroliferous odor when heated. Authors' 

text condensed. 

Patton, W. W., Jr., and Tailleur, I. L., 1950, Stratigraphy and structure of 

the Okpikruak and Kiruktagiak Rivers area, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey 

open-file report, Geological Investigations Naval Petroleum Reserve 

No. 4, 15 p., 3 pls. 

Much of the dark limestone in the Kiruktagiak member of the Lisburne 

(Mississippian) limestone has what is described as an "oil shale" odor. Oil 

shales are present in the lower cherty section of the Shublik (Triassic) formation. A 15-foot zone on Monotis Creek is the thickest section exposed. 

Asphaltic material generally associated with vein calcite commonly occurs as 

fracture fillings in the Torok (Cretaceous) formation. On Fortress Mountain, 

a Torok conglomerate bed consists of angular chert granules cemented by 

asphaltic material. Authors' text condensed. 

Payne, T. G., 1948, A real evaluation of petroleum possibilities of major 

stratigraphic units in northern Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file 

report, Geological Investigations Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4, 17 p., 

10 figs. 

The late Tertiary-Quaternary sediments constitute the surface formation 

at most of the oil seepages in the coastal belt; the oil probably is indigenous 

to the underlying lower Tertiary rocks. Where the surface formation is composed largely of clay, as at the Cape Simpson seepages, it may act as an 

impervious cap to gently dipping lower Tertiary oil sands that may terminate 

unconformably beneath it. The occurrence of oil seepages in the coastal belt 

may be determined by the presence, in the capping formation, of open fractures in the permafrost, as well as by termination, beneath the surface formation, of lower Tertiary oil sands. Author's text condensed. 

Plafker, George, and Miller, D. J., 1957, Reconnaissance geology of the 

Malaspina district, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map 

OM-189, with text. 

During the investigation of the Malaspina district, large oil seeps were 
ARIZONA 51 

found in the Samovar Hills. These seeps issue from fracture zones in the 

Yakutat group and from sandstone beds and fault zones in the lower unit on 

Hubbs Creek. The oil has an API gravity of 29.5 and a sulfur content of 1.13 

percent. No likely source beds for the oil in these seeps are exposed in the 

Samovar Hills. However, argillaceous strata of the lower Tertiary(?) siltstone sequence may underlie the Kulthieth formation west of Hubbs Creek. 

Authors' text condensed. 

Smith, P. S., 1927, Geologic investigations in northern Alaska: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 792-C, p. 111-120. 

Petroleum is found seeping from the ground near Cape Simpson on the 

Arctic Coast. The possible oil-bearing rocks are of Mesozoic age and occur 

entirely north of the Brooks Range. Author's text condensed. 

Taliaferro, N. L., 1932, Geology of the Yakataga, Katalla, and Nichawak districts, Alaska: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 43, no. 3, p. 749-782, 14 figs. 

The Poul Creek shales occur along the crest of the Yakataga anticline and 

very probably on the crest of the next anticline to the north, where lithologically identical beds were observed on the western side of Yakataga Glacier. 

Their total thickness is not known, but is at least 3,000 feet. Eastward from 

Two Mile Creek, these beds form a continuous belt, 17 miles long with a 

maximum width of more than 1 mile, for as far as Big River, where they 

disappear beneath alluvium and glacial outwash. All the well-known oil and 

gas seepages of the Yakataga district come from these shales along the tightly 

folded and crushed crest of Yakataga anticline. Author's text condensed. 

ARIZONA 

Subject Index 

Oil seeps 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Holm, D. A., 1947 

Structure 

Butler, G. M., and Tenney, J. B., 1931 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Arizona, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 41-47 [p. 41]. 

Petroleum-impregnated rocks are few and widely scattered in Arizona; 

none are of commercial importance as of 1964. 

Butler, G. M., and Tenney, J. B., 1931, Petroleum: Arizona Bur. Mines Bull. 

130, Oil Ser. 5 (Arizona Univ. Bull., v. 2, no. 1), 50 p., 10 figs. 

On the western edge of the Plateau region are a series of north-trending 

faults with minor domes and basins developed between them. In one of these 

minor folds in the southwestern corner of Utah, near Virgin City, shallow 

oil has been found in small quantities in lower Triassic beds. The structure is 

reported to extend into Arizona between the Hurricane and Grand Wash 
52 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

faults, south of the village of Hurricane, Utah. Drilling had been done on 

these structures, and only a trace of oil or gas was found in 1931. Authors' 

text condensed. 

Holm, D. A., 1947, Report on the oil possibilities of Arizona: Arizona State 

Land Dept. Rept., 59 p. [p. 42-46, 51-55]. 

Seepages in wells were observed in parts of southern Arizona, particularly 

in the Salt River Valley and the Willcox district. These seepages are listed in 

the appendix of this report. 

Analyses 

Hayes, C. W., 1903 

Taff, J. A., 1909 

Carboniferous 

ARKANSAS 

Subject Index 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Reinemund, J. A., and Danilchik, Walter, 1957 

Cretaceous 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Hayes, C. W ., 1903 

Miser, H. D., and Purdue, A. H., 1919 

Miser, H. D., and Purdue, A. H., 1929 

Spooner, W. C., 1935 

Exploration 

Johnson, C. H., Picklesimer, H. G., and Hoagland, A. D., 1940 

Oil seeps 

Batesville sandstone 

Croneis, C. G., 1930 

Johnson, C. H., Picklesimer, H. G., and Hoagland, A. D., 1940 

Vein deposits 

Fourche Mountain 

Taff, J. A., 1909 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Arkansas, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 47-57 [p. 47]. 

Eight areas of Carboniferous accumulations in Washington, Madison, Newton, and Independence Counties, Ark., include the rare septarian concretions 

containing oil at Kingston and Yardelle, a Mississippian seep at Batesville 

Dam, and scattered oil-soaked sandstone outcrops of Pennsylvanian age. 

Many of the Ozark Plateau Paleozoic rocks, when broken, exude the fetid 

smell of petroleum. The W edington sandstone (Mississippian) outcrops are 

typically bituminous. The Fourche Mountain accumulation in southwest 

Arkansas is the only one of solid (though small) bituminous masses, filling 

relatively large secondary openings in the host rock, not merely impregnating 

its primary pores. The southwest accumulations, except Fourche Mountain, 

are impregnations of the Lower Cretaceous Trinity Formation sandstones. 

Two, at Pike and Delight, may have commercial possibilities. Author's summary condensed. 
ARKANSAS 53 

Croneis, C. G., 1930, Geology of the Arkansas Paleozoic area, with special 

reference to oil and gas possibilities: Arkansas Geol. Survey Bull. 3, 

457 p. [p. 356-357]. 

Most of the surface indications of oil in the Paleozoic area of Arkansas are 

found north of the Arkansas River. A number of Paleozoic rocks of the Ozark 

plateaus give off the odor of petroleum when freshly fractured, but most of 

the true seeps are in the post-Boone formations. The Batesville sandstone is 

at several places somewhat impregnated with bitumen, and oil is reported 

to be seeping from that sandstone at the base of the Upper Batesville dam, 

near Batesville. All surface indications of oil described in this report are in 

the southern part of the Springfield plateau and in the Boston Mountains. 

Author's text condensed. 

Hayes, C. W., 1903, Asphalt deposits of Pike County, Arkansas: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 213-H, p. 353-355. 

At many places in Pike County, the Trinity sandstones (Cretaceous) contain bituminous matter, usually in the form of asphalt. The most extensive 

deposits occur about 2% miles southeast of Pike City on a branch of Wolf 

Creek. The sandstone varies in thickness from 6 to 12 feet and is saturated 

with asphalt. Specimens taken from this deposit vary in bitumen content from 

5.06 to 16.53 percent. 

Johnson, C. H., Picklesimer, H. G., and Hoagland, A. D., 1940, Mineral resources of Benton, Carroll, Madison, and Washington Counties, Arkansas: 

Arkansas Geol. Survey County Mineral Rept. 2, 55 p. [p. 46]. 

Surface structures, oil seeps, and shows of oil in water wells in northwest 

Arkansas have led to exploration and wildcatting for oil and gas. Several test 

wells have had indications of oil and gas. Locations of oil seeps and test wells 

are tabulated. The formations or members of formations considered to be the 

most favorable for oil or gas accumulation are the Sylamore sandstone, the 

Hale sandstone, the W edington sandstone, the St. Peter sandstone, the Kings 

River sandstone, the Everton sandstone, and the Boone limestone. Authors' 

text condensed. 

Miser, H. D., and Purdue, A. H., 1919, Asphalt deposits and oil conditions in 

southwestern Arkansas: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691-J (Pt. 2, Mineral 

fuels), p. 271-292. 

Seven asphalt deposits- three in Pike County and four in Sevier County 

in southwestern Arkansas -were examined by the writers. The deposits have 

a general east-west alinement on the north border of the Gulf Coastal Plain, 

north of which is the Ouachita Mountain region. The asphalt impregnates 

nearly horizontal beds of loose sand in the basal part of the Dierks limestone 

lentil or still lower in the Trinity formation. The layers containing the asphalt 

range in thickness from 1 inch to 12 feet. The Carboniferous and older rocks 

have been so highly tilted, fractured, and metamorphosed that if oil or gas 

were ever present in them, it would have escaped to the surface, and the remainder of the oil would have been distilled to asphalt. Authors' text condensed. 

Miser, H. D., and Purdue, A. H., 1929, Geology of the DeQueen and Caddo 

Gap quadrangles, Arkansas: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 808, 195 p. [p. 157-

161]. 
54 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

The asphalt impregnates nearly horizontal beds of loose sand in the basal 

part of the Dierks lentil or still lower in the Trinity formation. The deposits 

thus consist of asphaltic sand, except at one place where the asphalt impregnates the Pike gravel member at the base of the formation. The layers containing the asphalt range in thickness from 1 inch to 12 feet. The Trinity 

formation contains petroleum and asphalt at many places in northern Texas 

and southeastern Oklahoma. It is doubtless a residue of crude petroleum, 

whose lighter and more volatile parts have escaped by evaporation. The petroleum yielding the asphalt in Arkansas may have originated in the basal part 

of the Trinity formation, which contains some fossiliferous limestone. Authors' 

text condensed. 

Reinemund, J. A., and Danilchik, Walter, 1957, Preliminary geologic map of 

the Waldron quadrangle and adjacent areas, Scott County, Arkansas: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM-192, with geologic sections 

and text. 

A deposit of solid bitumen is present in the Jackfork (Pennsylvanian) 

sandstone near Eagle Gap in southern Scott County, Ark. The bitumen was 

probably formed by the devolatilization of crude oil migrating along faults 

from older rocks. Its presence does not contribute any data on the possibilities 

of oil accumulation in the rocks exposed in the Waldron quadrangle. Authors' 

text condensed. 

Spooner, W. C., 1935, Oil and gas geology of the Gulf coastal plain in Arkansas: Arkansas Geol. Survey Bull. 2, 474 p. [p. 426, 447], 22 pis. incl. 

geol. maps, 95 figs. incl. maps, 57 tables [not a State rept.], Little Rock, 

Ark., privately printed by Parke-Harper Printing Co. 

In Sevier and Pike Counties, deposits of asphalt-impregnated sand occur 

in the basal part of the Dierks lentil and in the sand beneath, and in at least 

one locality, the Pike gravel member contains asphalt. The asphalt-impregnated beds range in thickness from 1 inch to 12 feet. Author's text condensed. 

Taff, J. A., 1909, Fourche Mountain, Arkansas, locality, in Grahamite deposits 

of southeastern Oklahoma: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 380-H, p. 286-297. 

Deposits of solid bitumen occur at the west end of Fourche Mountain, in 

Arkansas, about 12 miles east of the Black Fork Mountain, Okla. locality. 

The deposits occur in a shear zone of shale and sandstone and are in the form 

of veinlets separated by crushed and slickensided shales. The bitumen product 

itself shows the effects of crushing forces, being sheared and slickensided. 

It resembles the solid bitumen of Black Fork Mountain, except that it is 

probably more friable and more highly metamorphosed than the Black Fork 

Mountain product. The Fourche Mountain deposit contains 17.78 percent volatile bitumen, as compared with 23.06 percent for Black Fork Mountain and 

43.33 for Impson Valley grahamite. Author's text condensed. 

Analyses 

CALIFORNIA 

Subject Index 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961 

Emery, K. 0., 1960 
Analyses - Continued 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Hilgard, E. W., 1885 

CALIFORNIA 

Kramer, A. J., and Smith, H. M., 1924 

Poth, E. J ., and others, 1930 

Asphalt deposits 

Casmalia 

Adams, E. W., and Beatty, W. B., 1962 

Gore, F. D., 1924 

Jennings, C. W ., 1957 

Oakeshott, G. B., 1950 

Williams, M. D., and Holmes, C. N ., 1945 

Coalinga 

Arnold, Ralph, and Anderson, Robert, 1910 

Watts, W. L., 1900 

Cuyama Valley 

English, W. A., 1916 

Edna 

Adams, E. W., and Beatty, W. B., 1962 

55 

Bradley, W. W., Huguenin, C. A., Logan, C. A., and Waring, C. A., 

1917 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961 

Crawford, J. J ., 1896 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Fairbanks, H. W ., 1900 

Fairbanks, H. W., 1904 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Jennings, C. W., 1957 

Krueger, M. L., 1943 

Oakeshott, G. B., 1950 

Page, B. M., and others, 1944 

Shea, G. B., and Higgins, R. V., 1948 

McKittrick 

Adams, E. W., and Beatty, W. B., 1962 

Church, C. C., 1968 

Crawford, J. J., 1896 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

English, W. A., 1921 

Jennings, C. W., 1957 

Merriam, J. C., and Stock, Chester, 1921 

Merriam, J. C., and Stock, Chester, 1925 

Oakeshott, G. B., 1950 

Pack, R. W., 1920 

Page, B. M., 1945 

Poth and others, 1930 

Stevens, J. B., 1943 

VanderHoof, V. L., 1935 

Watts, W. L., 1900 

Offshore deposits 

Emery, K. 0., 1960 

Vernon, J. W., and Slater, R. A., 1963 

Wilson, T. A., and Mero, J. L., 1966 
56 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Asphalt deposits- Continued 

Point Arena 

Holmes, C. N., Page, B. M., and Duncan, D. C., 1951 

Weber, A. H., 1887 

Rancho La Brea 

Jennings, C. W., 1947 

Oakeshott, G. B., 1950 

Stock, Chester, 1930 

Watts, W. L., 1896 

Regional 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Carlson, C. R., 1962 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961 

Crawford, J. J., 1896 

Dietzman, W. D., Carrales, M., Jr., and Jirik, C. J., 1965 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Heizer, R. F., 1943 

Hilgard, E. W ., 1885 

Hoots, H. W., 1943 

Jennings, C. W., 1957 

Oakeshott, G. B., 1950 

Orcutt, W. W., 1925 

Peckham, S. F., 1882 

Smith, M. B., 1966 

Taff, J. A., 1908 

Vander Leek, Lawrence, 1922 

Watts, W. L., 1894 

Salt Lake 

Arnold, Ralph, 1905 

Eaton, J. E., 1926 

Salinas Valley and vicinity 

Bramlette, M. N., and Daviess, S. N., 1945 

English, W. A., 1919 

Pack, R. W., and English, W. A., 1915 

Santa Cruz 

Branner, J. C., Newsom, J. F., and Arnold, Ralph, 1909 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961 

Collom, R. E., 1918 

Crawford, J. J., 1896 

Davis, F. F., and Jennings, C. W., 1954 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Hubbard, H. G., 1943 

Jennings, C. W., 1957 

Oakeshott, G. B., 1950 

Page, B. M., and Holmes, C. N ., 1945 

Taff, J. A., 1908 

Santa Maria 

Arnold, Ralph, and Anderson, Robert, 1907b 

Collom, R. E., 1918 

Collom, R. E., 1929 

Crawford, J. J ., 1896 
Asphalt deposits - Continued 

Santa Maria - Continued 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Gore, F. D., 1924 

Skinner, D. A., 1952 

CALIFORNIA 

Woodring, W. P., and Bramlette, M. N., 1950 

Sisquoc 

Adams, E. W., and Beatty, W. B., 1962 

Summerland 

Arnold, Ralph, 1907 

Counties with significant asphalt deposits 

Fresno 

See Coalinga district 

Kern 

See McKittrick deposit 

Kings 

See Coalinga district 

Los Angeles 

Eaton, J. E., 1926 

Eldridge, G. H., and Arnold, Ralph, 1907 

Kew, W. S. W., 1924 

Watts, W. L., 1896 

Marin 

Crawford, J. J., 1896 

Vander Leek, Lawrence, 1922 

Mendocino 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961 

Crawford, J. J., 1896 

Holmes, C. N., Page, B. M., and Duncan, D. C., 1951 

Jennings, C. W., 1957 

Weber, A. H., 1887 

Monterey 

57 

Bradley, W. W., Huguenin, C. A., Logan, C. A., and Waring, C. A., 

1917 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961 

Collom, R. E., 1918 

Crawford, J. J., 1896 

Hart, E. W., 1966 

Orange 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961 

Oakeshott, G. B., 1950 

Parker, F. S., 1943 

Watts, W. L., 1900 

Santa Barbara 

Bradley, W. W., Huguenin, C. A., Logan, C. A., and Waring, C. A., 

1917 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961 

Collom, R. E., 1918 

Cooper, A. S., 1898 

Crawford, J. J., 1896 

Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 1950 

Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 1966 
58 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Counties with significant asphalt deposits- Continued 

Santa Barbara- Continued 

Goodyear, W. A., 1887 

Gore, F. D., 1924 

Swaze, R. 0., 1943 

Vernon, J. W., and Slater, R. A., 1963 

Watts, W. L., 1896 

Whitney, J.D., 1865 

Williams, M.D., and Holmes, C. N., 1945 

San Bonito 

Bradley, W. W., Huguenin, C. A., Logan, C. A., and Waring, C. A., 

1917 

San Luis Obispo 

See Edna deposit 

Santa Cruz 

See Santa Cruz deposit 

Ventura 

Bradley, W. W., Huguenin, C. A., Logan, C. A., and Waring, C. A., 

1917 

Crawford, J. J., 1896 

Dosch, M. W., 1965 

Gore, F. D., 1924 

Hilgard, E. W., 1885 

Hilgard, E. W., 1890 

Kew, W. S. W., 1924 

Stipp, T. F., 1943 

Taliaferro, N. L., Hudson, F. S., and Craddock, W. N., 1924 

Watts, W. L., 1896 

Waterfall, L. N ., 1943 

Geochemistry 

Cooper, A. S., 1893 

Cooper, A. S., 1899 

Poth, E. J., and others, 1930 

Rogers, G. S., 1919 

Skinner, D. A., 1952 

Metamorphism 

Arnold, Ralph, and Anderson, Robert, 1907a 

Mining and recovery 

General references 

Crawford, J. J., 1896 

Dietzman, W. D., Carrales, M., Jr., and Jirik, G. J., 1965 

Heizer, R. F., 1943 

Hilgard, E. W., 1885 

Orcutt, W. W., 1924 

Peckham, S. F., 1882 

Simm, C. N., 1964 

Vander Leek, Lawrence, 1922 

Kern County 

Gates, C. F., and Ramey, H. J., 1958 

Pack, R. W., 1920 

Los Angeles County 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 
CALIFORNIA 

Mining and recovery- Continued 

Mendocino County 

Weber, A. H., 1887 

Orange County 

Burke, R. G., 1965 

San Luis Obispo County 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Shea, G. B., and Higgins, R. V., 1948 

Ventura County 

Dosch, M. W., 1965 

Hilgard, E. W., 1890 

Taliaferro, N. L., Hudson, F. S., and Craddock, W. N., 1924 

Waterfall, L. N., 1943 

Tar seeps 

General references 

Arnold, Ralph, and Kemnitzer, W. J., 1931 

Carlson, C. R., 1962 

Emery, K. 0., 1960 · 

English, W. A., 1916 

Heizer, R. F., 1943 

Pack, R. W., and English, W. A., 1915 

Watts, W. L., 1894 

Alameda County 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Humboldt County 

Oakeshott, G. B., 1950 

Kern County 

McKittrick tar seep 

Church, C. C., 1968 

English, W. A., 1921 

Los Angeles County 

Eaton, J. E., 1926 

Marin County 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

San Luis Obispo County 

Fairbanks, H. W ., 1900 

Santa Barbara County 

Collom, R. E., 1929 

Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 1950 

Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 1966 

Santa Clara County 

Ball Associates, Ltd.; 1965 

Davis, F. F., and Jennings, C. W., 1954 

Ventura County 

Hilgard, E. W., 1885 

Taliaferro, N. L., Hudson, F. S., and Craddock, W. N.,.1924 

Oxnard oil field 

Dosch, M. W., 1965 

Simi oil field 

Stipp, T. F., 1943 

Waterfall, L. N., 1943 

59 
60 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Tar seeps (submarine) 

Tertiary 

California Div. Mines and Geology, 1959 

Heizer, R. F., 1943 

Vernon, J. W., and Slater, R. A., 1959 

Wilson, T. A., and Mero, J. L., 1966 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Dietzman, W. D., Carrales, M., Jr., and Jirik, C. J., 1965 

Watts, W. L., 1894 

Eocene 

Stock, Chester, 1935 

Tejon Formation 

Arnold, Ralph, and Anderson, Robert, 1910 

Miocene 

Hoots, H. W ., 1943 

Jennings, C. W., 1957 

Pack, R. W., and English, W. A., 1915 

Vander Leek, Lawrence, 1922 

Waterfall, L. N., 1943 

Monterey shale 

Arnold, Ralph, and Anderson, Robert, 1907b 

Bramlette, M. N., 1946 

Branner, J. C., Newsom, J. F., and Arnold, Ralph, 1909 

Fairbanks, H. W., 1904 

Gore, F. D., 1924 

Hart, E. W., 1966 

Holmes, C. N., Page, B. M., and Duncan, D. C., 1951 

Pliocene 

Dosch, M. W., 1965 

Hoots, H. W., 1943 

Jennings, C. W., 1957 

Waterfall, L. N., 1943 

Vein deposits 

Hilgard, E. W., 1890 

Smith, M. B., 1966 

Watts, W. L., 1900 

Tulare Formation 

Church, C. C., 1968 

Monterey Formation 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Vertebrate fossils 

VanderHoof, V. L., 1935 

Eocene 

Stock, Chester, 1930 

Pleistocene 

Merriam, J. C., and Stock, Chester, 1921 

Merriam, J. C., and Stock, Chester, 1925 

Author List 

Adams, E. W., and Beatty, W. B., 1962, Bituminous rocks in California: 

California Div. Mines and Geology Min. Inf. Service, v. 15, no. 4, 11 p. 
CALIFORNIA 61 

In California, tar sands and similar deposits are most common around the 

margins of oil-producing basins where oil-containing formations are near the 

surface or where folds or faults have brought these formations near the 

surface. Nearly all the deposits occur in rocks of late Miocene to late Pliocene 

age. They are almost always associated with, or in the vicinity of, richly 

organic Miocene shales. Important deposits, from the standpoint of volume 

of available bituminous rock, include Edna (San Luis Obispo County), 

Sisquoc (Santa Barbara County), Casmalia and associated deposits (Santa 

Barbara County), Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz County), and McKittrick (Kern 

County). Estimates of "oil in place" reserves are presented in an accompanying table. 

Arnold, Ralph, 1905, The Salt Lake oil field near Los Angeles, California: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 285-G, p. 357-361. 

The Salt Lake oil field occupies an area of approximately 1 square mile, 

7 miles west of the business district of Los Angeles, Calif. A small artificial 

lagoon, made by the removal of large quantities of brea, occupies a depression near the center of the southern part of the field. Great deposits of this 

brea occur in the immediate vicinity of the lagoon and north and northwest 

of it for a considerable distance. Numerous bones of extinct Pleistocene 

mammals, such as the saber-toothed tiger, elephant, giant sloth, cave bear, 

cRmel, and dog, are embedded in this brea and indicate not only the age of 

the deposits, but also that the conditions favorable for the accumulation of 

brea have existed since at least the middle or latter part of the Pleistocene 

Epoch. Heavy oil exudes from the banks of the lagoon and from some of 

the minor brea pits. The wells generally penetrate alluvium and clay impregnated with heavy oil in the first 50 to 100 feet. Author's text condensed. 

Arnold, Ralph, 1907, Geology and oil resources of the Summerland district, 

Santa Barbara County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 321, 93 p. 

The Summerland oil district is in Santa Barbara County, 80 to 90 miles 

west-northwest of Los Angeles. This report gives a history of oil activity in 

the Summerland area from 1877 to 1905 and also discusses the physical and 

chemical properties of the oil. The most distinctive characteristics of the 

Summerland oil are its low gravity (12° to 16° Baume), its high percentage 

of asphalt (85.5 percent), its relatively high nitrogen content (1.25 percent), 

and its moderately low sulfur content (0.84 percent). 

Arnold, Ralph, and Anderson, Robert, 1907a, Metamorphism by combustion 

of the hydrocarbons in the oil-bearing shale of California: Jour. Geology, 

v. 15, no. 8, p. 750-758. 

A unique variety of metamorphism has been at work in many regions of 

bituminous rocks in California, where a process of combustion of the hydrocarbon contents has altered the naturally white, soft shale to a rock of 

brilliant rose or brick-red color and rendered it hard and vesicular, like 

scoriaceous lava. The resemblance of the products to those of volcanoes and 

the existence of centers, like solfataras, where the burning has b~en going 

on during the last 50 years has given rise to the statement that there are 

living volcanic vents in Santa Barbara County. It is thought that brush fires, 

lightning, or spontaneous combustion started the burning and that the fire 

is supported by the bituminous material in the shale. Authors' text condensed. 

460-209 0 - 72 - 5 
62 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Arnold, Ralph, and Anderson, Robert, 1907b, Geology and oil resources of 

the Santa Maria oil district, Santa Barbara County, California: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 322, 161 p. 

The Santa Maria oil district, comprising the Santa Maria, Lompoc, Arroyo 

Grande, and Huasna fields, is in northern Santa Barbara County and southern 

San Luis Obispo County. The larger part of the district is a basin region 

enclosed between the San Rafael and Santa Ynez Mountains and the Pacific 

Ocean. The Monterey shale (middle Miocene) is the chief oil-bearing formation. The oil accumulates in the fractured zones and porous sands of the 

lower part of the Monterey, where brittle shale predominates. The Monterey 

shale is largely organic in origin, being especially rich in diatoms. This 

report contains a detailed description of the asphalt seepages in the San 

Rafael Mountains. 

Arnold, Ralph, and Anderson, Robert, 1910, Geology and oil resources of the 

Coalinga district, California, with a report on the chemical and physical 

properties of the oils by I. C. Allen: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 398, 354 p. 

The Coalinga oil district occupies a strip of land about 50 miles long by 

15 miles wide along the northeastern base of the Diablo Range on the southwest side of the San Joaquin Valley in western Fresno and Kings Counties in 

central California. The asphalt in this area is believed to have its source in 

the shales of the upper members of the Tejon formation (Eocene), which are 

petroliferous throughout the district. This oil is obtained by wells from the 

Miocene beds, which are petroleum bearing wherever they overlie the shales 

of the Tejon. 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, California, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 58-88. 

Outcrops of bituminous rocks and shallow oil fields are known in 14 counties of California. Some are associated with oil seeps, as in Marin, Alameda, 

and Santa Clara Counties. The rocks containing bitumen and oil are Miocene 

to Pleistocene sandstones, except for Mesozoic sandstones in Humboldt, 

Fresno, and Los Angeles Counties. The coastal areas contain many oil seeps, 

most of them associated with fractured Miocene shale. Large deposits in 

San Louis Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties have been investigated for 

commercial oil-mining possibilities, but, so far, mining has not appeared to 

be economic in competition with oil-well oil. Recently developed thermalrecovery techniques have made additional, low-gravity oil-well crude available, tending to delay the advent of mined oil. The oil reserves estimated 

recoverable from oil sands by mining exceed 200 million barrels. The largest 

single reserve, Edna, in San Luis Obispo County, is more than 141.4 million 

barrels. Author's summary condensed. 

Ball, M. W., 1951, Report on oil-impregnated strippable deposits in California 

as of May 22, 1950, Appendix C, in The synthetic liquid-fuel potential of 

California: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Summary report for the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior: Ford, Bacon & Davis, 

Inc., Engineers. 

Surface or near-surface oil-impregnated strippable deposits are known to 
CALIFORNIA 63 

exist in 12 western California counties. The deposits lie generally in the 

petroleum-producing areas of the State, on both sides of the Coast Range. 

The location and a brief description of these deposits are given. Two counties, San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara, contain strippable deposits of at 

least 10 million tons wtihin a 5-square-mile area, in vertically continuous 

beds at least 15 feet thick. These beds yield more than 10 gallons per ton 

and are overlain by not more than their own thickness in overburden. The 

general geology, character of the bitumen, and reserves for San Luis Obispo 

and Santa Barbara Counties are tabulated. 

Bradley, W. W., Huguenin, C. A., Logan, C. A., and Waring, C. A., 1917, The 

counties of Monterey, San Benito, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, and 

Ventura, pt. 5, in Fifteenth Report of the State Mineralogist: California 

Jour. Mines and Geology, no. 15, p. 730-754. 

The asphalt and bituminous rock deposits of the five counties are discussed 

individually and in detail. The Higgins Mine, 1 mile south of Carpinteria 

Station in Santa Barbara County, was working in 1915. There, beds of bituminous sands ranging in thickness from 12 to 20 feet, lie flat in a shallow 

V-shaped trough of underlying shales. This is a continuation of the deposit 

known as Los Conchas mine. The sands are covered by 4 feet of soil, and the 

bituminous rock contains 18 to 20 percent bitumen. By 1915 the mining of 

natural asphalt had been replaced by the material yielded by crude-oil distillation, as it was more uniform in quality and more cheaply obtained. The 

manufactured asphalt had a wide market, especially in Canada and Germany, 

but was curtailed by World War I. 

Bramlette, M. N., and Daviess, S. N., 1945, Stratigraphy as related to oil 

possibilities of the Salinas Valley, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and 

Gas lnv. Prelim. Map 24. 

Map shows outcrops of bituminous sandstone. 

Branner, J. C., Newsom, J. F., and Arnold, Ralph, 1909, Description of the 

Santa Cruz quadrangle [California]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, 

Folio 163. 

The bituminous rock of the Santa Cruz quadrangle is a porous, loose sandstone impregnated with asphaltum, a petroleum residue. The most important 

deposits in the quadrangle are those on the southwestern slope of Ben 

Lomand Mountain, 4 to 6 miles northwest of Santa Cruz. The bituminous 

sandstones lie near the base of the diatomaceous shale, referred to as the 

Monterey formation. The structure is monoclinal, with a gentle southwest 

dip; hence, the asphalt-bearing strata crop out along the sides of the southwestward-flowing streams where the streams have cut down to or nearly to 

the bottom of the shale. At many places in this district the sandstone beds 

are more or less bituminous, but at only the one locality mentioned are they 

of commercial value. Authors' text condensed. 

Burke, R. G., 1965, Combustion project is making a profit: Oil and Gas Jour., 

v. 63, no. 3, p. 44-46. 

One of the oldest fireflood projects (March 1958) is being enlarged to cover 

a substantial part of a 575-acre lease in Orange County, Calif. The project, 
64 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

operated by an independent Texas oil firm, is in the West Newport field. 

Seven combustion-drive projects are operating in the B-zone of the Banning 

lease. Nearly one-third of the wells on the lease are affected by combustion 

operations. Gravity of the oil is 15.2°. Since 1960, the combustion-drive operation has been on a commercial basis. Production now amounts to 562,000 

barrels of combustion oil. The lease in its first 20 years produced 10 million 

barrels of oil, but operators expect to recover the next 10 million barrels by 

thermal drive in about one-third of that time. As in many reservoirs. with a 

heavy viscous crude, the percentage of recovery by primary methods at the 

Banning lease was small. Before combustion drive was applied, the 100 wells 

each averaged about 11 barrels of oil per day. At present, about 35 to 40 

wells are affected. The response ranges from a 3-barrel-per-day well making 

15 to 20 barrels per day to an 11-barrel-per-day well that is now producing 

50 to 60 barrels per day. Author's text condensed. 

Carlson, C. R., 1962, Oil seeps and early petroleum development in northern 

California, in Bowen, 0. E., Jr., ed., Geologic guides to the gas and oil 

fields of northern California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 

181, p. 23-26. 

As the early prospectors searched for oil, they found extensive oil and gas 

seeps in the hills and tributary valleys west of Sacramento Valley. These 

seeps were located in the Knoxville formation, in the younger "Chico" beds 

of the Upper Cretaceous, and in the intrusive serpentines within the Knoxville formation near Franciscan contacts. The most widely known oil and 

gas seeps occurred ih the western part of Colusa and Glenn Counties near 

Wilbur Springs. Several operators drilled unsuccessful shallow wells near 

these seeps. No large oil field has yet been discovered in or near the Sacramento Valley, though considerable money and effort have been spent. Author's 

text condensed. 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961, California, in Occurrence, properties, 

and uses of some natural bitumens: U.S. Bur. Mines lnf. Circ. 7997, 42 p. 

Pure asphalt deposits in California occur in Kern County in the Asphalto 

region, about 50 miles west of Bakersfield. These are in the form of both 

springs and veins, and the overflow of the springs has covered an area of 

about 7 acres. Other California deposits are found at Tar Springs Creek (a 

seepage deposit 20 miles southeast of San Luis Obispo, in San Luis Obispo 

County) and in veins in the La Graciosa Hil1s (about 4 to 5 miles east of 

Graciosa in the Santa Maria region of Santa Barbara County). In California, 

deposits of asphaltic sand or sandstone are found in Mendocino, Santa Cruz, 

Monterey, San Luis Obispo, and Orange Counties, and deposits of asphaltimpregnated shale, asphalt veins, and asphaltic sands are located in Santa 

Barbara County. Authors' text condensed. 

Church, C. C., 1968, The McKittrick tar seeps, in Geology and oilfields, west 

side, southern San Joaquin Valley: A.A.P.G., S.E.G., S.E.P.M. Pacific Sec. 

Joint Ann. Field Trip Guidebook: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, 

Pacific Sec., Los Angeles, Calif., p. 86-92. 

The McKittrick tar seeps comprise one of the most extensive deposits of 

asphalt in California. The extensive seeps follow the crest of the McKittrick 
CALIFORNIA 65 

oil field,, which is a narrow structure about 4lh miles long and half a mile 

wide. The tar seeps find their way to the surface through crumpled and 

faulted Miocene cherty and diatomaceous shale. These shales have been thrust 

over the younger Tulare beds at a low angle, much in the nature of a gigantic 

landslide. In addition to the more extensive asphalt-soaked alluvium and 

sand, there are numerous asphalt veins, largely confined to the Tulare Formation in the southeastern part of the district. These veins are as much as 

100 feet long and from a few inches to 8 feet wide. The vein material is a 

mixture of asphalt and sand; in a few instances, the asphalt makes up as 

much as 70 percent of the mixture. Author's text condensed. 

Collom, R. E., 1918, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Monterey, and Santa 

Clara Counties, in Second Annual Report of the State Oil and Gas Supervisor of California: California State Mining Bur. Bull. 82, p. 198-230. 

An examination of the asphaltum deposits of this district shows that the 

asphaltum originated directly and locally from eroded Monterey shale, with 

the possible exception of the deposit at the Fugler Point asphalt' mine. A study 

of the structure of the Monterey in the Santa Maria district shows that the 

asphaltum and brea occur at the top of anticlinal folds, where oil-bearing 

Monterey beds have been eroded and the oil released. Within the Fugler Point 

asphalt: mine, there appears to be a Fernando oil sand, 1%-2 feet thick. The 

main body of asphaltum appears to have no definite system of bedding and 

is commonly described as a "blow-out." From knowledge of other brea deposits in the district, it is reasonable to assume that this asphaltum is the 

remains of oil that has been forced, through fractures, into the Fernando 

from the underlying Monterey beds. Author's text condensed. 

Collom, R. E., 1929, Oil accumulation and structure of the Santa Maria district, Santa Barbara County, California, in Structure of typical American 

oil fields, v. 2, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Okla., p. 18-22. 

The producing fields of the Santa Maria district, and any other possible 

reservoirs of oil that are as yet undiscovered, represent only a small part of 

the original petroliferous product of these organic shales. In many outcrops 

of lower Monterey beds of the Santa Maria district, the innumerabie small 

fractures and crevices in the shales are filled with tar. Heavy oil seeps from 

the shales in some places. In Foxen Canyon is an old inclined pit, sunk on a 

stratum of steep-tilted shale, the fractures of which are filled with gilsonite. 

Wherever the older strata of Monterey are exposed in Santa Barbara County, 

whether in the San Rafael Mountains or along the coast near Santa Barbara, 

tar fills the fractures, or heavy oil exudes along some fracture plane. On the 

crest of the hills near the Casmalia field is a great mass of so-called "oil 

shale." Actually, this material is a porous diatomaceous shale saturated with 

crude oil. Author's text condensed. 

Cooper, A. S., 1893, Red shales as connected with the genesi.s of bitumen in 

California: Scientific American, Supplement 939, p. 15002-15003. 

Red shales in California are the result of chemical heat. Water percolating 

and circulating through porous and seamed strata, by its solvent action, 

accumulates mineral ingredients. These mineral-saturated waters come into 

contact with other minerals existing in the shales and, by chemical reactions, 
66 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

produce heat. This chemical heat distills petroleum from the carbonaceous 

shales and oxidizes the carbonate and sulfide of iron, producing the red color 

of the shales. The water of different temperatures, charged with mineral 

ingredients, will frequently rise by hydrostatic pressure through fissures and 

faults to the surface accompanied by the 'bitumen. Bituminous deposits may 

occur where red shales are not actually visible, but unquestionably the shales 

exist close by, as they are the stills in which petroleum is distilled from 

carbonaceous matter by the action of chemical heat, water, and reactive 

chemicals. Author's text condensed. 

Cooper, A. S., 1898, A bituminous rock deposit in Santa Barbara County, 

California: Eng. Mining Jour., v. 66, no. 10, p. 278-279. 

When not reduced by erosion, this bituminous formation averages 200 feet 

in thickness. The bituminous formation is composed of several conformable 

beds of sand of different degrees of fineness and quality. lnterspaces in the 

sands are filled with bitumen. Because of the difference in size and shape of 

the sand grains composing the beds, bitumen content varies from 8 to 15 percent by weight. For the first 1 or 2 feet below the surface, the bitumen is 

brown and friable, mainly as a result of evaporation of its volatile parts and 

probably partly as a result of polymerism; this is underlain by 6 inches of 

very tough material. To produce these conditions, long exposure to atmospheric influences is required. Below the tough layer, the bitumen becomes 

increasingly liquid with great depth, until finally it becomes a thick oil. In 

fact, the bitumen liquefies so rapidly when removed from atmospheric influences that only a small part of a deposit is suitable for street-paving 

purposes when the bituminized sand is used in its natural state for that 

purpose. Author's text condensed. 

Cooper, A. S., 1899, The genesis of petroleum and asphaltum in California, 

in Sixteenth Report of the State Mineralogist: California Jour. Mines 

and Geology, no. 16, p. 3-66. 

It can be tentatively stated that fossil bitumens are derived from terrestrial 

and marine vegetation, deposited in sedimentary strata, then changed to 

carbonaceous matter and afterwards distilled by the heat of metamorphism. 

In the decomposition of vegetable tissue when air is wholly or partially 

excluded from it, as, for example, when buried in the ground, the constituent 

elements of the vegetable tissue rearrange themselves mutually into new 

products: the oxygen gradually unites with the carbon to form carbonic acid, 

which separates and leaves as a residue substances rich in carbon and hydrogen. In this way bituminous coal, peat, and lignite have been formed from 

vegetable matter. Where metamorphic rocks underlie formations bearing 

carbonaceous material, petroleum may be distilled. Author's text condensed. 

Crawford, J. J., 1896, Asphalt and bituminous rock in Thirteenth Report of 

the State Mineralogist: California Jour. Mines and Geology, no. 13, 

p. 35-45. 

Asphalt and bituminous rock occur in Kern, Marin, Mendocino, Monterey, 

San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, and Ventura 

Counties. This report lists the various mines in each county and describes the 

mining operations of each. 
CALIFORNIA 67 

Davis, F. F., and Jennings, C. W., 1954, Mines and mineral resources of 

Santa Clara County, California: California Jour. Mines and Geology, 

v. 50, no. 2, p. 321-430. 

Some of the earliest oil prospecting in California began in Santa Clara 

County, principally around oil and asphalt seeps at Sargent and Moody 

Gulch. Drilling in the Sargent area dates back to 1886. Production never 

amounted to more than a few thousand barrels annually and gradually 

diminished until the field was abandoned in 1948. The Moody Gulch field was 

discovered in 1878 and has been productive to date. Oil and asphalt seeps are 

very prominent in this region, especially along La Brea Creek, where a single 

seep may cover as much as 1 acre. In nearly every instance, the seeps are 

found at the contact between the Monterey and the overlying Purisima formations or along the faults in them. Authors' text condensed. 

Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 1950, Geology of southwestern Santa Barbara County, 

California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 150, 95 ·p. [p. 75]. 

Four deposits of asphalt in the form of tar-impregnated sands occur in this 

area - one on the south coast and three in the Purisima Hills. None has been 

quarried. Along the sea cliff within 1% miles west of Gaviota Beach an 

asphalt-impregnated sand is exposed. In the eastern Purisima Hills, a large 

deposit of tar-soaked sand is exposed at the base of the Sisquoc. This deposit 

consists of very fine sand heavily impregnated with asphalt. It is about 75 

feet in maximum thickness, and extends about 1 mile, dipping steeply north 

into a syncline. Redrock Mountain, in the central Purisima Hills, is formed 

by a large deposit of tar-soaked sand. This deposit consists of fine sand of the 

Careaga formation, which is about 50 feet thick and caps the mountain. Two 

erosional remnants of this tar sand occur about 1 mile down the spur to the 

southwest. The tar sand of Redrock Mountain is underlain by highly bituminous shale of the lower Sisquoc which has been locally burned, causing it 

to become brilliant red and locally scoriaceous. A small deposit of tar sand 

at the Lompoc oil field in Purisima Canyon consists of medium-grained 

Careaga sand impregnated with asphalt about 25 feet thick. Author's text 

condensed. 

Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 1966, Geology of the central Santa Ynez Mountains, Santa 

Barbara County, California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 186, 

99 p. [p. 84-89]. 

Natural seeps of tar, oil, and gas are common in the coastal area south of 

the Santa Y nez Range, but none are known to occur in the area north of it. 

Most of these seeps issue from the Monterey Shale and from some of the 

younger formations on or near the sea cliffs. These bituminous seeps in the 

Monterey and younger formations of the coastal bluffs are of asphaltic tar 

or heavy black asphalt-base oil that are probably indigenous to the Monterey 

Shale. There are two deposits of tar or asphaltum- one at Carpinteria and 

one at More's Landing, just southeast of the Galeta gas field. The Carpinteria 

tar pits are near the· sea wall one-half mile southeast of Carpinteria. The pits 

are roughly 25 feet deep and cover several acres. Author's text condensed. 

Dietzman, W. D., Carrales, M., Jr., and Jirik, C. J., 1965, California, in Heavy 

crude oil reservoirs in the United States- A survey: U.S. Bur. Mines 

lnf. Circ. 8263, 53 p. 
68 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

The productive formations in California range in age from Pleistocene to 

Jurassic, but most of the heavy oil is produced from Tertiary sands. Depths 

of heavy oil reservoirs range from near the surface to about 13,650 feet; the 

majority of the reservoirs are at depths between 1,000 and 4,000 feet. About 

50 percent of the reservoirs have a productive thickness of at least 150 feet, 

and 30 percent have a productive thickness of more than 300 feet. Producing 

mechanisms are predominantly solution-gas expansion or water drive, or 

combinations of the two. More than 150 steam-injection projects and more than 

25 in-situ combustion projects have been initiated in this area of California. 

Dosch, M. W., 1965, Pliocene tar sands in Oxnard oil field, Ventura County, 

California: California Div. Oil and Gas, California Oil Fields Summ. 

Operations, v. 51, no. 2, 108 p. 

Tar sands are found at or near the base of the Pico formation over a considerable part of the Oxnard field. These tar sands in the eastern part of the 

field are known as the Vaca tar sands, and the stratigraphically lower tar 

sands in the western part of the field are called the lower tar sands. Pliocene 

tar sands were penetrated in many wells and in a few cases attempts were 

made to produce from them; however, these efforts were unsuccssful as the 

crude was too viscous and carried large amounts of sand. Steam-recovery 

methods were tried in 1964, and at least one well using this method is still 

producing. The source of the tar in the Pliocene sands is probably the underlying Miocene shales. The viscous nature of the crude and the thorough 

saturation of the sands indicate that these sands may have been deposited 

upon Miocene tar seeps. 

Eaton, J. E., 1926, A contribution to the geology of Los Angeles Basin, California: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 10, no. 8, p. 753-767. 

Surface indications of oil in the Los Angeles Basin occur locally, but are 

not particularly impressive when compared with other productive districts in 

California. The largest concentration occurs at the Salt Lake pool in western 

Los Angeles, where a lake covering several acres was formed during Quaternary time by exuding petroleum. A few oil seeps southeast of the Elysian 

Hills and in the Puente Hills, together with one large seep under the ocean 

west of Redondo, are the extent of "live" evidences of petroleum. An important indication of oil is the commonly bituminous nature of the PuenteFico contact where exposed. The occurrence of bituminous strata at or near 

this contact is widespread, although the deposits themselves are not ordinarily 

of large volume. Author's text condensed. 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901, California, in The asphalt and bituminous rock deposits 

of the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey 22d Ann. Rept., pt. 1-B, p. 209-

452 [p. 365-402]. 

The deposits of asphalt and bituminous sandstones in California are found 

in the immediate region of the Coast Range. They are confined chiefly to that 

part of the range lying south of the Bay of San Francisco. The purer variety 

of asphalt has been found (1) in the vicinity of McKittrick in Kern County, 

near Santa Maria, in the Graciosa and Azufre Hills; and (2) 6 or 7 miles 

west of Santa Barbara on the coast. Bituminous sandstones occur at Point 

Arena, in the north, and at several localities in the south, notably near Santa 
CALIFORNIA 69 

Cruz, San Luis Obispo, Los Alamos, and Carpinteria. The asphalt and bituminous rock deposits in California are confined to the formations of the 

N eocene and particularly to the Monterey shale and the rocks immediately 

above and below. The Monterey formation is of particular importance; for 

almost the entire length of the State, its terrain is more or less conspicuously 

marked with petroleum or maltha seepages. The shales of the Monterey are 

generally bituminous, and some of their more arenaceous and porous members 

are especially rich, having received an inflow of petroleum from their associates. It is in the shales of the Monterey, too, that veins of the more solid 

bitumens, mixed with clastic material from the country rocks, are round. 

Veins of this type are conspicuous in the vicinity of Santa Maria, Santa 

Barbara, and Asphalto. Author's text condensed. 

Eldridge, G. H., and Arnold, Ralph, 1907, The Santa Clara Valley, Puente 

Hills, and Los Angeles oil districts, southern California: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 309, 266 p. [p. 139-141]. 

The discussion of asphalt in this report is confined to the Los Angeles 

district. A history of asphalt study from the time of the Pacific Railroad 

expeditions in 1853 and 1855 is given. 

Emery, K. 0., 1960, Petroleum, in The sea off southern California- A modern habitat of petroleum: New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 320-322. 

Analyses of tar from a seep on the south shore of Palos Verdes Hills by 

Richfield Oil Corp. show it to have a melting point of 87oC and a specific 

gravity of 1.06, to be 63 percent soluble in ether and to contain 7.9 percent 

sulfur and 0.14 percent ash, of which one-third consists of vanadium and 

nickel. Where the tar masses encounter boulders or bedrock along the shore, 

they stick to the surface and become a semipermanent feature. In some places 

it remains long enough to protect the underlying rock from erosion, causing 

these areas to stand out in relief. Navigational charts published by the U.S. 

Coast and Geodetic Survey indicate oil seeps at the head of Redondo Submarine Canyon and on the shelf west of San Miguel Island. Other seeps have 

been observed near Point Conception to about 8 kilometers east near Coal Oil 

Point, Summerland, and Elwood, and a few kilometers east of Anacopa Island. 

Author's text condensed. 

English, W. A., 1916, Geology and oil prospects of the Cuyama Valley, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 621-M, p. 191-215. 

The largest oil seep reported in the Cuyama Valley occurs in the bed of 

the Cuyama River south of Whiterock Bluff. The river has cut down through 

about 20 feet of Quaternary stream deposits and is flowing on bedrock, the 

diatomaceous shale of the Whiterock Bluff member of the Santa Margarita 

formation. During an earlier epoch when the stream gravels and sands were 

being deposited, a number of oil pools were formed here, some as much as 

100 yards across. The oil in these pools saturated the surface sand, which was 

later covered by sediment and preserved and which is now traceable along the 

vertical riverbanks as thin strata of oil sand interbedded with white sand and 

clay. At one place, which may have been the original seep, an asphaltlike oil 

has escaped from the underlying shale very recently. The shale near this seep 

has irregular dips, and the oil may have come up along or close to a fault. 

Author's text condensed. 
70 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

English, W. A., 1919, Geology and oil prospects of the Salinas Valley-Parkfield area, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691-H, p. 219-250. 

The Salinas shale (upper formation of the Monterey group, commonly 

known as the "Monterey shale") and the shale of the overlying Santa Margarita formation are well developed in this region. Each is economically important as having been the original source of at least some oil. The direct 

evidence of origin of oil in these shales is the presence of seeps or tar sands 

in the shales or adjacent rocks. The oil and tar in the Pleyto district and 

west of San Ardo originated in the Salinas shale. Oil from the shale of the 

Santa Margarita ( ?) formation forms seeps in the Parkfield district. The 

Mylar Asphalt Quarry (about 10 miles north of San Ardo) contains oil 

derived from the Santa Margarita ( ?) . Author's text condensed. 

English, W. A., 1921, Geology and petroleum resources of northwestern Kern 

County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 721, 48 p. 

This area was one of the first in the State prospected for oil. Wells were 

drilled near the seeps in this area during the early 1860's. Even before that 

time, the old settlers are reported to have used the tarry oil to grease their 

wagons. The presence of oil seeps is dependent on the thickness of the beds 

overlying the oil-bearing horizons and their permeability to the upwardmigrating oil; thus, if the cover is thick or especially impervious, there will 

be no seeps, even though the underlying rocks contain a large amount of oil. 

Fairbanks, H. W., 1900, The oil-yielding formations of San Luis Obispo 

County, in Watts, W. C., Oil- and gas-yielding formations of California: 

California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 19, p. 143-144. 

A part of the Coast Ranges in San Luis Obispo County is characterized by 

extensive deposits of bituminous rock. There are also numerous springs of 

thick, tarlike oil. In some places the oil from these springs has impregnated 

sandstones and formed bituminous rock; 'in other places it has accumulated 

in great quantities on the surface, as in the valley of Tar Spring Creek. The 

oil-producing formation is the Monterey formation (Tertiary). The rocks are 

mainly of organic origin, having been formed from the skeletons of fish and 

microscopic sea organisms. Author's text condensed. 

Fairbanks, H. W., 1904, Description of the San Luis quadrangle [California]: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 101. 

The important deposits of bituminous rock in the San Luis 30-minute quadrangle (west-central San Luis Obispo County) are chiefly in those parts of 

the Pismo formation that overlie the bituminous Monterey shale. The characteristic feature of the Pismo formation is its soft, porous sandstone, which is 

easily permeated by oil and bitumen. Although springs of tar and oil occur 

in all the divisions of the Tertiary in California, the most important source 

of these materials appears to be in the Miocene bituminous shales (Monterey 

shale). At points where the tar or oil springs issue directly at the surface 

from the hard, compact Monterey shale, the conditions are not favorable for 

the preservation of bituminous matter. For the material to collect in large 

quantities, a porous reservoir is needed. Wherever the Pismo formation occurs, 

such a reservoir is afforded by the thick beds of slightly cemented sand. The 

sandstone thus impregnated is more resistant to weathering than when not 

affected. Thus, wherever there is a large body of bitumen, prominent topo-
CALIFORNIA 71 

graphic features may result, such as the picturesque cliffs below Edna. 

Author's text condensed. 

Gates, C. F., and Ramey, H. J., 1958, Field results of South Belridge thermalrecovery experiment: Soc. Petroleum Engineers, A.I.M.E. Trans., v. 213, 

p. 236. 

This field test was conducted in the South Belridge field, Calif. The test 

pattern was a single 2.5-acre five-spot pattern in the 700-foot-deep Tulare 

sand. Results indicated the technical feasibility of producing high-viscosity 

low-gravity crude oils by thermal means, and demonstrated that heavy oils 

could be moved rapidly over considerable distances by thermal drive and that 

high-percentage recoveries of oil could be effected. The bulk of the oil recovery 

came after arrival of the burning front at a production well. However, rapid 

corrosion and high-temperature failure of conventional steel pipes and equipment occurred both below and above surface. Stainless steel gave more satisfactory performance under these conditions than did conventional steels. 

Authors' abstract condensed. 

Goodyear, W. A., 1887, Petroleum, asphaltum, and natural gas in Santa 

Barbara County, in Seventh Report of the State Mineralogist: California 

Jour. Mines and Geology, no. 7, p. 89-91 [1888]. 

This report summarized the development work done in Santa Barbara 

County to 1888 and briefly describes the asphalt deposits at Carpinteria and 

at Hill's Ranch. 

Gore, F. D., 1924, Oil shale in Santa Barbara County, California: Am. Assoc. 

Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 8, no. 4, p. 459-472. 

The oil shale of California should not be confused with the shales of other 

parts of the United States and foreign countries, as it is different both physically and chemically. It is, in a truer sense, an oil-saturated diatomaceous 

shale from which oil may be extracted by use of any well-known solvent, such 

as benzol, chloroform, or pyridine. The principal deposits of oil shale occur in 

Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties in and near the currently producing oil 

fields. The production of oil in the Santa Maria, Casmalia, and Lompoc oil 

fields is from this oil shale, commonly termed "brown shale." The larger beds 

of bituminous shale appear in the lower calcareous and flinty series of the 

Monterey shales of middle Miocene age. Author's text condensed. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957, California, in Reconnaissance for uranium in asphaltbearing rocks in the Western United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1046-E, p. 55-85 [p. 61-67]. 

The asphalt-bearing rocks in California generally appear to be more favorable for occurrence of uranium than those examined in the other Western 

States. In 11 of the 13 California areas, the average uranium content of the 

ash of the extracted oil ranged from 0.023 to 0.376 percent. Almost all the 

California asphalts examined occur in Miocene or Pliocene rocks. The deposits 

in the Edna area, San Luis Obispo County, contain the highest concentration 

of uranium of all the deposits examined in the United States. The uranium 

content of seven samples collected in the Edna area ranges from 0.035 to 1.9 

percent and averages 0.376 percent in the ash of the extracted oil. Author's 

text condensed. 
72 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Hart, E. W., 1966, Bituminous sandstone, in Mines and mineral resources of 

Monterey County, California: California Div. Mines and Geology County 

Rept. 5, 142 p. [p. 29-31]. 

The most important bituminous rock deposits in Monterey County are the 

Mylar, San Antonio River, San Ardo, and King City deposits. The King City 

deposit is 4 miles west of King City in the S 1h sec. 28, the NE 14 sec. 33, and 

the Wlh sec. 34, T. 19 S., and sec. 3, T. 20 S., R. 7 E. (Mount Diablo meridian). The tar sands occur in a sandy sequence that forms a transitional 

zone between siliceous Monterey shale and the overlying Santa Margarita 

sandstone. The Mylar quarry is 9 miles northeast of King City in the SE 14 

sec. 15, T. 19 S., R. 9 E. The bituminous sandstone is an asphalt-bearing 

arkose which crops out over an area 100 feet by 1,500 feet. The bituminous 

beds lie in the basal part of a marine Pliocene formation, which is in fault 

contact with granitic rocks to the northeast. The San Antonio River deposit 

is 6 miles southwest of Bradley, in the SW% sec. 35, T. 24 S., R. 10 E. The 

Pliocene strata have been mapped and described as the Etchegoin Formation, 

which lies unconformably, on the Salinas Shale (Monterey Formation) of Miocene age. Others have described the bituminous beds as being part of the 

Paso Robles Formation and (or) Monterey Formation. An analysis of a 

bituminous sandstone sample contained 10.49 percent bitumen. The San Ardo 

deposit is 2 miles southwest of San Ardo. There, the bituminous sandstone 

beds crop out on the east flank of the San Antonio Hills for a distance of 

about 5 miles. This sequence has been assigned to a transitional zone between 

the Monterey and Santa Margarita Formations by Bramlette and Daviess 

(1945, map sheet). Two samples of bituminous sandstone from this deposit 

contained 3.58 percent and 8.9 percent oil. Author's text condensed. 

Heizer, R. F., 1943, Aboriginal use of bitumen by the California Indians, in 

Geologic formations and economic development of the oil and gas fields 

of California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 118, p. 74. 

Bitumen, dug from surface land seepages or collected along the beaches 

from Point Conception to San Diego as lumps exuded from submarine seeps, 

was an important adjunct to native technology. It served as a caulking material for boats, as an adhesive, and as waterproofing for baskets. Along the 

Santa Barbara Channel, the Chumash Indians had perfected a canoe made 

of many small planks tied, or "sewed" firmly together with small ropes. 

This unique canoe was essential to the lives of the natives, but it could not 

have been constructed without asphaltum to caulk the plank interstices and 

binding holes. The Chumash Indians also used bitumen liberally for such 

purposes as an adhesive to affix arrowheads to the shafts; for mending 

broken stone vessels or pestles; as an adhesive for stemming pipes with bone 

mouthpieces; as a mastic, or setting, for inlaying small pieces of shell, as 

decorations; and as a filling to run into incised lines to bring out the designs 

in shades of contrasting black. Author's text condensed. 

Hilgard, E. W., 1885, The asphaltum deposits of California, in Mineral resources of the United States for 1883-84: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral 

Resources of the United States, p. 938-948. 

This report is a general discussion of the asphalt deposits in California 
CALIFORNIA 73 

by county, especially the glacier-like brea and streams of slow-moving tar in 

Ventura County. It gives methods of mining the asphalt and an assay report 

for each major deposit known in 1885. 

Hilgard, E. W., 1890, Report on the Asphaltum mine of the Ventura Asphalt 

Co., in Tenth Report of the State Mineralogist: California Jour. Mines 

and Geology, no. 10, p. 763-772. 

This detailed report includes a cross section, a topographic map, and an 

assay table of the Ventura Asphalt Co. mine, located 5 miles west-northwest 

of the town of San Buenaventura, Ventura County, Calif. This vein was 

indicated on the surface by a seam 7-15 inches thick. But, when stripped, 

the vein was found to increase rapidly both horizontally and downward. At 

the depth of 65 feet from its outcrop and 60 feet horizontally from the same, 

its thickness is 5 feet, and the quality of the material has improved. The 

material is a brownish-black uniform mass that has conchoidal fracture, dull 

on the break, and that shows a light- to full-shade-brown streak. It yields somewhat under light blows of the hammer, but splinters under heavy ones, so it 

can be readily blasted. The specific gravity is about 2. On heating to about 

450°F, it softens to a mushy condition, but does not attain fusion without the 

aid of a "fluxing," or thinning, substance. An attempt to replace the process 

of drilling blastholes with the use of hot iron bars failed to give satisfactory 

results because the product of this mine is a ready-formed intimate mixture 

of remarkably firm and fixed bitumen that contains very little of the more 

volatile oils. Author's text condensed. 

Holmes, C. N., Page, B. M., and Duncan, D. C., 1951, Bituminous sandstone 

deposits of Point Arena, Mendocino County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM-125, with text. 

Asphalt-bearing sandstone beds in the Monterey shale of Miocene age crop 

out on the sea coast just west of the town of Point Arena in Mendocino 

County. A sequence of interbedded shale, siltstone, and sandstone, 500 feet 

thick, contains six asphalt-bearing sandstone beds ranging in thickness from 

1 to 3 feet. The . beds crop out along parts of the east and south rim of a 

small northwestward-plunging syncline and underlie an area of less than half 

a square mile. Reserves of asphalt-bearing sandstone are estimated to be 

about 3.2 million tons. 

Hoots, H. W., 1943, Origin, migration, and accumulation of oil in California, 

in Geologic formations and economic development of the oil and gas fields 

of California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 118, p. 253-276. 

Seepages and impregnations of heavy oil and tar occur in outcrops of 

Pliocene and Miocene shale, siltstone, and sandstone at many places throughout central and southern California. Burned red shale, apparently having 

resulted from combustion of the oil-impregnated shale, covers extensive areas. 

The Miocene shales are the most probable source of oil. Phosphatic material 

is abundant in laminae, nodules, and lenses, and the bedding planes commonly 

carry spots of oil considered to be indigenous. The Orcutt and Santa Maria 

Valley Miocene oil zone contains a bituminous nodular phosphatic shale that 

immediately overlies the basal Miocene oil zone of the Playa del Rey and 

El Segundo fields in the Los Angeles Basin. Author's text condensed. 
74 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Hubbard, H. G., 1943, Mines and mineral resources of Santa Cruz County, 

California: California Jour. Mines and Geology, v. 39, no. 1, p. 16-35. 

The deposits of asphaltic and bituminous rock in Santa Cruz County have 

long been known and utilized. The material is a porous loose fine-grained to 

fairly coarse grained sandstone that is impregnated with asphaltum. These 

so-called bituminous rock deposits are extensive, but are only developed in a 

few places. This report contains a map of Santa Cruz County, showing the 

location of the quarries and description of operations at bituminous rock 

properties. 

Jennings, C. W., 1957, Asphalt and bituminous rock, in Mineral commodities 

of California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 176, p. 59-70. 

Known deposits of bituminous rocks in California are numerous, and they 

generally lie within the limits of the distribution of marine Miocene and 

Pliocene formations in and around the margin of the Tertiary basins. This 

report summarizes work done on the bituminous rock near Santa Cruz, Santa 

Cruz County; Casmalia, Santa Barbara County; Edna, San Luis Obispo 

County; McKittrick, Kern County; and Point Arena, Mendocino County. 

It also includes a brief description of the bituminous sands east of Newhall 

and of the famous tar pits at Rancho La Brea in west Los Angeles. 

Kew, W. S. W., 1924, Geology and oil resources of a part of Los Angeles and 

Ventura Counties, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 753, 202 p. 

In California, oil seepages, brea deposits, outcropping oil sands, and burned 

shale are important criteria in determining the favorability of any locality 

for oil. Although surface indications of the above-named types do not prove 

that paying quantities of oil may be obtained, they are evidence that oil is 

present in ·certain strata in the region. The surface evidences of oil are 

closely associated with the formations in which the oil originates (Martinez, 

Meganos, Tejon, and Modelo), as well as with the formations into which it 

has migrated (Sespe, Pico, and Saugus). These formations include all the 

strata above the Upper Cretaceous Chico formation. The most important 

seeps and oil sands occur in the Modelo formation; Los Angeles and Ventura 

Counties have been noted since the early days for their numerous and striking 

oil indications, which are conspicuous in the Santa Clara valley. On the basis 

of these indications of petroleum, the first real oil industry in California was 

started in Pico Canyon, west of Newhall. Author's text condensed. 

Kramer, A. J., and Smith, H. M., 1924, Properties of typical crude oils from 

the producing fields of California: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 2595, 55 p. 

This report classifies crude oils and gives properties and detailed analyses 

of typical samples. 

Krueger, M. L., 1943, Arroyo Grande (Edna) oil field, in Geologic formations 

and economic development of the oil and gas fields of California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 118, p. 450-452. 

The Arroyo Grande oil field is about 3 miles north of the town of Pismo, 

on both sides of Pismo Creek, San Luis Obispo County. Enormous deposits of 

dry tar sands form precipitous cliffs adjacent to the Arroyo Grande field. 

This so-called bituminous rock is a sand whose interstices are impregnated 
CALIFORNIA 75 

with tarlike-petroleum residuum. Because of the superresistance to erosion of 

the inspissated oil-sand deposits, topographic prominences have been developed. This bituminous rock has previously been mined for road-surfacing 

material, and the supply is practically inexhaustible. Author's text condensed. 

Merriam, J. C., and Stock, Chester, 1921, An occurrence of Pleistocene vertebrates in an asphalt deposit near McKittrick, California: Science, v. 54, 

no. 1406, p. 566-567. 

In the brea deposit near McKittrick, a surface stratum of hardened asphaltic material, in places, attains a thickness of several feet. This layer contains 

numerous remains of birds and mammals, apparently representing the Recent 

fauna, and overlies the deposit in which Pleistocene vertebrates are found. 

In excavating the older bed, dense accumulations of mammalian remains were 

found. This deposit is generally comparable to those at Rancho La Brea, with 

a few notable exceptions; for instance, shore birds, rare at La Brea, are 

abundant at McKittrick. The exhumed material was not so well preserved 

as that from the asphalt bed near Los Angeles, seemingly because the prevailing earthy matrix at McKittrick shows somewhat less impregnation by 

petroleum. Further collecting at the McKittrick locality will bring out the 

relationship between this assemblage and the Rancho La Brea fauna. The 

contrasting features that are recognized may result from a geographic separation of the two asphalt deposits. The environmental conditions of the two 

areas may have been slightly different, or the two areas may represent separate depositional stages of the Pleistocene. 

Merriam, J. C., and Stock, Chester, 1925, A llama from the Pleistocene of 

McKittrick, California, in Papers concerning the Palaeontology of the 

Pleistocene of California and the Tertiary of Oregon: Carnegie Inst. 

Washington Pub. 347, p. 39-42. 

In a provisional list of mammals from an asphalt deposit near McKittrick, 

Kern County, Calif., a slender-limbed camel was recognized as certainly 

distinct from the large Camelops hesternus known from Rancho La Brea. 

Further excavating at McKittrick has resulted in the collection of additional 

material of the small camel, as well as specimens of Camelops hesternus. 

The slender-limbed camel is undoubtedly closely related to the present-day 

llama of South America. This records for the first time the presence of the 

genus Lama in the Pleistocene of California, and possibly for the first time 

in North America. Authors' text condensed. 

Oakeshott, G. B., 1950, Asphalt and bituminous rock, in Mineral commodities 

of California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 156, p. 124-130. 

Asphalt, bituminous rock, and tar seeps are found generally in the petroleum-producing areas of the State. The northernmost oil seeps in California 

are in southern Humboldt County, along the fault contacts between Upper 

Jurassic Franciscan rocks and Lower Cretaceous ( ?) shale. Seeps and bituminous rocks are found at numerous localities in the Coast Ranges, as far 

south as Orange County and around the borders of the San Joaquin Valley. 

This report discusses the Santa Cruz, Casmalia, Edna, McKittrick, and 

Rancho La Brea deposits. Author's text condensed. 

Orcutt, W. W., 1924, Early oil development in California: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 8, no. 1, p. 61-72. 
76 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

This article gives a history of oil-industry development, particularly of the 

asphalt deposits to 1924. 

Pack, R. W., 1920, The Sunset-Midway oil field, California, Pt. 1 of Geology 

and oil resources: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 116, 179 p. 

The deposits of asphalt and seeps of oil in this region were known to the 

earliest settlers, but not until the late 1880's was any attempt made to mine 

either the asphalt or the oil. In parts of the field where the oil is buried 

deeper than 2,000 feet, a zone of tar-filled sand lies less than 1,000 feet below 

the surface. This zone is believed to mark the place where the upward-moving 

hydrocarbons have been oxidized by surface waters. The tarrification of the 

oil is caused chiefly by the addition of sulfur, derived from the sulfate-bearing 

surface waters. In places, this same reaction has produced deposits of sulfur. 

Author's summary condensed. 

Pack, R. W., and English, W. A., 1915, Geology and oil prospects of Waltham, 

Priest, Bitterwater and Peachtree Valleys, central California: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 581-D, p. 119-160. 

In several places in Bitterwater and Peachtree valleys, central California, 

oil impregnates the surficial sandy beds that lie in the San Andreas fault 

zone or that rest on the granite. The largest of these outcrops occurs at an 

asphalt quarry 2 miles west of Lonoak. The basal 25 to 50 feet of the upper 

Miocene here is a coarse arkosic sand or grit that is evidently derived from 

the underlying granite. The outcrops of this sand for a distance of about 

one-half mile are impregnated with tarry oil or asphalt, the amount contained 

varying from place to place. The oil sand is quarried from time to time and 

used in repairing the roads in the vicinity of King City. Most of the sand is 

medium coarse grained, and the material is used directly on the roads without 

the addition of more sand. The oil seeps in the region are closely associated 

with the diatomaceous shale of Miocene age, and none are known to occur 

where the shale has not been considerably developed. Authors' text condensed. 

Page, B. M., 1945, Asphalt and bituminous sandstone deposits of part of the 

McKittrick district, Kern County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and 

Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 35, with text. 

Large deposits of asphalt in the form of asphalt-bearing sandstone, asphaltbearing alluvium, oil seeps, and vein asphalt crop out near McKittrick, Kern 

County. The deposits occur in ~ number of rock types in the Monterey shale 

of Miocene age, the Etchegoin formation of Pliocene age, and the Tulare 

formation of Pliocene and early Pleistocene ( ?) age, and Recent alluvium. The 

rocks in the area are highly folded and faulted, and the asphalt deposits and 

a small producing oil field are associated with these structures. The total 

reserves in the area are about 15.7 million tons of asphalt-bearing rock. 

Page, B. M., and Holmes, C. N., 1945, Bituminous sandstone deposits near 

Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and 

Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 27, with text. 

The bituminous sandstone deposits near Santa Cruz, Calif., lie 4 to 6 miles 

northwest of the city. They are concentrated in two areas; the southwesternmost is near the coast and is accessible both by highway and by a branch of 
CALIFORNIA 77 

the Southern Pacific Railroad, and the northwesternmost is in the low foothills of the Santa Cruz Mountains and is served only by unimproved roads. 

The bituminous sandstone deposits occur as normally bedded sandstone and 

as sandstone intrusions, both of which are generally more resistant to erosion 

than the enclosing sediments. Total reserves of asphalt-bearing sandstone are 

estimated to be about 1.6 million tons. Authors' text condensed. 

Page, B. M., Williams, M. D., Henrickson, E. L., Holmes, C. N., and Mapel, 

W. J., 1944, Geology of the bituminous sandstone deposits near Edna, 

San Luis Obispo County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. 

Prelim. Map 16, with text. 

The asphalt occurs in the Pismo formation, of late Miocene and Pliocene 

age, which unconformably overlies the Monterey shale of Miocene age. The 

Monterey shale in the Edna area consists of tuffs, diatomaceous and siliceous 

shale, and chert. The Pismo formation consists of varied rock types including 

conglomerate, arkosic sandstone, diatomaceous sandstone, sandy and silty 

shale, diatomaceous shale, siliceous shale, and chert. The asphalt is irregularly distributed in lenticular, discontinuous beds of arkosic sandstone that 

range in thickness from a few feet to almost 300 feet. The largest deposits 

of asphalt-bearing sandstone crop out on the northeast flank of a northwesttrending syncline near Pismo Creek. The total reserves of asphalt-bearing 

sandstone equals about 280 million tons. 

Parker, F. S., 1943, The Newport oil field, in Geologic formations and economic development of the oil and gas fields of California: California Div. 

Mines and Geology Bull. 118, p. 332. 

The Newport field includes two small areas of barely commercial production- the Newport Beach area and the Mesa area. The whole area comprises 

about 7 square miles on Newport Mesa and the adjoining flats at the west 

end of Newport Bay, Orange County. The tar sands and seeps at the mouth 

of Newport Bay were known for many years. The Newport field is one of the 

few fields of the Los Angeles Basin that has been commercially unsuccessful, 

despite copious showings and strong surface evidence of oil. This lack of 

success is due mainly to the rapid incursion of water. Author's text condensed. 

Peckham, S. F., 1882, Examination of the bituminous substances occurring in 

southern California, in Geology of California: Geol. Survey of California, 

Rept. of Progress and Synopsis of field work from 1860 to 1864, v. 2, 

App., p. 49-90, Sherman & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 

This report, written in 1866, is one of the earliest reports on the California 

asphalts. It gives a general description of the geology of southern California 

and a detailed description of the various exposures of bitumen and their 

relative value. The section on chemical investigations details the early methods 

of distilling petroleum products from the crude asphalt. 

Poth, E. J., Schulze, W. A., King, W. A., Thompson, W. C., Slagle, W. M., 

Floyd, W. W., and Bailey, J. R., 1930, An .;nvestigation of the bases in 

the kerosene distillate of California petroleum: Am. Chern. Soc. Jour., 

v. 52, no. 3, p. 1239-1250. 

In the kerosene distillate, produced by the Union Oil Co. of California, from 

McKittrick asphalt-crude petroleum, with a total nitrogen content of 0.055 

460-209 0 - 72 - 6 
78 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

percent, it was found that approximately 55 percent of the nitrogen compounds could be extracted with dilute sulfuric acid. In the higher boiling 

distillates in which the total nitrogen content is greater, the proportion of 

basic to inert nitrogen compounds decreased with an increase in the distillation temperature. Authors' text condensed. 

Rogers, G. S., 1919, The Sunset-Midway oil field, California, Pt. II of Geochemical relations of the oil, gas, and water: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 117, 103 p. [p. 29-32]. 

Petroleum consists of a complex mixture of many compounds made up 

chiefly of carbon and hydrogen. Some of these hydrocarbon compounds may 

also contain smaller quantities of oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur, which have an 

important bearing on the properties of the oil. If paraffin or paraffin-bearing 

oil is digested with sulfur at moderate temperatures, it becomes black and 

heavy, and changes into a substance resembling solid asphalt. Similarly, if a 

light asphaltic oil is treated with sulfur it becomes darker and more viscous, 

finally becoming asphalt. Oxygen also exercises a profound effect on petroleum. When oil is exposed to air for a long time it becomes dark, heavy, and 

viscous and finally passes to asphalt. This change is due mainly to evaporation 

of the more volatile constituents, but also partly to oxidation. Author's text 

condensed. 

Shea, G. B., and Higgins, R. V., 1948, Laboratory study of the hot-water 

process for separating hydrocarbons from surface deposits of bituminous 

sandstones near Edna, California: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 4246, 31 p. 

This report presents the results of laboratory research in the adaptation 

of the hot-water separation process to the recovery of hydrocarbons from 

bituminous sandstones of the Edna deposits near San Luis Obispo, Calif. The 

hot-water process consists of three steps: 

1. Heating and mixing the bituminous sandstone with water and enough 

alkaline reagent to form an alkaline pulp, in which the bitumen is 

displaced from the sand grains by the water. Efficient separation also 

depends on the occlusion of enough air to form an oil froth. 

2. Separating the oil froth from the sand by submerging the pulp in hot 

water. The oil froth floats to the surface, and the sand grains, freed of 

the bitumen, sink to the bottom. 

3. Removing the water, sand, and silt from the oil froth by dilution of the 

bitumen with a light oil and settling. 

The soluble mineral salts in the Edna sandstones, mainly iron and calcium 

sulfates with some sodium and aluminum sulfates, must be removed by water 

washing. 

Simm, C. N., 1964, How combustion drive projects are performing in California: World Oil, v. 159, no. 5, p. 151-154. 

The combustion-drive process consists of injecting air to advance a narrow 

zone of high-temperature combustion from injection well to adjacent production wells. Combustion-drive projects were started at 27 localities in California in 1964. These locations are shown on a map, and individual projects 

are discussed in this report. Current production rate from combustion projects 

is 3,000-3,500 barrels per day, ranging from 14° to 19° gravity. Estimated 

capacity in 1965 is 10,000 barrels per day. Author's text condensed. 
CALIFORNIA 79 

Skinner, D. A., 1952, Chemical state of vanadium in Santa Maria Valley crude 

oil: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, v. 44, no. 5, p. 1159-1165. 

Chemical and physical techniques have demonstrated the presence of a 

vanadium-porphyrin complex in Santa Maria Valley crude oil. Absorption 

spectral data indicate that the complex is similar, if not identical, to the 

vanadium complex of mesoporphyrin IX dimethylester. The vanadium complex is not water soluble, but is soluble or dispersible in the crude oil. The 

complex possesses stability to electrical fields, and is also stable to heat treatment at 125oC in the presence of water, but breaks down or changes its form 

at or below 450°C. It is not decomposed at nooc in the presence of 85 percent 

orthophosphoric acid. The complex tends to be identified with the more 

asphaltic fractions of the crude. The biological origin of the complex is suggested by the similarity of its structure to that of complexes of metals and 

porphyrins found in contemporary mammals and plants. Author's conclusions 

condensed. 

Smith, M. B., 1966, Asphalt and bituminous rock, in Mineral resources of 

California: California Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 191, p. 92-94. 

The principal occurrences of asphalt and bituminous rock in California are 

at Edna, Casmalia, Sisquoc, Graciosa Ridge, Santa Cruz, McKittrick, Point 

Arena, and La Brea Creek. There are minor occurrences at Carpinteria 

and Rancho La Brea. Asphalt in California occurs at the surface where 

it is usually mixed with soil and in veinlike fracture fillings in rocks. Bituminous rocks, mainly sandstones or finer grained rocks impregnated with 

viscous asphaltic material, crop out in many places; in some places they 

extend to depths of several hundred feet, where they contain less viscous 

fluid and will yield oil to wells. Most deposits in the State are in sedimentary 

rocks of Miocene to Recent age. Estimated reserves are about 300 million 

barrels from only those deposits which have been carefully examined and 

worked in places. It is estimated that 1 billion barrels of oil-equivalent could 

be recovered from the higher grade bituminous shales of late Miocene and 

Pliocene age in the State, and that as much as 70 billion barrels of oilequivalint is present in widespread Miocene shales. Author's text condensed. 

Stevens, J. B., 1943, McKittrick area of the McKittrick oil field, in Geologic 

formations and economic development of the oil and gas fields of California: California •Div. Mines and Geology Bull. 118, p. 510-511. 

The McKittrick area of the McKittrick oil field is in the foothills of the 

Temblor Range, along the southwest border of the San Joaquin Valley, Kern 

County. It is probably the oldest worked area in the San Joaquin Valley. 

Very early in the 1870's the asphalt beds were opened, and the product was 

freighted by team to Bakersfield. On April 23, 1872, J. 0. Lovejoy. deeded 

640 acres- now the heart of the McKittrick area-to the Buena Vista 

Petroleum Co. The first shallow development was to obtain oil to flux with the 

brittle surface asphalt in order to more satisfactorily meet trade requirements. The building of the Southern Pacific branch line in 1893 to Asphalto, 

2 miles out of the present town of McKittrick, kept the asphalt business alive 

during the depression of 1893 and later stimulated the drilling of wells, as 

the advantage of fuel oil over coal in the development of power was quickly 

realized. Author's text condensed. 
80 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Stipp, T. F., 1943, Simi oil field, in Geologic formations and economic development of the oil and gas fields of California: California Div. Mines and 

Geology Bull. 118, p. 417-423. 

The Simi oil field is in the foothills of the Simi Valley, about 2 miles north 

of the town of Santa Susana in Ventura County. Though of minor importance 

with respect to quantity of oil produced, the Simi oil field is of interest 

because it is one of the few fields in California that yields oil from Eocene 

rocks. Active seepages of oil occur in Oil Canyon, where steeply dipping oilsaturated sands crop out. These seepages are from the Llajas conglomerate 

or from beds stratigraphically just above. Oil has accumualted in the sandstones and siltstones of the Llajas formation and, in the western part of the 

Simi field, in the sands at or near the base of the Sespe formation. The oil in 

the Sespe is of lower gravity than that in the underlying Llajas, and is 

apparently commercially unproductive. Author's text condensed. 

Stock, Chester, 1930, Origin and physical features of the asphalt deposits, in 

Rancho La Brea - A record of Pleistocene life in California: Los Angeles 

Museum Pub. 1, p. 20-23. 

The source rocks from which the petroleum is derived are the oil sands 

interstratified with the older shales and sandstones that underlie the Pleistocene beds in the region of Rancho La Brea. As determined by the geologic 

structure in the Salt Lake oil field, these older marine strata are deformed or 

folded. Presumably the exudation of the petroleum and penetration of the 

sedimentary strata, forming the tar pools and asphaltic material, occurred 

concurrently with the deposition of the Pleistocene alluvium, for asphalt 

deposits have been found at various levels throughout. At present the oil 

and gas reach the surface through fissures, pipes, or chimneys, and the oil 

forms small, generally shallow pools around the vents. Occasionally, a downward movement of the oil or tar can be discerned at the vents. A temporary 

release of gas pressure below permits the heavy oil to recede into the pipe 

or chimney from which it has extruded. This downward flow may carry 

remains of organisms, hardened lumps of asphalt, and other detrital material 

from the surface into the pipes. This action is of significance in suggesting a 

factor responsible for the movement of submerged animal remains in the 

larger Pleistocene outpours. During the Pleistocene, the outpouring of petroleum was probably much more extensive than it is now. The Pleistocene pools 

occupied the natural depressions of an irregular land surface and were, at 

times, many square feet in area. Excavations at Rancho La Brea have shown 

that the pools of fossiliferous asphalt ranged from relatively shallow accumulations to pools as much as 35 feet deep. Not all pools formed in natural 

depressions. In the past, sudden explosions of large quantities of gas and oil 

accompanied by sufficient force may have formed craterlike vents many feet 

in diameter. Small craterlike structures are now seen occasionally in the oil 

fields of California. Author's text condensed. 

Swaze, R. 0., 1943, Goleta gas field, in Geologic formations and economic 

development of the oil and gas fields of California: California Div. Mines 

and Geology Bull. 118, p. 384-385. 

The Goleta gas field is located on the Pacific Ocean at the mouth of Goleta 

Slough, Santa Barbara County, about 4 miles east of the Elwood oil field. 

A tar seep exists on the beach on the southeastern flank of La Goleta anti-
CALIFORNIA 81 

cline, where faults are evident in the surface rocks. The Monterey shales 

exposed along the axis and on the southern flank of the fold are coated with 

tar on their fractured surfaces. No showings of oil have been noted to date 

(1943) in the Vaqueros formation in any well drilled in the field. The upper 

part of the Sespe- in the one well drilled through this formation- contained 

numerous sands showing some oil saturation. However, production tests made 

on the best of these showings failed to develop commercial production. 

Author's t~xt condensed. 

Taff, J. A., 1908, Asphalt and bituminous rocks, in Mineral resources of the 

United States for 1907, Pt. II: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources of 

the United States, p. 723-730. 

Extensive deposits of asphaltic shale and sandstone are found in Califor.nia 

in and contiguous to the oil fields from the vicinity of Santa Cruz southeastward, generally parallel with the coastline. The bitumen permeates the porous 

sandy strata and exudes at the surface from highly bituminous oil-bearing 

deposits. The asphalt in this region appears to be a residue resulting from 

natural distillation at or near the surface. Brea, the natural plastic asphalt, 

is widely distributed in the California oil fields, where it forms at the ground 

surface, owing to the evaporation of the lighter oils from seeping crude 

petroleum. Author's text condensed. 

Taliaferro, N. L., Hudson, F. S., and Craddock, W. N., 1924, The oil fields of 

Ventura County, California: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 8, 

no. 6, p. 789-810. 

The unusually large oil seepages in Ventura County attracted the attention 

of oil operators at a very early date. As early as 1850, oil from seepages was 

refined by the Mexicans for illuminating purposes in the early churches. 

Many large seepages, some of which cover many acres, occur along the faulted 

zone south of Ojai Valley and north of Santa Clara Valley. Although these 

seepages generally occur along faults, some may also be found in unfaulted 

areas where oil sands are exposed. At many places in the area east of Sespe 

Creek, oil oozes from both the Monterey shales and the sandstones interbedded with them. Seepages are rare in the major producing fields. Authors' 

text condensed. 

VanderHoof, V. L., 1935, Seasonal bandings in an asphalt deposit at McKittrick [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America, 1934, Proc., p. 332. 

A search for vertebrate remains in the asphalt deposits at McKittrick, Kern 

County, Calif., disclosed a series of alternating layers of alluvial detritus 

and tar. Almost the total thickness of this deposit, whose source seep is now 

extinct, is made up of these alternating layers. Associated with this series 

of layers are the remains of extinct mammals. The McKittrick seeps have had 

their origin in structural fissures that intersect the shallow oil sands of the 

McKittrick field. Many are still active and are similar to the banded seep 

containing fossils. The alternating bands represent a yearly recurrence of 

physical conditions that are influenced by climate. Winter cold so increases 

the viscosity of the tar that it congeals, whereas high summer temperatures 

render it fluid and able to flow downslope. Winter rains cause sheet wash, 

which blankets the previous summer's tar flow with alluvium. An older tar 

deposit, in which a skeleton of Bison antiquus was found at mid-level, is 

presumed to have accumulated in this manner. A sequence of 180 bands has 
82 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

been carefully measured and plotted, and efforts are now being made to 

correlate the resulting curves with tree-ring or glacial-varve chronologies. 

Author's text condensed. 

Vander Leek, Lawrence, 1922, Memoranda on asphalt and bituminous sand 

deposits of California, in Eighteenth Report of the State Mineralogist: 

California Jour. Mines and Geology Bull., v. 18, no. 5, p. 228-230. 

The principal deposits of bituminous shales and sands in California are in, 

or are closely associated with, Miocene diatomaceous shale. The California 

deposits are nothing more than sands and porous lenses of shale, saturated 

to varying degrees with liquid petroleum. These sands and shales, by reason 

of structural movements, have been uplifted into the zone of erosion, with the 

result that most of the lighter constituents have evaporated or run off, leaving 

a tarry residuum. This report lists and discusses the mining activity in each 

of the following districts: Point Arena, Marin County; Santa Cruz, Santa 

Clara County; Salinas Valley, San Luis Obispo, Santa Maria, and Santa 

Barbara Counties; and Coast Region from Gaviota Pass to Santa Barbara, 

Ojai Valley, Sunset, McKittrick, Santa Monica, Los Angeles County. 

Vernon, J. W., and Slater, R. A., 1963, Submarine tar mounds, Santa Barbara 

County, California: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 47, no. 8, 

p. 1624-1627. 

Tar mounds have been observed on the southern California sea floor at three 

localities: the Point Conception area, Coal Oil Point near Goleta, and off 

Carpinteria. Tar is most abundant near Point Conception, where a sheet of 

tar covers an area of one-fourth square mile, and forms a scarp at its seaward 

edge that is 10-12 feet high. East of the Point, mounds are as much as 100 

feet across and 8 feet high. They are irregularly distributed along an easttrending zone of faulted anticlines exposed in the almost continuous shale 

outcrops on the ocean floor. At Coal Oil Point and Carpinteria the mounds 

are only a few inches high, and some are elongate along fractures in shallowdipping Monterey-type (Miocene) siliceous shale. Most of the mounds have 

roughly circular outlines; they rise abruptly from the sea floor and then slope 

upward gradually toward a vent at the central high point, resembling a 

miniature shield volcano. The mounds are accumulations of small discrete 

masses of tar, in the form of flows. Tar extrudes slowly from the vent and 

forms a tapered whiplike strand that floats but remains attached to the vent 

until it is several feet long. If seepage is slow enough, the attached "whips" 

become more dense than sea water and sink, to become part of the mound. 

If the "whip" is torn away by water agitation and tug of wave surge and 

currents, it floats to the surface and drifts, becoming increasingly dense with 

time. Failing to reach a shore before becoming denser than sea water, it sinks 

to the bottom and becomes incorporated in the sediment. Tar in the Point 

Conception area is extruded from upper Miocene-Pliocene siliceous and clay 

shales that are contiguous with those mapped on the Point. Authors' text 

condensed. 

Waterfall, L. N., 1943, Santa Paula oil field, in Geologic formations and economic development of the oil and gas fields of California: California Div. 

Mines and Geology Bull. 118, p. 394. 

Santa Paula field is the name applied to a group of small producing areas 
CALIFORNIA 83 

that extend along the south side of Sulphur Mountain, about 5 miles northwest of the town of Santa Paula, Ventura County. Because of the numerous 

active oil seeps and the outcrops of oil-impregnated sands along the south side 

of Sulphur Mountain, the area now known as the Santa Paula field was one 

of the first to attract the attention of oil prospectors. The first development of 

any consequence, however, was the drilling of an 80-foot-long tunnel into the 

south slope of Sulphur Mountain at an inclination which permitted the oil to 

flow by gravity into tanks at the mouth of the tunnel. The tunnel, completed 

by Leland Stanford in 1866, was the forerunner of about 45 such attempts 

to produce oil in this manner, the tunnels ranging up to 1,600 feet in length. 

Production of as much as 60 barrels per day is reported from some of these 

tunnels. The producing horizons of the Santa Paula field are the sandstones 

near the base of the Repetto formation (lower Pliocene) and the fractured 

shales at the top of the Modelo formation (upper Miocene). Author's text 

condensed. 

Watts, W. L., 1894, The gas- and petroleum-yielding formations of the central 

valley of California: California State Mining Bur. Bull., no. 3, 100 p. 

This is a detailed report on all the petroleum and asphalt deposits of the 

central valley of California and the neighboring foothills. The principal showing of Tertiary hydrocarbons on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley is 

found in what appears to be the lowest Tertiary unit. These lower Tertiary 

strata consist of a porous, siliceous shale that yields a heavy tarlike oil. Seepages of tarlike oil exude from Tertiary sandstone at the Krayenhagen Ranch, 

at Tar Caiion, and at Asphalto, and bituminous sands, which are probably of 

this age, are found on the banks of the Kern River on the east side of the 

San Joaquin Valley. At many places in the foothills along the west side of the 

San Joaquin Valley, bituminous Tertiary sandstones are exposed. 

Watts, W. L., 1896, Oil and gas yielding formations of Los Angeles, Ventura, 

and Santa Barbara Counties: California State Mining Bur. Bull., no. 11, 

p. 48-52. 

The following oil fields are described: In Los Angeles County, the Los 

Angeles City and Puente oil fields; in Ventura County, the Sespe district and 

Santa Paula district; in Santa Barbara County, the Summerland oil field and 

the petroleum-yielding formations in the southeast corner of the county. 

Detailed descriptions of individual deposits are given, as well as a resume of 

the refining methods used in the area to 1896. 

Watts, W. L., 1900, Oil and gas yielding formations of California: California 

State Mining Bur. Bull. 19, 236 p. [p. 225-227]. 

Petroleum, in the form of natural gas, oil, and asphaltum, is found at 

various places in the Coast Ranges and in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada 

in Kern County. The geological formations yielding petroleum in California 

range in age from Lower Cretaceous to Quaternary. Historical sketches of 

the following oil fields are given: The Summerland oil field, Santa Barbara 

County; Coalinga, in Fresno County; Kern River, Sunset, and McKittrick 

districts, in Kern County; Puente Hills, in Orange and Los Angeles Counties 

and in the city of Los Angeles. Only the asphalt deposits of the McKittrick 

district are described in detail, as follows : The asphaltum deposits at Asphalto 

are found under two conditions - as superficial deposits of impure asphaltum, 
84 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

and as veins of asphaltum in the Miocene formations. The superficial deposits 

have been formed by exudation of heavy oil; they originally covered many 

acres and were from 1 to 12 feet thick. This asphaltum varies greatly in 

quality, from a dull-black compact asphaltum to an impure asphaltum interbedded with drift. The principal asphaltum mines are 1% miles southeast of 

McKittrick and occur as irregular veins and intrusive masses in the middle 

Miocene rocks. Author's text condensed. 

Weber, A. H., 1887, Petroleum and asphaltum in portions of northern California: California Jour. Mines and Geology, v. 7, p. 200-202. 

At Point Arena in Mendocino County, bituminous sandstone was being 

quarried in 1887 for use as paving material. Two ledges of bituminous sandstone were exposed in the quarry. The lower ledge, 9 feet thick, was brownish 

black; it crumbled between the fingers easily and, on ignition, showed 6.8 percent volatile matter. The residue consisted of coarse quartz sand. The upper 

ledge was very different. It was a black sticky pliable mass, which was coarse 

grained, but had reunited under pressure. On ignition, it showed 11.2 percent 

volatile matter. The residue consisted of quartz grains stained by iron oxide. 

Whitney, J.D., 1865, Geology of California- Report of progress and synopsis 

of fieldwork from 1860 to 1864: California Geol. Survey, v. 1, Sherman & 

Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 

This report is one of the first written accounts to mention tne asphalt 

deposits of California. In 1865 no commercial use was being made of the 

asphalts, other than as roofing and paving material in San Francisco. The 

Hills Ranch deposit along the beach west of Santa Barbara is described in 

detail. 

Williams, M. D., and Holmes, C. N., 1945, Geology of oil-impregnated rock 

near Casmalia, Santa Barbara County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil 

and Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 34, with text. 

A deposit of asphalt-bearing diatomaceous mudstone is exposed about 4 

miles north of Casmalia, Santa Barbara County, at the N.T.U. open-pit mine, 

now abandoned. Similar beds crop out half a mile northeast of the N.T.U. 

mine and in the Schumann area, 3 miles to the southeast. The asphalt-bearing 

beds may be continuous throughout these areas. The asphalt impregnates 

northeastward-dipping beds of diatomaceous mudstone in the upper part of 

the Sisquoc formation of Miocene and Pliocene age. Although the asphaltbearing beds are as much as 20 feet thick at the N.T.U. mine, the extent of 

downdip impregnation is not known. The estimated reserves at the mine are 

100,000 tons of asphalt-bearing rock. 

Wilson, T. A., and Mero, J. L., 1966, Economic deposits of the California offshore area, in Geology of northern California: California Div. Mines and 

Geology Bull. 190, p. 347. 

Unusual occurrences of submarine tar deposits have been observed in shallow water on the sea floor off the coast of southern California, in at least 

three localities- the Point Conception area, at Coal Oil Point near Goleta, 

and off Carpinteria. Scuba-diving geologists doing underwater mapping for 

oil companies first discovered these deposits in the mid-1950's. Tar is most 

abundant in the Point Conception area, where a sheet of the material covers 
COLORADO 85 

at least one-fourth of a square mile and forms a 10- to 12-foot scarp at its 

seaward edge. East of the Point, individual deposits as much as 100 feet in 

diameter and 8 feet in height have been reported. The deposits are irregularly 

distributed along the east-trending zone of faulted anticlines exposed in the 

shale outcrops· on the ocean floor. Most of the tar occurs as roughly circular 

mounds that resemble miniature volcanoes with the sides sloping gradually 

upward toward a vent at a central high point. It is suggested that the present 

deposits must have developed since the last major rise in sea level, about 9,000 

years ago. Authors' text condensed. 

Woodring, W. P., and Bramlette, M. N., 1950, Geology and paleontology of 

the Santa Maria district, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 222, 

185 p. [p. 124-125]. 

During 1942-45 discoveries of heavy oil were made in the Santa Maria 

district. These discoveries were thought by the authors to be subcommercial 

because the oil was too heavy to be produced profitably. 

COLORADO 

Subject Index 

Basins 

Denver 

Stewart, W. A., 1953 

Piceance 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Duncan, D. C., and Belser, Carl, 1950 

Sand Wash 

Mesozoic 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Brainerd, A. E., VanTuyl, F. M., and O'Boyle, C. C., 1955 

DeFord, R. K., 1929 

Fenneman, N. M., 1903 

Fenneman, N. M., 1905 

Grout, F. F., Worcester, P. G., and Henderson, Junius, 1913 

Hills, R. C., 1900 

Lakes, Arthur, 1902 

Larrabee, D. M., and others, 1947 

Lee, H. A., 1899 

Sears, J. D., 1925 

Stewart, W. A., 1953 

Van Tuyl, F. M., and others, 1938 

Wise, R. A., 1952 

Oil associated with crystalline rocks 

Irwin, J. S., 1926 

Van Tuyl, F. M., and McLaren, R. L., 1932 

Oil seepages 

Brainerd, A. E., VanTuyl, F. M., and O'Boyle, C. C., 1955 

DeFord, R. K., 1929 

Fenneman, N. M., 1903 

Fenneman, N. M., 1905 

Irwin, J. S., 1926 
86 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Oil seepages- Continued 

Larrabee, D. M., and others, 1947 

VanTuyl, F. M., and others, 1938 

Wise, R. A., 1952 

Paleozoic 

Bass, N. W., and Northrop, S. A., 1963 

Donnell, J. R., 1958 

Wise, R. A., 1952 

Resources 

Barb, C. F., and Ball, J. 0., 1944 

Structure 

Tertiary 

Sears, J. D., 1925 

Aurand, H. A., 1920 

Beekley, A. L., 1915 

Duncan, D. C., and Belser, Carl, 1950 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Larrabee, D. M., and others, 1947 

Sears, J. D., 1925 

Vine, J. D., 1957 

Vein deposits 

Aurand, H. A., 1920 

Barb, C. F., and Ball, J. 0., 1944 

Bass, N. W., and Northrop, S. A., 1963 

Beekley, A. L., 1915 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Lee, H. A., 1899 

Vine, J. D., 1957 

Author List 

Aurand, H. A., 1920, Mineral deposits of the Western Slope: Colorado Geol. 

Survey Bull. 22, 78 p., 2 maps. 

The natural hydrocarbons of Colorado, as well as those of eastern Utah, 

appear to be confined to the Tertiary formations. In these districts the various 

divisions of the Eocene are noted for the number, size, and variety of their 

asphalt veins. Many of the asphaltic veins near the Colorado-Utah line occur 

in fissures in the Green River formation and in the overlying Bridger and 

Uinta formations. The bitumens of the Green River shales may have been the 

source of the asphalt. The veins can be traced for as much as 2 miles on the 

surface, and they are known to extend to a depth of 100 feet. A deposit of 

asphaltite is located on the east side of Sherman Creek, near the north edge 

of Middle Park. The veins occur as fissure fillings in the clays, sandstones, 

and conglomerates of the Middle Park formation, which is probably the 

equivalent of the Denver formation. This deposit is comparatively isolated, as 

the closest known occurrence of asphaltite is 150 miles away, on the ColoradoUtah line. Author's text condensed. 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Colorado, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 88-104 [p. 90-104]. 
COLORADO 87 

The largest petroleum-impregnated outcrops known in Colorado are in 

Moffat, Rio Blanco, and Garfield Counties. Geologically, these outcrops are 

within, or are on the flanks of, the Piceance (eastern Uinta) and Sand Wash 

(southern Green River) basins. None is of present commercial importance. 

Other minor accumulations are widely scattered, with a notable concentration 

along the foothills of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. Author's text 

condensed. 

Barb, C. F., and Ball, J. 0., 1944, Hydrocarbons of the Uinta Basin of Utah 

and Colorado- Review of geology and fieldwork by C. F. Barb; Survey 

of bitumen analyses and extraction methods by J. 0. Ball: Colorado 

School Mines Quart., v. 39, no. 1, 115 p., illus. incl. geol. sketch maps. 

There are many deposits of bituminous sands and numerous oil seeps 

throughout the Uinta Basin in Utah and Colorado. The deposit largest in 

tonnage is the Sunnyside asphalt mine, about 7 miles up the canyon from the 

Sunnyside coal mines. It is a cliff of asphaltic sand (Wasatch formation) 

about 1,200 feet high and several miles long. Another deposit occurs at 

Asphalt Ridge about 3 miles west of Vernal. This deposit is estimated to 

contain 2-3 billion barrels of bitumen that can be mined by open-pit and 

underground mining methods. It is 12-15 miles long. These rocks crop out 

again in Whiterocks Canyon, 25 miles to the northwest. Gilsonite, probably 

the most important hydrocarbon in the Uinta Basin, occurs as veins in the 

Green River and Wasatch formations. The largest deposits occur as veins at 

the east end of the basin (near Watson and north of White River), although 

other smaller veins are known. An ozokerite deposit occurs near Soldier's 

Summit, on the west edge of the W-asatch Basin. The ozokerite, a mineral wax 

similar to the paraffin wax, occurs as vertical veins in the Wasatch formation, 

apparently filling fault fissures. The approximate locations of the hydrocarbon 

deposits are shown on the map which accompanies this report. 

Bass, N. W., and Northrop, S. A., 1963, Geology of the Glenwood Springs 

quadrangle and vicinity, northwestern Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1142-J, 74 p. [p. 49]. 

The lower part of the South Canyon Creek Member of the Maroon Formation (Pennsylvanian and Permian) consists of fine- to medium-grained dolomite and dolomitic limestone. It commonly contains a few veinlets and 

irregular nodules of milk-white or light-gray chert and vugs and geodes, most 

of which are less than 1% inches in diameter and many of which contain 

jet-black brittle lustrous asphalt. The upper part of the member consists of 

thinly laminated limestone, whose wavy structure and alternating light and 

dark bands suggest an algal origin. Where recrystallization has occurred, 

laminae of finely crystalline calcite are bounded by very thin seams of asphalt. 

The Weber Sandstone Tongue of the Maroon Formation is impregnated with 

a black organic substance reported to be a residue of petroleum. The Weber 

Sandstone is the principal oil reservoir in the Rangely oil field, 65 miles to 

the northwest. Authors' text condensed. 

Beekley, A. L. 1915, Geology and coal resources of North ·Park, Colorado: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 596, 121 p. [p. 117-118]. 

The gilsonite mine near Willow Creek Pass is in sees. 15 and 22, T. 4 N., 

R. 77 W., about 4 miles southeast of Willow Creek Pass. The gilsonite bears a 
88 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

general resemblance to a glossy coal. It is very brittle, breaks with somewhat 

conchoidal fracture in one direction and along smooth rectangular cleavage 

planes in the other, and is a very lustrous, satiny black. The gilsonite occurs 

as a vein in a sandy clay that contains lenses of friable sandstone and boulders or nodules of soft sandy clay. The vein has been mined for several 

hundred feet and ranges in thickness from a few inches to 8 feet. The gilsonite 

is believed to occur in the lower part of the Coalmont formation. Author's 

text condensed. 

Brainerd, A. E., Van Tuyl, F. M., and O'Boyle, C. C., 1955, Oil and gas in 

eastern Colorado, in Geology of the Front Range foothills west of 

Denver- Deer Creek to Ralston Creek, Jefferson County, Colorado, 

Rocky Mtn. Assoc. Geologists Field Conf. Guidebook, 1955: p. 39-49. 

Small amounts of oil were produced as early as 1862 from shallow wells 

near an oil seepage on Oil Creek about 6 miles north of Canon City. Commercial amounts of oil were discovered near Boulder and Fort Collins in 1902 

and 1923, respectively. The discovery of the Greasewood oil pool in Weld 

County in 1930 furnished convincing proof that important accumulations of 

oil and gas were present in eastern Colorado. Since 1950 the productive belt 

has been extended southwest from Logan County through Morgan and parts 

of Washington and Adams Counties. Authors' text condensed. 

DeFord, R. K., 1929, Surface structure, Florence oil field, Fremont County, 

Colorado, in Structure of typical American oil fields: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, v. 2, p. 75-92, 4 figs., 1 pl. 

The oil-producing district in the vicinity of Canon City and Florence is one 

of the oldest in the United States. The first wells were sunk near a seep on 

the bank of Oil Creek, 9 miles northwest of the town of Florence and 6 miles 

northeast of Canon City. The oil occurs in joints and fissures of the Pierre 

shale. The sandy zones, thin sand beds, numerous concretionary beds, and 

possibly even the buried Tepee Buttes may be reservoirs for this disseminated 

supply. Author's text condensed. 

Donnell, J. R., 1958, The Weber sandstone in the White River uplift, in 

Rocky Mtn. Assoc. Geologists Symposium on Pennsylvanian rocks of 

Colorado and adjacent areas: Denver, Colo., p. 95-98. 

Much of the Weber sandstone is saturated with dead oil throughout its 

outcrop in this area. This sandstone is the oil-producing formation in Rangely, 

Thornburg, and several other fields in northwestern Colorado. 

Duncan, D. C., and Belser, Carl, 1950, Geology and oil-shale resources of t'he 

eastern part of the Piceance Creek basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield 

Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM-119, 

structure map with sections and text. 

Rocks in the Piceance Creek basin that yield oil include marlstone, organic 

shale, thin layers of altered tuff in the oil shale, beds of asphalt-saturated 

sandstone, and small amounts of asphaltlike hydrocarbons along the fault and 

joint planes. Most of the organic matter is in the shale and marlstone in a 

solid form as kerogen, which converts to heavy oil with destructive distillatiol'l. Perhaps the free asphalt or heavy oil of the sandstone and altered tuff 

beds was derived from the oil shale. Authors' text condensed. 
COLORADO 89 

Eldridge, G~ H., 1901, Colorado in The asphalt and bituminous rock deposits 

of the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept., 22d, pt. 1, maps, 

p. 209-452 [p. 228-229]. 

Bitumen occurs in the Middle Park formation of Middle Park, Colo., largely 

a: terrane of eruptive material and a correlative of the Denver formation of 

the plains- a formation that is, for the present, termed "post-Laramie," 

without assignment to Cretaceous or Tertiary. In the northern part of Middle 

Park, the bitumen occurs as an asphalt, resembling gilsonite, that occupies an 

irregular fissure or series of fissures in the clays, sandstones, and conglomerates. The occurrence is, so far as known, limited to the immediate region 

in which it is found. The nearest asphalt is the gilsonite, 150 miles away, 

along the Colorado-Utah line. [The veins of gilsonite along Colorado's west 

border are referred to in the section on Utah.] Author's text condensed. 

Fennernan, N. M., 1903, The Boulder, Colorado, oil field: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 213-H, p. 322-332. 

Oil seeps occur on the north bank of the Little Thompson River, 17 miles 

north of Boulder and several miles east of the foothills. There, at the base 

of the heavy sandstone strata in the Pierre shale, a seepage of oil has been 

known since about 1860. Similar, but less well known seeps are reported to 

occur 5-10 miles north of Boulder. The source of the oil is not yet determined 

within narrow limits. Much of the Pierre is black with disseminated carbonaceous matter. The Niobrara formation below is similarly bituminous, yieJding 

a strong odor from its more fossiliferous beds. The same is true of the Benton 

shale, which is characteristically dark and whose bituminous odor is at least 

as well marked as that of the Niobrara. The Dakota sandstone bears oil in 

Wyoming, and asphalt oozes from its cracks at various places from Wyoming 

to southwestern Colorado. Even the Morrison formation bed contains some 

oil, as seen near the Florence field. 

Fennernan, N. M., 1905, Geology of the Boulder district, Colorado: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 265, 101 p. [p. 76-98]. 

The development of oil and gas in the Boulder area dates from about 1901. 

The evidence that oil was present consisted of the strong bituminous odor of 

the Benton and Niobrara limestones and shales. Surface indications, consisting of oil seepages and springs, also occur in the area. Some of the springs 

which issue from the Fountain red beds are abundantly coated with oily 

matter, but in none of these was the odor of petroleum detected. The wellknown oil spring on the bank of the Little Thompson River, 17 miles north of 

Boulder, issues from the heavy sandstone member of the Pierre shale, called 

in this report the Hygiene sandstone. Author's text condensed. 

Grout, F. F., Worcester, P. G., and Henderson, Junius, 1913, Reconnaissance 

of the geology of the Rabbit Ears region, Routt, Grand, and Jackson 

Counties: Colorado Geol. Survey Bull. 5, pt. 1, map, p, 1-57 [p. 57]. 

Gilsonite or some related hydrocarbon, probably ozocerite, occurs locally in 

the Dakota sandstone. The most notable occurrence is about 5 miles north of 

Rabbit Ears, where a layer of the Dakota sandstone is sufficiently charged 

with hydrocarbons to give it a black or dark-brown appearance. The extent of 

the layer is probably small, as the Dakota is here faulted out as a block and 
90 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

is not continuous with the hogbacks north and south of it. Authors' text 

condensed. 

Hills, R. C., 1900, Description of the Walsenburg quadrangle [Colorado]: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 68, 6 p., 6 maps. 

About 2 miles north of the Huerfano River, near the west boundary of the 

Walsenburg quadrangle, there are two small dikes of dark-colored basalt. At 

the point where they cut through the bituminous material of the Apishapa 

(Cretaceous) formation, the cavities in the dike rock afford sufficient crude 

oil to soil the hand when the rock is freshly broken. The supposition is that 

the oil has resulted from the action of the lava at a high temperature on the 

adjacent bituminous matter. Author's text condensed. 

Irwin, J. S., 1926, Faulting in the Rocky Mountain region: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 10, no. 2, p. 105-129 [p. 111-113], 7 figs. 

An active oil seep in Gold Run Canyon, 1% miles north of Golden, Colo., is 

evidently caused by the structural relationships induced by faulting.- The seep 

is unique in that the oil emerges from Precambrian gneiss. Apparently, the 

oil originates in the upturned Cretaceous beds that form the footwall of the 

thrust fault. It migrates upward across the fault plane and escapes to the 

surface through joints in the gneiss in the hanging wall. At times, enough oil 

collects in small depressions and on the surface of puddles of water in the 

generally dry creek bed that small bottles can be filled with it. Plastic 

asphaltic material occurs in places, and masses of pebbles and boulders in a 

matrix of dry asphalt resembling the material of bitulithic pavement abound. 

Author's text condensed. 

Lakes, Arthur, 1902, Oil in Colorado: Mines and Minerals, v. 22, p. 256-257. 

At Florence, near Canon City, Colo., oil is found in a shallow synclinal fold 

or basin in the marine shales of the Cretaceous Montana Group. The fold is 

in part overlain by the coal-bearing rocks of the Laramie Cretaceous. The 

exact location of the oil appears to be in a sandy zone near the top of the 

Fort Pierre division of the Montana group. A much lower oil horizon is found 

in the foothills on Oil Creek, 8 miles north of Canon City in the Upper Jurassic rocks. The first discovery of oil in Colorado was made here in the 1820's. 

The oil was heavy and dark and was mined in a crude way, but the deposit 

has not been opened up for many years. The ultimate source of the oil found 

in the Florence Basin may have been this Jurassic horizon or even from still 

lower zones. The sandstones of the Dakota group (Cretaceous) on Turkey 

Creek about 20 miles west of Denver are heavily impregnated with brown 

oil and tarry matter. This oil sand is in an intermediate zone between that in 

the Montana group at Florence and that in the Jurassic on Oil Creek. A similar occurrence 6 miles north of Golden at the same horizon leads to the conclusion that the Dakota group may some day prove to be an important oil 

zone in Colorado. In Boulder County test wells exploring for oil have been 

sunk in the Montana Cretaceous at about the same horizon as at Florence. 

A flow of oil has been obtained from about 2,400 feet. Author's text condensed. 

Larrabee, D. M., Clabaugh, S. E., Griffitts, W. R., Fischer, E. C., Fox, E. L., 

Bryson, R. P., Weeks, R. A., Varnes, D. J., and Rolnick, L. S., compilers, 

1947, Map showing constrnction materials and nonmetallic mineral re-
COLORADO 91 

sources of Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Missouri Basin Studies Map 10, 

with text. 

Asphalt and other bitumens, in some places used as a local source for road 

surfacing or for construction purposes, have been reported in Fremont, Grand, 

Garfield, Moffat, and Rio Blanco Counties. They are said to occur as layers 

between beds, as veins in sandstone and shale, and as seeps in sandstones of 

Tertiary, Cretaceous, and Jurassic age. Bitumens have been mined in Middle 

Park, Park County, and near Rio Blanco in Rio Blanco County. Production 

data are not available but the output probably has been small. Authors' text. 

Lee, H. A., 1899, The asphalt deposits of Middle Park, Colorado: Eng. and 

Mining Jour., v. 67, no. 16, p. 468. 

Interest has been aroused by the discovery of asphalt in Middle Park, Grand 

County, Colo., during 1898. The deposits consist of small fissures in the 

Cretaceous rocks extending along the 106th meridian north of lat 40o as 

described by Hayden. 'l'hese fissures seem to cut the formation which dips to 

the west and seem to be the eastern extremity of the Cretaceous sandstones 

of Utah and western Colorado. The veins vary in size from a mere seam to 

disconnected pockets 4-6 feet wide. The main vein pinches out about 50 feet 

below the surface. The veins show strong volcanic action -the formation is 

heavily stained for considerable distance on both sides of the streak, and the 

action of gasses emitted is noticeable for a distance of 50-100 feet. The 

product is of two kinds. One kind is a hard brownish substance that has a 

smooth fracture, though tough and granular in its structure, and that is 

readily fusible over flame, but it will not melt of itself. This kind, which seems 

to have been subjected to a very high temperature, fills the veins. The other 

kind of product occurs as swells or pockets in the vein, and seems to be a 

secondary flow; it is very brittle and has a conchoidal fracture very similar 

to the uintahite or gilsonite of Utah. In the basin east of these deposits and 

in the area west of Grand Lake, there is an overflow of brea, but its source 

has not been found. Author's text condensed. 

Sears, J. D., 1925, Geology and oil and gas prospects of part of Moffat 

County, Colorado, and southern Sweetwater County, Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 751-G, p. 269-319 [p. 307-319]. 

Oil-saturated sand of the Browns Park formation is seen at two localities. 

For several hundred feet along the bottom of a gulch in sec. 6, T. 9 N., 

R. 100 W., the sandy matrix of the basal conglomerate is heavily saturated 

with oil. There, the Browns Park probably rests upon the upturned edge of 

the Park City formation, in which the oil may have originated. A second and 

smaller area of saturation is just north of the Craig-Vernal road, half a mile 

east of Elk Springs, in sec. 30, T. 5 N., R. 98 W., where the Browns Park 

rests unconformably upon the upper part of the Mancos shale. In sec. 9, 

T. 12 N., R. 98 W., Wyoming, the Green River beds are dragged sharply 

upward on the north side of the fault near Shell Point. A thin sandstone in 

the Green River shale is slightly saturated with oil for a few feet along the 

outcrop; the oil may have come from the oil shale of the Green River or may 

have risen in the fault from some older rocks. Near Marshalls Spring in the 

SW14 sec. 24, T. 9 N., R. 100 W., oil is found in the joints and between the 

laminae of the blocky shale that forms the base of the Mancos shale, and a 
92 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

thin sandstone in this shale is saturated with oil. The sandy matrix of the 

conglomerate in the lower part of the Dakota sandstone is heavily saturated 

with oil for several hundred yards along the outcrop in sec. 23, T. 9 N., 

R. 100 W. Associated faults may have permitted migration of the oil from 

the Park City or some other underlying formation, or the oil may have 

originated in the basal shales of the Mancos, which everywhere contain abundant fish scales. In the SE1,4 sec. 6, T. 9 N., R. 100 W., a 10-foot-thick sandstone in the upper part of the Nugget sandstone shows heavy oil saturation 

for several hundred yards along its outcrop. A small vein of elaterite is 

exposed in the upper part of the Mancos shale near the northwest end of the 

Beaver Creek anticline, in the NE1,4 sec. 34, T. 5 N., R. 90 W. The elaterite 

is a natural bitumen thought to have been formed as residue from petroleum 

escaping through a fault. Author's text condensed. 

Stewart, W. A., 1953, Structure and oil possibilities of the west flank of the 

Denver Basin, north-central Colorado: Colorado School Mines unpub . 

. D.S. thesis 777, 121 p. [p. 104-107], 20 figs., 14 pls. 

There are at least nine known occurrences of bituminous material in the 

foothills belt between Ralston Reservoir and Dutch Creek. They consist of 

live oil seeps, dead oil residues, asphaltic sandstones, solid brittle bitumens, 

and shows in both' oil and water wells. These occurrences are shown on an 

accompanying map. All these occurrences ·are located in the hanging wall of 

the Golden fault. The source of many of these hydrocarbons could be the 

9,000-foot section of marine limestones ~d shales of the Benton, Niobrara, 

and Pierre formations in the footwall of the fault. Trap possibilities are 

almost negligible in the upthrown block; and commercial accumulations, if 

present, are believed to be on the downthrown side of the fault. Author's text 

condensed. 

Van Tuyl, F. M., Johnson, J. H., Waldschmidt, W. A., Boyd, James, and 

Parker, B. H., 1938, Guide to the geology of the Golden area, Colorado: 

Colorado School Mines Quart., v. 33, no. 3, 32 p. [p. 30], 1 pl., geol. map, 

10 figs. 

Several oil seeps occur in this area. Two of these are northwest of Golden, 

and one is near Morrison. At the Morrison locality several hundred tons of 

bituminous sand occur in the upper part of the Dakota sandstone. Petroleum 

has never been produced in coq:tmercial amounts in this area, but the seepages, together with the knowledge that marine sedimentary rocks undoubtedly 

underlie the Precambrian rocks west of the fault trace in the vicinity of 

Golden, lend support to the view that some oil may be impounded. Authors' 

text condensed. 

Van Tuyl, F. M., and McLaren, R. L., 1932, Occurrence of oil in crystalline 

rocks in Colorado: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 16, no. 8, 

p. 769-776. 

The occurrence of oil in crystalline rocks in Colorado includes (1) seepages 

of oil in Precambrian gneiss near Golden, and (2) oil in amygdaloidal cavities 

of basalt dikes on both flanks of the Rocky Mountains in the southern part of 

Colorado. The conclusion is reached that the oil seepage in the gneiss is 

derived from sedimentary rocks, presumably of Dakota age, faulted under the 

Precambrian crystalline rocks during the Laramide revolution. The oil of 
ILLINOIS 93 

the amygdaloidal cavities of basalt is ascribed to the natural distillation of 

organic matter of kerogen-bearing shales penetrated by the intrusion. Authors' 

abstract. 

Vine, J. D., 1957, Grahamite deposits near Willow Creek Pass, Grand County, 

Colorado, in Rocky Mtn. Assoc. Geologists Guide Book to the geology 

of North and Middle Parks basin, Colorado, 1957: p. 125. 

A deposit of asphaltic material, probably grahamite (but which has also 

been called gilsonite), occurs near the Continental Divide between North Park 

and Middle Park, Grand County, Colo. Good samples of asphaltic rock are to 

be found on dumps and in prospect pits. The deposits are at an altitude of 

about 9,500 feet, and the slopes are heavily timbered; consequently, few rock 

exposures can be seen aside from the old workings. According to Eldridge, 

the asphaltic material occurs in steeply pitching veins or fissures up to 6 feet 

thick within a north- or northwest-trending fracture zone. The enclosing beds 

are described as alternating clay, conglomerate, and sandstone in the Middle 

Park formation of Late Cretaceous and Paleocene age. The mines were probably in operation at the time Eldridge made his examination in about 1899. 

The origin of the grahamite near Willow Creek is unknown. The grahamite 

is probably a petroleum derivative, but the possibility also exists that it was 

derived from coal. Author's text condensed. 

Wise, R. A., 1952, Eastern Front Range and foothills geology of central 

Jefferson County, north-central Colorado: Colorado School Mines, unpub. 

D.S. thesis .. 741, 192 p. 

A bituminous seep occurs in Red Rocks Park, immediately west of the main 

parking lot. Gas and oil occurrences in a water well drilled south of the park 

and west of Morrison, and bitumen occurring in the basal limestones of the 

Lykins formation in Glennon Canyon, about 1% miles south of Morrison, are 

described. The oil seep at the dip slope of the Dakota hogback south of Turkey 

Creek has been described by several writers, perhaps the earliest of whom 

was Hayden (1874). Location of these seeps, approximately along a somewhat arcuate alinement, suggests structural kinship. Oil from the three seep 

locations appears to be the same. The evidence cited supports the contention 

of a structural trend, faulting perhaps, connecting the three seepage points 

and along which the oil has been able to migrate from its source. Author's 

text condensed. 

ILLINOIS 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Illinois, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 104-108 [p. 104]. 

In and around Chicago, quarries in the Silurian limestones have exposed 

many small· patches of impregnation- variously referred to as asphalt, tar, 

albertite, and tarry oil -in vugs, pores, and seams. The relationship of these 

accumulations to Silurian reef structure and lithology has been recognized 

and studied extensively, but the hydrocarbon content apparently adds no 

value to the rock and little has been published about it. Author's text condensed. 

460-209 0 - 72 - 7 
94 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

INDIANA 

Author List 

Fuller, M. L., 1903, Asphalt, oil and gas in southwestern Indiana: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 213-H, p. 333-335. 

During the drilling of a well by the Interstate Gas & Oil Co. at Princeton, 

in 1902, a bed of asphalt several feet thick was found, somewhat more than 

100 feet below the Petersburg coal, that has been mined three-quarters of a 

mile west of the well. A similar bed is reported to have been penetrated in 

the old Hall well on the southwest outskirts of Princeton, about 1 mile south 

of the new well. In a mine west of the well, a black substance- known as 

liquid asphalt- has seeped into the bottom of the mine at a depth of 450 feet 

to such an extent that some of the rooms have had to be closed and abandoned. 

This substance is said to enter through a nearly vertical "break" filled with 

clay. Author's text condensed. 

KANSAS 

Subject Index 

Regional 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Jewett, J. M., 1940 

Recovery Methods 

Enright, R. J., 1964 

Goebel, E. D., 1966 

Resources 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Kansas, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. 

Bureau Mines Mon. 12, p. 112-125 [p. 114]. 

Miami, Linn, Bourbon, and Labette Counties, in eastern and southeastern 

Kansas, contain the known surface bituminous rocks and shallow oil fields. 

Additional shallow oil reserves are known in Douglas, Franklin, and Montgomery Counties. The rocks containing the bitumen and oil are Pennsylvanian 

sandstone and limestone of the Des Moines and Missouri Series. The average 

reported thickness of bituminous rock in eastern Kansas is about 4 feet. 

A notable exception, the Pleasanton area deposit, has a maximum thickness 

of 16 feet and an average thickness of 12 feet. The bitumen content at Pleasanton and at Mantey varies from 2.8 to 5.5 percent. Author's summary 

condensed. 

Enright, R. J., 1964, Heavy-oil recovery experiments spread in east Kansas: 

Oil and Gas Jour., v. 62, no. 25, p. 112-114. 

Projects using unconventional means to try to produce the low-gravity oil 

deposits in eastern Kansas are planned or are underway. Fire flooding, steam 

projects, "pusher" floods, and flue-gas-injection operations are all either now 

operating or soon to start in the heavy-oil campaign. Whether projects now 
KENTUCKY 95 

going into operation will find a way to produce the region's heavy-oil sands 

is not yet apparent. 

Goebel, E. D., 1966, Thermal recovery projects are increasing in Kansas and 

Missouri: World Oil, v. 162, no. 4, p. 78-80. 

Both the major and the smaller, independent oil companies are leasing, 

core drilling and experimenting in the 11-county low-gravity-crude area of 

eastern Kansas and western Missouri. Thermal projects in water floods are 

not now prorated in Kansas, and, as a result, the oil companies are applying 

heat to reservoirs through a variety of methods. Target of the most recent 

work has been the Cherokee and Marmaton Group rocks (Bartlesville, Bluejacket, Squirrel, and Peru sands) . The Cherokee Group crops out in southeastern. Kansas. There, asphaltic and tar sands have been quarried and mined 

in the past from Pleasanton and Kansas City rocks. In the easternmost 

counties in Kansas, some of the older fields have a history of a decrease in 

oil gravity with an increase in age of the field. Some fields have recorded 

drops in gravity of as much as 3o over a 10-year period. Migration and 

accumulation were affected by many earth movements, and there was creation 

of fissures and joints in the overlying rocks; locally, gas escaped from these 

fissures, resulting in these low-gravity-crude deposits. Author's text condensed. 

Jewett, J. M., 1940, Asphalt rock in eastern Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey 

Bull. 29, 33 p., with illus., index, and geol. maps. 

The known asphalt rocks in eastern Kansas are Pennsylvanian in age. 

They are the porous limestones and sandstones of the Marmaton group, the 

Bourbon formation, and the Bronson group. They crop out in a band, 15-40 

miles wide, from Miami and Linn Counties southward to Montgomery and 

Labette Counties. Linn County is the only locality in Kansas from which 

asphalt was being produced in 1940. Author's text condensed. 

KENTUCKY 

Subject Index 

Counties with important asphalt deposits 

Breckinridge 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Foerste, A. F., 1910 

Carter 

Crider, A. F., 1913 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

iillson, W. R., 1921b 

Richardson, C. H., 1924 

Edmonson 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Bryant, J. 0., 1914 

Weller, J. M., 1927 

Grayson 

Bryant, J. 0., 1914 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Jillson, W. R., 1921a 

Moore, F. B., 1964 
96 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Counties with important asphalt deposits- Continued 

Grayson- Continued 

Richardson, C. H., 1924 

Swadley, W. C., 1962 

Johnson 

Hauser, R. E., 1953 

Logan 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Richardson, C. H.~ 1910 

Meade 

Foerste, A. F., 1910 

Mining and recovery 

Origin 

Regional 

Jillson, W. R., 1921c 

Moore, F. B., 1964 

Swadley, W. C., 1962 

McFarlan, A. C., 1961 

Morris, Marshall, 1897 

Russell, W. L., 1932 

Russell, W. L., 1933 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Burk, W. E., 1903 

Crump, M. H., 1913 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Jillson, W. R., 1921b 

Jillson, W. R., 1927 

Jillson, W. R., 1928 

McFarlan, A. C., 1961 

Morris, Marshall, 1897 

Richardson, C. H., 1924 

Resources 

Ball Assoc., 1965 

Ball, M. W ., 1951 

Crump, M. H., 1913 

Hauser, R. E., 1953 

Jillson, W. R., 1927 

Jillson, W. R., 1928 

Richardson, C. H., 1924 

Tar seeps 

Russell, W. L., 1932 

Weller, J. M., 1927 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Kentucky, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 125-156 [p. 126]. 

A single trend in Hardin, Grayson, Hart, Edmonson, and Warren Counties 

accounts for most of Kentucky's reserves of oil-impregnated rocks. A large 
KENTUCKY 97 

asphaltic deposit occurs in Logan County, and minor accumulations occur in 

McLean, Breckinridge, Nelson, Estill, Carter, Morgan, and Johnson Counties. 

The oil-impregnated rocks are Pennsylvanian and Mississippian in age. 

Reserves are estimated at more than 500 million tons of oil-impregnated 

material, recoverable from beds, 15 to 30 feet thick, that are covered with 

about 15 feet of overburden. Average bitumen content is 10-15 gallons per 

ton. Author's summary condensed. 

Ball, M. W., 1951, Report on oil-impregnated strippable deposits in Kentucky 

as of May 22, 1950, Appendix C, in The synthetic liquid-fuel potential 

of Kentucky: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Summary report for the 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior: Ford, Bacon & Davis, 

Inc., Engineers. 

Eighteen counties in Kentucky are known to contain oil-impregnated deposits. The largest and most important deposits are in the Pottsville (Pennsylvanian) and Cypress (Mississippian) sandstones in central Kentucky. 

According to estimates as of January 1, 1950, Edmondson and Logan Counties 

appear to have 434 million tons of oil-impregnated material in place, or 347 

million tons recoverable, containing 10-15 gallons of oil per ton in beds 15-35 

feet thick and covered by less than 15 to 35 feet of overburden. In Edmonson 

County, an estimated 4,220 acres contains 196 million tons of recoverable 

oil-impregnated material; the remaining 151 million tons of recoverable 

material in Logan County. The oil-impregnated sands of Kentucky are used 

chiefly for paving. They are composed of fine- to coarse-grained quartz sandstone impregnated with bitumen that is about the consistency of warm tar. 

The bitumen content averages some 3-7 percent by weight, although some 

samples have contained more than 10 percent. Author's text condensed. 

Bryant, J. 0., 1914, The economic geology of a portion of Edmonson and 

Grayson Counties [Kentucky]: Kentucky Geol. Survey [Repts.], 4th ser., 

v. 2, pt. 1, p. 155-218 [p. 189-203]. Also published separately, 66 p., 1914. 

This report gives a detailed description of each asphalt deposit in Edmonson and Grayson Counties, Kentucky. It also contains a section on the proposed uses of asphalt. Paving was the only use for asphalt in 1914. 

Burk, W. E., 1903, Asphalt rock in Kentucky: Eng. and Mining Jour., v. 75, 

no. 26, p. 969-970. 

Deposits of bituminous sandstone or asphalt rock in Kentucky, which occur 

chiefly in Logan, Warren, Edmonson, Butler, Grayson, and Breckinridge 

Counties, occupy a strip that extends through the central part of the State. 

The area of asphalt-bearing rocks apparently follows the line of the coal 

measures and is about 20 miles wide and 50 miles long. The deposits are in 

fine-grained sandstone of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian age. The asphaltic 

material may represent the residual matter from preexisting petroleum beds. 

Author's text condensed. 

Crider, A. F., 1913, The fire clays and fire-clay industries of the Olive Hill 

and Ashland districts of northeastern Kentucky: Kentucky Geol. Survey 

[Repts.], 4th ser., v. 1, pt. 2, p. 589-711 [p. 682-683]. 

An outcrop of asphalt occurs about 1 mile south of Soldier in Carter 

County. It is a coarse-grained sandstone that is completely saturated with oil. 
98 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

There is an interesting relation of the asphalt to the fire clay of this region. 

The asphalt rock occupies a geological horizon just above the fire clay. Were 

it not for the underlying impervious fire clay, the oil in many places would 

not have collected where it has. In some places the oil has found its way into 

pockets in the clay. 

Crump, M. H., 1913, Kentucky rock asphalt: Kentucky Geol. Survey [Rerts.], 

4th ser., v. 1, pt. 2, p. 1053-1065. 

Kentucky rock asphalt is found mainly along the southern and eastern outcrops of the western coal field of Kentucky. Geologically, it is in the Chester 

sandstones and in the lower sandstones of the coal measures, including the 

Conglomerate sandstone. The sandstone has been saturated with petroleum, 

which completely coats each face of every sand grain and, thus, forms a 

cementing material. The content of bituminous matter varies from 5 to 21 

percent. The beds are from 3 to 30 feet thick. The material is usually quarried in opencut. It makes excellent paving laid cold and without mixing it 

with any other asphaltic material, such as tar or artificially prepared asphalt. 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901, Asphalt deposits of Kentucky, in The asphalt and 

bituminous rock deposits of the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Ann. 

Rept., 22d, pt. 1, p. 209-452 [p. 240-259], maps. 

Bitumens in Kentucky occur as impregnations of sandstones. They are the 

result of exposure in outcrop of oil-bearing strata, in which the petroleum 

has been converted by loss of the lighter material and by oxidation into a 

product of asphaltic nature. The bitumens range in age from Late Mississippian to Early Pennsylvanian. Bituminous sandstone deposits in eastern Kentucky occur in Carter County, near Soldier. The sandstone is composed of 

fine to coarse sharp sand grains held together by the bitumen. The bitumen 

content generally ranges from 4 to 6 percent, although locally it is as much 

as 10 percent. In western Kentucky the bituminous sands crop out in a zone 

5-20 miles wide bordering the coal measures. In 1901 quarries were operating 

in Breckinridge, Grayson, Edmonson, Warren, and Logan Counties. 

Foerste, A. F., 1910, Oil, gas, and asphalt rock in Meade and Breckinridge 

Counties [Kentucky]: Kentucky Geol. Survey Rept. Prog., 1908-1909, p. 

69-85. 

Tar Spring is about 3 miles south of Cloverport. Water rising from beneath 

the Tar Spring sandstone carries with it a small quantity of oil, associated 

with a dark-brown sticky substance, for which Tar Spring was named. The 

source of this oil is unknown. The sandstone may be serving as a reservoir, 

rather than as an original source of oil. About 2 miles south of Garfield, the 

Garfield sandstone has become so thoroughly impregnated with the more solid 

parts of the oil that the sandstone has been converted to an asphalt rock. 

Oil must have seeped through the sandstone for a long time, losing the more 

volatile parts by evaporation. The local distribution of this asphalt suggests 

that the sandstone served merely as a channel along which the oil gradually 

seeped upward. The same original source may have supplied both the Garfield 

and Tar Spring sandstones. Author's text condensed. 

Hauser, R. E., 1953, Geology and mineral resources of the Paintsville quadrangle, Kentucky: Kentucky Geol. Survey Bull., ser. 9, v. 13, 80 p. 

[p. 69-70], ill us. and geol. map. 
KENTUCKY 99 

All saturated sandstone is found within the Lee formation in the western 

part of the Paintsville quadrangle along Paint Creek and its tributaries. This 

natural asphalt, 50-75 feet below the top of the Lee formation, ranges in 

thickness from 4 to 12 feet at outcrop. Thicknesses as much as 90 feet have 

been reported from oil and gas wells, but these are not confirmed. 

Jillson, W. R., 1921a, Geology of oil and gas in Grayson County [Kentucky], 

in Economic papers on Kentucky geology- An indexed collection of 

thirteen short papers and reports on the geology and special occurrence 

of oil and gas, oil shale, asphalt rock, and fluorspar within the Commonwealth: Kentucky Geol. Survey [Repts.], ser. 6, v. 2, 304 p. [p. 186-187]. 

Asphalt and asphaltic sandstone occur in considerable quantities in several 

places in Grayson County. They also are found in Edmonson County, to the 

south, and in Breckinridge County, to the north. The asphalt deposits have 

been worked in the southern part of Grayson County and in the northern part 

of Edmonson County. Other deposits have been worked at Tar Hill, a few 

miles west of Big Clifty, in the northern part of Grayson County. Author's 

text. 

Jillson, W. R., 1921b, Kentucky rock asphalt- The ideal road surface, in 

Economic papers on Kentucky geology - An indexed collection of thirteen 

short papers and reports on the geology and special occurrence of oil 

and gas, oil shale, asphalt rock, and fluorspar within the Commonwealth: 

Kentucky Geol. Survey [Repts.], ser. 6, v. 2, 304 p. [p. 39-57]. 

Kentucky asphalt rock occurs in its natural position as an asphaltimpregnated sand, 5-40 feet thick, along the eastern and southeastern 

border of the western coal field in Hart, Grayson, Edmonson, Warren, 

Butler, Logan, Breckinridge, and adjoining counties. Asphaltic sandstone 

has also been found on Soldier and Mocabee Creeks in Carter County, and 

in the cliffs of Big Paint Creek and its tributaries in Johnson County and 

adjacent parts of Morgan and Magoffin Counties. The asphalt is in the 

Chester sandstones of Mississippian age and in the overlying Pottsville 

conglomerate sandstone of Pennsylvanian age. Commercially, the best and 

most workable deposits are in the Pottsville in west-central Kentucky. This 

report contains a section on mining and preparation of the asphalt rock 

for paving. 

Jillson, W. R., 1921c, A new method of producing crude oil in Kentucky: 

Kentucky Geol. Survey [Rept.], ser. 6, v. 6, p. 149-154. 

Experimental work was done at Ravenna, Estill County, Ky., on "mining" 

crude oil. An 8- by 12-foot shaft was sunk 130 feet through the Chatanooga 

(Devonian) shale to the underlying oil sand, the Onondaga limestone. Oil 

was produced from the Onondaga in quantities averaging 2 to 3 barrels 

per day. The practicality of this venture had not been proved by the time 

this report was written. 

Jillson, W. R., 1927, Kentucky rock asphalt, in The topography of KentuckyA systematic study and classification of all the prominent physical 

features of Kentucky coupled with an indexed collection of twenty-four 

separate papers on the geology and mineral resources of the Commonwealth: Kentucky Geol. Survey [Repts.], ser. 6, v. 30, 291 p. [p. 95-103]. 
100 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

The term "rock asphalt" has become standard for bituminous sandstones 

sufficiently impregnated with petroliferous residues of an asphaltic nature as 

to contain 5 to 15 percent bitumen. The rock asphalts of Kentucky are well 

exemplified in type deposits, ranging in thickness from 20 to 50 feet, in 

west-central Kentucky, in Edmonson, Hart, Grayson, Breckinridge, Warren, 

and Logan Counties. Stratigraphically, these deposits occur in the Chester 

(Upper Mississippian) and Pottsville (Lower Pennsylvanian) rocks. The 

asphalts of the older, Chester rocks are the more widely distributed. This 

report contains a sketch map of the Chester and Pottsville rock asphalts 

in Kentucky. 

Jillson, W. R., 1928, The geology and mineral rt!sources of Kentucky: 

Kentucky Geol. Survey [Repts.], ser. 6, v. 17, 409 p. [p. 134, 143, 155, 

225, 373]. 

This is a county by county evaluation of the geology and mineral resources 

of Kentucky. The asphalt deposits of Grayson, Hardin, Logan, and Warren 

Counties are discussed. 

McFarlan, A. C., 1961, Rock asphalt, in Geology of Kentucky: Lexington, 

Ky., Kentucky Univ., 531 p. [p. 382-384]. 

Kentucky rock asphalt is a coarse-grained sandstone thoroughly impregnated with bitumen that is about the consistency of warm tar. The bitumen 

content varies from a trace to complete saturation. Commercial rock is 

virtually saturated, but, because of differences in original porosity, the 

bitumen content varies from 3 or 4 percent to about 15 percent. Edmonson 

County leads in asphalt production, and Grayson County is second. The 

deposits in Edmonson County are mainly in the basal sandstone of the 

Caseyville sandstone and in the overlying Bee Spring sandstone, where it 

forms the base of the Pottsville. The Kentucky rock asphalt deposits are 

actually "defunct" oil pools. The asphalt beds are, thus, oil sands from 

which the more volatile hydrocarbons have been lost. Alteration was begun 

by ground-water circulation while the oil sand was still buried. Exposure to 

the atmosphere completed the process. Author's text condensed. 

Moore, F. B., 1964, Geology of the Summit quadrangle, Kentucky: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map GQ-298, with sections and text. 

Two quarries near Summit in the upper part of the Big Clifty Sandstone 

Member were worked for rock asphalt until the late 1930's, when depletion 

of reserves led to their abandonment. Author's text condensed. 

Morris, Marshall, 1897, Kentucky bituminous rock: Eng. and Mining Jour., 

v. 63, no. 2, p. 46. 

Bituminous rock deposits are found in Breckinridge, Grayson, Edmonson, 

and Logan Counties, Ky. There is little doubt that these deposits were once 

oil-bearing sands, which, by long exposure, have been oxygenized, leaving the 

rock impregnated with the last residue of the series, naphtha, petroleum, 

mineral tar, and asphaltum. The impregnated rock is not found in distinct 

veins with well-defined partings from bed to roof, as is true of coal, but more 

in the shape of pockets or pools of greater or lesser area, and varying in 

thickness from the rim to the center of the basin. The greatest known thickness is 10 feet. It cannot be economically removed by tunneling or mining, but 
KENTUCKY 101 

must be stripped of the overlying sandstone and partially impregnated rock. 

The sandstone is a fine-grained white sand- nearly pure silica. The bitumen 

content is as much as 12 percent, but the average "good" material contains 

about 8 percent. Author's text condensed. 

Richardson, C. H., 1924, The road materials of Kentucky: Kentucky Geol. 

Survey [Rept.], ser. 6, v. 22, 209 p. [p. 54, 84, 158-162, 168]. 

Sandstones impregnated to various degrees with asphaltic material occur at 

Soldier, in western Carter County. The deposit is estimated to be 3 miles long 

and three-quarters of a mile wide. It ranges in thickness from 4 to 22 feet. 

The asphalt content averages 7 percent. There are several rock asphalt 

deposits in Grayson County; some are being produced, whereas others still 

need careful core drilling and analyses before their value is known. In Logan 

County, sandstones impregnated with a thick tarry oil were worked 4 miles 

northeast of Russelville. Some of these deposits were 18 to 20 feet thick. 

Author's text condensed. 

Russell, W. L., 1932, Geology of oil and gas fields of western Kentucky: Am. 

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 16, no. 3, p. 231-254. 

Though in Paleozoic formations, the oil field of western Kentucky is exceptionally rich in surface indications, partly because of the shallow depth of the 

pools and because of the nearby exposure of the producing strata. The surface indications consist of oil and gas seeps and of sandstones and limestones 

impregnated with asphalt or tarry substances. Oil and gas seeps occur in 

outcrops of the Silurian and Devonian limestones on the east side of the basin 

and along the Rough Creek anticline in McLean and Webster Counties. 

Asphaltic sandstones are plentiful in the Chester series on the east and southeast sides of the basin. Most surface indications are at the outcrops of horizons that produce oil. The seeps along the Rough Creek anticline, where lower 

Pennsylvanian and even Chester rocks are at the surface, may be caused by 

migration of the oil updip through the tilted strata, or they may be due to 

vertical migration along the fault planes. Author's text condensed. 

Russell, W. L. 1933, The origin of the asphalt deposits of western Kentucky: 

Econ. Geology, v. 28, no. 6, p. 571-586, 2 figs. incl. map. 

Some of the asphalt deposits have accumulated along faults, where they 

form structural traps for oil moving updip; however, in general, the deposits 

are not related to faults. The oil from which the asphalt was derived probably 

did not come from the Chatanooga shale. In some places, the oil which formed 

the asphalt moved a few miles updip, but its movement was generally less 

than 15 miles. The field relations suggest the oil from which the asphalt was 

produced was generated from shales of the Chester series that yield ammonia 

on distillation, but Osage, lower St. Louis, and Chester bituminous rocks may 

also be considered possible sources. Author's conclusions. 

Swadley, W. C., 1962, Geology of the Big Clifty quadrangle, Kentucky: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Geol. Quad. Map GQ-192, with sections and text. 

Asphaltic sandstone in the Big Clifty Sandstone Member of the Golconda 

Formation has been mined for rock asphalt for road-surfacing material. Two 

mines (1.9 miles south of Tar Hill, and 1.0 mile southwest of Big Clifty) 

were worked intermittently and then abandoned during the 1930's. They are 
102 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

marked by partially caved adits. Asphaltic sandstone has been extensively 

mined for rock asphalt· from the basal beds of the Caseyville Formation of 

Early Pennsylvanian age in areas south of this quadrangle. Author's text 

condensed. 

Weller, J. M., 1927, The geology of Edmonson County [Kentucky]: Kentucky 

Geol. Survey [Rept.], ser. 6, v. 28, 246 p. [p. 199-215], 56 figs. and pls. 

Rock asphalt deposits occur in Logan, Warren, Edmonson, Grayson, Hardin, 

Breckinridge, and Hancock Counties. The deposits in Edmonson County are, 

by far, the most important economically and have had the most development 

-1% million tons of rock asphalt had been produced by 1927. Kentucky rock 

asphalt has its chief market as a material for surfacing streets and highways. 

In Edmonson County, sandstones of Chester and Pottsville age are impregnated with enough bitumen to be considered rock asphalt. Local exploration 

of the asphalt beds has been quite erratic, despite their wide occurrence. 

These beds pinch and swell, thickening and thinning without apparent cause. 

The freshly broken rock asphalt has a dense black surface upon which the 

individual sand grains cannot be seen because of their coating of bitumen. 

High-grade rock is sticky to the touch. When struck with a hammer, the highgrade rock does not break into small pieces or disintegrate; rather, it mashes 

into a flat, compact mass. In some places the bitumen that impregnates the 

sandstone issues in such quantities as to be called "tar springs." The bitumen 

is clearly derived from petroleum. At one time, the entire asphalt district was 

an oil field, and the asphaltic beds are actually fossil-oil sands from which 

the more volatile hydrocarbons have escaped. Author's text condensed. 

. Asphalt associated with copper 

Carlson, C. G., 1932 

Devonian 

Dundee Formation 

Sherzer, W. H., 1913 

Oil seeps 

Sherzer, W. H., 1900 

Sherzer, W. H., 1913 

Ordovician 

Trenton Limestone 

MICHIGAN 

Subject Index 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Michigan, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 159-160 [p. 160]. 

Most of Michigan is blanketed by glacial deposits, and outcrops of Paleozoic 

formations cover only a very small area. One oil-impregnated limestone is 

reported in the Ordovician of the Upper Peninsula. It is an asphalt-impregnation of the upper Trenton limestone. Here a dark bituminous limestone 

crops out over a large area in the vicinity of the Rapid and White Fish 
MISSISSIPPI 103 

Rivers. One locality is reported to have a 300-foot-thick deposit of oily and 

bituminous limestone. Oil is reported to impregnate the rock, and "asphaltum 

gum" fills fissures and cavities. 

Carlson, C. G., 1932, Bitumen in Nonesuch formation of Keweenawan series 

of northern Michigan: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 16, no. 

8, p. 737-740. 

The bituminous matter in the Nonesuch formation is found as a cement in 

the sandstones of this formation and in fractures and fissures related to crossfaulting. Pieces weighing as much as 20 pounds composed largely of bitumen 

have been obtained from cross-faults at the White Pine and White Pine 

Extension mines. Much of the disseminated bitumen is closely associated with 

native copper. The copper replaces the chlorite fringe around the bitumen and 

part of the adjacent mineral or rock grains. The bitumen, therefore, was 

present in the Nonesuch beds prior to the deposition of the copper. The maximum amount of bituminous cementing material is about 2 percent. The black 

shales of the Nonesuch formation appear to be the most probable source 

material of the bitumen. These shales are bituminous and yield a tarry distillate when heated in a glass tube. Author's text condensed. 

Sherzer, W. H., 1900, Geological report on Monroe County, Michigan: Michigan Geol. Survey, v. 7, pt. 1, 240 p. [p. 190-191], map. 

There is an area containing strong surface indications of oil and combustible natural gas in the northwestern part of Monroe County, Mich. The oil 

impregnates the rocks and forms a scum on the surfaces of ponds, streams, 

and wells. The oil is associated with the St. Clair, Traverse, and Dundee 

formations. 

Sherzer, W. H., 1913, Geological report on Wayne County [Michigan]: Michigan Geol. Survey Pub. 12, Geol. Ser. 9, 388 p., maps. 

In southeastern Michigan and western Ontario, the Dundee formation 

(Devonian) is mainly a pure limestone containing scattered nodules, seams, 

and thin strata of chert. The beds commonly give a strong odor of oil and 

show drops of thick black bituminous matter in small cavities. In Ontario and 

near Port Huron, the formation yields oil and gas where structural conditions 

have been favorable. Author's text condensed. 

MISSISSIPPI 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Mississippi, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. 

Bur. Mines Mon. 12, p. 161-164 [p. 161]. 

The known petroleum-impregnated outcrops in Mississippi are in the 

extreme northeast, in Tishomingo County. These are outcrops of asphaltic 

oolites in the Gasper and Bethel formations that extend west from Alabama. 

These formations are part of the Lower Bangor limestones and shales of 

Mississippian (Chester) age. 

Lowe, E. N., 1919, Oil and gas prospecting in Mississippi: Mississippi Geol. 

Survey Bull. 15, 80 p., 1 pl., 1 fig., 1 map. 
104 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

The extensive arching of the Cincinnati anticline passes through central 

Kentucky and Tennessee into northwestern Alabama and finds expression in 

the rocks of northeastern Mississippi. Mississippian age beds present are 

called the Lauderdale chert, Tuscumbia limestone, and Hartselle sandstone. 

Both limestones and sandstones are often bituminous, and in adjacent counties 

_of Tennessee and Alabama, oil shows, gas, and tar springs are frequent. 

Author's text condensed. 

MISSOURI 

Subject Index 

Analyses 

Dake, C. L., 1918b 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Searight, W. V., 1967 

Counties with asphalt deposits 

Barton 

Buckley, E. R., and Buehler, H. A., 1904 

Crabtree, E. H., and Netzeband, W. F., 1935 

Dake, C. L., 1918b 

Cass 

Clair, J. R., 1943 

Lafayette 

Dake, C. L., 1918a 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Vernon 

Crabtree, E. H., and Netzeband, W. F., 1935 

Dake, C. L., 1918b 

Greene, F. C., and Pond, W. F., 1926 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Mining and quarrying operations 

Bishop, 0. M., 1950 

Regional 

Buckley, E. R., and Buehler, H. A., 1904 

Clair, J. R., 1943 

Crabtree, E. H., and Netzeband, W. F., 1935 

Anderson, K. H., and Wells, J. S., 1967 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Bishop, 0. M., 1950 

Dake, C. L., 1918b 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Enright, R. J., 1964 

Searight, W. V., 1957 

Searight, W. V., 1967 

Smith, W. S. T., and Siebenthal, C. E., 1908 

Wells, J. S., and Anderson, K. H., 1968 

Wilson, M. E., 1922 

Recovery methods 

Anderson, K. H., and Wells, J. S., 1967 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Enright, R. J., 1964 

Marx, J. W., and Trantham, J. C., 1965 
MISSOURI 105 

Recovery methods - Continued 

Trantham, J. C., and Marx, J. W., 1966 

Valleroy, V. V., Willman, B. T., Campbell, J. B., and Powers, L. W., 

1967 

Wells, J. S., and Anderson, K. H., 1968 

Resources 

Greene, F. C., and Pond, W. F., 1926 

Author List 

Anderson, K. H., and Wells, J. S., 1967, Oil and gas, in Mineral and water 

resources of Missouri: Missouri Div. Geol. Survey and Water Resources 

[Rept.], 2d ser., v. 43, p. 243-252. 

Low-gravity high-viscosity oil has been known in western Missouri for at 

least 100 years. It has been reported as "tar springs," as "pitch," as "asphalt," 

and commonly described simply as "heavy oil." The material ranges from a 

true oil of low gravity and high viscosity present at shallow depths to a 

bituminous, or asphaltic, residue developed where the oil-bearing formations 

occur at or near the surface. The viscous low-gravity oils of western Missouri 

occur in sandstones of the middle and lower parts of the Cherokee Group. 

The oil-bearing sands are widespread and occur over large areas at depths 

of only a few hundred feet. The low-viscosity low-gravity material is differentiated from the producible Missouri crudes, whose gravity may average 27 

or 28 and which can be produced by pumping, with additional recovery 

through water flooding. Author's text condensed. 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Missouri, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 164-192 [p. 167]. 

Oil-impregnated rocks occur at or near the surface in 21 counties in western 

Missouri. Mississippian age asphaltic rocks occur in the zinc-lead-mining area 

of Jasper County and along the outcrop of the Pennsylvanian-Mississippian 

contact. The Boone Formation contains most of these Mississippian deposits 

-asphaltic limestones averaging 10 feet thick. One isolated Mississippian 

asphaltic sandstone is in Barry County in the Batesville Formation. Asphaltic 

sandstones of Pennsylvanian age are most numerous throughout western 

Missouri, especially in Vernon County, where they have the greatest aggregate thickness (30 feet): They are reported in six formations in the Des 

Moines and Missouri rocks, chiefly in the Cherokee Shale and Pleasanton 

Group. Bituminous limestones are found in the Pennsylvanian Bethany Falls 

and Fort Scott Formations. Missouri rock asphalts range in bitumen content 

from a trace to 15 percent. Shell Oil Co. is experimenting with a pilot thermaloil-recovery project in Vernon County. Author's text condensed. 

Bishop, 0. M., 1950, The mineral industry of Missouri in 1948: Missouri Div. 

Geol. Survey and Water Resources Inf. Circ. 6, 21 p. [p. 5], table. 

Asphaltic sandstone of Pennsylvanian age crops out in several counties of 

western and southwestern Missouri. Mining operations in Barton or Vernon 

Counties have produced several tens of thousands of tons of asphaltic sandstone, which has been used as paving material in Missouri, Kansas, Illinois, 

Indiana, Nebraska, and Iowa. 
106 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Buckley, E. R., and Buehler, H. A., 1904, The Liberal Stone and Coal Co. 

quarries, in The quarrying industry of Missouri: Missouri Bur. Geology 

and Mines [Rept.], 2d ser., v. 2, 371 p. [p. 263-265], maps. 

The asphaltic sandstone quarry of the Liberal Stone and Coal Co. is 2 miles 

north of Liberal in the NW1,4SE% sec. 23, T. 33 N., R. 33 W. The sandstone 

is very fine grained and micaceous, and has a black appearance, owing to the 

asphalt content. The stone is sawed parallel to the bedding and cut into pieces 

suitable for crosswalks, sidewalks, and curbing. The large amount of asphalt 

in the stone causes moisture absorption to ·be very low compared with that of 

rock from other quarries. On the sawed surface, weathering sometimes loosens 

small pieces which fall away, leaving shallow depressions in the stone. Samples of both ordinary and asphaltic sandstones from this quarry were tested 

to determine their strength and durability. The results of these tests show the 

superior quality of the asphaltic over the ordinary yellow sandstone. The 

asphaltic sandstone has a higher strength; the porosity is about one-third 

that of the yellow sandstone; and for the samples tested, the asphaltic sandstone lost nothing in strength through freezing and thawing, whereas the 

yellow sandstone lost about 33 Vs percent. Authors' text condensed. 

Clair, J. R., 1943, The oil and gas resources of Cass and Jackson Counties, 

Missouri: Missouri Div. Geol. Survey and Water Resources [Rept.], 2d 

ser., v. 27, 208 p. [p. 24-25], illus., incl. geol. maps. 

In the old Weiser rock quarry in sec. 8, T. 44 N., R. 33 W., just west of the 

village of West Line, the upper 2 to 3 feet of the Bethany Falls, which is 

generally nodular, becomes very oolitic. This oolitic zone is so saturated with 

heavy oil that, on extremely hot summer days, the quarry face will "bleed" 

oil. This condition seems to be restricted to this area in Gass County, although 

it has been reported to occur at other exposures in this immediate vicinity. 

Author's text modified. 

Crabtree, E. H., and Netzeband, W. F., 1935, Quarry and plant of Reliance 

Rock Asphalt Co.: Mining and Metallurgy, v. 16, no. 339, p. 159. 

The asphalt-bearing sandstones are found at two general horizons in Barton and Vernon Counties- one near the base of the Cherokee (Bartlesville), 

and the other higher up in a sandstone that may be the equivalent of the 

Red Fork sand of Oklahoma. This upper sand is the productive sandstone at 

the Reliance Rock Asphalt plant. The lower sandstone has been found impregnated with asphalt for a thickness of as much as 30 feet, but the usual 

thickness of the asphalt-bearing part is less than 20 feet. The upper sandstone is impregnated with commercial quantities of asphalt, for a thickness 

of 10 to 15 feet, which is covered by an overburden, commonly 5 to 10 Ieet 

thick, of lean asphalt-bearing sandstone. The bitumen content of the sandstones varies from a trace in the noncommercial parts to as much as 14 

percent by weight. Authors' text condensed. 

Dake, C. L., 1918a, The Higginsville deposit, in The sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines [Rept.], 2d ser., 

v. 15, 274 p. [p. 186-188]. 

The Higginsville deposit of bituminous sandstone is exposed in a dry 

creekbed three-quarters of a mile northwest of Higginsville, in Lafayette 

County. The deposits occur in the Warrensburg sandstone of Pennsylvanian 
MISSOURI 107 

age. The sandstone itself, where not filled with bitumen, is a light gray, 

micaceous, fine grained, and even textured. The individual grains are mostly 

well rounded or subangular, and cemented together rather loosely; as a result, 

the rock is friable and easily cut with a pick. Where it is saturated with 

bitumen, the rock is dark brown to black, but exposed surfaces lose the bitumen through evaporation, which indicates that the bituminous material contains little asphaltine (7.4 percent). Author's text condensed. 

Dake, C. L., 1918b, The sand and gravel resources of Missouri: Missouri Bur. 

Geology and Mines [Rept.], 2d ser., v. 15, 274 p. [p. 181-189]. 

Sandstone containing bitumen occurs extensively in western Missouri, where 

the Lower Pennsylvanian strata crop out. The bituminous matter is a heavy 

black crude, rather than a true asphalt. These bituminous sandstones occur 

mainly in Barton, Vernon, Bates, Cass, Lafayette, and Cedar Counties; also, 

lesser amounts occur in Jackson, Ray, Carroll, and Caldwell Counties. The 

most extensive deposits are those in northern Barton and southern Vernon 

Counties. The bituminous sandstones occur in the Lower Pennsylvanian rocks 

- the Cherokee shale, the Henrietta and Pleasonton formations, and the 

Warrensburg sandstone. The most extensive deposits are in the Cherokee 

shale. The bitumen present is probably the result of inspissation of crude 

petroleum originally contained in the sandstone, through exposure and consequent evaporation. At most localities, the bituminous matter is chiefly a 

heavy black viscous oil, which flows readily in warm weather. Two analyses 

of the bitumen from Vernon County show 10.5 and 12.5 percent asphaltine, 

and 87.5 and 89.5 percent petrolene. Relative to the use of crushed rock for 

paving, the fact that the bitumen is chiefly a petroleum instead of an asphalt 

is an unfavorable factor. The average percentage of asphaltine is much lower 

than the average for the Oklahoma deposits, which is 21-28 percent. 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901, Missouri asphalt deposits, in The asphalt and bituminous rock deposits of the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept., 

22d, pt. 1, p. 209-452 [p. 259-261], maps. 

The only asphalt deposits known when this report was written were in the 

region around Higginsville, Lafayette County, and near Odessa, 15 miles to 

the west. The deposits occur in the Pennsylvanjan Warrensburg sandstone, 

an apparent channel deposit. 

Enright, R. J., 1964, Heavy oil- A billion-barrel prize: Oil and Gas Jour., 

v. 62, no. 24, p. 41-44. 

There is a vast reserve of heavy oil just below the surface in blanket-type 

sands covering several hundred square miles in the Kansas-Missouri border 

area. This huge hydrocarbon deposit lies at very shallow depths along the 

eastern rim of the Cherokee basin. The sands lap over the Bourbon arch in 

the Vernon County, Mo., area, and continue northward, gradually deepening, 

to the south edge of Kansas City, in Jackson County. Only Shell Oil Co. was 

testing the feasibility of commercial production from these sands in June 

1964, but one or two other major companies were planning tests. All use 

either the steam or fire-flood techniques. 

Greene, F. C., and Pond, W. F., 1926, The geology of Vernon County 

[Missouri]: Missouri Bur. Geology and Mines [Rept.], 2d ser., v. 19, 

152 p. [p. 109-115], 14 figs., 14 pls., incl. map. 
108 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Sandstones containing bitumen and asphaltic material crop out in several 

places in Vernon County and have been found in wells and drill holes. Most 

occurrences are in the Clear Creek sandstone member of the Cherokee formation, but a few thin ledges are found higher in the Cherokee and in the sandstones of the Labette shale member of the overlying Henrietta formation. 

In those occurrences likely to prove commercially valuable, there is at least 

10 feet, and in places 30 feet, of bituminous material over a considerable area, 

mostly under less than 5 feet of overburden. The bitumen forms the cementing 

material, and when it is removed, the rock crumbles easily. The averag·e 

bitumen content is probably less than 10 percent. The bitumen is derived from 

crude petroleum, through the evaporation of lighter constituents near the 

sandstone outcrop. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957, Missouri, in Reconnaissance for uranium in asphaltbearing rocks in the Western United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

1046-E, p. 55-85 [p. 76], ill us., incl. geol. sketch map. 

The asphalt deposits in all five areas examined in Vernon County, Mo., 

occur in one or more lenticular sandstone beds in the Cherokee shale (Pennsylvanian). The rock containing the asphalt is mainly fine-grained micaceous 

quartzose sandstone. Most of the samples collected in Missouri do not contain 

above-average amounts of uranium; however, one sample from the Ellis area 

yielded 0.40 percent uranium in the ash of the extracted oil. Author's text 

condensed. 

Marx, J. W., and Trantham, J. C., 1965, Reverse combustion produces altered 

crude oil: Oil and Gas Jour., v. 63, no. 20, p. 123-127 [p. 123]. 

Results from a 3-year field test in a Missouri tar sand and from laboratory 

tests on a Venezuelan crude show differences between oil in place and that 

produced from a counterflow in-situ-combustion process. Counterflow combustion in which air flows in a direction opposite to that of the fire front is 

needed in reservoirs where the heat-thinned crude congeals on contact with 

cool reservoir rock, shutting off air. Forward combustion cannot be maintained in such places, and examples of this are found in the tar sands of 

Missouri and in some Venezuelan reservoirs. In forward combustion, the 

crude is produced with little change in reservoir conditions, whereas that 

produced by counterflow or reverse combustion is a distilled product. 

Searight, W. V., 1957, Asphaltic rocks in western Missouri: Missouri Div. 

Geol. Survey and Water Resourtes Inf. Circ. 13, 26 p. 

Bituminous sandstones and limestones are present at or near the surface in 

21 or more counties of western Missouri. These rocks range in stratigraphic 

position from the Batesville sandstone of Mississippian age upward into the 

Raytown limestone of Pennsylvanian age. The bituminous matter is a residue 

derived from petroleum which originally contained both paraffins and asphalt, 

together with naphthenes and aromatics. Modification of the original matter 

results from loss of volatile aromatics by evaporation and by complex chemical changes attendant to weathering. Processed bituminous sandstones from 

Missouri have been marketed to some extent for city paving where traffic is 

relatively light, surfacing of private driveways, tennis courts, and similar 

projects. Some of the bituminous matter is appreciably radioactive, but none 

is known to contain radioactive matter in sufficient quantity to be of commercial value. Author's abstract. · 
MISSOURI 109 

This report includes a map of western Missouri, showing the locations of 

asphaltic rock. 

Searight, W. V., 1967, Asphaltic sandstone, in Mineral and water resources 

of Missouri: Missouri Div. Geol. Survey and Water Resources [Rept.], 

2d ser., v. 43, p. 155-157. 

Sandstones and limestones impregnated with bituminous matter lie at or 

near the surface in at least 21 counties in western Missouri. The bituminous 

matter is a residue derived from petroleum that has lost most of the volatile 

aromatics by evaporation and chemical change. The bituminous content is as 

much as 15.2 percent by volume, or 6.4 percent by weight. The sandstones 

of the Krebs Subgroup of the Cherokee Group are the best known and the 

most readily available, particularly the sandstone of the Bluejacket Formation 

in Vernon and Barton Counties. Continuity of sands from area to area has 

not been established, but several areas in Vernon and Barton Counties are 

underlain by as much as 30 feet of such rocks. Author's text condensed. 

Smith, W. S. T., and Siebenthal, C. E., 1908, Description of the Joplin district 

[Mo.-Kans.]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 148, 20 p. [p. 13], 

maps. 

Bitumen, known as "tar" by the miners, is found in various amounts in all 

rocks of the Joplin district. Its occurrence in appreciable quantity, however, 

is generally restricted to the vicinity of the ore deposits. Though usually in 

small quantity, the bitumen is locally sufficient to interfere with the milling 

of the ores and, in a few places, to clog the pumps. The source of the bitumen 

in the mines is probably the Boone limestone, for bitumen is most abundant 

in the ores where limestone predominates in the adjacent country rocks. 

Authors' text condensed. 

Trantham, J. C., and Marx, J. W., 1966, Bellamy field tests- Oil from tar by 

counterflow underground burning: Soc. Petroleum Engineers, Am. Inst. 

Mining, Metall., and Petroleum Engineers Trans., v. 237, pt. 1, p. 109-115. 

From 1955 to 1958 the Phillips Petroleum Co. conducted a series of smallscale counterflow-combustion field tests in a tar sand, about 60 feet deep and 

6-12 feet thick, near Bellamy, Mo. Direct-drive ignition followed by reversal 

to counterflow operation was not possible in this tar sand because of formation plugging by the semisolid tar during the direct-drive phase. Substantial 

counterflow burning was achieved with wellbore fuel packs under controlled 

conditions, which permitted close correlation of fire-front velocity, air velocity, 

air-oil ratios, and yields for a wide variation in process parameters. The tar 

in place was about 10° API, with a reservoir viscosity greater than 500,000 

centipoise. The volume of oil recovered during stabilized line-drive counterflow burning represented about 67 percent of the volume of tar originally in 

place in the burned-out zones. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Valleroy, V. V., Willman, B. T., Campbell, J. B., and Powers, L. W., 1967, 

Deerfield pilot test of oil recovery by steam drive: Soc. Petroleum 

Engineers, Am. Inst. Mining, Metall. and Petroleum Engineers Trans., 

v. 240, pt. 1, p. 956-964. 

A steam drive of heavy oil was field tested in a shallow low-oil-saturation 

formation near Deerfield, Mo. The pilot was conducted in the Warner forma460-209 0 - 72 - 8 
110 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

tion, a sandstone containing an 18° API oil having 1,000 centipoise viscosity 

at the 60°F original reservoir temperature. The formation was at a depth of 

160 feet. From the test area about 7,000 barrels of oil were produced. This 

field test of a steam drive demonstrated the feasibility of the method, confirmed that the low residual-oil saturatio"YJ.s observed in the laboratory are 

obtained in the steam-swept region of the field, and provided recovery and 

conformance data for one set of field conditions. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Wells, J. S., and Anderson, K. H., 1968, Heavy oil in western Missouri: Am. 

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 52, no. 9, p. 1720-1731. 

Low-gravity high-viscosity oil is present in discontinuous sandstone bodies 

at shallow depths in at least 21 western Missouri counties. Asphaltic sandstone beds are present from the lower Cherokee (Middle Pennsylvanian) 

section in Barton and Vernon Counties to the upper Pleasanton (Upper Pennsylvanian) section in Lafayette and Carroll Counties. Bitumen deposits are 

present in Mississippian and Pennsylvanian limestone beds. Pilot thermalrecovery projects in Vernon and Cass Counties have produced a composite oil 

product of 15°-21 o API gravity; the original reservoir oil was 10° or less API 

gravity. The recoverable oil of 25°-28° API gravity at depth in the northern 

part of the area changes to highly viscous low-gravity oil in the southern part 

toward the outcrop of the reservoir rocks. Isolated concentrations of heavy oil 

and the discontinuous nature of sandstone bodies are attributed to depositional 

environments resulting from minor tectonic movements and the former 

presence of structural features. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Wilson, M. E., 1922, The occurrence of oil and gas in Missouri: Missouri Bur. 

Geology and Mines [Rept.], 2d ser., v. 16, 284 p. [p. 19-21, 250-258], 

11 pis., incl. maps. 

Asphaltic sandstone is found in outcrop in Barton, Vernon, Bates, Caldwell, 

Ray, Carroll, Lafayette, Johnson, Cedar, St. Clair, Hickory, and Barry Counties. Known outcrops of asphaltic limestone of Pennsylvanian age are 

restricted to Bates, Cass, Jackson, and Caldwell Counties, the most important 

being in west-central Cass County. With the exception of the Mississippian 

limestone beds, which probably received their bitumen from the Pennsylvanian, 

the asphaltic sandstones and limestone are all Pennsylvanian in age. The 

asphaltic sandstones occur in the Cherokee, Henrietta, Pleasanton, and 

Warrensburg formations. The only asphaltic formation of Late Pennsylvanian 

age is the Bethany Falls limestone in Cass, Jackson, and Caldwell Counties. 

The bituminized strata are distributed stratigraphically from the base of the 

Cherokee formation to the lower part of the Kansas City formation, a little 

more than 700 feet of strata. The most important and extensive deposits are 

in the Cherokee, Pleasanton, and Warrensburg formations. Author's text 

condensed. 

Analyses 

MONTANA 

Subject Index 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 
Cretaceous 

Stebinger, Eugene, 1918 

Regional 

MONTANA 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Pennsylvanian · 

Tensleep Sandstone 

Thorn, W. T., 1923 

Stillwater Basin 

Calvert, W. R., 1917 

Triassic 

Chugwater Formation 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Knappen, R. S., and Moulton, G. F., 1931 

Author List 

111 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Montana, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 192-197 [p. 192]. 

The known outcrops of petroleum-impregnated rocks are widely scattered 

in a few concentrations. The most widespread occurrence is in south-central 

Montana, in the northern Bighorn Basin and along the northern flank of the 

Bighorn Mountains. At Red Dome, in Carbon County, asphalt impregnating 

the Chugwater Formation (Triassic) covers about 1% square miles at the 

structural crest of Red Dome. The impregnation is in the top 20 to 27 feet 

of the formation. The color of the Chugwater red beds has been altered to 

green. Analyses show oil content to range from 2.45 to 6.60 percent. "More or 

less tarry" outcrops of Tensleep Sandstone (Pennsylvanian) occur on the 

Little Horn River and Lodgegrass Creek. The usual color of the Triassic red 

beds has been altered to a greenish tint by the oil. The outcrops are around 

the flanks of Sport Creek Dome. 

Calvert, W. R., 1917, Geology of the Upper Stillwater Basin, Stillwater and 

Carbon Counties, Montana, with special reference to coal and oil: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 641-G, p. 199-214. 

In the SE% sec. 32, T. 6 S., R. 18 W., indications of oil were reported in 

wells drilled 600-1,100 feet deep. At three points nearby, small pools of 

asphalt occur, and in 1908 these pools were being augmented by asphalt oozing 

from the ground. Geologic relations are obscured by thick growths of quaking 

aspen, but it was ascertained that the drilling was done in Fort Union rocks 

that dip toward the Beartooth fault at any angle of 22°. The stratigraphic 

horizon of the oil is in doubt, and whether the oil is indigenous to the Fort 

Union beds or rose along the Beartooth fault from some lower horizon is 

uncertain. Evaporation dissipated the volatile portion, and the residue remains 

as asphalt. The fact that this bituminous residue is present at the surface 

suggests that oil in large quantity is not likely to be found in the strata from 

which the asphalt oozed. Author's text condensed. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957, Montana, in Reconnaissance for uranium in asphaltbearing rocks in the Western United States: U.S. Geol. Survey BulL 

1046-E, p. 55-85 [p. 71]. 
112 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Asphalt-bearing sandstone in the Triassic Chugwater formation crops out 

along the rim of the breached top of Red Dome, Carbon County. The asphalt 

contains relatively small amounts of uranium. The asphalt impregnates the 

top 20-27 feet of the uppermost sandstone of the Chugwater. Asphalt-bearing 

sandstone is exposed only along the steep inner rim of the dome. The uranium 

in the ash ranges from 0.009 to 0.013 percent in the ash of the extracted oil. 

Author's text condensed. 

Knappen, R. S., and Moulton, G. F., 1931, Geology and mineral resources of 

parts of Carbon, Big Horn, Yellowstone, and Stillwater Counties, 

Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 822-A, p. 1-70. 

The Chugwater sandstone on top of Red Dome, in sees. 17 and 18, T. 7 S., 

R. 24 E., and adjacent areas, has been bleached along the top by the accumulation of hydrocarbons against the overlying impervious shales of the Sundance formation. The rock has lost its normal red color and has become gray 

through reduction of the original hematite. This bleaching is observed not 

only in the upper layers of the formation on the crest of the dome, but also 

along joint planes for vertical distances as much as 200 feet beneath the top 

of the formation, indicating that the oil migrated up along these joints. Most 

of this oil has, of course, escaped, for erosion has stripped away the cover 

from the dome. Much of the sandstone still contains enough oil to stain the 

fingers with a sticky black viscous residue of partly evaporated petroleum. 

This is the only known place within the area where oil actually appears at 

the surface. Authors' text condensed. 

Stebinger, Eugene, 1918, Oil and gas geology of the Birch Creek-Sun River 

area, northwestern Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691-E, p. 149-184. 

There are at least three widely separated localities in the Birch CreekSun River area where the basal shale beds of the upper Colorado shale (Upper 

Cretaceous) are only slightly disturbed, and, thus, their stratigraphic position 

can be ascertained. The petroliferous beds have an average thickness of about 

50 feet throughout the area, and consist of compact black bituminous shale 

containing thin beds of impure limestone that, in places, is impregnated along 

fractures with a soft tarry bitumen. The northernmost of these "oil showings" 

was found on the south side of the Middle Fork of Dupuyer Creek in the 

SW%SW14 sec. 18, T. 27 N., R. 8 W. At this locality, about 10 feet of dark 

Colorado shales are highly bituminous and stained on fracture faces with a 

deep reddish-brown color. They are filled with impressions of Inoceramus 

shells and contain several beds of fine-grained impure limestone that is impregnated on fractures with tar and smells strongly of petroleum. The amount 

of free tarry matter in the limestone beds at this locality is greater than that 

seen at any other place in this area. Author's text condensed. 

Thorn, W. T., 1923, The Sport Creek anticline, in Oil and gas prospects in 

and near the Crow Indian Reservation, Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

736-B, p. 35-53 [p. 50]. 

The Sport Creek anticline extends from the south-central part of sec. 4, 

T. 9 S., R. 33 E., to the central part of sec. 30, T. 9 S., R. 34 E. The Chugwater red beds cover the crest of the fold, and the Tensleep sandstone is 

exposed in the banks of Little Horn River. The -Tensleep is strongly impregnated with oil residues at this exposure. 
ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS 

NEW MEXICO 

Subject Index 

Analyses 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Cretaceous 

Mesaverde Formation 

McKinley County 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Dakota Formation 

Winchester, D. E., 1933 

Regional 

Reserves 

Triassic 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Gorman, J. M., and Robeck, R. C., 1946 

Winchester, D. E., 1933 

Ball, M. W ., 1951 

Bates, R. L., 1942 

Gorman, J. M., and Robeck, R. C., 1946 

Winchester, D. E., 1933 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Bates, R. L., 1942 

Gorman, J. M., and Robeck, R. C., 1946 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Winchester, D. E., 1933 

Author List 

113 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, New Mexico, in Surface and shallow 

oil-impregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. 

Bur. Mines Mon. 12, p. 198-204. 

Three confirmed petroleum-impregnated outcrops are known in the north 

half of New Mexico. The largest, the Santa Rosa asphaltic sandstone deposits 

of Guadalupe County, is a known commercial reserve. The other two deposits 

are of minor importance. 

Ball, M. W., 1951, Report on oil-impregnated strippable deposits in New 

Mexico as of May 22, 1950, Appendix C, in The synthetic liquid-fuel 

potential of New Mexico: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Summary 

report for the U.S. Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior: Ford, 

Bacon & Davis, Inc., Engineers. 

Bituminous deposits are known in two counties in New Mexico. A deposit of 

lenticular shaly bituminous sandstone lenses occurs in McKinley Gounty, 

approximately 20 miles northeast of Gallup. The deposit is in the Upper 

Cretaceous Mesaverde formation. Guadalupe County contains New Mexico's 

only known reserves. Reserves, as defined in this report, contain at least 

10 million tons in a 5-square-mile area in vertically continuous series of beds 

at least 15 feet thick, with an overburden not exceeding the thickness of the 

beds and an oil content of at least 10 gallons per ton. The bituminous sand 
114 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

deposits lie within an area of about 10 square miles, 10 miles north of Santa 

Rosa. The asphalt is in the upper sandstone member of the Triassic Santa 

Rosa formation. The asphalt is a residual product derived from oil that probably originated in the limestone member of the San Andres formation. The oil 

probably migrated upward into the Santa Rosa sandstone through sinkholes 

and similar conduits. Core analysis and other geological evidence suggest the 

presence of about 233.6 million tons recoverable reserves. Bitumen content is 

estimated to be 10 gallons per ton. Author's text condensed. 

Bates, R. L., 1942, The oil and gas resources of New Mexico [2d ed.]: New 

Mexico Bur. Mines and Mineral Resources Bull. 18, 320 p. 

In eastern San Miguel County and in Guadalupe County, New Mexico, the 

Santa Rosa sandstone (Triassic) is saturated with asphaltic oil at its type 

locality. The saturated sand is a well-consolidated crossbedded rock composed 

of sharp quartz grains and containing 4-8 percent of bituminous substance. 

Extracted fresh rock yields a very ductile asphalt that has a penetration of 

approximately 230 at 77°F. It is estimated that this deposit of bituminous 

sandstone contains approximately 2 million tons having a residual asphalt 

content of 5 percent. 

Gorman, J. M., and Robeck, R. C., 1946, Geology and asphalt deposits of 

north-central Guadalupe County, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil 

and Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 44. 

Asphalt deposits occur in parts of the Preston, Beck, and Jose Perea grants, 

10 miles north of Santa Rosa, within an area of about 14 square miles. The 

part of Guadalupe County containing the asphalt deposits lies within the high 

plains and is characterized by karst topography that has been developing 

intermittently since Triassic time. The asphalt is found in the Santa Rosa 

sandstone of Triassic age. In the area of the asphalt deposits, the shale member of the Santa Rosa sandstone is absent, and the underlying lower sandstone member is either absent or extremely thin. The upper and middle 

sandstone members, on the other hand, have thickened and become similar 

lithologically. The asphalt-impregnated sandstone is irregularly bedded and 

consists of subangular to subrounded, fine and medium quartz grains, with 

scattered flakes of mica. The asphalt is a residual product derived from oil 

that probably originated in the limestone member of the San Andres formation. The oil is believed to have migrated upward to the Santa Rosa formation 

through sinkholes and similar conduits resulting from solution. Areal distribution of the asphalt appears to have been controlled both by positions of 

the conduits and by local variations in the lithology of the Santa Rosa sandstone. Total reserves of all classes are over 102 million tons. Authors' text 

condensed. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957, New Mexico, in Reconnaissance for uranium in asphaltbearing rocks, Western United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1046-E, 

p. 55-85 [p. 71]. 

Beds of asphalt-bearing sandstone in the Santa Rosa sandstone of Triassic 

age crop out in northern Guadalupe County at the abandoned quarries of the 

New Mexico Construction Co., about 10 miles north of Santa Rosa. The 

asphalt occurs in the upper and middle sandstone members of the Santa Rosa 

sandstone. The beds of asphalt-bearing sandstone range in thickness from 
OHIO 115 

4 to 41 feet in quarry exposures and are 100 feet thick in a core hole. Analyses of samples from the Santa Rosa area range from 0.002 to 0.052 percent 

uranium in the ash of the extracted oil. Author's text condensed. 

Winchester, D. E., 1933, Bituminous sandstone, in Oil and gas resources of 

New Mexico: New Mexico Bur. Mines and Mineral Resources Bull. 9, 

223 p. [p. 208-209]. 

The Santa Rosa sandstone (Triassic) in Guadalupe County near Santa 

Rosa is saturated with bituminous material over a considerable area. Drill 

holes have proved a saturated zone 10-60 feet thick. The saturated sand is a 

well-consolidated crossbedded rock composed of sharp quartz grains and containing from 4 to 8 percent of bituminous substance. Some parts of the sand 

are found to be completely saturated with asphaltic material, whereas other 

parts contain no asphalt. Extracted fresh material yields a very ductile 

asphalt which has a penetration of approximately 230 at 77°F. Developments 

to date show the Santa Rosa deposit contains 2 million tons of bituminous 

sand having a residual asphalt content of 5 percent. Approximately 20 miles 

northeast of Gallup on the North Fork Rio Puerco, a sandstone reported to 

belong to the Dakota formation (Cretaceous) is saturated with a paraffinbase oil over a relatively large area. The saturated sandstone has a thickness 

of not more than 40 feet. The sand is coarse grained and hard. Analysis of 

the sand shows an oil content of as much as 24 percent. Author's text 

condensed. 

NEW YORK 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, New York, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 206-210. 

The few outcrops of oil-impregnated rocks are confined to the extreme 

western part of New York. The first known commercial use of petroleum in 

North America was that by the Seneca Indians, who gathered oil from a 

seepage near Cuba, 9 miles west of the Rockville oil-sand outcrop. Other 

known seepages are in Seneca and Cattaraugus Counties. The only known oil 

field producing from a depth less than 500 feet is the Browning field in 

Allegany County. It is partly abandoned. Author's summary condensed. 

OHIO 

Subject Index 

Carboniferous 

Berea sandstone 

Pickaway County 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Devonian 

Columbus Formation 

Delaware County 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Origin 

Orton, Edward, 1888 
116 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Resources 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Regional 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Silurian 

Orton, Edward, 1888 

Rogers, J. K., 1936 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Ohio, in Surface and shallow oil-impregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. Mines 

Mon. 12, p. 211-226. 

Oil-impregnated rocks are known in 10 western Ohio counties in three 

general areas. The northwest area includes Paulding, Putnam, Wyandot, 

Allen, and Auglaize Counties. The southwest area includes Fayette, Highland, 

and Adams Counties; the largest bituminous deposit in Ohio is in the Brick 

School area in Highland County. Central Ohio has two known asphalt deposits. One is a saturated Mississippian Berea Sandstone at Ringold, in 

Pickaway County; this sandstone is not confirmed as an oil-impregnated outcrop. The other, at Bellepoint, in Delaware County, is a minor occurrence in 

the dolomite of the Devonian Columbus Formation. Author's text condensed. 

Ball, M. W., 1951, Report on oil-impregnated strippable deposits in Ohio as 

of May 22, 1950, Appendix C, in The synthetic liquid-fuel potential of 

Ohio: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Summary report for the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior: Ford, Bacon & Davis, Inc., 

Engineers. 

Surface and near-surface deposits of oil-impregnated rock are known in 

southeastern Ohio in Morgan and Washington Counties, in northeastern Ohio 

in Trumbull County, and in southwestern Ohio in Highland County. In Morgan, Washington, and Trumbull Counties, oil has accumulated in sandstones 

near the surface in volumes sufficient to form small oil fields. In Highland 

County, a thin oil-impregnated bed of vuggy dolomite covers the surface over 

a small area. None of these deposits is of sufficient richness, thickness, and 

total quantity to meet the minimum reserve requirements, which require at 

least 10 millions tons of deposits in any 5-square-mile area, in vertically 

continuous beds at least 15 feet thick overlain by not more than their own 

thickness in overburden and yielding at least 10 gallons of oil per ton of 

deposit. Author's text condensed. 

Orton, Edward, 1888, The origin and accumulation of petroleum and natural 

gas: Ohio State Geologist Rept., v. 6, p. 60-100. 

The Waterlime (or lower Helderberg part of the Helderberg group) contains grains of asphalt in cavities in the rock and carbonaceous films that 

have had the same origin distributed through it. When struck with a hammer, 

it gives off a fetid odor of "limestone oil." Fossil corals are often partially 

occupied by this asphalt, and petroleum is sometimes found in small amounts. 

The Clinton limestone is petroliferous in almost all its outcrops. It yields oil 

where quarries have been opened in it, and springs that issue from it carry 

small amounts of oil. Small deposits have been found under convex surfaces 

of the Dayton limestone, just above the Clinton. Author's text condensed. 
OKLAHOMA 117 

Rogers, J. K., 1936, Geology of Highland County, Ohio: Ohio Div. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 38, 4th Ser., p. 131. 

Asphaltic impregnations are common in the dolomites of the Lilley, Peebles, 

and Greenfield (Silurian) formations in many parts of Highland County, 

Ohio. The asphaltic rock is of economic value only in an area about 1 mile 

north of Hillsboro, extending nearly to Willettville. The richest rock occurs 

in the upper, porous part of the Lilley formation. Although this deposit has 

been known for many years, it had not been worked until about 1930. 

Analyses 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Shelley, P. G., 1929 

Snider, L. C., 1913 

OKLAHOMA 

Subject Index 

Asphalt associated with ore deposits 

Fowler, G. M., 1933 

Siebenthal, C. E., 1915 

Weidman, Samuel, 1932 

Asphalt deposits 

Dougherty deposit 

Gorman, J. M., 1944 

Grandone, Peter, and McHarg, R. E., 1951 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Jordan, Louise, 1964 

Taff, J. A., 1908a 

Regional 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Beach, J. 0., 1945 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Grandone, Peter, and McHarg, R. E., 1951 

Hutchison, L. L., 1911 

Jordan, Louise, 1964 

Redfield, J. S., 1927 

Shannon, C. W., and others, 1917 

Shannon, C. W., and Trout, L. E., 1915 

Snider, L. C., 1913 

Stenzel, H. B., Fountain, H. C., and Hendricks, T. A., 1948 

Taff, J. A., 1908a 

Sulfur deposit 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Beach, J. 0., 1945 

Gorman, J. M., Flint, G. M., Jr., Decker, C. E., and Ham, W. E., 1944 

Jordan, Louise, 1964 

Taff, J. A., 1908a 

Counties with significant asphalt deposits 

Atoka 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Ardmore Geological Society, 1954 

Beach, J. 0., 1945 
118 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Counties with significant asphalt deposits- Continued 

Atoka- Continued 

Flawn, P. T., Goldstein, August, Jr., King, P. B., and Weaver, C. E., 

1961 

Honess, C. W., 1930 

Bryan 

Honess, C. W., 1930 

Carter 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Choctaw 

Honess, C. W., 1930 

Comanche 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Delaware 

Ireland, H. A., 1930 

Garvin 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Jefferson 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Snider, L. C., 1913 

W egemann, C. H., 1916 

Le F'lore 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Beach, J. 0., 1945 

Love 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Bullard, F. M., 1925 

Marshall 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Mayes 

Ireland, H. A., 1930 

McCurtain 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Davis, L. V., 1953 

Davis, L. V., 1960 

Honess, C. W., 1930 

Murray 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Gorman, J. M., 1944 

Gorman, J. M., Flint, G. M., Jr., Decker, C. E., and Ham, W. E., 1944 

Hutchison, L. L., 1911 

Ottawa 

Ireland, H. A., 1930 

Pontotoc 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Pushmataha 

Beach, J. 0., 1945 

Honess, C. W., 1930 

Stephens 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Beach, J. 0., 1945 

Snider, L. C., 1913 

Wegemann, C. H., 1916 
Cretaceous 

Paluxy sand 

Davis, L. V ., 1953 

Davis, L. V., 1960 

Trinity Formation 

Bullard, F. M., 1925 

Shelley, P. G., 1929 

Snider, L. C., 1913 

OKLAHOMA 

Taff, J. A., and Reed, W. J., 1910 

Oil seeps 

Ardmore Geological Society, 1954 

Fowler, G. M., 1933 

Wegemann, C. H., and Howell, R. W., 1916 

Ordovician 

Simpson Group 

119 

Gorman, J. M., Flint, G. M., Jr., Decker, C. E., and Ham, W. E., 1944 

Redfield, J. S., 1927 

Reeds, C. A., 1910 

Shelley, P. G., 1929 

Taff, J. A., 1903 

Production 

Dale, Phyllis, and Beach, J. 0., 1951 

Regions or districts 

Arbuckle Mountain Area 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Redfield, J. S., 1927 

Reeds, C. A., 1910 

Snider, L. C., 1913 

Stenzel, H. B., Fountain, H. C., and Hendricks, T. A., 1948 

Ardmore Basin-Criner Hills-Marietta Basin area 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Bullard, F. M., 1925 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Snider, L. C., 1913 

Brunswick district 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Gorman, J. M., 1944 

Buckhorn district 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Gorman, J. M., Flint, G. M., Jr., Decker, C. E., and Ham, W. E., 1944 

Ouachita Mountain area 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Flawn, P. T., Goldstein, August, Jr., King, P. B., and Weaver, C. E., 

1961 

Ham, W. E., 1956 

Hendricks, T. A., Gardner, L. S., Knechtel, M. M., and Averitt, Paul, 

1947 

Howell, J. V., and Lyons, P. L., 1959 

Snider, L. C., 1913 
120 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Regions or districts - Continued 

Wichita Mountain area 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Snider, L. C., 1913 

Stenzel, H. B., Fountain, A. C., and Hendricks, T. A., 1948 

Wegemann, C. H., and Howell, R. W., 1916 

Vein deposits 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945 

Beach, J. 0., 1945 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Hendricks, T. A., Gardner, L. S., Knechtel, M. M., and Averitt, Paul, 

1947 

Honess, C. W., 1930 

Horn, W. E., 1956 

Redfield, J. S., 1927 

Snider, L. C., 1913 

Stenzel, H. B., Fountain, H. C., and Hendricks, T. A., 1948 

Taff, J. A., 1904 

Taff, J. A., 1908a 

Taff, J. A., 1908b 

Wegemann, C. H., 1916 

Author List 

Abraham, Herbert, 1945, Oklahoma asphalts, in Asphalt and allied substances, v. 1 [5th ed.]: New York, D. Van Nostrand Co., 888 p. 

[p. 173-180, 273-278]. 

Oklahoma is one of the richest asphalt-bearing centers in the United States. 

Asphalts in both liquid and solid forms occur as springs, seepages, and rock 

impregnations. Nearly all the deposits are in the southern part of the State 

between the 35th parallel of north latitude and the Red River, and from the 

Arkansas line on the east to Granite, Okla. This area includes deposits or 

prospects in the following counties: Comanche, Jefferson, Stephens, Garvin, 

Carter, Murray, Love, Marshall, Johnston, Pontotoc, Atoka, McCurtain, and 

Leflore. This report includes a table showing location and quality of prospects 

in Oklahoma in 1945. The largest known grahamite vein in the world occurs 

in Jackfork Valley, 12 miles west of Tushkahoma. The vein is about 1 mile 

long and ranges in thickness from 19 to 25 feet. A cross section of this vein 

is included. 

Ardmore Geological Society, 1954, Southern part of the Oklahoma coal 

basin: Ardmore Geol. Soc. Field Trip Guidebook, 29 p. [p. 8]. 

The Redden oil field was discovered in 1915. About 15 wells have been 

drilled, ranging in depth from 90 to 350 feet. At present, three wells are 

pumping an average total of nine barrels of 36° gravity oil per day from 

about 105 feet deep. The producing zone is a bed of Stanley sand dipping 

about 60° SE. Asphalt and other nonvolatile residues seem to have sealed the 

surface exposure, thus deterring the escape of the live oil below. Several other 

small oil fields and many oil seeps, asphaltic sands, and so forth, occur 

between the Windingstair and the Jackfork Mountain faults between the 

Redden field and the Arkansas border 115 miles to the east. Author's text 

condensed. 
OKLAHOMA 121 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Oklahoma, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 227-290. 

Petroleum-impregnated rocks at or near the surface are known in 21 Oklahoma counties. The Wichita Mountain area includes Caddo, Comanche, Cotton, Greer, and Kiowa Counties. The petroliferous sandstones are mainly 

Permian in age. The Ardmore Basin-Criner Hills-Marietta Basin area includes Carter, Garvin, Jefferson, Love, and Stephens Counties. The petroleumimpregnated sandstones here are Ordovician through Early Cretaceous in age. 

The Arbuckle Mountain area includes parts of Johnston, Murray, and Pontotoc Counties. Ordovician sandstones and limestones and Pennsylvanian and 

Cretaceous sandstones are asphaltic here. The most important asphaltic rocks 

in Oklahoma are in Murray County. Natural asphaltic rock was first produced in Oklahoma in 1891 from rich outcrops near Sulphur, in Murray 

County. Approximately 3 million tons of asphaltic rock has been produced 

commercially from the State, used mainly for paving. Author's summary 

condensed. 

Ball, M. W., 1951, Report on oil-impregnated strippable deposits in Oklahoma 

as of May 22, 1950, Appendix C, in The synthetic liquid-fuel potential of 

Oklahoma: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Summary report for the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior: Ford, Bacon & Davis, Inc., 

Engineers. 

Surface or near-surface oil-impregnated limestones and sandstones are 

known in 13 counties in the southern third of Oklahoma, south of the Canadian River. The deposits occur in sedimentary rocks ranging in age from 

Ordovician to Cretaceous. Information on most of the deposits is meager and 

incomplete. The available information reveals no reserves- that is, a 10-

million-ton deposit in any 5-square-mile area, in vertically continuous beds 

15 feet thick yielding 10 gallons of oil per ton of raw material, and overlain 

by no more than its own thickness in overburden. Author's text condensed. 

Beach, J. 0., 1945, Oklahoma asphaltite deposits: The Hopper, v. 5, no. 6, 10 p. 

Two varieties of solid, relatively pure hydrocarbons are known in Oklahoma. The most abundant variety is grahamite (an asphaltite); the other is 

impsonite (a pyrobitumen). These materials occur in veins and are regarded 

as having been formed as an alteration product of petroleum. The ash of the 

impsonite contains vanadium equivalent to 12.2 percent vanadium oxide 

(V 20,,). This report contains locations and descriptions of the deposits in 

Atoka, Leflore, Murray, Pittsburg, Pushmataha, and Stephens Counties. An 

analysis of Oklahoma grahamite is also included. Author's text condensed. 

Bullard, F. M., 1925, Geology of Love County, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. 

Survey Bull. 33, 77 p. [p. 51-52]. 

Owing to its intensely folded rocks, the eastern part of Love County near 

the Criner Hills is not considered favorable for the production of oil or gas. 

Oil that was present in the Pennsylvanian rocks of this area has escaped in 

the form of gas, except for the heavier parts, which remain in the form of 

asphalt. Large deposits of asphalt occur in the Trinity (Cretaceous) sand 

adjacent to the Criner Hills. Author's text condensed. 
122 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Dale, Phyllis, and Beach, J. 0., 1951, Mineral production of Oklahoma 1885-

1949: Oklahoma Geol. Survey Circ. 29, 38 p. [p. 12]. 

Gives production figures for asphalt from Oklahoma 1903-26. 

Davis, L. V., 1953, Oil possibilities near Idabel, McCurtain County, Oklahoma: 

Oklahoma Geol. Survey Mineral Rept. 23, 26 p. 

The discovery of oil in a well drilled for a farm water supply near Idabel, 

Okla., in December 1952 aroused interest in the oil possibilities of McCurtain 

County. All previous oil tests had been dry holes. This well discovered oil in 

the upper part of the Paluxy sand (Cretaceous) at a depth of 325 feet. 

Oil was bailed from the hole at irregular intervals for several days, and the 

total was estimated to be 35-40 barrels. A test was then made in which the 

hole was first bailed dry, and, after a 50-minute interval, yielded 40 gallons 

of 28.6° gravity black oil. The anomalous dips of the rocks of the Washita 

group along nearby Bokchito Creek indicate that oil accumulation is, to some 

extent, controlled by structure. Possibly the lensing of sand beds in the upper 

part of the Paluxy has helped trap the oil. Asphaltic sandstone occurs in 

sec. 20, T. 7 S., R. 2d E., on the south side of the Little River. Asphaltic 

sandstone about 25 feet thick is exposed for a distance of about one-half mile. 

Another outcrop of asphaltic sandstone about 10 feet thick occurs in the 

SE14 sec. 22, T. 6 S.,. R. 21 E. Author's text condensed. 

Davis, L. V., 1960, Geology and ground-water resources of southern McCurtain 

County, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey Bull. 86, 108 p. [p. 14]. 

About half a mile north of Valliant in McCurtain County, an asphaltic 

sand in the upper part of the Paluxy sand (Cretaceous) is exposed over an 

area of several acres. Spasmodic attempts to develop the deposit have been 

made since 1922, but none proved commercially successful. Oil was found near 

Idabel in 1952 in a 330-foot well drilled for water. The oil was at the top of 

the Paluxy sand, at a depth of about 325 feet below the surface. When a 

pump was installed, the yield quickly dropped, owing to the encroachment of 

the fine Paluxy sand. There has been further development of the area; most 

of the wells tapped oil in the fine sand at the top of the Paluxy, but because 

of difficulties in completing the wells, nearly all the wells have been abandoned. Author's text condensed. 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901, Indian Territory, in Asphalt and bituminous rock 

deposits of the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey 22d Ann. Rept., pt. 

1b, p. 209-452 [p. 262-320]. 

The area in Indian Territory (Oklahoma) where asphalt and bituminous 

rock deposits have been found lies between the Canadian and the Red Rivers 

and extends from Arkansas to the 98th meridian. The asphalt of eastern 

Indian Territory is of the vein-forming variety and is called impsonite. 

It occurs in Ordovician rocks in the Ouachita Mountains. Silurian to Cretaceous sandstones impregnated with bitumen occur in the Arbuckle Mountains, in the Criner Hills, in the Buckhorn district, and in the Brunswick 

district. 

Flawn, P. T., Goldstein, August, Jr., King, P. B., and Weaver, C. E., 1961, 

The Ouachita System: Texas Univ. Pub. 6120, 401 p. [p. 192]. 
OKLAHOMA 123 

Oil has been produced from shallow wells in the Stanley sandstone near 

Redden, Atoka County, Okla. These wells, some of which were drilled as early 

as 1914, produce at a depth of 500 feet from steeply dipping tight sandstone 

sealed updip by asphalt impregnation. The oil at Redden may have migrated 

from some of the older, more petroliferous, underlying rocks that were faulted 

against the Stanley sandstone. There are many oil seeps and irregular bodies 

of grahamite or asphaltite within the Ouachita Mountains. Authors' text 

condensed. 

Fowler, G. M., 1933, Oil and gas structures in Oklahoma-Kansas zinc-lead 

mining field: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 17, no. 2, p. 

1436-1445. 

The Oklahoma-Kansas field of the Tri-State zinc and lead mining district 

is unique in that some of its mines produce oil as well as zinc and lead ore. 

The oil is of a dark residual variety and comes from above the mine workings, 

which range in depth from 150 to 400 feet below the surface. The oil is considered to be a nuisance in both mining and milling operations. In a few 

mines the oil is sufficiently plentiful to be collected in sumps and sold locally 

for roofing purposes. The oil drips from the roof and sides of the mines, 

having worked its way downward through fissures and shattered zones from 

the original oil reservoirs, which were directly under the Pennsylvanian shale. 

The geologic structure controls the localization of the oil accumulations, as 

well as the ore. The mining operations destroyed a few oil seepages that were 

surface phenomena in this area. The largest was within the present townsite 

of Cardin, Okla., on the banks of Tar Creek. Other springs were found along 

this stream, which flows south through the field. Author's text condensed. 

Gorman, J. M., 1944, Geologic map of the Dougherty asphalt area, Murray 

County, Oklahoma: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 15, 

with text. 

The Dougherty asphalt area, also known as the Brunswick district, is in 

southern Murray County, Okla., about 3 miles southwest of the Sulphur 

asphalt area. The asphalt deposits are confined to the Viola (Ordovician) 

limestone and are closely associated with faults, particularly where the limestone is highly jointed. The suggestion is very strong that the asphalt 

ascended from the underlying Simpson group, along fault and fracture planes, 

and penetrated the Viola limestone along joints. Many of the joints are now 

filled with viscous asphalt, which "bleeds" during warm weather. The asphalt 

content of most of the rock ranges from 3.0 to 3.5 percent. Author's text 

condensed. 

Gorman, J. M., Flint, G. M., Jr., Decker, C. E., and Ham, W. E., 1944, Geologic 

map of the Sulphur asphalt area, Murray County, Okla.: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 22, with text. 

The Sulphur asphalt deposit, also known as the Buckhorn district, covers 

about 1 square mile in southern Murray County. The asphalt in the Sulphur 

area is found mainly in sandstone beds in the Simpson group of Ordovician 

age, although there are a few small deposits in the limestone member of the 

Bromide formation (Simpson group) and in the overlying Viola limestone, 

also of Ordovician age. The asphalt-impregnated parts of the sandstone are 

cohesive and semiplastic, and, except for a few places where the sand grains 
124 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

are partially cemented by calcium carbonate, the asphalt is readily separated 

from the sand grains by washing with hot water. The highest asphalt content 

and the most uniform asphalt are in the sandstone member of the Oil Creek 

formation of the Simpson group in and near the Griffith, Kirby, and Barnes 

pits, and Pit No. 80. These workings are divided into two groups that lie on 

opposite sides of the Central fault block of the limestone member of the Oil 

Creek formation. This suggests either that the border faults acted as conduits 

for the upward movement of liquid petroleum or that the deposits are devolatilized remnants of a former anticlinal oil field, part of which has been 

brought to the surface by faulting. The asphaltic limestone in this area contains 6 to 12 percent bitumen and averages 7 to 8 percent. Authors' text 

condensed. 

Grandone, Peter, and McHarg, R. E., 1951, Preliminary report on oil, gas, and 

asphalt in Oklahoma: U.S. Bur. Mines, Minerals, and Geology Work 

Group Rept. for the Arkansas-White-Red Basins Inter-Agency Committee, 22 p. 

Asphalt deposits occur widely in southeast Oklahoma in an area extending 

from Leflore County to as far west as Comanche County. The most important 

deposit being worked is near Dougherty, in Murray County. The material 

occurs as impregnated sandstone and limestone and is quarried from pits as 

rock asphalt and processed for road-surfacing material. According to a report 

by the Oklahoma Relief Administration, the deposits of asphalt in Oklahoma 

have been estimated to range from 2 to 13 million short tons. Authors' text 

condensed. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957, Oklahoma, in Reconnaissance for uranium in asphaltbearing rocks, Western United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1046-E, 

p. 55-85 [p. 72-73]. 

The 17 asphalt deposits examined in Oklahoma occur in Ordovician, Pennsylvanian, and Permian rocks. One deposit occurs in limestone, the rest in 

quartzose sandstones. Only the Sulphur, Cameron, and Ada areas yielded 

samples containing appreciable amounts of uranium. Asphalt-bearing limestone from the Dougherty area is exceptionally low in uranium. Analyses of 

uranium in the ash of the extracted oil ranged from 0.001 to 0.22 percent. 

Author's text condensed. 

Ham, W. E., 1956, Asphaltite in the Ouachita Mountains: Oklahoma Geol. 

Survey Mineral Rept. 30, 12 p. 

The veins and fissure fillings of grahamite and impsonite that occur at 

17 localities in southeastern Oklahoma are restricted to an east-trending belt, 

about 25 miles wide, in the thrust-faulted northern part of the Ouachita 

Mountains. They are between the Choctaw and Octavia faults, generally cutting shales and sandstones of the Stanley formation (Mississippian and 

Pennsylvanian). Most of the production is from the Sardis deposit, the largest 

known vein of grahamite in the world, and from the Jumbo mine. Impsonite 

is produced near Page for its high vanadium content in its ash. Author's 

abstract condensed. 

Hendricks, T. A., Gardner, L. S., Knechtel, M. M., and Averitt, Paul, 1947, 

Geology of the western part of the Ouachita Mountains in Oklahoma: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 66, with text. 
OKLAHOMA 125 

Within the Ouachita Mountains, many oil seeps occur in steeply dipping 

sandstone beds in the Stanley shale. The most extensive seeps are in the 

Redden field, about 1 mile southeast of the village of Redden, where light oil 

has also been bailed from several wells less than 500 feet deep. Veins and 

irregular bodies of grahamite occur in steeply dipping beds and are believed 

to be derived from petroleum. The petroleum source beds are thought to be 

confined to strata of the rock facies characteristic of the Arbuckle Mountains 

and the McAlester coal basin. Authors' text condensed. 

Honess, C. W., 1930, Geology of the Atoka, Pushmataha, McCurtain, Bryan, 

and Choctaw Counties, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey Bull. 40, v. 3, 

p. 96-103. 

The asphalts of the counties listed above are of two general types- fissure 

veins and impregnated sandstones. The veins have resulted from (1) the 

solidification of liquid petroleum which welled up from beneath and for a 

time flowed from cracks in the ground, but which eventually ceased to flow, 

and (2) petroleum which remained in the cracks and near the surface and 

became hard. Locally, the crevasses were widened by the flow of asphalt and 

oil by as much as 50 feet, but in general these crevasses are 2-4 feet wide 

and gradually pinch out. Such veins may be 1 mile long, as is the Sardis vein 

in Pushmataha County, but any single continuous body of grahamite or gilsonite rarely extends more than 100-200 yards from the outcrop. All the 

known large veins are in the Stanley formation (Mississippian). The Jumbo 

and Sardis veins are typical fissure veins. The asphaltites, or impregnated 

sandstones, occur most conspicuously in the valley of McGee Creek near 

Redden, where ledges of sandstone, 4-6 feet thick and saturated with asphalt, 

come to the surface at angles up to 45°. At a depth of 600 feet, these sandstones contain fluid oil, which indicates that the present dried-out exposed 

edges of the sand bodies formerly exuded petroleum. The Stanley sandstones 

and shales contain the asphaltites in addition to the grahamite and gilsonite 

veins. Author's text condensed. 

Howell, J. V., and Lyons, P. L., 1959, Oil and gas possibilities of the Ouachita 

Province, in The geology of the Ouachita Mountains -A symposium: 

Dallas Geol. Soc. and Ardmore Geol. Soc. Field Trip Guidebook, p. 57-60. 

A table in this report lists the asphalt deposits in the Ouachita Mountains, 

giving the locality, the nature of the deposits, and the formation in which 

they occur. 

Hutchison, L. L., 1911, Preliminary report on the rock asphalt, asphaltite, 

petroleum, and natural gas in Oklahoma, Pt. 1: Oklahoma Geol. Survey 

Bull. 2, p. 1-93. 

This report gives a detailed description of each asphalt deposit known in 

Oklahoma in 1911. 

Ireland, H. A., 1930, Mayes, Delaware, and Ottawa Counties: Oklahoma Geol. 

Survey Bull. 40, v. 3, 663 p. [p. 499]. 

Asphalt accumulates on the floor of lead and zinc mines near Picher, Okla. 

The asphalt drips down from fissures and through core-drill holes. These 

deposits occur only where the surface rock is Cherokee shale. Also, the 

460-209 0 - 72 - 9 
126 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

deposits, though found in many places, occur in large quantities in only a 

few localities. In one location the asphalt accumulates at the rate of 35-50 

barrels per month. This material is used to make a high-grade roofing compound. Asphalt accumulation is due both to gravity and seepage and to the 

fact that the ground water has been drained away by the mine stopes. 

It comes from a residue of evaporated and naturally distilled petroleum. 

Tar Spring on Tar Creek, 6 miles north of Miami, is so named because of 

the heavy bitumen accumulation at the base of the Cherokee shale. Author's 

text condensed. 

Jordan, Louise, 1964, Petroleum-impregnated rocks and asphaltite deposits of 

Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey Map GM-8, 16 p. 

Petroleum-impregnated rocks and asphaltite deposits at the surface and to 

a depth of 500 feet have been found in 33 of the 77 counties in Oklahoma. 

These rocks include sandstone and limestone containing asphalt at or near 

the surface and thos~ containing crude oil near the surface. Since 1926 most 

of the Oklahoma production has come from the deposits near Sulphur and 

Dougherty. A few quarries were worked through 1960. Oklahoma has produced approximately 3 million tons of asphaltic rock, which is used primarily 

as road-paving material. Seepages, crude oil in wells drilled for water, and 

areas of oil production at depths less than 500 feet are described in this 

report, and their locations are shown on the accompanying map. Author's text 

condensed. 

Redfield, J. S., 1927, Mineral resources in Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey 

Bull. 42, 130 p. [p. 89-91]. 

Asphalt occurs widely in southern Oklahoma in rocks of different ages. 

In the Arbuckle Mountains, the deposits are in the Simpson and Viola formations of Ordovician age. Deposits of commercial value are known at various 

localities in the Trinity sand (Comanchean age) of the Red River area. 

Several deposits of pure asphalt are known in the Ouachita Mountain region 

of southeastern Oklahoma : one deposit, known as the Jumbo mine, is northwest of Antlers; another is near Tuskahoma; and a third is near Page. The 

asphalt occurs as veins which probably formed along fault planes. Material 

in the Jumbo deposit has a glassy luster and a conchoidal fracture characteristic of anthracite coal, but it has much lower specific gravity than coal. 

The limestone and sandstone impregnated with asphalt have been used extensively for paving. The pure asphalts from the Ouachita Mountain region 

are too low in volatile constituents and, consequently, too brittle to be used 

for paving material. Such asphalt is used principally in the manufacture 

of asphalt varnishes, paints, and waterproofing and insulating materials. 

Author's text condensed. 

Reeds, C. A., 1910, A report on the geological and mineral resources of the 

Arbuckle Mountains, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey Bull. 3, 69 p. 

The asphalt deposits in and near the Arbuckle Mountains are very extensive, as indicated on the geologic maps accompanying this report. The asphalt 

is known locally as either "sand asphalt" or "lime asphalt." The sand asphalt 

occurs chiefly in the fine-grained Simpson sandstone (Ordovician) and the 

various Pennsylvanian sandstones surrounding the Arbuckle Mountains. The 

asphaltic limestone, less extensive than the asphaltic sandstone, occurs chiefly 

in the Viola limestone, which immediately overlies the Simpson formation. 
OKLAHOMA 127 

Judged from the character of the material and the nature of the outcrops, 

these deposits seem to have resulted from the slow natural evaporation of 

gas and oil. 

Shannon, C. W., and others, 1917, A discussion of the oil and gas fields, and 

undeveloped areas of the State, by counties, Pt. II of Petroleum and 

natural gas in Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey Bull. 19, 537 p., maps. 

Part II of this report gives a detailed discussion of the oil and gas fields of 

each county, including untested and undeveloped parts of the State in 1917. 

The asphalt deposits are mentioned only briefly. 

Shannon, C. W., and Trout, L. E., 1915, General information concerning oil 

and gas; geology of Oklahoma, Pt. I of Petroleum and natural gas in 

Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey Bull. 19, 133 p. 

Part I of this report deals with the oil and gas industry and discusses the 

geology of Oklahoma. The asphalt deposits are mentioned only briefly. 

Shelley, P. G., 1929, Accelerated weathering properties of Oklahoma asphalts: 

Oklahoma Geol. Survey Circ. 19, 37 p. 

The uses of asphalts include the manufacture of bituminized roofing material and all types of asphalt paints and protective coatings for the painting 

of steel, ship hulls, and so forth. These uses, as well as use for paving, 

require the greatest available weather-resistant qualities. After testing 

various Oklahoma asphalts, the author drew the following conclusions: (1) 

Light is the most effective weathering agent, and treatment with water seems 

to accelerate the deterioration effects of light; (2) Oklahoma asphalts weather 

in a different manner from the petroleum asphalt tested, but the general 

magnitude of deterioration is about the same; (3) asphalts from the Trinity 

sandstone show exceptionally good weather-resistant qualities; ( 4) asphalts 

from the Simpson formation show poorer weather-resistant qualities than do 

the natural (untreated) foreign asphalts; (5) the weathering of petroleum 

asphalt from a given source, similarly treated, is almost directly proportional 

to its hardness; however, (6) natural asphalts of Oklahoma show no relation 

between hardness and weathering properties. 

Siebenthal, C. E., 1915, Origin of the zinc and lead deposits of the Joplin 

region, Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 606, 

283 p. [p. 16]. 

The lead and zinc deposits at Miami, Okla., are overlain by 40-220 feet of 

Pennsylvanian shale. In some places, the ore and the wallrocks contain much 

bitumen, and the mine waters are charged with hydrogen sulfide. The bitumen 

is interpreted to be the residue of an oil that has lost its lighter saturated 

hydrocarbons by fractionation in contact with shale. The fact that this residue 

was left at the base of the shale indicates that the lighter hydrocarbons 

escaped upward. The ore solutions cannot have been descending because the 

shale is impervious, and almost no surface water penetrates the mines. Thus, 

the mine waters, the bitumen, and the ore deposits all indicate ascending 

currents. Author's text condensed. 

Snider, L. C., 1913, Rock asphalts of Oklahoma and their use in paving: 

Oklahoma Geol. Survey Circ. 5, 22 p. 
128 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Most of Oklahoma's asphalt deposits occur in the southern third of the 

State. The asphalts of the Wichita Mountains occur near Lawton and consist 

of sandstones saturated with asphaltic bitumen. Jefferson and Stephens Counties contain considerable sandstone-asphalt deposits as much as 25 feet thick; 

in at least one locality, the asphalt appears to have worked up along a fault 

and to have impregnated the sandstone on both sides. In the Ardmore district 

the asphalts occur in the Glenn formation (Pennsylvanian). The rocks are 

folded, and the deposits of asphaltic sandstone generally dip very steeply -

in some places, almost vertically. There were at least 15 known deposits in 

this district in 1913. The Arbuckle Mountain district, which includes Murray, 

Johnston, and Pontotoc Counties, contains commercial deposits, principally in 

the Dougherty and Sulphur areas. In the Ouachita Mountain area, veins of 

pure asphalt are present, usually along faults. The asphalts of the Red River 

district occur principally in the Trinity sand (Lower- Cretaceous). The sands 

of the Trinity are mostly unconsolidated, except where they are cemented by 

bituminous materials. This report contains a comparison of Oklahoma rockasphalt pavements with sheet-asphalt pavements. 

Stenzel, H. B., Fountain, H. C., and Hendricks, T. A., 1948, Asphalt and 

related bitumens, in Weissenborn, A. E., and Stenzel, H. B., eds., Geological resources of the Trinity River tributary area in Texas and Oklahoma: Texas Univ. Pub. 4824, 252 p. [p. 21-30]. 

The bituminous sand deposits in Texas occur in the Lower Cretaceous rocks 

in Cooke and Montague Counties, in the Permian rocks in Coke County, in the 

Pennsylvanian rocks in Stephens County, and as oil seeps from impregnated 

Eocene strata in Anderson and Nacogdoches Counties. In Oklahoma, asphalt 

occurs in the Permian beds, east of the Wichita Mountains, in Comanche 

County, and from Ordovician to Cretaceous strata on the north, west, and 

south flanks of the Arbuckle Mountains. Asphalt also occurs in the Cretaceous 

tar sands in Love, Marshall, Johnston, and McCurtain Counties and in the 

veinlike deposits of grahamite and impsonite, in the Ouachita Mountain area, 

in Stephens County. Asphalt was being mined, in Murray County, in the 

Arbuckle Mountain area in 1946. This report includes production data for 

1934-46, analyses, and an index map showing the deposits. Editors' summary 

condensed. 

Taff, J. A., 1903, Description of the Tishomingo quadrangle [Indian Territory; 

now Okla.]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geologic Atlas, Folio 98. 

Asphaltic deposits of . economic importance are found in the vicinity of 

Gilsonite, near the northwest corner of the Tishomingo quadrangle [in what 

is now nearly the center of Oklahoma]. These deposits occur mainly in Ordovician sandstone and limestone in and near the west end of the contorted and 

faulted Belton anticline. The bituminous sandstone occurs in the middle and 

upper members of the Simpson formation (Ordovician). The sand grains are 

held together by the interstitial bitumen. The richer rock contains 7-12 percent bitumen and grades outward into barren sand. Five deposits of this 

sandstone were being mined in 1903. The bituminous limestone of economic 

importance in the Tishomingo quadrangle is in the Viola formation (Upper 

Ordovician). Locally, the limestone has been crushed and jointed, producing 

thin fissures into which the bitumen has entered as veinlets. The better grade 

of bituminous limestone carries 5-6 percent bitumen. Author's text condensed. 
OKLAHOMA 129 

Tatf, J. A., 1904, Description of the unleased segregated asphalt lands in the 

Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory: 61st Cong., 2d Sess., Senate Doc. 

390, 14 p. 

There are two classes of asphalt deposits in the Choctaw and Chickasaw 

Nations. The most extensive deposit is a bitumen or asphaltite that permeates 

porous sandstone, limestone, and conglomerate and, when extracted, has a 

semiliquid or viscous consistency. These deposits are considered to be exposed 

petroleum pools or exudations from such pools from which the lighter oils 

have escaped by near approach to the surface, leaving the heavyrasphaltum 

base. The second, less extensive class of asphalt deposits in the Choctaw and 

Chickasaw Nations is a solid asphalt that resembles high-grade coal. It fills 

fissures in the rock walls that range in width from a fraction of an inch to 

(rarely) 25 feet and that extend nearly vertically into the earth. These 

deposits are nearly free from foreign substances and can be mined in the 

same manner as coal. They closely resemble the hard asphaltites known as 

albertite and grahamite. Author's text condensed. 

Tatf, J. A., 1908a, Asphalt and bituminous rock: U.S. Geol. Survey mineral 

resources of the United States for 1907, Pt. 2, p. 723-730. 

Extensive deposits of bituminous rock are found in Oklahoma. Flat-lying 

strata of bituminous sand occur in supposed Permian strata in eastern 

Stephens County, Jefferson County, and western Garter County. Notable deposits occur near Loco and Asphaltum. Asphaltic sandstones, more or less 

steeply inclined, occur in the Carboniferous rocks near Woodford, Ardmore, 

Buckhorn, and Fitzhugh. Large deposits of richly bituminous sandstone and 

limestone are found in the Ordovician rocks at Gilsonite and near Sulphur 

and Dougherty, in Murray County. A solid asphalt- grahamite- occurs at 

several localities as vertical veins in the highly folded Carboniferous sandstone and shale. The veins vary in width from stringers to bodies several feet 

thick. These grahamite deposits are characterized by perfect blackness, high 

luster, brittleness, and a high grade of purity. Grahamite is found in the 

following localities in Oklahoma: In western Pushmataha and eastern Atoka 

Counties northwest of Antlers; in Stephens County, near Loco; and east of 

Page, in Leflore County. Author's text condensed. 

Taff, J. A., 1908b, Grahamite deposits of southeastern Oklahoma: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 380-H, p. 286-297. 

The grahamite deposits of southeastern Oklahoma occur as veins that fill 

fissures in sandstone and shale, whose bedding varies in position from horizontal to highly folded or tilted. The rocks containing grahamite occur in 

Ordovician rocks and at several positions in Carboniferous sections. Variation 

in composition is evidently due to differences in degree of loss of the more 

volatile hydrocarbons; it is apparently unrelated to the age of the enclosing 

rocks. The grahamite veins, like any other vein deposit, are variable in extent. 

They vary in thickness in every direction and (or) terminate abruptly, for 

they occur in a region where both faulting and folding have continued since 

the introduction of bitumen into the fissures. The only deposits warranting 

development and that are being worked at present are those in Impson and 

Jackfork valleys. 
130 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Taff, J. A., and Reed, W. J., 1910, The Madill oil pool, Oklahoma: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 381-D, p. 504-513. 

The Trinity (Cretaceous) sand is known to contain petroleum or bitumen, 

a residue of crude petroleum at various localities in southwestern Arkansas, 

southern Oklahoma, and Texas. In southwestern Arkansas and northern 

Texas, as well as in southern Oklahoma, thick deposits of Carboniferous rocks 

that contain oil residue underlie the Trinity. Furthermore, the Carboniferous 

beds are tilted in such a way that their edges project against the base of the 

Trinity sand. Any oil in the Carboniferous strata beneath the Trinity would 

eventually be moved upward and would either lodge in that sand or find an 

exit through it to the surface. The oil of the Madill pool is believed to have 

had its source in the underlying Paleozoic strata. Authors' text condensed. 

Wegemann, C. H., 1916, The Loco gas field, Stephens and Jefferson Counties, 

Oklahoma: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 621-C, p. 31-42. 

The Loco gas field is on the line between Stephens and Jefferson Counties, 

Okla., about 3 miles southwest of the village of Loco. For many years asphalt 

deposits have been known to exist southwest of the town of Loco in Stephens 

County. The grahamite deposits 6 miles north of Loco were worked at one 

time and then abandoned. Oil and gas in the Loco field occur in small quantities in many of the Permian sandstone beds, but the principal gas-bearing 

zone consists of one or more beds of sandstone in the lowermost 250 feet of 

the Permian strata at depths of 650-750 feet. Author's text condensed. 

Wegemann, C. H., and Howell, R. W., 1916, The Lawton oil and gas field, 

Oklahoma: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 621-G, p. 71-85. 

This report contains a section titled "Asphalt Seeps and Occurrences of Oil 

and Gas in the Vicinity of the Wichita Mountains." It locates and describes 

about 36 asphalt seeps and showings of oil and gas in and near the Lawton 

field. 

Weidman, Samuel, 1932, The Miami-Picher zinc-lead district, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey Bull. 56, 177 p. [p. 23, 68, 69, 134, 149]. 

Bitumen, known as "tar" by the miners, occurs in appreciable quantity in 

some of the mines of the Miami-Picher district. The source of the tar is very 

probably in the coal seams and in the oil-bearing parts of the Cherokee shale 

that overlies the ore-bearing rock of the district. Tar Springs on Tar Creek 

is now covered by debris from the mines in Cardin. Tar occurs in some mines 

in sufficient quantity to interfere with milling the ores. Bitumen-saturated 

ore must be roasted before being crushed and milled. 

OREGON 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Oregon, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 291-292. 

Oil seeps, outcrops of solid bitumens, and asphaltic residues in vugs, seams, 

and veinlets are reported in widely scattered localities in Oregon. These occur 
TENNESSEE 131 

in both volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Only one occurrence of oil-impregnated rock is known: a sandstone of the Miocene Payette Formation, saturated with light paraffinic petroleum, crops out in Sand Hollow, on the north 

plunge of the Double Mountain anticline, in Malheur County. Authors' summary condensed. 

PENNSYLVANIA 

Author List 

Donohue, D. A. T., 1965, Simulation of oil recovery by steam injection from 

the Franklin "heavy-oil" field: Jour. Canadian Petroleum Technology, 

v. 4, no. 4, p. 219-226. 

The Franklin heavy-oil field, Venango County, Pa., was discovered in 1859, 

but is now virtually abandoned. The producing formation is the First 

Sand of the Upper Devonian Vanango Group. Because of thinning and 

cementation, only about half of the sand body, or potential reservoir area, is 

commercially productive. An estimated 66.75 million barrels of crude oil 

remains in place. The gravity of this oil is about 3P API, and the crude is 

distinguished by its paraffinic base, naphthenic light ends, and good market 

value. Recently, it was announced that a steam-injection pilot test was to be 

initiated in this field. Using physical data and published mathematical models, 

the oil recovery by steam injection into one particular area of the Franklin 

heavy-oil field was simulated. For a radial system equivalent to a 0.721-acre 

five-spot, a steam-injection rate of 2,000 lbs per hr, and a conformance factor 

of unity, 46.75 percent of the original oil in place should be recovered by the 

end of the first year. Author's text condensed. 

SOUTH DAKOTA 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, South Dakota, in Surface and shallow 

oil-impregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. 

Bur. Mines Mon. 12, p. 295-296. 

Oil-saturated sandstones in the Pennsylvanian Minnelusa Formation crop 

out in extreme western part of Lawrence County, near the Wyoming-South 

Dakota boundary, and rep~rtedly near Sturgis, along the boundary between 

Lawrence and Meade Counties. Small oil-saturated patches &re reported in 

the Fall River Sandstone (Upper Cretaceous) in Meade, Pennington, and 

Fall River Counties, although some question exists as to whether the patches 

are oil stain or limonite stain. Upper Cretaceous "Frontier" sands in Fall 

River County contain tarry material in minor amounts in a few outcrops. 

Author's summary condensed. 

TENNESSEE 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Tennessee, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 297-298. 
132 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Tennessee has no confirmed oil-impregnated rocks on the surface, although 

oil seeps occur in the Ordovician rocks in Clay, Davidson, Fentress, Overton, 

and Pickett Counties; in the Silurian rocks in Lincoln County; and in the 

Mississippian rocks in Seward County. Formations underlying the black shale 

of the Devonian Chattanooga Formation are locally stained with a petroleum 

substance. Author's summary condensed. 

Born, Kendall, 1936, Asphalt, in Summary of mineral resources of Tennessee: 

Tennessee Div. Geology Bull., 2d Ser., 102 p. [p. 41]. 

Asphalt has been observed and reported in a few places in Tennessee. 

In most localities the source of the asphaltic substance appears to be the 

black bituminous Chattanooga shale, although in some places the asphalt 

seems to have resulted from the natural distillation of crude oil in other 

formations. Asphaltic Silurian sandstones have been reported in Lincoln 

County near Coldwater. The formations underlying the black shales throughout middle Tennessee are commonly stained with an asphaltic substance 

derived from the underlying shale. Author's text condensed. 

TEXAS 

Subject Index 

Analyses 

Dumble, E. T., 1891 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Schoch, E. P., 1916 

Terry, W. M., 1942 

Counties with significant asphalt deposits 

Anderson 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Burnet 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Barnes, V. E., 1936 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Coke 

Beede, J. W., and Bentley, W. P., 1918 

Jones, R. A., 1925 

Cooke 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Bybee, H. P., and Bullard, F. M., 1928 

Phillips, W. B., 1902 

Kinney 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

McLennon 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Medina 

Liddle, R. A., 1918 

Montague 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Phillips, W. B., 1902 

Pecos 

Ball, M. W., 1951 
TEXAS 

Counties with significant asphalt deposits- Continued 

Reeves 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Tarrant 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Uvalde 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Corpus Christi Geological Society, 1965 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Getzendaner, F. M., 1931 

Gorman, J. M., and Robeck, R. C., 1945 

Hazzard, R. T ., 1956 

Sellards, E. H., and Evans, G. L., 1946 

Vaughn, T. W., 1897 

Zavala 

Ball, M. W ., 1951 

Getzendaner, F. M., 1931 

Vaughn, T. W., 1897 

Cretaceous 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Hazzard, R. T., 1956 

Anacacho limestone 

Baker, C. L., 1928 

Corpus Christi Geological Society, 1965 

Gorman, J. M., and Robeck, R. C., 1945 

Harvill, L. L., 1959 

Liddle, R. A., 1918 

Maxwell, R. A., 1962 

Sellards, E. H., and Baker, C. L., 1934 

Sellards, E. H., and Evans, G. L., 1946 

Terry, W. M., 1942 

Udden, J. A., Baker, C. L., and Bose, Emil, 1916 

Utterback, D. D., 1954 

Vaughn, T. W., 1900 

Trinity formation 

Barnes, V. E., 1936 

Terry, W. M., 1942 

Metamorphism 

Baker, C. L., 1928 

Vaughn, T. W., 1897 

Mining and quarrying 

Corpus Christi Geological Society, 1965 

Getzendaner, F. M., 1931 

Mills, Brad, 1935 

Nacogdoches oil field 

Mills, Brad, 1935 

Origin 

Youngmeyer, R. F., and Jindra, R.I., 1951 

Baker, C. L., 1928 

Harvill, L. L., 1959 

Utterback, D. D., 1954 

133 
134 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Ozokerite 

Regional 

Schoch, E. P., 1916 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Dumble, E. T., 1891 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Phillips, W. B., 1902 

Sellards, E. H., and Baker, C. L., 1934 

Sellards, E. H., and Evans, G. L., 1946 

Terry, W. M., 1942 

U dden, J. A., Baker, C. L., and Bose, Emil, 1916 

Vaughn, T. W., 1897 

Resources 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Barnes, V. E., 1936 

Gorman, J. M., and Robeck, R. C., 1945 

Sellards, E. H., and Baker, C. L., 1934 

Tar seeps 

Dumble, E. T ., 1891 

Offshore 

Soley, J. C., 1910 

Thermal recovery 

Suderman, C. P., Jr., 1965 

Uranium 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Uvalde district 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Corpus Christi Geological Society, 1965 

Gorman, J. M., and Robeck, R. C., 1945 

Maxwell, R. A., 1962 

Vaughn, T. W., 1900 

Author List 

Baker, C. L., 1928, Possible distillation of oil from organic sediments by heat 

and other processes of igneous intrusions - asph~lt in the Anacacho formation of Texas: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 12, no. 10, 

p. 995-1003. 

Rock asphalt is present in great amount in the Anacacho limestone and is 

associated with many igneous intrusive rocks. The intrusives are either later 

than or contemporaneous with the oil-source strata and the asphalt-bearing 

rock. It is suggested that the oil was originally in bituminous shales older 

than the intrusive rocks and was distilled and caused to migrate to higher 

levels as a consequence of intrusive processes and effects. Certainly, large 

amounts of asphalt and tar now occur close to the igneous masses, which 

left intact a large quantity of the oil originally present in the .invaded strata. 

Probable lack of a sufficient supply of oxygen may be the reason these gases 

are not consumed in the intense heat of active volcanism. Author's abstract 

condensed. 
TEXAS 135 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Texas, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 299-320. 

Oil-impregnated limestones and sandstones are found in a broad northeastsouthwest band of Cretaceous rock outcrops across the middle of the State. 

Seventeen areas are discussed in this report. The most important deposit is 

in the Uvalde district of southeastern Kinney County; there, asphaltic limestone is quarried for paving. The deposit is 63 to 124 feet thick, with 15 to 

22 feet of overburden. The bitumen content is 15-17 gallons per ton. Total 

"measured," "indicated," and "inferred" reserves were estimated in 1950 to 

be about 348 million tons. Author's summary condensed. 

Ball, M. W., 1951, Report on oil-impregnated strippable deposits in Texas as 

of May 22, 1950, Appendix D, in The synthetic liquid-fuel potential of 

Texas: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Summary report for the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior: Ford, Bacon & Davis, Inc., 

Engineers. 

Oil-impregnated limestones and sandstones are found in or adjacent to the 

broad belt of Cretaceous rocks across the middle one-third of the State of 

Texas. Data are presented on deposits in the following counties: Anderson, 

Burnet, Cooke, McLennon, Montague, Pecos, Reeves, Tarrant, Uvalde, and 

Zavala. Only Uvalde County contains deposits of at least 10 million tons 

within 5 square miles, not less than 15 feet in continuous vertical thickness, 

yielding at least 10 gallons per ton, amenable to opencut mining by removal 

of overburden no greater than the thickness of the deposit. Reserves in Uvalde 

County amount to 347,650,000 tons. Author's summary condensed. 

Barnes, V. E., 1936, Report on asphalt deposits in Burnet County, Texas: 

Texas Univ. Bur. Econ. Geology Mineral Resource Survey Circ. 11, 4 p. 

A deposit of asphalt in shelly limestone occurs on the eastern slope of Post 

Mountain, three-fourths mile west of Burnet. The asphalt is in two porous 

limestone layers, 15 feet apart stratigraphically in the Trinity rocks (Cretaceous) . The upper bed is too thin to be of commercial value. An estimated 

119,000 tons of asphaltic limestone is present in the lower bed. The only use 

for this deposit is as road material. Another asphalt deposit occurs just north 

of the Burnet city limits. Asphalt from it is used as a base for various medicinal preparations. This deposit is similar to the Post Mountain asphalt, and, 

as at that place, the asphalt occupies gastropod shell cavities and space 

between shells. The asphaltic layer averages less than 2 feet in thickness. 

The extent of the deposit and the asphalt content are unknown. Measured 

sections and pace-and-compass maps of each deposit accompany this report. 

Beede, J. W., and Bentley, W. P., 1918, The geology of Coke County, Texas: 

Texas Univ. Pub. 1850, 82 p. [p. 77]. 

Coke County is unique in central Texas in having good showings of oil in 

surface sandstones. Some of these sandstones were the sands of delta channels 

on the margin of a shallow Permian sea. The presence of salt seeps and gypsum and anhydrite replacing dolomites indicates that the waters of this 

shallow sea were very concentrated. Oil presumably would not accumulate in 

such an environment, when marine life was scarce. It is yet to be demonstrated that commercial oil accumulations have been found which were in-
136 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

digenous to this type of red beds. All known oil in commercial quantities in 

the red beds either is in a region of known faults or overlies highly inclined 

bituminous beds beneath an unconformity between the Permian and Pennsylvanian rocks from which the oil might have migrated, as occurred around the 

Wichita and Arbuckle Mountains. If these premises are true, it is unlikely 

that the Coke County oil showings originated in the beds in which they are 

found. Authors' text condensed. 

Bybee, H. P., and Bullard, F. M., 1928, Geology of Cooke County, Texas: 

Texas Univ. Pub. 2710, p. 5-61 [p. 52]. 

The known asphalt deposits in Cooke County are limited to the western 

and northwestern parts of the county. The material is a sand asphalt at or 

near the top of the Trinity sand, frequently at the contact of the Trinity with 

the overlying Goodland limestone. The asphalt presumably came from the 

underlying Pennsylvanian rocks. Faulting permitted escape of the bituminous 

material, which collected or impregnated the sand immediately underneath 

the Goodland limestone. Just to the north of Cooke County, in Love County, 

Okla., numerous oil seeps and extensive asphalt deposits occur at this same 

stratigraphic horizon. Authors' text condensed. 

Corpus Christi Geological Society, 1965, White's Uvalde mines, in Upper 

Cretaceous asphalt deposits of the Rio Grande embayment: Corpus 

Christi Geol. Soc. Ann. Field Trip Guidebook, Corpus Christi, Tex. 67 p. 

Quarrying of the asphaltic Anacacho Limestone for road material has been 

carried on intermittently since 1891. White's Uvalde Mines Co. has been 

quarrying at this site for the past 15 years. The pit is 160 feet deep and 

extends to the base of the asphalt-bearing Anacacho Limestone. Weathered 

overburden averaging 18 feet in thickness overlies the deposit. Bitumen content ranges from 0 to 13 percent of the rock weight and averages approximately 8 percent. The rock is crushed, sized, and mixed to attain a bitumen 

content ranging from 5 to 9 percent, which is the optimum range to provide 

a good road surface. Information on the extent and thickness of the asphaltbearing Anacacho Limestone is fragmentary. As outcrops are commonly nonasphaltic, exploratory drilling is required to outline the asphaltic areas. 

Author's text condensed. 

Dumble, E. T., 1891, Mineral resources of Texas in Report of the State 

Geologist for 1890: Texas Geol. Survey 2d Ann. Rept., 88 p. [p. xliii-xlv]. 

Tar springs are found in many places in the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations of Texas. In Uvalde County at several outcrops bitumen impregnates 

both sandstone and limestone. The sandstone contains an average of 14 percent asphalt. The asphaltic limestone is even richer- an average of three 

analyses shows 20.35 percent bitumen. Author's text condensed. 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901, Texas asphalt deposits, in The asphalt and bituminous 

rock deposits in the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey 22d Ann. Rept., 

pt. 1 b, p. 320-327. 

Bituminous rock deposits occur in Montague, Burnet, and Uvalde Counties 

in Texas. In Montague County the deposits occur in the Trinity sandstone. 

Two deposits were being mined near St. Jo in 1901. In Burnet and Uvalde 

Counties, the deposits occur in Cretaceous limestones. Rather extensive de-
TEXAS 137 

posits are present in the Anacacho Mountain region in the southwestern part 

of Uvalde County. There, the bitumen fills the interstitial spaces in the limestone and the larger cavities produced by the removal of molluscan remains. 

The amount of bitumen varies from 10 to 20 percent. 

Getzendaner, F. M., 1931, Mineral resources of Texas, Uvalde and Zavala 

Counties: Texas Univ. Bur. Econ. Geology, Austin, Texas, p. 93-119. 

Outcrops of rock asphalt occur across the entire southern part of Uvalde 

County. The most extensive and best known deposits, however, are in the 

vicinity of Turkey Creek and Little Muela Creek, in the southwestern part 

of the county, where three companies quarry, crush, and ship large quantities 

of this valuable paving rock. Both limestones and sandstones are impregnated 

by the asphalt, and they range stratigraphically from middle Anacacho to 

upper Escondido. The asphalt content of the rock is as high as 20 percent; 

material most suitable for paving purposes contains 10-12 percent asphaltum. 

In Zavala County a ledge of asphaltic sandstone crops out in the bed of the 

Nueces River near the north line of the county. It has never been utilized, 

although the asphalt content is as high as 20 percent. Author's text condensed. 

Gorman, J. M., and Robeck, R. C., 1945, Asphalt deposits near Uvalde, Uvalde 

County, Texas: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 10 p. 

The asphalt deposits in the Uvalde district lie in southwestern Uvalde 

County and southeastern Kinney County, Tex. The principal deposits occur 

in the coquina beds of the Anacacho limestone of Late Cretaceous age. The 

minable reserves of asphaltic limestone in the area total 200 million cubic 

yards, averaging 8 percent bitumen by weight. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957, Texas, in Reconnaissance for uranium in asphaltbearing rocks, Western United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1046-E, 

p. 55-85 [p. 72]. 

Large deposits of asphalt-bearing limestone in the Anacacho limestone of 

Late Cretaceous age crop out in an area of about 60 square miles in the 

vicinity of Blewett and the western part of Uvalde County. The uranium 

content of the asphalt is exceptionally low, ranging from 0.001 to 0.004 percent and averaging 0.002 percent in the ash of the extracted oil. Author's 

text condensed. 

Harvill, L. L., 1959, Petrology of the Anacacho limestone of southwest Texas: 

Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. Trans., v. 9, p. 161-165. 

The Anacacho limestone is locally abundant in asphalt. A previous investigator (Utterback) concluded that the asphalt was deposited right along with 

the limestone, and argued that liquid petroleum generally originated in the 

reservoirs where it is now found. However, the present author's petrographic 

study shows that the bituminous material invaded the limestone, then shrank 

by loss of volatile constituents. This conclusion is based on the following 

evidence: ( 1) The pore space in the limestone is overwhelmingly of secondary 

origin; no truly primary porosity can be demonstrated; (2) the contact of 

asphaltic with asphalt-free rock cuts across bedding; and (3) the asphalt 

does not completely fill the pore spaces in the rock, but forms a coating on 

the limestone particles. Author's abstract condensed. 
138 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Hazzard, R. T., 1956, Cretaceous rocks south of Tarpley to Del Rio, in Four 

Provinces Field Trip: San Angelo Geol. Soc. Field Trip Guidebook, pt. 

III, p. 43-72. 

Outcrops of rock asphalt occur across the southern part of Uvalde County. 

The most extensive are near Turkey Creek and Little Muela Creek in the 

southwestern part of the county, where three companies q-qarry, crush, and 

ship large quantities of this valuable paving rock. The asphalt-impregnated 

rock is Cretaceous and occurs in the middle Anacacho to upper Escondido 

strata, and both limestone and sandstone are represented. Only the Anacacho 

limestone is being used at present. Asphaltum content in some places is as 

much as 20 percent, but the material most suitable for paving purposes contains 10-12 percent asphaltum. Author's text condensed. 

Jones, R. A., 1925, An outcrop of surface oil sand in the Permian "red beds" 

of Coke County, west Texas: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 9, 

p. 1215-1216. 

Surface sandstones saturated with petroleum are found at various localities 

in Coke County, Tex. The oil-bearing sandstone is in the fault and structural 

zone of Coke County, as described by Beede. The general opinion as expressed 

by Beede is that, because marine fossil remains are so rare in such formations, 

oil is not indigenous in red-bed sediments. However, the entire question of oil 

in red beds presents many unsolved aspects. Author's text condensed. 

Liddle, R. A., 1918, The geology and mineral resources of Medina County, 

Texas: Texas Univ. Pub. 1860, 177 p. [p. 151-152]. 

Surface deposits of asphalt are known at two localities in Medina County; 

both are in the Anacacho limestone. In the bed of San Geronimo Creek onehalf mile southeast of Rio Medina, the Anacacho limestone contains considerable asphalt, although it is doubtful if the mineral is present in commercial 

quantities. On Seco Creek 2 miles north of D'Hanis, there is an asphalt seep 

approximately 100 feet long. The seep is bounded on the south by a fault. 

North of the fault the asphalt has ascended along the inclined strata and 

encountered the less pervious clays of the Escondido, which at this locality 

are downthrown against the Anacacho. Only 12 feet of the Anacacho directly 

underlying the Escondido is exposed on the north side of the fault. Author's 

text condensed. 

Maxwell, R. A., 1962, Asphalt rock, in Mineral resources of South Texas: 

Texas Univ. Bur. Econ. Geology Rept. Inv. 43, p. 17-21. 

Asphaltic Anacacho limestone crops out intermittently along a belt 60 miles 

long through Uvalde and Kinney Counties. The better known asphalt deposits 

are about 13-20 miles southwest of Uvalde. The Anacacho is a porous limestone composed mainly of broken shell fragments, and in some areas the pores 

contain asphalt residue. A history of operations in the Uvalde district is 

given in this report, and a mineral resource map is included. In 1945 Gorman 

and Robeck estimated the Uvalde district's reserves to be 200 million cubic 

yards. The asphalt deposits in the Sabinal area east of Uvalde have been 

known for 30 years, but they have not been thoroughly investigated. 
TEXAS 139 

Mills, Brad, 1935, Nacogdoches oil mines: Oil Weekly, v. 79, no. 1, p. 27-30. 

Oil mining in the Nacogdoches field, oldest producing district in Texas, may 

be a successful means of recovering oil that cannot be profitably produced by 

ordinary drilling methods. The sluggish nature of producing wells indicates 

the necessity of exposing a much larger surface of the producing formation 

to drainage than can be done by drilling and completing an ordinary well. 

This report gives detailed descriptions of two shafts that were dug in 1935. 

Author's text condensed. 

Phillips, W. B., 1902, Coal, lignite, and asphalt rocks: Texas Univ. Mineral 

Survey Bull. 3, 137 p. [p. 77-98]. 

Asphalt deposits occur near St. J o in Montague and Cooke Counties, near 

Palestine in Anderson County, in southern Uvalde County, and near Burnet 

in Burnet County in rocks of Cretaceous to Tertiary age. A detailed description of each deposit and maps showing locations of deposits are included. 

Schoch, E. P., 1916, Ozokerite from the Thrall oil field: Texas Univ. Pub. 66, 

p. 78-81. 

Some dark-brown waxy material which is obtained with crude petroleum at 

Thrall, Tex., has recently been analyzed and has been recognized as being 

ozokerite of exceptionally good quality. It is very similar to paraffin except 

for its consistency. The Thrall ozokerite is "doughy" and can be "kneaded" 

whereas paraffin is flaky and brittle. Author's text condensed. 

Sellards, E. H., and Baker, C. L., 1934, Asphalt rock, in The geology of Texas, 

v. 2: Texas Univ. Pub. 3401, p. 253-255. 

The asphaltic limestone of the Anacacho formation of Late Cretaceous 

(Taylor) age is the largest body of bituminous limestone known. It extends 

for about 100 miles westward from the west line of Bexar County nearly to 

Spofford in Kinney County. The commercial worth of the Anacacho rock is 

enhanced because it can be prepared for paving merely by pulverizing and 

heating. The beds exploited in 1934 ranged in thickness from 10 to 50 feet 

and occurred in a syncline in close association with igneous rocks. The asphalt 

content ranged from 9 to 12 percent. The quarries are in the southwest corner 

of Uvalde County. The asphaltic sandstone of Montague and Cooke Counties 

lies at or near the top of the Trinity sand, just below the thin Goodland 

limestone. The asphalt was most likely derived from the underlying folded 

and faulted rocks which now seep oil on the south flank of the Arbuckle 

Mountains in Love County, Okla., and also farther north. The sandstone is 

impregnated with asphalt for an average thickness of 3 to 4 feet; the average 

content of asphalt in the rock is about 10 percent. Authors' text condensed. 

Sellards, E. H., and Evans, G. L., 1946, Index to Texas mineral resources: 

Texas Univ. Bur. Econ. Geology Mineral Resource Survey Circ. 29, 24 p. 

Natural asphaltic limestones occur in extensive deposits in the Cretaceous 

Anacacho formation in southwestern Uvalde County and in several small 

deposits in Lower Cretaceous strata near Burnet, in Burnet County. Large 

mining operations in Uvalde County produced asphaltic limestone for roadpaving material in 1946. Asphaltic sandstones not being utilized occur in 

Anderson, Cooke, Montague, Nacogdoches, Zavala, and several other counties. 

Authors' text condensed. 
140 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Soley, J. C., 1910, The oil fields of the Gulf of Mexico: Sci. American Supp., 

v. 69, p. 229. 

The area in which floating oil has been found extends from lat 26° N. to 

28°30' N., and from long 89° W. to 93o W. The most active part of the field 

is about 120 miles south of Trinity Shoal, off the Louisiana coast. Near the 

shore at Sabine Pass, there is a deposit of a viscid tarry liquid with a bituminous odor, which impregnates the mud. The oil probably occurs under water 

in a porous bed whose cover is sufficiently pervious to permit a constant slow 

seepage that saturates the overlying mud. A peculiar substance called sea wax 

is frequently found on the beaches between Sabine Pass and Matagorda. This 

sea wax is found in cakes as much as 6-8 feet long and 1-2 inches thick. 

This is undoubtedly a petroleum or asphaltum residuum, and its presence 

points to the existence of springs of liquid bitumen somewhere in the Gulf. 

Reports from vessels have located a seep at lat 27°30' N. and long 91 °30' W., 

where oil was seen bubbling on the surface. The oil floats away from the 

source in large fields, but it absorbs oxygen from the air and evaporates 

quickly. The oil-and-water emulsion, mixing with water, first has the appearance of slime which is generally reported as discolored water, and later turns 

the water milky white; this appearance is often reported in the eastern part 

of the Gulf Current and as far south as the Florida Reefs. Author's text 

condensed. 

Suderman, C. P., Jr., 1965, Thermal recovery activity in South Texas, in 

Upper Cretaceous asphalt deposits of the Rio Grande Embayment: Corpus 

Christi Geol. Soc. Annual Field Trip Guidebook, p. 33-36. 

Several thermal-recovery techniques are commonly employed today: (1) 

in-situ combustion is based on setting the reservoir afire and sustaining combustion in the form of a moving fire-front through air injection; (2) steam 

or hot-water injection introduces heat to the reservoir without using any of 

the residual oil as fuel or contaminating the produced liquids with combustion 

gases; and (3) the steam-soak method utilizes the cyclic injection of steam 

into a reservoir followed by a period of production of the heated oil from the 

same well. The most successful thermal project in Texas to date is Texaco's 

in-situ combustion project at Charco Redondo field, Zapata County. This 

shallow field produced 17° API oil from 15 feet of sand at an average depth 

of 160 feet. After 1 month of air injecti~n, production from six wells increased 

to 3,300 barrels of oil, from the previous rate of 57 barrels. Cumulative production at the end of 24 months amounted to 60,000 barrels of oil, or about 

23 percent of the estimated oil in place under the pilot area. This process has 

been tried in other shallow fields, but the Charco Redondo area is the only 

one where it has advanced beyond the pilot stage; it has yet to be proved 

economical. Author's text condensed. 

Terry, W. M., 1942, The natural asphalts and asphalt rocks of Texas: Texas 

Univ. unpub. M.S. thesis, 68 p. 

Nearly all the asphalt deposits in Texas occur in Cretaceous rocks. Only the 

deposits near Palestine, in Anderson County, occur in Eocene rocks. The most 

important deposit in Texas is near Uvalde, in Uvalde County, where bituminous impregnation of the Cretaceous Anacacho formation has occurred along 

a strip 15 miles long and 4-6 miles wide. Production of asphalt from this 

deposit was 600-800 tons daily at the time this report was written. Samples 
TEXAS 141 

from the Uvalde deposit contained from 4.82 to 13.35 percent bitumen. In the 

Burnet deposit, just north of the town of Burnet, the asphalt occurs in a 

layer about 1 foot thick at the top of a limestone ledge in the Glen Rose 

formation. The rock is a coquina; most of the shells are in the form of molds, 

and the asphalt occurs in the mold cavities. The bitumen in this deposit is 

soft, but hardens upon exposure. This deposit is probably a distillation residue 

of a former petroleum reservoir. Samples of this deposit range from 1.06 to 

6.80 percent bitumen. The asphaltic sands near St. Jo, in Montague County, 

consist of a few feet of Trinity sand (Cretaceous) impregnated with asphaltic 

material. The asphalt layer crops out in the faces of cliffs, where blocks of 

the material break off and fall down the slope as talus. The impregnation has 

occurred irregularly, and in some places the rock is barren or only slightly 

stained by the bituminous material. Samples contained 2.1 to 12.5 percent 

bitumen. The asphalt deposit near Palestine occurs in the Queen City sand of 

middle Eocene age. This deposit consists of a subsurface reservoir of petroleum which has not yet reached the advanced stages of evaporation as have 

the Burnet and Uvalde deposits. The bitumen content of samples from this 

deposit averages 4.56 percent for unconsolidated material and 8.56 percent for 

consolidated material. 

Udden, J. A., Baker, C. L., and Bose, Emil, 1916, Review of the geology of 

Texas: Texas Univ. Pub. 44, 146 p. [p. 141-142]. 

The only rock asphalt that has been utilized in Texas occurs in the Upper 

Cretaceous at Kline, in Uvalde County, and in the Trinity sands of the 

Commanchean in Montague County, north of St. Jo. The Kline asphalt occu:r:s 

in the Anacacho limestone, a shell breccia; the porous space is filled partially 

or entirely by the asphalt, which is probably a residue from liquid bitumens 

that have escaped to the surface earlier. Asphalt also occurs in the Port 

Hudson clays at Sour Lake, Hardin County, and in small nodules of grahamite in the sands and sandy shales of the Eocene Jackson formation. Asphalt 

is widely distributed in the Trinity sands, occurring at many localities in the 

northern part of the State. Authors' text condensed. 

Utterback, D. D., 1954, New questions· on the origin of oil: Oil and Gas Jour., 

v. 53, no. 16, p. 121-124. 

The author investigated surface outcrops of limestones and sandstones 

containing asphalt or heavy oil. His conclusions of the origin of the Uvalde 

deposits are as follows: ( 1) The bitumen in the Anacacho limestone was 

deposited contemporaneously with the material with which it is associated; 

(2) the rock is not an impregnated couqina, but consists of fragments of 

limestone in a bituminous matrix; and (3) it is not a residual oil pool; however, had the proper conditions prevailed, it might have been converted into 

an oil pool. 

Vaughn, T. W., 1897, The asphalt deposits of western Texas: U.S. Geol. Survey 18th Ann. Rept., pt. 5, p. 930-935. 

Asphalt-impregnated sandstone occurs at several localities along the Nueces 

River near the Uvalde-Zavala County line. The asphalt is in the Escondido 

formation, overlying the Anacacho limestone that contains the asphalt in the 

Uvalde and Sabinal areas. The most accessible outcrop is at Black Wax Falls, 

about 10 miles southwest of Uvalde, at a point where the Missouri Pacific 

460-209 0 - 72 - 10 
142 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Railway crosses the Nueces River. The highest concentration of asphalt is in 

a 5-foot-thick sandstone at the base of the falls. Samples collected from this 

sandstone show an asphaltic content of 14.2 percent. The region has been 

subjected to considerable igneous disturbance; there are laccolites, sills, and 

dikes of basalt. The asphalt occurs as accumulations in shallow synclinal 

basins and as impregnations of largely organic sedimentary rocks. The form 

of occurrence suggests that the heat of the basalt intrusions acted upon the 

organic limestones by driving out the asphalt or bitumen, which then accumulated in the synclinal basins as impregnations in the porous beds. Author's 

text condensed. 

Vaughn, T. W., 1900, Description of the Uvalde quadrangle [Texas]: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 64. 

Deposits of asphalt occur at two places within the Uvalde quadrangle. 

At one locality, on the east side of the Blanco River, near Sabinal, the asphalt 

has impregnated some porous layers of the Anacacho limestone. At the second, along the Nueces River, the asphalt occurs as an impregnation of a soft 

sandstone near the top of the Pulliam formation, the stratigraphically higher 

deposit. Structurally, this part of the Nueces Valley is a shallow syncline, 

and the asphalt occurs along the bottom of it. Author's text condensed. 

Youngmeyer, R. F., and Jindra, R. 1., 1951, Nacogdoches field, in Occurrence 

of oil and gas in northeast Texas: Texas Univ. Pub. 5116, p. 247-249. 

The Nacogdoches field- the oldest in Texas- is approximately 15 miles 

southeast of Nacogdoches. As early as 1790 an oily substance found at the 

surface in this area was used to grease axles of wagons crossing over the 

Spanish trail. By 1890, 90 wells had been drilled to a depth of about 100 feet. 

The field produced intermittently until 1936, depending upon the price of oil. 

In 1935 two companies tried to mine the oil by digging shafts, but water was 

produced in such large quantities that the operations were abandoned. 

Authors' text condensed. 

UTAH 

Subject Index 

Analyses 

Bardwell, Carlos, Berryman, B. A., Brighton, T. B., and Kuhre, K. D., 

1918 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Asphalt deposits 

Asphalt Ridge 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Cashion, W. B., 1964 

Cohenour, R. E., 1964 

Covington, R. E., 1957 

Covington, R. E., 1964a 

Kayser, R. B., 1966 

Pruitt, R. G., Jr., 1961a 

Spieker, E. M., 1930 
Asphalt deposits- Continued 

Circle Cliffs 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Davidson, E. S., 1967 

Ritzma, H. R., 1968a 

Steed, R. H., 1954 

UTAH 

Green River Desert-Cataract Canyon region 

Baker, A. A., 1946 

Mexican Hat oil field 

Wengerd, S. A., 1955 

Moab district 

Baker, A. A., 1933 

P. R. (Peor) Springs 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Cohenour, R. E., 1964 

Covington, R. E., 1964a 

Regional 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Cashion, W. B., 1964 

Cohenour, R. E., 1964 

Covington, R. E., 1963 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Ritzma, H. R., 1967 

Ritzma, H. R., 1968b 

Ritzma, H. R., 1969 

Rozel Point 

Boutwell, J. H., 1905 

Eardley, A. J., 1963 

Eardley, A. J., and Haas, Merrill, 1936 

Slentz, L. W., and Eardley, A. J., 1956 

Sunnyside 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Cashion, W. B., 1964 

Cohenour, R. E., 1964 

Covington, R. E., 1964a 

Holmes, C. N ., Page, B. M., and Averitt, Paul, 1948 

Tar Sand Triangle 

Bowman, J. L., 1969 

Ritzma, H. R., 1968b 

Temple Mountain 

Breger, I. A., and Deul, M., 1959 

Kelley, D. R., and Kerr, P. F., 1958 

Robeck, R. C., 1954 

Tenmile Wash 

McKnight, E. T., 1940 

Uinta Basin 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Byrd, W. D., II, 1967 

Cashion, W. B., 1967 

143 
144 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Asphalt deposits- Continued 

Uinta Basin- Continued 

Covington, R. E., 1964a 

Donnell, J. R., Culbertson, W. C., and Cashion, W. B., 1967 

Hunt, J. M., 1963 

Hunt, J. M., Stewart, Francis, and Dickey, P. A., 1954 

Murray, A. N., 1950 

Pruitt, R. G., Jr., 1961a 

Ritzma, H. R., 1967 

Winchester, D. E., 1919 

Uinta River-Brush Creek area 

Kinney, D. M., 1955 

Whiterocks 

Oil seeps 

Permian 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Ball, M. W., 1951 

Cohenour, R. E., 1964 

Covington, R. E., 1964a 

Kinney, D. M., and Rominger, J. E., 1947 

Baker, A. A., 1933 

Baker, A. A., 1946 

Boutwell, J. M., 1905 

Gregory, H: E., and Moore, R. C., 1931 

Miser, H. D., 1925 

Cutler Formation 

Bowman, J. L., 1969 

Recovery methods 

Covington, R. E., 1964b 

Covington, R. E., 1965 

Fene, W. J., 1928 

Henderson, J. H., Jr., 1957 

Kayser, R. B., 1966 

Kilborn, G. R., 1964 

Schick, R. B., 1966 

Shea, G. G., and Higgins, R. V., 1952 

Wenger, W. J., Hubbard, R. L., and Whisman, M. L., 1952 

Resources • 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Bowman, J. L., 1969 

Byrd, W. D., II, 1967 

Cashion, W. B., 1964 

Cohenour, R. E., 1964 

Covington, R. E., 1963 

Covington, R. E., 1964a 

Holmes, C. N., Page, B. M., and Averitt, Paul, 1948 

Pruitt, R. G., Jr., 1961a 

Ritzma, H. R., 1969 

Schick, R. B., 1966 

Spieker, E. M., 1930 

Untermann, G. E., and Untermann, B. R., 1964 
UTAH 145 

Tertiary 

Bardwell, Carlos, Berryman, B. A., Brighton, T. B., and Kuhre, K. D., 

1918 

Green River Formation 

Cashion, W. B., 1964 

Cashion, W. B., 1967 

Donnell, J. R., Culbertson, W. C., and Cashion, W. B., 1967 

Wiley, D. R., 1967 

Woodruff, E. G., and Day, D. T., 1915 

Triassic 

Moenkopi Formation 

Bassler, Harvey, and Reeside, J. B., 1922 

Bowman, J. L., 1969 

Ritzma, H. R., 1968a 

Ritzma, H. R., 1968b 

Uranium 

Breger, I. A., and Deul, M., 1959 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Hess, F. L., 1922 

Kelley, D. R., and Kerr, P. F., 1958 

Robeck, R. C., 1954 

Vein deposits 

Baker, J. A., 1950 

Bardwell, Carlos, Berryman, B. A., Brighton, T. B., and Kuhre, K. D., 

1918 

Bassler, Harvey, and Reeside, J. B., 1922 

Carey, G. A., and Roberts, I. C., 1949 

Cashion, W. B., 1964 

Hunt, J. M., 1963 

Hunt, J. M., Stewart, Francis, and Dickey, P. A., 1954 

Gilsonite 

Baker, J. A., 1950 

Carey, G. A., and Roberts, I. C., 1949 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961 

Cashion, W. B., 1964 

Cashion, W. B., 1967 

Cashion, W. B., and Brown, J. H., Jr., 1956 

Crawford, A. L., 1949 

Crawford, A. L., 1957 

Crawford, A. L., and Pruitt, R. G., 1963 

Davis, L. J., 1957 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901 

Fene, W. J., 1928 

Henderson, J. H., Jr., 1957 

Kemmerer, J. L., 1934 

Murray, A. N., 1950 

Pruitt, R. G., Jr., 1961b 

Untermann, G. E., and Untermann, B. R., 1964 

Woodruff, E. G., and Day, D. T., 1915 

Ozokerite 

Cashion, W. B., 1964 
146 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Vein deposits- Continued 

Ozokerite- Continued 

Crawford, A. L., 1953 

]derrow,Joe, 1957 

Robinson, H. ]d., 1917 

Taff, J. A., and Smith, C. D., 1906 

Author List 

Baker, A. A., 1933, Geology and oil possibilities of the Moab district, Grand 

and San Juan Counties, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 841, 95 p. 

Oil seeps are found in the Hermosa and Rico formations on the San Juan 

River about 100 miles south of ]doab. In order to test these horizons, the first 

well was drilled in 1907. Oil was found at 225 feet. This well was a gusher, 

and spewed oil 70 feet above the floor of the derrick. Small production was 

obtained from several wells in the field, which continued to produce for many 

years. By 1933, however, there were no producing wells in the field. Author's 

text condensed. 

Baker, A. A., 1946, Geology of the Green River Desert-Cataract Canyon 

region, Emery, Wayne, and Garfield Counties, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 951, 122 p. 

Oil seeps or bituminous sandstone outcrops have caused southeastern Utah 

to be considered favorable territory for prospecting for oil and gas. Wells 

drilled to date (1946) have failed to find large accumulations of oil, but a 

few wells have yielded small quantities of oil and some gas, and many others 

have had shows of oil at one or more horizons. 

Baker, J. A., 1950, Economics of gilsonite in the Uinta Basin, in Petroleum 

geology of the Uinta Basin: Utah Geol. Soc. Guidebook to the Geology of 

Utah, no. 5, p. 119-120. 

Gilsonite has one feature which has caused considerable concern. In almost 

every instance where powder blasting has been used to break gilsonite loose 

from the solid state, explosive conditions exist, owing to the presence of 

gilsonite dust and pockets of methane gas, which occur in the vein. These 

combined features have caused explosions in most mines where powder was 

used for blasting. Therefore, most operations use the slope-mining method; 

miners pick the gilsonite free from the vein and allow it to roll to the bottom 

of the slope, where it can be collected, sacked, and hoisted to the surface. 

One of the larger producers is currently experimenting with opencut-slusher 

operations. 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Utah, in Surface and shallow oil-impregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. Mines 

]don. 12, p. 321-347. 

Petroleum-impregnated outcrops are widespread throughout eastern Utah. 

In and around the edges of the Uinta Basin are some of the best known "tar 

sands" in the United States, including the Sunnyside, Asphalt Ridge, and 

Whiterocks deposits. Less well known, but probably of equal or greater importance, are widely distributed deposits in southeastern Utah, mainly along 
UTAH 147 

the flanks of breached anticlines, such as the San Rafael Swell and the Circle 

Cliffs uplift. Reserve figures are given for the Whiterocks, Asphalt Ridge, 

Sunnyside, and P. R. Springs deposits. These total 1,900 million to 4,600 

million barrels of bitumen in place, substantially more than R. E. Covington's 

1964 estimate. Author's text condensed. 

Ball, M. W., 1951, Report on oil-impregnated strippable deposits in Utah as 

of May 22-,- -l-%ff, Appendix D, in The synthetic liquid-fuel potential of 

Utah: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Summary report for the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior: Ford, Bacon & Davis, Inc., 

Engineers. . 

The only known reserves of oil-impregnated strippable deposits in Utah 

are bituminous sandstones in the Sunnyside deposit, in Carbon County, and 

the P. R. Springs deposit, in Grand and Uintah Counties. Deposits of bituminous sandstones that might fall within the definition of reserves, if more 

data were available, are present in the Whiterocks area and at Vernal or 

Asphalt Ridge. Both are in Uintah County, in the northern part of Uinta 

Basin. Smaller occurrences of oil-saturated sandstones, in the central and 

southern parts of the State, are of little prospective commercial importance. 

Author's text condensed. 

Bardwell, Carlos, Berryman, B. A., Brighton, T. B., and Kuhre, K. D., 1918, 

Chemical properties of Utah hydrocarbons: Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and 

Letters Proc., v. 1, p. 78-95. 

About 15 roinds of hydrocarbons occur in Utah; the five most abundant are 

gilsonite, tabbyite, wurtzilite, ozokerite, and rock asphalt and are the ones 

selected for this investigation. One asphalt gradually changes into another; 

gilsonite occurs farthest east; then, the tabbyite, wurtzilite, rock asphalt, arid 

ozokerite occur successively westward. There may be a genetic relationship 

among them. All occur in Eocene or Tertiary rocks. Gilsonite, tabbyite, ozokerite, and rock asphalt are soluble in many solvents to varying degrees, but 

wurtzilite is practically insoluble in all the solvents tried. Although gilsonite, 

tabbyite, and wurtzilite grade from one to the other in the field, are closely 

similar in appearance, and very similar in chemical composition, they differ 

markedly in solubilities and certain other properties. Authors' text condensed. 

Bassler, Harvey, and Reeside, J. B., 1922, Oil prospects in Washington County, 

Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 726-C, p. 87-107. 

Washington County, in the exheme southwest corner of Utah, shows only 

meager evidence of oil. In Rock Canyon, which cuts the Hurricane fault scarp 

about 15 miles south of Hurricane, a deep wide gash was eroded into the 

upper part of the Kaibab limestone and filled with gypsum, shale, and limestone of the basal part of the overlying Moenkopi formation. This filling is 

very irregular in composition and contains many thin veins of asphaltite and 

zones impregnated with bituminous matter. The. material is more abundant 

in the lower part of the exposure, and it seems to have come up from below. 

In another exposure 2 miles west of the south end of Black Rock Canyon, in 

Arizona, a crushed zone 100 feet wide in the lower part of the Moenkopi formation is filled with bituminous matter in the form of veins and impregnations. This material likewise seems to have come up from below. Authors' text 

condensed. 
148 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Boutwell, J. M., 1905, Oil and asphalt prospects in Salt Lake basin, Utah: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 260-J, p. 468-479. 

The only occurrence of asphalt known in this region is in the northwestern 

part of the Great Salt Lake, at Rozel Hills. This occurrence of asphalt 

appears to be restricted to the shallow littoral part of the Great Salt Lake, 1

A,-1 mile from the present shoreline (1904), immediately southeast of Rozel 

Hills. It exudes through the unconsolidated material on the bottom of the lake 

and bubbles up into the water as hollow spherical, or tubular, masses 1-2 

inches long and as threads and hairs 6-18 inches long. In places, the emissions 

are concentrated into considerable seepages or "pitch springs," 1-2 feet in 

diameter. The source of these seeps appears to be a bed of asphalt, 2-3 feet 

thick, 80 feet below the present lake bed and an underlying series of asphaltic 

beds 3-5 feet thick. The asphaltic matter cements the calcareous oolitic deposits of the lake bottom into a bituminous limestone and forms numerous 

low islets, from 1 to 50 feet in diameter, which are distributed in rough alinement. The seepages may be along zones of fracture. Author's text condensed. 

Bowman, J. L., 1969, Oil-impregnated sandstones between [the] Dirty Devil 

and Colorado and Green Rivers, Garfield and Wayne Counties, Utah 

[abs.]: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 53, no. 1, p. 218. 

Oil-impregnated sandstone has been known in Elaterite basin, Wayne 

County, Utah, since the early 1900's. Genetically related deposits occur in a 

triangular area that is bounded by the Green and Colorado Rivers on the 

east, by the Dirty Devil River on the west, and by a poorly defined line on 

the north. The area is here called the "Tar-sand triangle." Major deposits 

occur in the White Rim Sandstone Member of the Cutler Formation (Permian). Less important deposits, generally in close association, are in the 

Organ Rock and Cedar Mesa Members of the Cutler (below the Rim Rock) 

and in the lower part of the overlying Triassic Moenkopi Formation. The 

degree of oil impregnation ranges from very slight to fully saturated (with 

active seeps) in an area 22 miles long and 1.5 miles wide. Maximum thickness 

of the oil-impregnated rocks is 250 feet. Reserves observable in outcrops 

exceed 1 billion barrels of 8°-15° API oil. The known continuity of deposits 

beneath the surface makes it possible to estimate reserves of 3-4 billion 

barrels. These deposits are probably offshore bars that have been breached 

by e·rosion, permitting the volatile hydrocarbons to dissipate. Author's abstract 

condensed. 

Breger, I. A., and Deul, M., 1959, Association of uranium with carbonaceous 

materials, with special reference to Temple Mountain region, in Garrels, 

R. M., and Larsen, E. S., 3d, compilers, Geochemistry and mineralogy of 

the Colorado Plateau uranium ores: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 320, 

p. 139-149. 

On the Colorado Plateau, uranium is associated with coalified wood, crude 

oil, carbonaceous shale, and carbonaceous matter of unknown origin. Investigations have shown that crude oil plays no role in the emplacement of 

uranium, although its ability to pick up small quantities of uranium while 

migrating through uraniferous zones may make oils an aid to general prospecting. 
UTAH 149 

Byrd, W. D., II, 1967, Geology of the bituminous sandstone deposits, southeastern Uinta Basin, Uintah and Grand Counties, Utah: Utah Univ. 

unpub. M.S. thesis, 43 p. 

The bituminous sandstone beds in the southeastern Uinta Basin underlie 

an area of 214 square miles; they may extend northward. Saturated zones 

3-75 feet thick occur at or near the surface in a 250-foot-interval that dips 

gently northward. Saturation occurs in lenticular sandstone beds, and occasionally in siltstone beds, in the Green River Formation. These lenticular 

beds were deposited on the periphery of the basin in a fluvio deltaic environment. Mesozoic rocks at depth have formed drape folds over displacements on 

normal fault blocks in the Precambrian basement rocks of the Uncompahgre 

uplift. These folds, weakly reflected in the beds of the Green River Formation 

at the surface, have "funneled" the bituminous saturation to the area around 

P. R. Spring, where it seeps to the surface. Reserve estimates indicate a 

possible 3, 700,000 barrels of oil in place or nearly 4 times the published estimated reserves for the Sunnyside, Utah, deposit. Author's abstract condensed. 

Carey, G. A., and Roberts, I. C., 1949, Dissertation on the history, occurrence, 

mining, and economics of gilsonite: Utah Univ. unpub. B.S. thesis, 89 p. 

There are two main gilsonite-producing districts in the Uinta Basin. The 

White River area includes such famous early producers as the Black Dragon 

and Rainbow mines. The area around Fort Duchesne and Myton includes the 

first-discovered Duchesne vein, and the Pariette and several other veins. The 

veins of the White River area vary in width from several inches to 18 feet 

(the Eureka vein). They crop out in the upper part of the Green River 

formation and lower part of the Uinta formation with an approximate strike 

of N. 60° W. The veins around Fort Duchesne and Myton occur in the lower 

Duchesne River formation and in the upper Uinta formation. The veins in this 

area trend N. 45 o W. Production has been variable, depending upon the 

demand. At the. time this report was written, 1945 was the peak year for 

production with 61,273 tons. 

Carman, E. P., and Bayes, F. S., 1961, Occurrence, properties, and uses of 

some natural bitumens: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 7997, 42 p. 

In Uintah County, Utah, a pure solid asphalt has been found in Tabby 

Canyon, about 30 miles west of Fort Duchesne. Another Utah deposit was 

found below the bed of the Great Salt Lake, about 10 miles south of Rozel. 

This material exudes through the lake bottom and floats to the surface in 

lumps 1-2 feet in diameter. Carbon, Utah, Grand, and Uintah Counties have 

deposits of asphaltic limestone or asphaltic sandstone. Deposits of gilsonite 

have been found only in the Uinta Basin, in a belt about 65 miles long, 

extending from Rio Blanco County, Colo., through Uintah County, Utah, into 

Duchesne County. The gilsonite occurs in almost pure form in vertically outcropping parallel veins. It varies in thicknzss from thin fissures to as much 

as 22 feet and ranges in depth from about 100 feet near the east end of the 

belt to about 2,000 feet at the west end, where it has been mined to a depth 

of 1,500 feet. 

Cashion, W. B., 1964, Other bituminous substances, in Mineral and water 

resources of Utah (Report of the U.S. Geological Survey for use of U.S. 
150 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs): 88th Cong., 2d Sess., 

U.S. Govt. Printing Office, p. 63-68. 

Gilsonite occurs in northeastern Utah in Uintah and Duchesne Counties as 

veins in northwest-trending vertical fractures that cut the gently dipping 

beds of the Tertiary Duchesne River, Uinta, Green River, and Wasatch 

Formations. They range in width from a fraction of an inch to about 18 feet, 

and the maximum length is 14 miles. Information on the veins at depth is 

limited, but mining in eastern Duchesne County has reached a depth of about 

1,500 feet. It is estimated that the original gilsonite reserves of Utah amounted 

to about 45 million tons. Gilsonite produced to date amounts to about onetenth of the estimated original reserves. Ozokerite and wurtzilite also occur 

as vein fillings in Wasatch, Utah, and Duchesne Counties. The most important 

rock-asphalt deposits are at Sunnyside and Asphalt Ridge. The Sunnyside 

bituminous sandstone deposits are about 5 miles north of the town of Sunnyside, Carbon County. The bituminous sandstone beds crop out in the cliffs and 

steep slopes in the upper part of the Wasatch Formation and in the lower 

part of the Green River Formation; however, most of them are in the 

Wasatch. In 1948 Holmes estimated that the area contained 1,600 million 

cubic yards of bituminous rocks in which beds with 9 percent or more bitumen, by weight, contain 728 million barrels of bitumen. The Asphalt Ridge 

bituminous sandstones lie a few miles northwest of Vernal, in Uintah County. 

Impregnated beds of sandstone crop out along a northwest-trending strip 

that is about 14 miles long and less than 1 mile wide. The bitumen occurs 

in the Cretaceous Mesaverde and Tertiary Duchesne River Formations. Thicknesses of impregnated sandstone sequences at the outcrop range from a few 

feet to about 200 feet. The bitumen content ranges from about 8 percent to a 

little more than 15 percent. In 1930 Spieker estimated that the area within 

1% miles from the outcrop included 1,970 million tons of bituminous rock 

containing 1,150 million barrels of bitumen. Author's text condensed. 

Cashion, W. B., 1967, Geology and fuel resources of the Green River Formation, southeastern Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 548, 48 p. 

Gilsonite occurs as long narrow vein deposits between the walls of northwest-trending, nearly vertical joints. Veins in the mapped area are from 0.5 

to 7 miles long and from a few inches to about 18 feet wide. The maximum 

vertical extent is estimated to be about 1,400 feet. The veins are almost 

parallel, and the average strike is approximately N. 60° W. In the mapped 

area gilsonite veins occur in the Wasatch, Green River, and Uinta Formations. Northwest of the mapped area, veins also occur in the Duchesne River 

Formation. Most of the widest and longest veins are found in the Uinta 

Formation. Gilsonite is a residue of petroleum that flowed into fractures 

from a source not definitely known. After filling the fractures, most of the 

hydrocarbons solidified. The original reserves of gilsonite in the basin are 

estimated to have been about 45 million tons; about one-tenth of this amount 

has now been mined. Sandstones impregnated with bituminous material occur 

in the uppermost part of the Douglas Creek Member and in the lowermost 

part of the Parachute Creek Member, both of the Green River Formation. 

The highly impregnated beds are very dark gray and are cemented by the 

tarry bituminous material. On very warm days bitumen oozes from some beds. 

The source of the bituminous material has not been determined; however, it 
UTAH 151 

is seemingly indigenous to the Green River Formation, although no likely 

source beds occur adjacent to the impregnated sandstone. Autho:r's text condensed. 

Cashion, W. B., and Brown, J. H., Jr., 1956, Geology of the Bonanza-Dragon 

oil-shale area, Uintah County, Utah, and Rio Blanco County, Colorado: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM-153, with text. 

Most of the gilsonite veins in the Uinta Basin are within the BonanzaDragon area. The largest veins are the Cowboy, Independent, Tabor, Little 

Bonanza, Rainbow, and Black Dragon veins. The width of the veins ranges 

from a fraction of an inch to 18 feet and the length from a few hundred feet 

to 14 miles. The depths to which they extend are unknown, but prospecting 

has indicated that they extend to as much as 1,500 feet. The walls of the 

gilsonite-filled fissures are nearly vertical and smooth. The veins commonly 

contain fragments of wallrock. At some localities the gilsonite has permeated 

the sandstone beds for several feet on both sides of the vein. The veins near 

Bonanza, Utah, are exposed in the Uinta formation and in the upper part 

of the Green River formation. Authors' text condensed. 

Cohenour, R. E., 1964, Fossil hydrocarbons of the Tri-State Basins, in Intermountain Symposium on Fossil Hydrocarbons, Proceedings: Brigham 

Young Univ., Salt Lake Center for Continuing Education, Salt Lake City, 

Utah, p. 281-288. 

Bituminous sandstones make up available reserves of 1.4 billion barrels of 

petroleum in the Uinta Basin and, although more significant than gas, oil, or 

gilsonite, make up less than 0.1 percent of the energy in the available 

reserves of the Tri-State (Utah-Colo.-Wyo.) area. Total bituminous sandstone or rock asphalt resources in Utah equal 5.6 billion barrels, or about 

0.1 percent of the energy potential. Four deposits- Sunnyside (728 million 

barrels), Carbon County; Asphalt Ridge (460 million barrels), Uintah 

County; P. R. Springs (200+ million barrels), Uintah-Grand Counties; and 

Whiterocks Canyon (50 million barrels), Uintah County- contain the available reserves of 1.4 billion barrels. The potential reserves would be at least 

3 times the available reserve (1.4 billion), or 4.2 billion barrels, for a total 

resource of 5.6 billion barrels. Author's text condensed. 

Covington, R. E., 1957, Bituminous sandstones of the Asphalt Ridge area, 

northeastern Utah, in Guidebook to the geology of the Uinta Basin: 

Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Guidebook, 8th Ann. Field 

Conf., p. 172-175. 

Asphalt Ridge derives its name from the vast amount of asphalt exposed 

on a topographic ridge. The structure of the ridge is homoclinal, with a 

southwesterly dip. Oil saturation occurs in the Mesaverde, Uinta, and Duchesne River formations; saturation is related to permeability and porosity 

of sandstone beds that are near an unconformity or that are truncated downdip at an unconformity. The accumulation of oil is probably related to the 

unconformities in the Asphalt Ridge homocline, and the source of the oil is 

the limestone and shale in the lower part 9f the Green River formation. 

Author's text condensed. 
152 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Covington, R. E., 1963, Bituminous sandstone and limestone deposits of Utah, 

in Oil and gas possibilities of Utah, reevaluated: Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey Bull. 54, p. 225-247. 

The major bituminous sandstone and bituminous limestone deposits of Utah 

are within or along the edges of the Uinta Basin in Carbon, Duchesne, and 

Uintah Counties. The Sunnyside deposits in Carbon County contain the 

greatest reserves of bituminous sandstone in the United States. The sandstone averages 8-10 percent bitumen by weight, totaling more than 1.6 billion 

cubic yards of bitumen. The second largest deposit in Utah is the Asphalt 

Ridge bituminous sandstone area in Uintah County; reserves have been estimated at more than 1 billion barrels. The deposits at Peor Springs and Whiterocks Canyon areas are described. The Asphalt Ridge, Sunnyside, Peor 

Springs, and Whiterocks Canyon area deposits contain more than 90 percent 

of the asphalt reserves in the State of Utah. Author's introduction condensed. 

Covington, R. E., 1964a, Bituminous sandstones in the Uinta Basin, in Guidebook to the geology and mineral resources of the Uinta Basin, Utah's 

hydrocarbon storehouse: Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 

Guidebook, 13th Ann. Field Conf., p. 227-242. 

The bituminous sandstones of the Sunnyside area are the largest known 

deposits in the United States. The deposit contains 1.6 billion cubic yards of 

bituminous sandstone, of which approximately 50 percent is commercial grade 

containing more than 9 percent bitumen by weight. The bituminous sands of 

this deposit are in the upper part of the Wasatch Formation and in the 

lower part of the Green River Formation. The saturated beds range in thickness from a few inches to more than 350 feet. The oil originated in the 

Green River Formation, but soon after burial and before consolidation and 

induration, the oil moved from the source beds into the adjacent and subjacent sandstones. 

Asphalt Ridge, 4 miles west of Vernal, is the second largest bituminous 

sandstone deposit in Utah. Along the ridge, well up in the Duchesne River 

Formation, there are important beds of asphalt, all lying along angular 

unconformities. The degree of saturation is a direct function both of proximity 

of these beds to unconformities and of porosity and permeability within these 

beds. The bitumen has a 12o API gravity and is extremely low in sulfur. 

The oil probably originated in the lacustrine Green River Formation. The 

reserves of bituminous sandstone of commercial grade are in excess of 475 

million cubic yards of material containing more than 9 percent bitumen, by 

weight, for a total of approximately 250 million barrels of bitumen. 

The bituminous sandstones of the Whiterocks area are approximately 25 

miles northwest of Vernal, along the south flank of the Uinta Mountains. 

The Triassic ( ? ) -Jurassic Navajo Sandstone in this area has a total thickness 

of 1,000 feet. Asphalt saturation occurs fairly uniformly throughout the 

entire formation. The bitumen has an API gravity of 12o and is low in sulfur. 

The bituminous sand of the Navajo Sandstone averages 24.4 gallons per 

cubic yard. Reserves total 125 million barrels of oil in place, in aU categories 

-that is, 65 million barrels in the proved category, 35 million barrels in the 

probable category, and 25 million barrels in the possible category. 

The bituminous sandstone deposits of the P. R. Springs area are similar 

in geologic occurrence and origin to the Sunnyside deposits and lie on the 

southeast flank of the Uinta Basin, along the Roan Cliffs. The Chapita Wells 
UTAH 153 

area is in the east-central part of the Uinta Basin east of Ouray. The bitumen occurs in the fluvial sandstones of the Uinta Formation. The degree of 

saturation seems to be dependent mainly upon the proximity of the beds to 

fault and fracture zones from which the oil could move upward into the 

Uinta reservoirs. The Dragon-Asphalt Wash bituminous sandstones are south 

and east of the Chapita Wells deposits, in Uintah County. The richest tar 

sand is located adjacent to and updip from the Black Dragon gilsonite vein. 

The author believes that this deposit originated from the gilsonite vein, as 

the degree of saturation is directly proportional to the distance from the vein. 

The Deep Creek area is a small deposit of tarry sandstones and conglomerates 15 miles northwest of Vernal. The deposit occurs in the beds of the 

Duchesne River Formation that overlap with angular unconformity in the 

Cretaceous Mancos black marine shales. There are numerous small deposits 

and seeps within the Uinta Basin. Author's text condensed. 

Covington, R. E., 1964b, Thermal recovery may bring industry's quiet revolution: Oil and Gas Jour., v. 62, no. 47, p. 112-118. 

The quiet revolution is the application of thermal recovery to the lowgravity viscous crude oils heretofore unrecoverable by conventional and 

secondary recovery techniques and to the tremendous reserves of bituminous 

sandstones. Two areas in Utah have bituminous sandstones of economic 

significance with respect to thermal-recovery methods of oil production. The 

more important area is in the Uinta Basin, in northeastern Utah, in Uintah, 

Duchesne, and Carbon Counties. The second area is the Green River Desert, 

in central Utah's Sevier, Wayne, and Garfield Counties. The most important 

deposits in the Uinta Basin are the Sunnyside deposits in Carbon County. 

There, the measured and indicated reserves are estimated to contain 475-500 

million barrels of oil. If recovery rates are as much as 70 percent of total 

reserves, the recoverable oil should approach 300 million barrels. Parts of the 

Sunnyside reserves are adequate for large-scale strip mining. Their major 

drawback from the standpoint of thermal recovery is the lack of a large 

source of fresh water for steam injection. The bituminous sandstones of the 

Asphalt Ridge area are 3-4 miles west of Vernal, along U.S. Highway 40. 

Proved reserves equal 475 million cubic yards of material containing 250 

million barrels of oil. Probable reserves are estimated at about 500 million 

barrels, with additional reserves indicated in a downdip basinward direction. 

The bitumen is in the Cretaceous Asphalt Ridge and Rim Rock sandstones of 

the Mesaverde Formation and in the unconformably overlying Eocene Duchesne River Formation. The richest impregnation lies along and close to 

unconformities. An ample supply of water is available for both mining and 

steam-flooding operations in the Asphalt Ridge area. The bituminous sandstones of the Whiterocks area are 20 miles northwest of Vernal, along the 

mountain front on the south flank of Uinta Mountains, in northeastern Utah. 

The bitumen fills the pore spaces and coats the sand grains of the Jurassic 

Navajo Sandstone. The proved reserves of this deposit, as determined from 

core drilling, are 125 million barrels of oil in place, with possible additional 

reserves of another 120 million barrels to the northeast and to the southwest 

of Whiterocks Canyon. This deposit has perhaps the greatest recoverable 

reserves of oil of any bituminous sandstone on the continent. Recoverable 

reserves approach 132,000 barrels per acre; the Athabaska tar sands, in 

comparison, have recoverable reserves of only 90,000 barrels per acre, but 

are much greater in areal extent. Author's text condensed. 
154 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Covington, R. E., 1965, Some possible applications of thermal recovery in 

Utah: Jour. Petroleum Technology, v. 17, no. 11, p. 1277-1284. 

The most important deposits in Utah from the standpoint of thermal 

recovery are those of the Sunnyside area, in Carbon County, and the Asphalt 

Ridge...,.Vernal deposits, in Uintah County. Two other areas which have 

thermal-recovery potential are the Whiterocks area, in Uintah County, and 

the San Rafael Swell-N aquoia Arch area, in Emery, Wayne, and Garfield 

Counties. A preliminary evaluation of these four areas is given from the 

standpoint of geology, reservoir engineering, costs, markets, and future 

development possibilities. The four areas mentioned above, and perhaps three 

of six areas of lesser importance, compare favorably with areas now being 

developed by thermal methods in California, Oklahoma, Texas, and Kansas. 

Author's abstract condensed. 

Crawford, A. L., 1949, Gilsonite and related hydrocarbons of the Uinta Basin, 

Utah, in Oil and gas possibilities of Utah: Utah Geol. and Mineralog. 

Survey, Salt Lake City, Utah, p. 235-254. 

Gilsonite belongs to the family of substances known as "asphaltites," which 

includes grahamite and glance pitch. Asphaltites are as different from asphalt 

as asphalt is from petroleum, or as different as petroleum is from natural gas. 

Although gas, petroleum, asphalts and asphaltites all belong to the hydrocarbon series, they each constitute a distinct, but overlapping, series in which 

the composite molecular arrangement and other properties seem to vary 

chiefly with the degree of polymerization or fractionation, and with the 

molecular history of the member of the series being considered. The author 

regards gilsonite as a solid solution of heavy-hydrocarbon molecules derived 

from still heavier, less mobile molecules of kerogen. The fractionation of the 

kerogen probably took place in a substantially closed system under the influence of heat, pressure, and mineral catalysts. Once having been formed, the 

gilsonite molecules were probably transported, in part through solution, in 

the lighter petroleum fractions, which will dissolve and, upon evaporation, 

precipitate again as gilsonite. The author attributes the immediate origin of 

gilsonite to the bituminous sandstones that are interbedded with, and lie 

beneath, the Green River formation. The bitumen in the "rock asphalt" is 

more mobile and, therefore, is more easily available to fill wide fissures opening from beneath, than is the more solid, more disseminated, relatively inert 

kerogen in the richer members of the Green River formation. Author's text 

condensed. 

Crawford, A. L., 1953, Ozokerite- A possible new source: Utah Acad. Sci., 

Arts and Letters Proc., v. 30, p, 74-82. 

For many years Soldiers Summit, Utah, was the only place where ozokerite 

was mined commercially. Ozokerite is now being obtained from a new oil well 

in the Roosevelt oil field, in the Uinta Basin. From a depth of 9,357-9,393 

feet, this well produces 1,600 barrels of petroleum per day, 50 percent of 

which is wax. The oil well bottoms in the base of the oil shales of the Green 

River formation, near where they intertongue with the Colton formation. 

Author's text condensed. 

Crawford, A. L., 1957, Gilsonite -Its discovery and the early history of the 

industry, in Guidebook to the geology of the Uinta Basin: Intermountain 

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Guidebook, 8th Ann. Field Conf., p. 149-151. 
UTAH 155 

Gilsonite was named after Samuel H. Gilson, who believed that the new 

substance had commercial possibilities, and who set out to promote its use in 

industry. The name gilsonite became locally applied to the substance, which 

by laws of scientific usage should be known as "uintahite," the name given 

in 1885 by Blake, who published the first scientific description of it. There 

have never been more than a few companies exploiting gilsonite. The one 

major company, the American Gilsonite Co., has produced more gilsonite than 

all the others combined. The center of production has gravitated from the 

Carbon vein at Moffat, to the Dragon, to the Rainbow, and finally to the 

Cowboy-Bonanza vein- each move resulting from the interaction between 

the economics of production and transportation. The long freight haul by 

horse teams in tandem-drawing heavy wagons with trailers gave way to the 

picturesque Mallet engine that climbed the precipitous Book Cliffs on the 

narrow-gage railroad from Mack, Colo., to Dragon, Utah. The track-bound 

railroad gave way to the gasoline-powered truck, which, in turn, was replaced 

by a pipeline through which a slurry of gilsonite fines suspended in water is 

pumped to the Fruita, Colo., gilsonite treatment plant. 

Crawford, A. L., and Pruitt, R. G., 1963, Gilsonite and other bituminous resources of central Uintah County, Utah, in Oil and gas possibilities of 

Utah reevaluated: Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey Bull. 54, p. 215-221. 

Central Uintah County, in northeastern Utah in the Uinta Basin, is underlain by relatively undisturbed Tertiary lacustrine and fluviatile sediments. 

This area contains all the known gilsonite veins in the Western United States. 

Near by parts of the basin contain smaller deposits of other unusual bituminous substances, such as wurtzilite, tabbyite, ingramite, albertite, and 

ozokerite, the last of which is a native paraffin. Gilsonite veins occur as a 

filling in vertical tensional cracks in the competent sedimentary beds. These 

veins commonly are 3-4 feet wide, and the Cowboy vein at one point is 17 

feet wide. The veins trend northwestward for miles across the rolling terrain 

and extend vertically downward until they reach the incompetent mudstones 

of the Uinta Formation and the oil shales of the Green River Formation. 

In the latter, the veins "break up" into smaller branching veins and, ultimately, into veinlets. At least two veins- the Weaver-Colorado and the 

Black Dragon -are known to extend beneath the oil-shale horizon into the 

underlying members. Hunt, Stewart, and Dickey (1954) showed that the 

gilsonite of the region is derived from the upper Green River Formation oil 

shales, flowing upward into open tensional cracks. Authors' text condensed. 

Davidson, E. S., 1967, Geology of the Circle Cliffs area, Garfield and Kane 

Counties, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1229, 140 p. [p. 69]. 

The lowermost beds of the Shinarump Member of the Chinle Formation 

contain disseminated brown specks of asphalt. Locally, the asphalt is so 

abundant that brownish-black liquid seeps out along the contact with the 

underlying Moenkopi Formation. Where asphalt occurs in the Shinarump, 

some has penetrated into the upper few feet of the Moenkopi, and the ridges 

of Moenkopi on the channel contacts are heavily impregnated. The gray 

Moenkopi contains 0.16-1.68 percent organic carbon, but there seems to be 

no direct correlation between organic material and uranium content. Author's 

text condensed. 
156 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Davis, L. J ., 1957, Geology of gilsonite, in Guidebook to the geology of the 

Uinta Basin: Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Guidebook, 8th 

Ann. Field Conf., p. 152-156. 

The physical properties of gilsonite (uintahite) are its black color, brilliant 

luster, homogeneous texture, extreme brittleness, and conchoidal fracture. The 

melting point varies widely from about 250°F to more than 400°F. Various 

theories have been advanced as to the origin of the gilsonite: (1) filling of 

the fissures from an overlying asphalt lake or source bed; (2) carbonaceous 

material from rocks below the Green River formation; and (3) bituminous 

material that originated in the Green River marlstone. The last theory seems 

to have the greatest influence at present. Author's text condensed. 

Donnell, J. R., Culbertson, W. C., and Cashion, W. B., 1967, Oil shale in 

Green River Formation, in Occurrences and prospects of oil shale: 7th 

World Petroleum Congress, Proc., v. 2, panel discussions, 14 p. 

Oil and gas are produced from the shore facies of the Green River Formation at several fields in the northern part of the Uinta Basin. The shore facies 

also contains asphaltic sandstones in several parts of the basin. Gilsonite 

veins, which are nearly vertical, are as much as 18 feet wide, are in massive 

sandstone beds of the Uinta Formation and in those of the shore facies of 

the Green River Formation. Authors' text condensed. 

Eardley, A. J., 1963, Oil seeps at Rozel Point: Utah Geol. and Mineralog. 

Survey Spec. Studies 5, 32 p. 

A series of surface seeps of a heavy black oil occur just south of Rozel 

Point, along the north shore of Great Salt Lake. The rocks consist of black 

basalt flows and interbedded lenses of light-grayish-tan limestone. The oil 

emerges from the soft lake clays and, when the area is covered by water, 

rises as small viscous stringers. The boulders of basalt and limestone along 

the shore are heavily coated with oil. It appears that considerable oil is 

present, but its mode of occurrence is uncertain. 

Eardley, A. J., and Haas, Merrill, 1936, Oil and gas possibilities in the Great 

Salt Lake Basin: Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters Proc., v. 13, p. 61-80. 

The authors present the following conclusions regarding the oil seeps of 

Rozel Point: (1) The oil is a heavy, pitchy asphalt crude, which emerges 

through seeps under salt water on the lake bed. It is probably not an evaporation residue; rather, it is probably the original oil that evolved by natural 

decomposition or distillation of organic matter. (2) It comes from depths of 

80-140 feet in horizontal lake beds of Quaternary age. The oil exists in 

"asphaltic" beds 3-5 feet thick. (3) Organic matter in the form of peat has 

been penetrated in many shallow water wells drilled in the Great Salt Lake 

Basin; hence, the oil is believed to have resulted from plant alteration. 

( 4) An unusual physical or chemical condition must exist at Rozel Point, 

because there are other similar oil seeps known at the present time. This 

would suggest that the salt water of the Great Salt Lake was not locally 

instrumental in the generation of oil; otherwise, oil seeps would occur elsewhere around the lake. Salt water may be necessary for the formation of 

the oil, but some other condition or circumstance may have made the Rozel 

Point geology unusual. (5) The oil is believed to reach the surface through 

compaction fissures, rather than along a fault surface. Authors' text condensed. 
UTAH 157 

Eldridge, G. H., 1901, Utah, in The asphalt and bituminous rock deposits of 

the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey 22d Ann. Rept., pt. 1b, p. 209-452 

[p. 340-354]. 

The gilsonite veins on the Colorado-Utah border were being mined at the 

time Eldridge wrote this report. Asphaltic limestone was being mined at . 

Tie Fork of Soldier Creek, 7 miles northwest of Clear Creek Station (Tucker 

Post Office). This report contains detailed descriptions of each vein, as well 

as maps and cross sections. Deposits of asphaltic sandstone had received little 

attention up to this time. 

Fene, W. J., 1928, The mining of gilsonite in Utah: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 

6069, 6 p. 

Gilsonite occurs in veins in a solid homogeneous mass and breaks with a 

conchoidal fracture. Even in the smallest pieces, the brilliant luster is preserved. Long exposure to the weather causes it to become dull and black. 

Occasionally, it has a fine columnar structure at right angles to the walls. 

This so-called pencilated ore is commonly found on both sides of the vein. 

The specific gravity of gilsonite is 1.035, its hardness is 2, and its streak on 

a porcelain plate is brown. The greatest amount of gilsonite is found in the 

Uinta Basin north of the White River. Three large, nearly parallel veins 

extend N. 60° W., and their dip is nearly 90°. The Cowboy vein is the largest 

and has a maximum width of 18 feet for a distance of about 2 miles north 

of the White River. It is at least 10 feet wide for 3-4 miles, and is more 

than 6 feet wide for several more miles north of the White River. The most 

plausible theory of origin of the veins appears to be that the formation of 

this synclinal basin produced gigantic cracks in the brittle and nonelastic 

sandstone of the Uinta formation, with enough heat to distill the oily matter 

from the underlying Green River shales. Author's text condensed. 

Gregory, H. E., and Moore, R. C., 1931, The Kaiparowits region- A geographic and geologic reconnaissance of parts of Utah and Arizona: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 164, 161 p. 

Oil seeps and oil-impregnated sandstone occur in parts of the Kaiparowits 

region. The Pennsylvanian rocks yield heavy oil in the San Juan oil field, 

Utah, and they are distinctly bituminous at many places in southwestern 

Colorado. Conditions are not very favorable for accumulations of oil and gas 

in commercial quantities. The stratigraphic relations, especially in relation 

to the relative scarcity qf the shale, do not favor production of oil, even 

though oil seeps have been found and high-grade oil is obtained in a number 

of wells. Authors' text condensed. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957, Utah, in Reconnaissance for uranium in asphalt-bearing 

rocks in the Western United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1046-E, 

p. 55-85 [p. 67-69]. 

The asphalt in the Vernal area, Uintah County, was the most uraniferous 

of those examined in Utah. The uranium content of 21 samples ranges from 

0.001 to 0.150 percent, and averages 0.028 percent, in the ash of the extracted 

oil. All five of the asphalt-bearing areas sampled in Utah are in the Uinta 

Basin. The deposits in the Vernal, Bonanza, P. R. Springs, and Sunnyside 

areas are in the Wasatch, Green River, and Uinta formations of Eocene age. 

The deposit in the Whiterocks Canyon area is in the Navajo sandstone of 

460-209 0 - 72 - 11 
158 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Jurassic and Jurassic(?) age. The asphalt deposits in the Bonanza area are 

gilsonite, and the deposits in the other areas are asphalt-bearing sandstone. 

Author's text condensed. 

Henderson, J. H., Jr., 1957, The gilsonite refining project of the American 

Gilsonite Co.: Guidebook to the geology of the Uinta Basin, Intermountain 

Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Guidebook, 8th Ann. Field Conf., p. 157-160. 

The American Gilsonite Co., owned by Standard Oil Co. of California and 

the Barber Oil Corp., has placed in operation a 6-inch 72-mile pipeline to 

transport 700 tons of gilsonite per day from mines located in a remote section 

of eastern Utah to a refinery near Grand Junction, Colo. There, the gilsonite 

is converted into high-purity electrode coke and gasoline. The coke is used in 

the manufacture of aluminum. This is the first privately financed project for 

large-scale production of conventional petroleum products from a raw material other than crude oil. Author's text condensed. 

Hess, F. L., 1922, Uranium-bearing asphaltite sediments of Utah: Eng. and 

Mining Jour., v. 114, no. 7, p. 272-276. 

An asphaltite carrying uranium, vanadium, and other metals and metalloids 

occurs in southeastern Utah, at Temple Mountain, 45 miles southwest of the 

town of Green River, and at adjacent localities on the eastern flank of the 

San Rafael Swell, Emery County. The asphaltite occurs in the sandy parts of 

the Shinarump conglomerate. It is contained in the sandstone as particles 

ranging from the size of a pinhead to more than 2 inches in diameter. Where 

the asphaltite weathers from the sandstone, it leaves round cavities, showing 

that it had been an integral part of the sandstone, and not merely a filling of 

interstices. The asphaltic material appears markedly varied at different places. 

Where the asphaltic material carries the metals and metalloids, it is a glistening black, and in other places it has the brownish color and general appearance of oil-soaked sand. The origin of this type of deposit is puzzling. Perhaps 

only that asphaltite which a};lsorbed these elements became hard quickly, and 

the physical differences between the asphaltites may have developed because 

a part was exposed to and picked up the uranium, vanadium, and other elements, whereas those parts of the asphaltites which did not pick them up 

remained unhardened for a longer time and were less altered. Author's text 

condensed. 

Holmes, C. N., Page, B. M., and Averitt, Paul, 1948, Geology of the bituminous 

sandstone deposits near Sunnyside, Carbon County, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Prelim. Map 86, with text. 

The bituminous sandstone deposits near Sunnyside, Carbon County, Utah, 

are the largest known in the United States. Conservatively estimated, the 

Sunnyside deposits contain 1.6 billion cubic yards of measured, indicated, and 

inferred bituminous sandstone, half of which is believed to contain at least 

9 percent bitumen by weight. The bituminous beds are in the upper part of 

the Wasatch formation and in the lower part of the overlying Green River 

formation. The deposits extend about 9 miles along the outcrop. The beds lie 

at elevations between 9,000 and 10,000 feet, near the top of Book Cliffs. 

Authors' text condensed. 
UTAH 159 

Hunt, J. M., 1963, Composition and origin of the Uinta Basin bitumens, in 

Oil and gas possibilities of Utah, reevaluated: Utah Geol. and Mineralog. 

Survey Bull. 54, p. 249-273. 

The Uinta Basin represents a unique environment- nonmarine, yet varying from brackish to highly saline water. Although the original waters were 

oxidizing, they later became strongly reducing, and the toxic hydrogen sulfide 

in the bottom layers resulted in a tremendous collection of organic matter. 

This resulted in deposition of several thousand feet of bituminous sediments. 

As the area later became uplifted, tension cracks slowly opened at depths, 

and forms of ozokerite moved into the veins. In successively younger sediments, viscous forms of albertite, gilsonite, and wurtzilite filled the openings 

as they formed. As time went on and the uplifting continued, these materials 

polymerized and hardened to become the solids we now see. The changes in 

the type of bitumens originating in successively younger beds coincide with 

changes in the minerals and the fossils. Apparently, they all reflect changes 

in depositional environment. Author's text condensed. 

Hunt, J. M., Stewart, Francis, and Dickey, P. A., 1954, Origin of the hydrocarbons of the Uinta Basin, Utah: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., 

v. 38, no. 8, p. 1671-1698. 

The hydrocarbons of the Uinta Basin occur as veins in the oil shales, as 

saturated sands in contact with the oil shales, and as filling in fractures and 

fissures extending from the oil shales. The bituminous lake beds are considered to be the source of the vein hydrocarbons, inasmuch as these beds still 

contain appreciable quantities of organic matter, the soluble part of which 

is comparable in composition with the vein hydrocarbons. The different hydrocarbons of the Uinta Basin originated at different times, in the following 

sequence: Ozokerite, albertite, gilsonite, and wurtzilite. Changes in the types 

of hydrocarbons upward in the Eocene section coincide with changes in the 

minerals and fossils. Apparently, all the changes were controlled by a shifting 

environment under which the lake beds were deposited. Authors' conclusions. 

Kayser, R. B., 1966, Bituminous sandstone deposits, Asphalt Ridge: Utah 

Geol. and Mineralog. Survey Spec. Studies 19, 62 p. 

Asphalt Ridge is the second largest bituminous sandstone deposit in the 

Uinta Basin. Discontinuous concentrations of bitumen occur in the Rim Rock 

Sandstone of the Mesaverde Group (Cretaceous), in the overlying Uinta 

Formation (Eocene), and in the Duchesne River Formation (Oligocene). 

Development of "in-situ" (thermal) recovery methods, such as those discussed 

in this report, may reduce the projected production costs to a level at which 

oil from bituminous sands can compete with oil from conventional sources. 

Because the bituminous layers dip southwestward under prohibitively deep 

cover, only a small part of the sandstone can be mined by open-pit methods. 

However, the thick uniform sands of the Mesaverde Group are well suited for 

thermal-recovery techniques. Recoverable reserves in the Mesaverde should 

total at least 350 million barrels of oil. Author's abstract condensed. 

Kelley, D. R., and Kerr, P. F., 1958, Urano-organic ore at Temple Mountain, 

Utah: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, no. 6, p. 701-756. 

The ore at Temple Mountain is a urano-organic material. Such deposits 

also occur at several places on the San Rafael Swell, at Elk Ridge, in eastern 
160 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Utah, in New Mexico, and at Placerville, Colo. At Temple Mountain, most of 

the ores are concentrated in the Moss Back member of the Chinle formation 

and are distributed throughout an area of about 1 square mile. Tar seeps 

occur in many places, and porous sandstones from the Coconino through 

Wingate formations are locally oil stained. An asphaltic material physically 

similar to asphaltite is present in minor amounts in much of the Temple 

Mountain collapse. Three types of nonradioactive petroliferous materials are 

recognized at Temple Mountain: fluid or semifluid tar, dry tar impregnating 

the sandstones, and asphalt. Black to dark-brown viscous tar is common; it 

forms seeps and viscous impregnations along bedding planes, fractures, and 

faults. Sediments impregnated with dry oil are conspicuous. Bleaching within 

or bordering the Temple Mountain collapse may be attributed, in part, to the 

reduction of iron by petroleum. The impregnated fresh rock is light brown, 

and the oil for-ms a thin coating on detrital grains, without corrosive effect. 

The organic material represents a stage in the normal oxidation of petroleum. 

A hardened, brittle black lustrous nonuranium-bearing petroliferous material 

(asphalt) occurs in dolomitized, sideritized, and goethite-bearing masses on 

and near Temple Mountain. It fills small fractures in core fragments in ore 

and coats calcite-filled fractures in upper Chinle strata along the south edge 

of South Temple Mountain. The asphalt appears to form within and near the 

collapse areas. It fills vugs and fractures in the Sinbad formation and is 

present along bedding planes and fractures in the ore-impregnated Moss Back 

member. The urano-organic ore at Temple Mountain is considered to have 

resulted from epithermal mineralization of the hot-spring type. Solutions 

were introduced into the ore horizon at the collapse and, to a lesser extent, 

along faults or fractures. Authors' text condensed. 

Kemmerer, J. L., 1934, Gilsonite: Utah Univ. unpub. M.S. thesis, 61 p. 

Gilsonite is a native bitumen grouped with glance pitch and grahamite 

under the general heading of asphaltites. It differs from these in having a 

brown streak and a lower specific gravity. Gilsonite occurs in veins or dikes 

that have developed mainly in the lower and middle Uinta sandstones. The 

Bonanza and the Dragon groups of veins are discussed in detail. The author 

regards the Green River shales as the source of the "oil" from which the gilsonite solidified. Gilsonite entered the fissures as a fluid liquid (probably in the 

form of asphalt-base oil, similar to, but lighter than, that which can be distilled 

from the Green River shales today). This fact is evidenced by the depths to 

which the gilsonite has impregnated the wallrock on both sides of the veins 

(1-2 feet in many places). Later, the gilsonite became sufficiently viscous to 

support and even raise to high elevations horse-rock material. Author's text 

condensed. 

Kilborn, G. R., 1964, New methods of mining and refining gilsonite, in Guidebook to the geology and mineral resources of the Uinta Basin, Utah's 

hydrocarbon storehouse: Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, 

13th Ann. Field Conf., p. 247-252. 

Water has proved to be a very satisfactory cutting and transporting 

medium; it has also been used as an explosion-control agent in mines. A pneumatically operated "jet-cutting car" applies two high-pressure· (2,000 pounds 

per square inch) water streams against the ore face. The ore is penetrated 

and fractured by the water and washed away by low-pressure fluming water. 
UTAH 161 

In a new vertical-cutting method introduced in 1961, a surface-to-bottom shaft 

and lateral drifts are established in the vein. A rotary drill on the surface 

then sinks 8-inch "pilot holes" on 20-foot-centers along the axis of the vein, 

down through the ore to the bottom tunnel level. Once the "pilot hole" has 

intersected the bottom drift, a special water bit is installed and, under high 

pressure, water is brought up through the hole to cut the surrounding gilsonite. Powerful jets of water, at approximately 2,000 pounds per square 

inch, cut the ore the full width of the vein. The bit is raised slowly at an 

average rate of 4-8 feet per hour. The fractured gilsonite falls to the tunnel 

level and is flumed to an underground sump for subsequent handling and 

processing. The gilsonite-water slurry is conveyed, by a 6-inch pipeline, for 

the 72 miles from the Bonanza mine to the refinery, near Grand Junction, 

Colo. Author's text condensed. 

Kinney, D. M., 1955, Geology of the Uinta River-Brush Creek area, Duchesne 

and Uintah Counties, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1007, 185 p. 

Sandstone, impregnated with viscous- or dry-petroleum residue, crops out 

at a number of places along the north side of the Uinta Basin. The largest 

exposure of dry-oil sand is found along the north-facing escarpment of 

Asphalt Ridge. It impregnates both· the Tertiary Wasatch formation and the 

sandstones of the underlying Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde formation. The oil 

accumulation is probably related to the unconformity at the base of the 

Tertiary because saturation occurs in rocks both above and below the unconformable contact. A second, but less extensive, exposure of petroleum residue 

occurs in the Navajo sandstone east and west of Whiterocks River. The 

impregnated sandstone is well exposed west of the river, where an adit has 

been driven some 20 to 30 feet into the upper part of the steeply dipping 

Navajo sandstone. Heavy oil mixed with water seeps from the roof of the 

adit and accumulates on the floor. Small deposits of dry-oil-impregnated 

sandstone are found at several localities in the basal Tertiary beds between 

Deep Creek and Whiterocks River, and a dry-oil sand is exposed in the 

NW1,4,NE 14 sec. 24, T. 2 N., R. 3 W., between the Uinta River and Dry Gulch. 

Small particles of a shiny gilsonitelike hydrocarbon are found in a sandstone 

bed in the Park City formation in the NE 1,4 sec. 34, T. 2 S., R. 21 E., north 

of Red Mountain. Author's text condensed. 

Kinney, D. M., and Rominger, J. E., 1947, Geology of the Whiterocks RiverAshley Creek area, Uintah County, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas 

Inv. Prelim. Map 82, with text. 

Signs of oil include oil-impregnated sands of the Navajo sandstone in 

Whiterocks Canyon, and oil-impregnated sands in the Mesaverde formation 

and the Tertiary strata on Asphalt Ridge, west of Vernal, 3 miles south of 

the mapped area. The accumulation of oil in the Navajo sandstone in Whiterocks Canyon may be due to the presence of a small anticlinal nose in the 

Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. Authors' text condensed. 

McKnight, E. T., 1940, Geology of area between Green and Colorado Rivers, 

Grand and San Juan Counties, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 908, 147 p. 

[1941]. 

Some oil is present in thE' area between the Courthouse mail station and 

the town of Green River, Utah, as shown by the occurrence of petroleum and 
162 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

the residual products of petroleum in surface seeps and outcrops at several 

localities. In the Tenmile Wash region, the Moab tongue and the upper part 

of the Entrada sandstone are saturated to various degrees with the residual 

products of oil. The saturated zone is not continuous, but appears to occur 

as lenses 5-10 feet thick and a few hundred feet long. None of the present 

seeps or asphaltic residues is more than a few miles from a faulted zone; 

thus, the petroleum may have been derived from older, Pennsylvanian rocks, 

and may have reached the present surface by migration along the faults. 

Author's text condensed. 

Merrow, Joe, 1957, Ozokerite at Soldier Summit, Utah, in Guidebook to the 

geology of the Uinta Basin: Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 

Guidebook, 8th Ann. Field Conf., p. 161-164. 

Ozokerite is a native-mineral wax of various colors and uncertain chemical 

composition. The simple tests described can be used to differentiate the wax 

from the other solid hydrocarbons of the Uinta Basin. The ozokerite mines at 

Soldier Summit yield little information about the veins, owing to caved-in 

drifts and flooded shafts. Evidence is presented to show that ozokerite was 

probably generated in the basal offshore lacustrine beds of the Green River 

formation and that it migrated laterally into the more competent shales and 

sandstones of the Wasatch formation. Author's abstract condensed. 

Miser, H. D., 1925, Geologic structure of San Juan Canyon and adjacent 

country, Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 751-D, p. 115-155. 

Several oil seeps, which derive their oil from the Goodridge formation 

(Pennsylvanian), occur in the bottom of San Juan Canyon between Mexican 

Hat and the mouth of Slickhorn Gulch. The largest occurrence is a continuous 

series of seeps extending 1:14 miles up the canyon from the mouth of the 

gulch. The oil comes up as bubbles in the water and as minute streams 

through sand. A black asphaltic residue cements fairly large patches of sand 

and rock fragments. Westward-dipping beds of the Goodridge formation, 

which form the lower canyon walls near the seeps, are cut by a normal fault 

that trends northeastward and is downthrown about 4 feet on its east side. 

Its presence suggests that the oil ascends along the fault plane to the alluvial 

material, through which it passes to the surface. The "Goodridge" oil sand, 

which forms a gorge and superjacent bench at the Goodridge Bridge, contains 

small dark areas of oil along joints and cracks. The restriction of the oil 

showings to the cracks and joints in the sandstone indicates that the sandstone is not uniformly porous. Author's text condensed. 

Murray, A. N., 1950, The gilsonite deposits of the Uinta Basin, Utah, in 

Petroleum geology of the Uinta Basin: Utah Geol. Soc. Guidebook to the 

geology of Utah, no. 5, p. 115-118. 

The gilsonite has been deposited in vertical fissures that strike N. 40°-60° 

W. The veins vary in width from a fraction of an inch to 20 feet, and some 

extend 20 miles in continuous outcrop. Locally, they have been mined to a 

depth of more than 700 feet. The depth to which they extend is not known. 

The walls of the fissures are generally smooth, with vertically oriented broad 

but low undulations. The sandstone beds in the formations generally contain 

the fissures, which commonly split into veinlets as they pass into the shale. 

Impregnation of wallrock in the larger veins is generally lacking or very 

slight. But, in the smaller veins, impregnation has taken place to a consider-
UTAH 163 

able extent. The gilsonite in the veins may be massive or may possess a 

pencil structure similar to that of hematite. The original fractures that cut 

porous beds in which the viscous bitumen had accumulated are believed to 

have opened gradually by tension and to have filled with bitumen. Extensive 

inspissation later converted the viscous bitumen into gilsonite. Author's text 

condensed. 

Pruitt, R. G., Jr., 1961a, Bituminous sandstone, in The mineral resources of 

Uintah County: Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey Bull. 71, 101 p. 

[p. 11-22]. 

Bituminous sandstones occur at several localities in the Uinta Basin, the 

most prominent of which is Asphalt Ridge, west and southwest of Vernal. 

The bituminous substance on Asphalt Ridge is a natural asphalt derived from 

paraffin-base petroleum that contained a high proportion of paraffin series 

and other saturated hydrocarbons (Covington, 1957). The sandstones in this 

deposit yield an average of 1 barrel of oil per cubic yard of rock, or 8-15 

percent bitumen by weight. This deposit is a zone of impregnation along the 

Mesaverde-Uinta .unconformable contact, extending downward into the Mesaverde formation (Cretaceous) and upward into the Uinta formation (Eocene). 

In the Whiterocks River deposit, the bitumen is in the steeply dipping Navajo 

sandstone (Jurassic). The impregnated zone, approximately 900 feet thick, 

contains an average of 20 gallons of oil per ton of rock, but ranges from 5.5 

to 31.4 gallons of oil per ton of rock. The deposits on Asphalt Ridge and 

along the Whiterocks River are the only areas of commercial importance at 

this time, although there are numerous smaller occurrences of bituminous 

rock in the Uinta Basin. Author's text condensed. 

Pruitt, R. G., Jr., 1961b, Gilsonite, in The mineral resources of Uintah County: 

Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey Bull. 71, 101 p. [p. 23-49]. 

Gilsonite is a black solid bitumen that approximates the composition of an 

asphalt-based petroleum from which most of the volatile constituents are 

missing. It is not to be confused with the other natural solid hydrocarbons 

found in veinlets in the eastern Uinta Basin that are mainly pyrobitumens. 

Gilsonite occurs in long thin, nearly vertical veins, most of which trend 

N. 35°-65° W., in nearly horizontal beds of Tertiary age. These unusual veins 

occur in an area 60 miles east-west by 24 miles north-south, in the Uinta 

Basin, and apparently originate from the underlying oil-shale beds of the 

Green River formation. This report contains maps and cross sections of the 

veins and detailed descriptions of each vein being mined. The gilsonite deposits of the Uinta Basin, almost all of which are in Uintah County, represent a major mineral resource. These deposits have been mined continuously 

since 1888, yet the deposits have scarcely been tapped. Gilsonite reserves in 

Uintah County are estimated to be as much as 30 million tons. Author's text 

condensed. 

Ritzma, H. R., 1967, Oil-impregnated sandstone deposits of Utah: Interstate 

Oil Compact Comm. Committee Bull., v. 9, no. 2, p. 87-98. 

Fieldwork in the summer of 1967 raised the number of known deposits of 

oil-impregnated rocks from 33 to 47. Deposits are found mainly in the Uinta 

Basin, northeastern Utah, and in central-southeastern Utah, although there 

are other scattered areas. The pinta Basin contains at least 21 deposits of 
164 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

oil-impregnated oil shale, gilsonite, and oil and gas, including Red Wash 

field, one of the nation's largest. Six Uinta Basin (Eocene) deposits are 

described, as are several in the Triassic and Permian rocks of centralsoutheastern Utah. For all the deposits, stratigraphic variation is important 

in entrapment, and joints and fractures are important in migration. Upward 

migration in strongly folded and faulted areas may be extremely significant. 

Ritzma, H. R., 1968a, Black gold in Utah's Circle Cliffs?: Utah Geol. and 

Mineralog. Survey Quart. Rev., v. 2, no. 4, p. 4-5. 

Fieldwork has outlined large deposits of oil-impregnated sandstone in the 

Circle Cliffs area, Garfield County. Two large deposits were found in the 

unnamed middle sandstone member of the Moenkopi Formation (Triassic), 

and two small deposits were found in the sandstone of the Shinarump Member of the Chinle Formation (Triassic). 

Ritzma, H. R., 1968b, Preliminary location map of oil-impregnated rock 

deposits of Utah: Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey Map 25, with text. 

Within the Uinta Basin most deposits and reserves occur in Eocene rocks 

-the Green River, Uinta, Duchesne River, and Wasatch Formations. The 

Asphalt Ridge deposit occurs in the Uinta and Duchesne River Formations 

and the Mesaverde Formation (Late Cretaceous). The Whiterocks deposit 

occurs in the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone, but apparently is not indigenous 

to this formation. In central-southeastern Utah, oil in the "Tar Springs 

Triangle" deposits appears to have originated in organic Permian rocks or 

perhaps in rocks as old as Pennsylvanian. Upward migration along faults, 

fractures, and joints has transported the oil into the thick porous sandstones 

of the uppermost Permian and Lower Triassic. In the Circle Cliffs area, oil 

now in the massive middle Moenkopi sandstones (Triassic) may have originated in the organic lower Moenkopi and upper Kaibab Limestone (Permian), 

migrating upward via faults, fractures, and joints. The trap is a combination 

of the broad folding of the Circle Cliffs uplift and stratigraphic variations 

in the middle Moenkopi sandstones. The Mexican Hat deposit, San Juan 

County, occurs in Pennsylvanian rocks. The Rozel Point deposit occurs in 

Recent sediments along the north shore of the Great Salt Lake. Author's text 

condensed. 

Ritzma, H. R., 1969, Oil-impregnated sandstone deposits of Utah- A progress 

report: Interstate Oil Compact Comm. Committee Bull., v. 11, no. 2, 

p. 24-34. 

The number of known oil-impregnated sandstone deposits in Utah now 

stands at 40. Several deposits previously counted have been eliminated as 

nonexistent; a number of similar minor deposits have been grouped together; 

and others have been combined as single, large deposits. In Tertiary time, 

Utah was the site of some of the giant oil fields of the world. Erosion has 

reduced them to giant deposits of zero-pressure oil-impregnated sandstone. 

The gross oil in place in these deposits is huge- totaling 12 to 15 billion 

barrels. This report includes maps, cross sections, and reserve estimates for 

the major deposits of Utah. 

Robeck, R. C., 1954, Uranium deposits of Temple Mountain [Utah], in 

Geology of portions of the high plateaus and adjacent canyon lands, 
UTAH 165 

central and south-central Utah: Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Guidebook, 5th Ann. Field Conf., p. 110-111. 

Petroleum residue (asphalt) in sandstone appears to be polymerized to 

asphaltite, although accumulations of viscous petroleum have also been found 

at several places in Temple Mountain. Author's text condensed. 

Robinson, H. M., 1917, Ozokerite in central Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

641-A, p. 1-16. 

The ozokerite of central Utah is found in fissures and brecciated zones 

caused by the fracturing of the rocks. This fracturing has produced joints and 

small faults, most of which are nearly vertical. The principal fissures trend 

N. 10o W. and contain the largest deposits of ozokerite in the field. The 

ozokerite and the walls of the fissures commonly show slickensided surfaces. 

Some of the veins of ozokerite have a width about equal to that of thick 

paper, a condition which implies a somewhat fluid state of the material at 

the time of impregnation and suggests that the substance which first filled 

the fissures was a petroleum that was rich in paraffin. The petroleum from 

which the ozokerite was derived may have had two sources. It may have been 

derived from the overlying oil shale and (or) it may have been forced up 

from lower beds. Author's text condensed. 

Schick, R. B., 1966, Drillers probing Utah's French Seep area: Oil and Gas 

Jour., v. 64, no. 6, p. 134-136. 

The French Seep area in southern U tab is being· core drilled by several 

major oil companies to evaluate its potential for thermal recovery. Shallow 

sandstones of the White Rim Sandstone Member of the Cutler Formation 

(Permian) have heavy-oil-saturated zones that range in thickness from 

50 to 300 feet and extend over a wide area. Numerous faults are present; 

they likely played a strong part in the oil accumulations in the White Rim 

Sandstone Member. The author calculates recoverable reserves to be 49,000 

barrels per acre for a typical producing interval that averages 100 feet thick. 

This amounts to 30,424,000 barrels of recoverable reserves for each 640-acre 

tract. If the proposed pilot steam floods prove successful, huge new reserves 

will be opened at French Seep. Author's text condensed. 

Shea, G. G., and Higgins, R. V., 1952, Separation and utilization studies of 

bitumens from bituminous sandstones of the Vernal and Sunnyside, U tab, 

deposits: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 4871, 28 p. 

The hot-water separation process consists mainly of three operations: (1) 

displacing the bitumen from the sand grains by heating and mixing the 

bituminous sandstone with water and, if necessary, with enough alkaline 

reagent to neutralize any acidity present; (2) separating the oil froth from 

the sand by submerging the pulp in hot water; and (3) removing the water, 

sand, and silt from the oil froth by means of settling and the use of a 

light oil. Part 1 of this report summarizes the general characteristics of the 

Vernal and Sunnyside deposits and discusses the hot-water separation process, 

as applied to these deposits, and the results obtained. The sandstones respond 

to treatment by the hot-water method of separation. The bitumen in the 

Vernal sandstone was extracted more readily by the action of hot water than 

was the bitumen at Edna, Calif. (Shea, 1948). Recovery of bitumen from the 

Vernal sandstone was about 96 percent. The Sunnyside sandstone is an 
166 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

extremely hard asphalt rock; it must be crushed into small particles before 

the hot-water treatment can be successfully applied. The disintegrated sand 

from Sunnyside was fine and contained a high percentage of silt, which 

increased the loss of bitumen in the tailings discharged from the plant. About 

90 percent of the original bitumen in the Sunnyside sandstone was recovered. 

Part 2 of this report gives analytical data on the recovered bitumen, which 

was found to contain very little paraffin wax and sulfur, but considerable 

amounts of nitrogen. 

Slentz, L. W., and Eardley, A. J., 1956, Geology of the Rozel Hills, in Geology 

of parts of northwestern Utah: Utah Geol. Soc. Guidebook to the geology 

of Utah, no. 11, p. 32-40. 

The Rozel Hills area lies along the north shore of the Great Salt Lake, 

west of Promontory Range, and is represented, for the most part, by a group 

of low-lying basalt-capped hills. The area has received considerable attention 

because of the asphalt seeps just off Rozel Point, which were known before 

the turn of the century. The oil issues from craterlets whose cones are about 

12-18 inches high and 20-40 feet in diameter. The oil appears in two forms: 

(1) numerous globules 14-% inch in diameter in patches several square feet 

in area, and (2) stringers of viscous, but fresh, oil emerging from the center 

of the craterlets, which stretch out as they are buoyed up and finally break 

and float on the salt-water surface. Carbon-14 dating yields an age of 4,000 

years; if this date is correct, the oil would seem to have come from the 

modern lake sediments, and not from the Pleistocene or Tertiary beds. 

Authors' text condensed. 

Spieker, E. M., 1930, Bituminous sandstone near Vernal, Utah: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 822-C, p. 77-98. 

Asphalt Ridge, 3-4 miles southwest of Vernal, Utah, contains beds of 

bitumen-saturated sandstone. Most of these beds are of Eocene age and 

belong to the Uinta formation, but a few may belong to the Mesaverde formation of Cretaceous age. Analyses showed the bitumen content of the sandstone to range from about 8 percent to a little more than 15 percent by 

weight. On the basis of these data and the assumption that the sandstone can 

be mined for 1% miles from the outc:rop, the whole area examined is estimated to contain about 1.175 billion cubic yards, or about 1.970 billion tons 

of bituminous rock. Author's abstract condensed. 

Steed, R. H., 1954, Geology of Circle Cliffs anticline, in Geology of portions 

of the high plateaus and adjacent canyon lands, central and south-central 

Utah: Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Guidebook, 5th Ann. 

Field Con£., p. 99-102. 

The Circle Cliffs anticline occupies an area approximately 15 miles wide, 

from Kane County on the south through east-central Garfield County to the 

Wayne County line. Locally, the Shinarump sands are saturated with hydrocarbon. Conspicuous saturation can be observed in a lens in Muley Twist 

Canyon, where it enters the Waterpocket fold. Saturation also occurs at a 

seep northeast of The Peaks. The middle sandstone member of the Moenkopi 

formation displays conspicuous oil saturation over most of the southern part 

of the anticline. The oil saturation in the Kaibab formation occurs as black 

inflammable hydrocarbon-filled vugs and pore spaces in the upper limestone 
UTAH 167 

member at The Peaks. Some oil saturation also occurs in the basal 100 feet 

of the White Riin sandstone member of the Cutler formation. Author's text 

condensed. 

Taff, J. A., and Smith, C. D., 1906, Ozokerite deposits in Utah: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 285-H, p. 369-372. 

The only known deposits of ozokerite in Utah are in the north end of the 

Wasatch Plateau. This mineral wax occurs in three localities- (1) in the 

vicinity of Colton, 7 miles southeast of Soldier Summit, on the north side of 

the Price River Valley; (2) near but east of Soldier Summit; and (3) near 

Midway, 3 miles west of Soldier Summit, near the source of Soldier Creek. 

The ozokerite deposits occur in shales, shaly sandstones, and limestone strata 

in the lower part of the Tertiary deposits of the "Wasatch" group. The 

deposits have been found at various stratigraphic levels in a thickness of 

about 500 feet of rocks. The strata are intersected by fissures and zones of 

brecciation and parallel jointing. These fissures and spaces between brecciated 

rock contain the ozokerite, commonly as thin films and sheets, but locally as 

dikelike bodies several inches thick. The faces of the fissures and the brecciated parts of the rock show the effects of movement on slickensided surfaces. Authors' text condensed. 

Untermann, G. E., and Untermann, B. R., 1964, Geology of Uintah County, 

Utah: Utah Geol. and Mineralog. Survey Bull. 72, 112 p. [p. 91-95]. 

Production of gilsonite is approximately 450,000 tons annually, mainly by 

the American Gilsonite Co. at Bonanza. Gilsonite reserves are estimated to 

be less than 20 million tons. Deposits occur in the Green River, Uinta, and 

Duchesne River Formations. Gilsonite yields 4% barrels of crude oil per ton. 

Bituminous sandstones along Asphalt Ridge are estimated, by the Bureau of 

Mines, to contain 2-3 billion barrels of bitumen. These sandstones occur in 

the Rim Rock Member of the Mesaverde Formation and at the base of the 

overlying Duchesne River Formation. Covington (1957) believed that the 

asphalt is closely associated with, and apparently migrated upward along, the 

Cretaceous-Tertiary unconformity, where the richest saturation of beds 

occurs. This migration is believed to have taken place in late or post-Oligocene time, and upward movement may still be in progress, inasmuch as late 

Quaternary or Recent gravels have been cemented by the tarry material. 

Authors' text condensed. 

Wenger, W. J., Hubbard, R. L., and Whisman, M. L., 1952, Analytical data 

on asphalt properties and cracked products of the separated bitumens, 

pt. 2, in Separation and utilization studies of bitumens from bituminous 

sandstones of the Vernal and Sunnyside, Utah, deposits: U.S. Bur. Mines 

Rept. Inv. 4871, p. 11-28. 

Analyses show the bitumens to be mainly high-boiling material. Less than 

14 percent of each bitumen distilled below 572°F (300°C) at an absolute 

pressure, or 40 millimeters of mercury. Sulfur content of the bitumens was 

0.50 percent for Sunnyside and 0.39 percent for Vernal, in contrast with 3.20 

percent found in the Edna, Calif., bituminous sandstone, and 2-5 percent 

found in the black oils from the Western States. Nitrogen content in the 

bitumen was 1.18 and 0.96 percent, respectively, for the Vernal and Sunnyside 

deposits. These values are slightly less than the 1.23 percent nitrogen in the 
168 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Edna, Calif., bitumen, and are much greater than the 0.2 to 0.4 percent nitrogen found in the typical black-crude oils. 

Wengerd, S. A., 1955, Geology of the Mexican Hat oil field, San Juan County, 

Utah, in Geology of parts of Paradox, Black Mesa, and San Juan Basins: 

Four Corners Geol. Soc. Guidebook, 1st Field Conf., p. 150-163. 

The Mexican Hat oil field has produced relatively small quantities of oil 

under low pressure, and without appreciable quantities of gas, from at least 

eight lentils in the Rico and Hermosa formations. The fact that numero~s oil 

seeps occur in the San Juan Canyon virtually proves that an entrenching 

river will release oil from a reservoir by direct breaching, or by crossing 

minor faults that transect a reservoir. The discontinuous nature of porosity 

in these high-shelf Rico and Hermosa reservoir strata militates against a 

regional draining of the reservoirs, which stand above the present level of 

the San Juan River. Author's text condensed. 

Wiley, D. R., 1967, Petrology of bituminous sandstone in the Green River 

Formation, southeastern Uinta Basin, Utah: Utah Univ. unpub. M.S. 

thesis, 69 p. 

The bituminous sandstones of the Green River Formation are dominantly 

arkoses. Feldspars constitute 19-60 percent of the total mineral content, and 

many of the thin sections were found to contain both fresh and altered feldspars of the same species, indicating that the arkose was tectonically derived. 

Quartz is the dominant mineral in most samples studied. The bituminous 

sandstones studied are very heterogeneous. The gross textures and lithologies 

are extremely varied. The abrupt changes in texture within short, vertical 

stratigraphic intervals possibly indicate an intermittent turbulence. The effect 

of variation in texture is demonstrated by the amount of bitumen that a 

sample contains. Analysis of the two independent variables- the median 

diameter of the grains and the percentage of clay- and silt-size materialshows both to be equally effective in determining the amount of bitumen 

which the sediment can hold. The most heavily saturated sandstones were 

those whose grain size was between 4 phi and 2 phi, and whose percentage 

of clay- and silt-size material was low. The original carbonate-cement content has also greatly influenced the bitumen content of the sandstone by 

reducing the porosity. The sediments comprising the bituminous sandstones 

probably came from the south and southeast of the area studied, perhaps 

from the Uncompahgre uplift and the mountains of western Colorado. 

Author's abstract condensed. 

Winchester, D. E., 1919, Oil shale of the Uinta Basin, northeastern Utah: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691-B, p. 51-55. 

Hydrocarbon materials filling fissure veins are common in the Uinta Basin. 

Of the different varieties, gilsonite, elaterite, tabbyite, albertite, wurtzilite, 

and nigrite are asphaltic materials, and ozokerite is a paraffin type. In this 

region ozokerite occurs only as veins that cut rocks of the Wasatch formation, which is older than the oil shale. The asphaltites are found chiefly in 

veins that cut beds younger than the oil shale, and all are in the Green River 

formation or younger formations. The author believes that the oil shales of 

the Green River formation may be the source of all vein hydrocarbons of the 

Uinta Basin, as well as of the asphaltic material that saturates certain sandstones of the region. Author's text condensed. 
WYOMING 169 

Woodruff, E. G., and Day, D. T., 1915, Oil shale of northwestern Colorado and 

northeastern Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 581-A, p. 1-21 [p. 16]. 

Contains measured section of the lower part of the Green River formation 

at the Black Dragon mine, Dragon, Utah. 

WEST VIRGINIA 

Author List 

Grimsley, G. P., 1910, Pleasants, Wood, and Ritchie Counties, West Virginia: 

West Virginia Geol. Survey County Repts., 348 p. [p. 244]. 

The asphalt deposit at the Ritchie mines, 2 miles northeast of Macfarlan, 

Ritchie County, was discovered in 1852 and was worked intermittently until 

1904. In 1910 open vertical fissures from which the asphalt had been removed, 

were visible. Mr. Henry Wurtz, a New York chemist, made a report on this 

deposit in 1865 for the Ritchie Mineral Resin & Oil Co. Mr. Wurtz stated that 

the vein extended for a lateral distance of 3,172 feet, and that its width was 

30 inches at the east end and 8 inches at the west end. He estimated the 

quantity of grahamite to be 2,000 tons for every 6 feet of depth. Mr. Wurtz 

named this mineral grahamite after Mr. Graham, the owner of the Ritchie 

Mineral Resin & Oil Co. The specific gravity of grahamite is 1.145. It is not 

soluble in alcohol, is partially soluble in naphtha, and is soluble in chloroform 

or in sulfate of carbon. 

Analyses 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Asphalt deposits 

WYOMING 

Subject Index 

Beaver Divide-Gas Hills area 

VanHouten, F. B., and Weitz, J. L., 1956 

Bighorn Basin 

Washburne, C. W., 1908 

Bighorn Mountains 

Darton, N.H., 1906 

Dallas oil field 

Krampert, E. W., 1948 

Thompson, R. M., Troyer, M. L., White, V. L., and Pipiringos, G. N., 

1950 

Douglas oil field 

Barnett, V. H., 1914 

Biggs, Paul, and Espach, R. H., 1960a 

Dutton Basin 

VanHouten, F. B., and Weitz, J. L., 1956 

Lander oil field 

Thompson, R. M., Troyer, M. L., White, V. L., and Pipiringos, G. N., 

1950 

Woodruff, E. G., and Wegemann, C. H., 1911 

Moorcroft oil field 

Barnett, V. H., 1915 
170 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Asphalt deposits- Continued 

Natrona County 

Biggs, Paul, and Espach, R. H., 1960b 

Powder River oil field 

Wegemann, C. H., 1912 

Rattlesnake Mountains 

Jamison, C. E., 1911 

Trumbull, L. W., 1913 

Regional 

Ball Associates, Ltd., 1965 

Bartram, J. G., 1926 

Jamison, C. E., 1911 

Trumbull, L. W., 1913 

Veatch, A. C., 1907 

Sage Creek field 

Espach, R. H., and Nichols, H. D., 1941 

Salt Creek oil field 

Wegemann, C. H., 1918 

Woodruff, E. G., and Wegemann, C. H., 1911 

Upton-Thornton oil field 

Hancock, E. T., 1921 

Oil seeps 

Barnett, V. H., 1914 

Barnett, V. H., 1915 

Biggs, Paul, and Espach, R. H., 1960b 

Darton, N.H., 1904 

Darton, N.H., 1906 

Hares, C. J., 1916 

Ricketts, L. D., 1890 

Tourtelot, H. A., 1953 

Trumbull, L. W., 1913 

VanHouten, F. B., and Weitz, J. L., 1956 

Veatch, A. C., 1907 

Woodruff, E. G., and Wegemann, C. H., 1911 

Uranium 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957 

Vein deposits 

Jamison, C. E., 1911 

Author List 

Ball Associates, Ltd., compiler, 1965, Wyoming, in Surface and shallow oilimpregnated rocks and shallow oil fields in the United States: U.S. Bur. 

Mines Mon. 12, p. 354. 

Wyoming contains several large deposits and a large number of lesser 

occurrences of petroleum-impregnated outcropping rock. The greatest concentration is in the Wind River Basin, central Wyoming; other notable concentrations are on the flanks of the Black Hills, in northeastern Wyoming, and 

in the Powder River Basin. Author's summary condensed. 

Barnett, V. H., 1914, The Douglas oil and gas field, Converse County, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 541-C, p. 49-88. 
WYOMING 171 

At several localities in the Douglas field, oil finds its way to the surface 

in the form of seeps or springs. About 1894, while a tunnel was being dug 

for an irrigation ditch in the NW% sec. 16, T. 32 N., R. 73 W., a sandstone 

at the top of the Cloverly formation was penetrated and found to be saturated with oil. At another place, in sec. 6, T. 32 N., R. 74 W., in the bed of 

Boxelder Creek, oil seeps from the top of the Casper formation appeared on 

the surface of the water. There are two grades of oil in the Douglas field. 

One is a heavy oil having a specific gravity of 0.9309 to 0.97 43, and the other 

is a comparatively light oil having a specific gravity of 0.8439. This suggests 

different horizons or, at least, different conditions of accumulation. The light 

oil is probably held in a reservoir that was formed either by a small anticline, which is suggested by the curve in the outcrop of the Cloverly and 

Chugwater formations, or by the younger, overlying White River formation, 

which is impervious to oil, owing to its water-saturated condition. The heavy 

oil is from wells near the seeps and, also, near a fault; hence, the lighter 

elements of the oil may have escaped, leaving only the heavier fractions. 

Author's text condensed. 

Barnett, V. H., 1915, The Moorcroft oil field, Crook County, Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 581-C, p. 83-104. 

The Moorcroft oil field is on the extreme west edge of the Black Hills uplift. 

The structure of the rocks in this field is monoclinal, with a general westward 

dip. At several localities in the Moorcroft field, the oil rises to the surface in 

the form of seeps or springs. Of the 65 seeps and wells described, three are 

oil springs, 21 are shallow holes (which should not be considered wells), and 

41 are wells that are "fair" tests for oil at the localities where they were 

drilled. Of the 41 test holes, 15 are reported to have struck showings or small 

quantities of oil. All but seven of the wells have been abandoned as oil wells. 

The oil in Bird Oil spring, in sec. 2, T. 51 N., R. 67 W., comes to the surface 

from the friable sandstone of the Fuson shale (Lower Cretaceous). This 

spring is so named because the birds that bathe in this spring get the oil 

on their feathers and are unable to fly away. In the side of the draw, slightly 

above the spring, there is a bed of very tough, impure asphalt about 8 inches 

thick. Author's text condensed. 

Bartram, J. G., 1926, Occurrence of black oil in Wyoming: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 10, no. 4, p. 443-448. 

The black oil fields of Wyoming, which produce from the Embar and Tensleep formations of Permian-Pennsylvanian age, are found in a small area 

in west-central Wyoming. The Embar formation is apparently the source of 

the oil. The black oil has an asphalt base, an average gravity of about 22° 

Baume, and a gravity range of 15° to 32°. Author's text condensed. 

Biggs, Paul, and Espach, R. H., 1960a, Douglas field, in Petroleum and natural 

gas fields in Wyoming: U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 582, 538 p. [p. 90]. 

The Douglas field, known also as the Brenning field, in Brenning Basin, is 

in the north half ofT. 32 N., R. 73 W., Converse County. The White River 

formation of Tertiary age unconformably overlaps the Cretaceous beds, which 

apparently are monoclinal, dipping 20°-30° N. In 1894 an oil-saturated sandstone (the top of the Cloverly formation) was uncovered in digging an irrigation ditch in the NW% sec. 16, T. 32 N., R. 73 W. From 1902 through 1907, 

about 60 holes were drilled in the field to depths of about 400 feet. Most of 
172 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

the wells yielded small quantities of oil, gas, and water. Authors' text condensed. 

Biggs, Paul, and Espach, R. H., 1960b, Oil Mountain, in Petroleum and natural 

gas fields in Wyoming: U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 582, 538 p. [p. 193]. 

The Oil Mountain anticline is in the SE%, T. 33 N., R. 82 W., Natrona 

County. In 1851 oil was discovered on this anticline at a seep, in sec. 28. The 

seep was "located" and owned by Kit Carson, James Baker, and half-breed 

Indians, who transported the oil on ponies to the California (Mormon) trail. 

There it was sold at $1 per quart to freighters or to emigrants, who mixed it 

with flour and used it for axle grease. About 1895 six shallow holes and pits 

were dug or drilled by "spring pole" near the oil seep, but they were all 

barren. Authors' text condensed. 

Darton, N. H., 1904, Description of the Newcastle quadrangle [WyomingSouth Dakota]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 107. 

Small supplies of petroleum have been obtained from borings and from two 

oil springs near the town of Newcastle, Wyo. The oil is very heavy, and, even 

in its crude state, is a high-grade lubricant. It occurs in a sandstone in the 

lower part of the Graneros formation that is extensively developed in the 

Newcastle area. At two localities, the oil oozes from the sandstone and collects in springs. Several attempts have been made to develop the oil sand 

in its extension underground by means of wells in the region west and southwest of Newcastle, but thus far, these operations have not yielded a large 

supply of oil. Author's text condensed. 

Darton, N. H., 1906, Geology of the Bighorn Mountains: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 51, 129 p. 

At various localities along the sides of the Bighorn and associated uplifts, 

some of the sandstones and sandy shales contain petroleum. This material 

generally appears in only limited amounts in springs or seeps in small 

valleys. The principal occurrences are on the sides of the uplift that arises 

east of the South Fork Powder River. Oil springs of small volume occur in 

the vicinity of Bonanza. The oil in the springs is from a horizon in the 

lower part of the Colorado. A deposit of asphalt occurs in the Tensleep sandstone, on the west slope of the Bighorn Mountains, in sees. 28, 29, 32, and 33, 

T. 52 N .. R. 89 W. The thickness is stated to be 6 feet. The material consists 

mainly of asphalt that is thoroughly mixed with coarse sand. Author's text 

condensed. 

Espach, R. H., and Nichols, H. D., 1941, Sage Creek field, in Petroleum and 

natural gas fields in Wyoming: U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 418, 185 p. [p. 86]. 

The Sage Creek field, also called Shoshone oil field in the early literature, 

is in T. 1 N., R. 1 W., Fremont County. An oil seepage in the NW%SW14 

sec. 35 was first mentioned in 1864 and attracted attention to this structure 

when drilling was undertaken along the Shoshone anticline. A well, drilled 

near the oil seepage in 1909 to a depth of 800 feet, yielded some oil at 650 

feet from the Chugwater formation, as well as an appreciable flow at 670 

feet, so long as it was agitated. Although 10 wells, most of them along the 

axis of the anticline, were drilled to depths ranging from 713 to 1,958 feet 

to the Embar, Tensleep, and Amsden formations, none produced oil or gas in 
WYOMING 173 

commercial quantities. What oil was found was a heavy dark-brown asphaltic 

oil, the same as that obtained in the Dallas dome field. Authors' text condensed. 

Hail, W. J., Jr., 1957, Wyoming, in Reconnaissance for uranium in asphaltbearing rocks, Western United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1046-E, 

p. 55-85 [p. 70]. 

Lenticular beds of highly weathered asphalt-bearing sandstone in the 

Wasatch formation (Eocene) crop out near Muddy Creek in Carbon County. 

The asphalt occurs irregularly in a roughly 100~foot-thick section of sandstone. Analyses of samples from the Muddy Creek locality ranged from 0.015 

to 0.091 percent uranium in the ash of the extracted oil. The Teapot sandstone 

member of the Mesaverde formation of Cretaceous age is saturated with 

asphalt along its outcrop in sees. 4, 5, 9, T. 33 N., R. 87 W., Natrona County. 

The asphalt-bearing sandstone forms a prominent hogback. Its outcrop 

extends about a quarter of a mile and has a maximum exposed thickness of 

about 50 feet. The asphalt is highly weathered and is now represented only 

by a brown staining throughout the exposed beds. Uranium content in the 

ash of the extracted oil from the hogback ranged from 0.014 to 0.032 percent. 

Author's text condensed. . 

Hancock, E. T., 1921, The Upton-Thornton oil field, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 716-B, p. 17-34. 

The Upton-Thornton oil field includes two small dome-shaped folds and a 

small tract that yields oil and is entirely separate from either of these 

domes. The tract is about 20 miles southeast of the Moorcroft oil field. The 

Upton-Thornton field as a whole occupies a part of the southwest flank of 

the Black Hills uplift. The soft sandy shales and relatively pure sandstones 

of the lowermost part of the Carlile shale are exposed 2 miles northwest of 

Thornton. These beds are petroliferous throughout and, in some places, are 

thoroughly saturated with oil. The oil is obtained from a sand, which ranges 

in thickness from 29 to 47 feet, that lies at depths of 448 to 843 feet. Author's 

text condensed. 

Hares, C. J., 1916, Anticlines in central Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

641-I, P. 233-279. 

Central Wyoming, an area of 5,000 square miles in Natrona and Fremont 

Counties west of Casper and southeast of Lander, was investigated to ascertain the possibilities of oil; as a result, the Carboniferous and Cretaceous 

formations which produce oil in other Rocky Mountain fields were found to 

be well developed in central Wyoming. Locally, oil seeps from these formations. Large quantities of asphaltum occur on Wallace Creek and its tributaries along the east front of the Rattlesnake Mountains, which suggests the 

existence of an oil pool somewhere to supply the asphaltum - unless (as is 

possibly the case) the rocks are so eroded as to have allowed all the oil to 

escape. Note that these exceptional showings of oil along the mountains are 

almost directly opposite the Wallace Creek fold, and that a line drawn from 

the middle of the fold to the larger seeps along the mountain would pass 

close to Phayles Reef, which is highly saturated with oil. These seeps may 

be related to the Wallace Creek fold, where perhaps the oil is caught. But 

all formations in this fold below the Teapot sand of the Mesaverde formation, 

which crops out at Phayles Reef, are too deep to be drilled. Author's text 

condensed. 

460-209 0- 72 - 12 
174 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Jamison, C. E., 1911, Asphalt and related bitumens, in Mineral resources of 

Wyoming: Wyoming Geol. Survey Bull. 1, 95 p. [p. 31]. 

Beds of asphalt are found along the north side of the Rattlesnake Mountains, and also near the Wind River Agency, Fremont County. Asphalt mixed 

with coarse sand occurs on the west side of the Bighorn Mountains. Veins of 

gilsonite and ozokerite are reported from Fremont and Uintah Counties. 

Asphaltic sandstone has been found in southern Uinta and western Big Horn 

Counties. Rich bituminous shale is found near Rock Springs and in the Green 

River valley. Author's text condensed. 

Krampert, E. W., 1948, Dallas field, Fremont County, Wyoming: Wyoming 

Geol. Assoc. Guidebook, 3d Ann. Field Conf., p. 153-155. 

Wyoming's first producing oil well was drilled in the Dallas field in 1884. 

This well, though now abandoned, produced until just a few years ago and 

appropriately still bears the designation "No. 1." It was completed to produce 

black oil of the Chugwater formation from a depth of about 300 feet. Well 

No. 1 was drilled squarely in the center of an asphalt deposit, covering about 

half an acre, that had resulted from a live oil seep. Several additional wells 

were also drilled. Well No. 3, which was drilled deep enough to strike oil in 

the Embar at 750 feet, is still producing after 61 years. Author's text condensed. 

Ricketts, L. D., 1890, Annual report of the Territorial Geologist to the Governor of Wyoming: Cheyenne Daily Leader, Steam Book Press, 80 p. 

At a number of points between Salt and Oil Creeks, in T. 45 N., Rs. 61 and 

62 W., a prominent stratum of sandstone shows indication of petroleum. This 

stratum may be at the top of the Dakota or, more probably, at the base of 

the Colorado group of Cretaceous rocks. The petroleum is found at many 

points as a strain; at others, the oil saturates the sandstone so heavily that 

it seeps forth to form "springs." The largest spring is in the SW%,NE14 

sec. 25, T. 45 N., R. 62 W. The oil in this spring drains from a porous sandstone of the Colorado group of rocks. The spring yields several gallons per 

day of oil having a density of 22'-h o Baume. 

Thompson, R. M., Troyer, M. L., White, V. L., and Pipiringos, G. N., 1950, 

Geology and oil possibilities of the Lander area, central Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM-112, with text. 

The Lander (Hudson) anticline is located east and north of the town of 

Lander. First oil production from the field was in 1912, and shallow-well 

( <2,000 ft) development is continuing. In early 1949 about 25 wells were 

producing 350 barrels of oil per day from the Tensleep sandstone and the 

Phosphoria formation. The first producing well in Wyoming was drilled in 

1884 on the Dallas dome. This well, near the center of the dome, was drilled 

to a depth of 300 feet and produced oil for 60 years before it was abandoned. 

The Dallas dome field has produced more black oil per surface acre than any 

other field in the State. More than 60 wells have been drilled, about one-third 

of which are pumping from the "Embar" and Tensleep. The Derby field is 

an old shallow field that was discovered somewhat later than the Dallas field. 

It has produced small amounts of black oil steadily for many years from the 

Phosphoria formation and Tensleep sandstone. Authors' text condensed. 
WYOMING 175 

Tourtelot, H. A., 1953, Geology of the Badwater area, central Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM-124, with text. 

The presence of oil and gas in the Badwater area is indicated by oil-stained 

rocks exposed on the surface and shows of oil and gas discovered in drilling 

wells. Some of the more evident surface indications are the oil seeping from 

the Flathead sandstone in the SW14NE%, sec. 6, T. 39 N., R. 91 W.; oil staining in the Frontier formation in sec. 23, T. 38 N., R. 87 W.; oil staining in 

the Cretaceous or Tertiary rocks in sec. 10, T. 39 N., R. 91 W., and oil staining 

in the andesite-tuff sequence at several places. Water wells 300-500 feet 

deep, drilled near Lost Cabin, have also tapped small amounts of gas. Drilling 

has also yielded small amounts of a heavy black oil, having an API gravity 

of 33. 7o, from a depth 933 feet. Author's text condensed. 

Trumbull, L. W., 1913, Prospective oil field at Upton, Weston County; Buck 

Creek, Niobrara County; Rattlesnake Mountains, Natrona County; and 

La Barge, Lincoln County: Wyoming Geol. Survey Bull. 5, 15 p. 

The Rattlesnake oil field is on the northeast flank of the Rattlesnake 

Mountains, in southwest Natrona County. Along the outcrops of Cretaceous 

rocks (from Dakota to Mesaverde) deposits of asphaltum mark the location 

of former oil springs, and at many places oil-saturated sandstones form 

prominent ridges. The oil seepages and springs of the Rattlesnake region 

have been recognized for over 40 years, and at various times efforts have 

been made to develop the field. As a result, many pits and shallow wells have 

been drilled, but no deep wells have been drilled. The La Barge oil field, in 

Lincoln County, is on the west side of the Green River and north of La Barge 

Creek. In 1907 oil was discovered seeping from the Tertiary sandstones on 

the flat east of La Barge Mountain. Since then, many prospect holes have 

been drilled; however, none go down more than 1,000 feet, and oil in quantity 

has not been found. The oil is heavy and dark, and has a density of 18.75° 

Baume. Author's text condensed. 

Van Hooten, F. B., and Weitz, J. L., 1956, Geologic map of the eastern Beaver 

Divide-Gas Hills area, Fremont and Natrona Counties, Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM-180, with text. 

Five areas of surface oil staining or gas seeps are known from the Dutton 

Basin anticline, indicating the presence of at least small amounts of oil and 

gas in the structure. In the authors' opinion, the mineral-fuels potential of 

the Dutton Basin anticline has not been adequately explored. Authors' text 

condensed. 

Veatch, A. C., 1907, Geography and geology of southwestern Wyoming, with 

special reference to coal and oil: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 56, 178 p. 

[p. 139-162]. 

Oil has been found in southern Uintah County in springs at Hilliard Flat 

-the Brigham Young Oil Spring, in sec. 4, T. 13 N., R. 119 W., and the 

White Oil Spring, in sec. 33, T. 14 N., R. 119 W.- at Aspen tunnel, in sec. 

12, T. 14 N., R. 119 W., and in sec. 7, T. 14 N., R 118 W.; 3 miles north of 

Aspen tunnel, in Carter Oil Spring, in sec. 31, T. 15 N., R. 118 W.; in springs 

and wells on the south branch of Twin Creek, in T. 21 N., R. 117 W.; and in 

wells near Spring Valley, in Tps. 14 and 15 N., R. 118 W. These springs all 

occur in the region of profound disturbance along the Absaroka fault. The 
176 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Brigham Young, White, and Carter Oil Springs occur along a secondary fault 

just east of the main faultline. This oil-spring fault cuts the west end of the 

Aspen tunnel, and the oil seepage in this tunnel is believed to be of the same 

character as that in neighboring oil springs. The oil issues from faulted 

Cretaceous rocks of Benton age. In the Fossil (town) area, the oil comes 

from a group of springs that, with the exception of globules of oil, are of 

the type commonly found in the Eocene beds. The oil from the Brigham 

Young, White, Carter, and Fossil Oil Springs and from nearby wells is dark 

and heavy, and perhaps has been derived from the Aspen oils by evaporation 

of its more volatile constituents. Author's text condensed. 

Washburne, C. W., 1908, Gas fields of the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Bull. 340-F, p. 348-363. 

The Madison limestone in Sheep Canyon, 15 miles north of the basin, shows 

many signs of oil. The rock is black in places from the contained carbonaceous material and has a distinct oily smell when freshly broken. Asphaltum, 

or other solid hydrocarbons, filling many of the small cavities and fissures in 

the Madison limestone is further proof of the existence of oil in that rock. 

A bed of asphalt mixed with sand and rock was filed on, for the purpose of 

quarrying the asphalt, in T. 42 N., R. 90 W. The asphalt occurs in "blanket" 

form as a bed, 10 feet thick, on a hilly surface of limestone or sandstone. 

About half of the bed is reported to be asphalt; the remainder is reported to 

be sand and rock, which the asphalt binds together in a firm mass. Apparently, 

the asphalt has exuded from the Pennsylvanian rocks at this place and 

cemented the base of the rock mantle. That such a large deposit of asphalt 

occurs is a strong indication that oil is present in the upper Paleozoic strata. 

Author's text condensed. 

Wegemann, C. H., 1912, The Powder River oil field, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 471-A, p. 56-75. 

Practically all indications of oil in the Powder River Basin occur in T. 41 

N., R. 81 W., and in the northern part ofT. 40 N., R. 81 W. The distribution 

of the oil is controlled by a structural dome resembling that of the Salt Creek 

oil field, 15 miles to the southeast. The oil of the Powder River field is used 

as a heavy lubricating oil; it is black and contains over 2 percent asphalt and 

about 20 percent kerosene, but no naphtha. The principal reservoir is the 

coarse conglomeratic sandstone, 56 feet thick, in this report called Dakota. 

Author's text condensed. 

Wegemann, C. H., 1918, The Salt Creek oil field, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 670, 52 p. 

The Salt Creek field is about 7 miles square in Tps. 39 and 40 S., R. 79 W., 

40 miles north of Casper and 30 miles southeast of the foot of the Bighorn 

Mountains. Surface indications of oil in the Salt Creek field include oil and 

gas seeps in the shale, deposits of ozokerite or mineral wax along the fault 

planes in the shale, and oil seeps from the Shannon sandstone. At many 

places, layers of ozokerite, or mineral wax, lh-% inch thick, are associated 

with the calcite-filled fault fissures in the shale. The mineral wax is black, 

presumably because it contains a small amount of asphalt. This wax, which 

is found at the surface in fissures that doubtless contain oil below the surface, 

appears to be the residue left by the evaporation of the oil. Oil seeps from 
WYOMING 177 

the Shannon sandstone itself in at least three places on the rimrock at the 

north end of the Salt Creek dome. Author's text condensed. 

Woodruff, E. G., and Wegernann, C. H., 1911, The Lander and Salt Creek oil 

fields, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 452, 87 p. [p. 7-34]. 

Oil springs, together with the favorable anticlinal structure, led to prospecting for oil in the Lander area. The oil springs are seeps from which only 

small amounts of oil flowed. In two of the spring~the oil is a heavy asphaltic 

variety; when it reaches the surface, the lighter parts evaporate and leave 

the asphalt to impregnate the soil. Although oil has been found in several 

formations, its occurrence is believed to be controlled by structure, because, 

so far as is known, oil only occurs near the crest of an anticline. The oil is 

dark brown and flows readily from the wells. It becomes slightly thicker on 

exposure to the air for several weeks. Samples from six wells were analyzed 

and found to contain from 4.02 to 15.26 percent asphalt. 

Cretaceous 

Ball, M. W., 1935 

Ball, M. W., 1941 

Bell, Robert, 1885 

Cameron, E. M., 1965 

McMurray Formation 

CANADA 

SUBJECT INDEX 

Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists, 1951 

Ansley, R. W., and Biermeier, W. G., 1963 

Ball, M. W., 1941 

Bellows, L. A., and Bohme, V. E., 1963 

Carrigy, M. A., 1959a 

Carrigy, M. A., 1959b 

Carrigy, M. A., 1962 

Ellison, A. H., 1959 

Falconer, W. L., 1951 

Government of Alberta, 1951 

Gussow, W. C., 1941 

Gussow, W. C., 1956 

H ume, G. S., 1933 

Hume, G. S., 1944 

Hume, G. S., 1951 

Kidd, F. A., 1951 

Mellon, G. B., 1956 

Mellon, G. B., and Wall, J. H., 1956 

Research Council of Alberta, 1955 

Dakota formation 

Ells, S. C., 1914 

Huntley, L. G., 1916 

McConnell, R. G., 1893 

Exploration 

Gallup, W. B., 1960 

Geochemistry 

Bowman, C. W., 1967 

Boyd, M. L., and Montgomery, D. S., 1961 

Boyd, M. L., and Montgomery, D. S., 1962 

Boyd, M. L., and Montgomery, D. S., 1963 

Cameron, E. M., 1965 

Carrigy, M. A., 1959a 

Carrigy, M. A., 1962 

Carrigy, M. A., 1967 

Clark, K. A., 1957 

Clark, K. A., 1960 

Clark, K. A., and Blair, S. M., 1925 

179 
180 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Geochemistry- Continued 

Goodspeed, F. E., and Montgomery, D. S., 1962 

Hardy, R. M., and Hemstock, R. A., 1963 

Hodgson, G. W., and Baker, B. L., 1959 

Krieble, V. K., and Seyer, W. F., 1921 

Nagy, B., and Gagnon, G. C., 1961 

Round, G. F., 1960 

Schrayer, G. J., Weismann, T. J., and Zarrella, W. M., 1960 

Ward, S. H., and Clark, K. A., 1950 

Warren, T. E., 1951 

Warren, T. E., Booth, F. L., Carson, R. E., and Bowles, K. W., 1951 

Metals associated with crude oils 

Hodgson, G. W., Peake, Eric, and Baker, B. L., 1963 

Iron 

Hodgson, G. W., 1954 

Scott, Jean, Collins, G. A., and Hodgson, G. W., 1954 

Nickel 

Hodgson, G. W., 1954 

Scott, Jean, Collins, G. A., and Hodgson, G. W., 1954 

Vanadium 

Hodgson, G. W., 1954 

Scott, Jean, Collins, G. A., and Hodgson, G. W., 1954 

Mining and recovery 

Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists, 1951 

Bellows, L. A., and Bohme, V. E., 1963 

Birchard, J. A., Bowman, C. W., Butler, R. M., and Tiedje, J. L., 1963 

Brusset, M. J., Edgington, A. N., and Gilmour, R. F., 1967 

Clark, K. A., 1944 

Clark, K. A., 1950 

Clark, K. A., 1960 

Clark, K. A., and Alexander, E. L., 1951 

Clark, K. A., and Pasternack, D. S., 1932 

Cottrell, J. H., 1963 

Davis, C. M., 1951 

Djingheuzian, L. E., 1951 

Dor, A. A., Daly, W. J., Floyd, P. H., and Hall, F. T., 1967 

Doscher, T. M., 1967 

Doscher, T. M., Labelle, R. W., Sawatsky, L. H., and Zwicky, R. W., 

1963 

Gibbon, Anthony, 1957 

Gold, Otto, 1967 

Gussow, W. C., 1941 

Haliburton, James, 1947 

Hitchon, Brian, Round, G. F., Charles, M. E., and Hodgson, G. W., 

1961 

Hodgson, G. W., Matchen, Ben, Peterson, W. S., and Gishler, P. E., 

1952 

Hopper, D. A., 1945 

Hoskins, A. D., 1964 

Innes, E. D., 19117 

Larson, V. C., Peterson, R. B., and Lacey, J. W., 1967 

Lowell, P. F., Reif, H. E., Burk, R. 0., Hertel, P. H., and Abbott, B. T., 

1966 
CANADA 

Mining and recovery - Continued 

N atland, M. L., 1963 

Oil and Gas Journal, 1960 

Pasternack, D. S., 1963 

Pasternack, D. S., and Clark, K. A., 1951 

Pasternack, D. S., Hodgson, G. W., and Clark, K. A., 1951 

Peterson, W. S., and Gishler, P. E., 1951 

Schellhorn, H. W., 1963 

Smoley, E. R., and Schutte, A. H., 1951 

Spragins, F. K., 1967 

Oil seeps 

Origin 

Cameron, A. E., 1921 

Ells, S. C., 1924 

Huntley, L. G., 1916 

Kleinpell, R. M., 1932 

Link, T. A., 1932 

Ball, M. W., 1935 

Ball, M. W., 1941 

Bell, Robert, 1885 

Bellows, L. A., and Bohme, V. E., 1963 

Carrigy, M.A., 1963 

Conybeare, C. E. B., 1966 

Corbett, C. S., 1955 

Hitchon, Brian, 1963 

Hitchon, Brian, and Shaw, D. R., 1960 

Hodgson, G. W., Peake, Eric, and Baker, B. L., 1963 

Link, T. A., 1951 

Montgomery, D. S., 1951 

Sproule, J. C., 1938 

Sproule, J. C., 1951 

Vigrass, L. W., 1965 

Williams, M. Y., 1949 

Paleontology 

Mellon, G. B., and Wall, J. H., 1956 

Russell, L. S., 1932 

Principal asphalt deposits 

Athabaska 

Ball, M. W., 1935 

Ball, M. W., 1941 

Kinney, G. T., 1963 

Pow, J. R., Fairbanks, G. H., and Zamora, W. J., 1963 

Bluesky-Gething 

Kinney, G. T., 1963 

Pow, J. R., Fairbanks, G. H., and Zamora, W. J., 1963 

Grand Rapids 

Kinney, G. T., 1963 

Pow, J. R., Fairbanks, G. H., and Zamora, W. J., 1963 

Regional 

Arctic Islands 

Fortier, Y. 0., McNair, A. H., and Thorsteinsson, R., 1954 

Sproule, J. C., and Lloyd, G. V., 1963 

181 
182 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Regional- Continued 

Cold Lake 

Webber, H. J., 1967 

Ells River 

Clark, K. A., and Blair, S. M., 1927 

Great Slave Lake 

Cameron, A. E., 1921 

Hay and Buffalo Rivers 

Cameron, A. E., 1921 

Hotchkiss East 

Von Der Lin, Frances, 1961 

Lesser Slave Lake 

McConnell, R. G., 1893 

McMurray district 

Ells, S. C., 1962 

Mildred-Ruth Lakes area 

Hume, G. S., 1947b 

Peace River 

McConnell, R. G., 1893 

Vigrass, L. W., 1968 

Von Der Lin, Frances, 1961 

Peter Pond Lake area 

Kupsch, W. 0., 1954 

Queen Charlotte Islands 

Kleinpell, R. M., 1932 

Red Earth Northeast 

Von Der Lin, Frances, 1961 

Reservoirs 

Brown, J. S., 1965 

Link, T. A., 1951 

Resources 

Sulfur 

Ball, M. W., 1935 

Brese, W. G., 1963 

Carrigy, M. A., 1959b 

Carrigy, M. A., and Zamora, W. J., 1960 

Gussow, W. C., 1956 

Hume, G. S., 1944 

Hume, G. S., 1947a 

Kinney, G. T., 1963 

Pow, J. R., Fairbanks, G. H., and Zamora, W. J., 1963 

Stewart, G. A., 1963 

Von Der Lin, Frances, 1961 

Webber, H. J., 1967 

Brese, W. G., 1963 

Clark, K. A., and Blair, S. M., 1925 

Huntley, L. G., 1916 

Plewes, A. C., 1951 
CANADA 183 

AUTHOR LIST 

Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists, 1951, Western Canada, in Possible 

future petroleum provinces of North America: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 35, no. 2, p. 169-184. 

The oil sands of northern Alberta occur in the McMurray formation, correlated as basal Lower Cretaceous, and lie without angular unconformity on a 

floor of base-leveled Devonian. The sands are of continental origin and appear 

to be a great delta swept off the Precambrian shield on the east into the 

margins of an Early Cretaceous sea. The oil is a heavy viscous tarry crude, 

extremely sensitive to heat; in an ASTM distillation, cracking begins before 

the kerosene fraction has distilled over. Its thermal behavior resembles that 

of a virgin oil, converted only a short way beyond the asphalt stage, rather 

than that of a residual oil from which the lighter fractions have evaporated. 

Recent drilling indicates that the oil probably originated in the underlying 

Devonian. Long porous reef limestone sections have been found in the Devonian, directly overlain by the Cretaceous McMurray sandstone, and both 

the limestone and the sandstone are impregnated with characteristic "tarsand" oil. The oil envelops each sand grain and occupies the pore spaces. 

Its removal leaves the sand as free as that on a beach. To recover the oil, 

the sand must be mined and the oil distilled, dissolved, or washed out with 

hot water. The hot-water method seems to be the most practicable and 

economical. Most of the deposit is too deeply buried for mining under present 

conditions; the workable parts are the benches and interstream areas in the 

valleys of the Athabaska River and its tributaries, where streams have cut 

through the overlying beds and into or through the oil sands. The minable 

areas are estimated to contain at least 1 billion barrels of oil. Author's text 

condensed. 

Ansley, R. W., and Biermeier, W. G., 1963, Continuity of bedding within the 

McMurray Formation, in Athabaska oil sands: Research Council Alberta 

Inf. Ser. 45, p. 55-62. 

Detailed examination of the outcrop at Mildred Lake, 25 miles north of Fort 

McMurray, showed that the McMurray Formation contained (in addition to 

the bituminous sands) thin interbeds of clay and silt and lenses of barren 

siltstone. In general, the McMurray Formation in the area investigated with 

closely spaced drill holes can be divided into three parts. The top part consists of thinly bedded clays, silts, and sands, averaging fair to good feed for 

a commercial plant. The center part consists of interbedded clays, silts, and 

sands and could be considered undesirable or marginal feed. The basal part 

consists of massive sands with few silt and clay beds and is considered good 

to rich feed. Authors' text condensed. 

Ball, M. W., 1935, Athabaska oil sands- Apparent example of local origin of 

oil: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 19, no. 2, p. 153-171. 

In the debate on local origin versus long-distance migration of oil, some 

consideration may well be given to the oil sands of northern Canada. Here 

are many thousands of square miles of oil-saturated sands, containing up to 
184 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

100,000 and more barrels of oil per acre. Estimates of the total oil content 

range from 100 billion to 250 billion barrels. The oil sands seem to lie too 

flat to have induced oil migration. There is no suggestion of artesian or metamorphic fluid movement into the area from without. The sand appears to be 

saturated throughout most of its horizontal extent. There seems to be no 

large additional sand area from which the oil might have migrated, and no 

deeper porous bed is known which might have brought oil into the area from 

remote sources. Whether the oil originated in overlying beds and seeped down 

into the sand, or in underlying beds and migrated upward, or in the sand 

itself is not definitely known, but evidence suggests that the oil originated 

in its present position. Author's abstract, slightly modified. 

Ball, M. W., 1941, Development of the Athabaska oil sands: Canadian Inst. 

Mining and Metallurgy Trans., v. 44, p. 58-91. 

The oil sands underlie an undetermined part of the great high plains or 

plateau area that makes up most of northern Alberta. The focal point of the 

exposures is at Fort McMurray, at the junction of the Athabaska and Clearwater Rivers 300 miles north of Edmonton. The oil sands are generally 100 

to 200 feet thick and at some places are as much as 225 feet thick. The beds 

of richly impregnated sands stand out in bold cliffs. They are composed of fine 

sand particles enveloped in a film of soft sticky bitumen, which is the sole 

cementing material. The sand is composed of quartz with relatively small 

quantities of mica and other material. The McMurray formation, which contains the oil sands, is of continental origin. It lies at the base of the Lower 

Cretaceous unconformably on the flat surface of the Devonian. Author's text 

condensed. 

Bell, Robert, 1885, Report on part of the basin of the Athabaska River, northwest territory: Canada Geol. Survey, Rept. of Progress for 1882-1884, 

pt. 5, 37 p. 

There seems little doubt that the vast quantities of somewhat altered petroleum contained in the soft Cretaceous sandstones of the Athabaska region 

were derived from the Devonian limestones immediately underlying them. 

That the petroleum came from below would be expected, in accordance with 

natural laws. Where the contact of the sandy petroleum-bearing strata with 

the higher Cretaceous rocks was seen at the Drowned Rapid, it was observed 

that the oil was prevented from passing upward by tenacious clayey strata. 

The drift resting on the petroleum-bearing strata did not appear to be 

impregnated with the oil, an irtdication that the oil probably saturated the 

Cretaceous strata as a thin liquid and then became altered to its present state 

long before the glacial period. Author's text condensed. 

Bellows, L.A., and Bohme, V. E., 1963, Athabaska oil sands: Jour. Petroleum 

Technology, v. 15, no. 5, p. 479-483. 

The oil in the McMurray Formation is heavy, viscous, and sulfurous. 

Specific gravity is from 1.002 to 1.027, and viscosity ranges from 3,000 to 

400,000 poise at 60°F. The sulfur content is from 4 to 5 percent, and the 

nitrogen content is about 0.4 percent. The origin of the oil has been explained 

by a number of different theories. The generally accepted hypothesis is that 

the oil migrated up from the Devonian limestone. The amount of oil in place 

is estimated to be over 300 billion barrels, but none is recoverable by natural 
CANADA 185 

flow. In-situ recovery, using some form of heat or open-pit mmmg, seems 

to be the most logical recovery method. Authors' text condensed. 

Birchard, J. A., Bowman, C. W., Butler, R. M., and Tiedje, J. L., 1963, Separation of oil from the Athabaska oil sands by sand reduction, in Athabaska 

oil sands: Research Council Alberta Inf. Ser. 45, p. 171-191. 

A process of sand reduction lowers the solids content of the Athabaska oil 

sand to the extent where direct distillation and coking in a fluidized solids 

bed may be economically practical. In this process, oil sand is mixed with 

water at low temperatures, clean sand separates, and the oil particles are 

released from the structure agglomerate to form an oil phase. The agglomerate is then separated from the solids. The enriched oil phase is processed 

directly, and water is recycled in the process. The process has the following 

attractive features: (1) Low operating temperature, (2) good oil recoveries, 

(3) tolerance to fines in feed and recycle water, (4) no requirements for 

solvents, and ( 5) no production of sludge. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Bowman, C. W., 1967, Molecular and interfacial properties of Athabaska tar 

sands: World Petroleum Congress, Proc., 7th, v. 3, p. 583-604. 

The bitumen (toluene-soluble portion of tar sand) is a highly viscous 

organic material with a specific gravity of slightly above 1. Measurable 

quantities of organic material remain associated with the inorganic matrix 

after toluene extraction. The water-soluble organic material concentrates at 

air-water interfaces, where it reduces the surface tension to values as low 

as 30 dynes/ em. The major functional group appears to be a metal carboxylate. The "pH-controlling" minerals in the Athabaska tar sands affect the 

interfacial properties. The presence of calcite, siderite, ferrous hydroxide, 

and pyrrhotite will increase the pH and provide a system where the particles 

are negatively charged and well dispersed. Interfacial tension measurements 

are limited by lack of reliable data on solid-fluid interfacial tensions. According to incomplete data, some, but not all, of the desired transformations 

require a high temperature and a high pH. One notable exception is the 

initial attachment of gas bubbles to bitumen particles. At low pHs, polyvalent 

metal ions and anionic organic surfactants act as bridging agents between 

the various phases of tar sand. At higher pHs, the metal ions are precipitated 

as insoluble hydroxides, the solid surfaces become hydrated, and the anionic 

surfactants are ionized. The net effect is that all particles in the system 

become highly charged and well dispersed. Author's conclusions condensed. 

Boyd, M. L., and Montgomery, D. S., 1961, A study of the Athabaska bitumen 

from the Abasand quarry, Alberta, Canada; pt. I, Early history, analysis 

of the bituminous sand and isolation and structural analysis of the 

asphaltene fraction: Canada Dept. Energy, Mines and Resources Mines 

Br. Research Rept. 78, 67 p. 

A brief summary of the early history and development of the Athabaska 

bitumen is given as a background to the present chemical research. The 

physical properties of the bituminous sand being studied are tabulated; these 

include elementary analysis, ash content, molecular weight, density at 20°C, 

the emission spectra of the ash of the bitumen, and the chemical composition, 

screen analysis, and emission spectra of the sand. Preliminary chromatographic experiments on the bitumen are described to illustrate the necessity 
186 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

of separating the asphaltene components before the remainder of the bitumen 

is fractionated. The following properties of the asphaltene fraction were 

measured: Ash content, elementary analysis, molecular weight, density at 

20oC, refractive index at 20oC, emission spectra of the ash, and the infrared 

spectrum. The asphaltene fraction is characterized by the application of 

van Krevelen's structural analysis system and, also, by two new methods, 

which were devised by the authors. The chemical structure is expressed in 

terms of five structural groups, and an estimate is made of the degree of 

condensation of the aromatic rings by determining the number of fusedring and nonfused-ring junction carbon atoms. Authors' abstract. 

Boyd, M. L., and Montgomery, D. S., 1962, Chromatographic separation of 

the oil fraction, and properties and structure of the oil components, 

pt. III, in A study of the Athabaska bitumen from the Abasand quarry, 

Alberta, Canada: Canada Dept. Energy, Mines and Resources Mines Br. 

Research Rept. 104, 67 p. 

The oil component, which constituted 33.1 percent of the Abasand bitumen, 

was resolved into a series of fractions by elution chromatography on silica 

gel. The saturated fraction was further resolved on activated carbon, and the 

most aromatic portion was further resolved on both activated carbon and 

alumina. The following properties were determined for most of the fractions 

thus prepared: Elementary analysis, molecular weight, density (20°C), refractive index ( nD20), dispersion, the aniline point, the ultraviolet spectrum, and 

the infrared spectrum. Quantitative estimates of the number of methyl, 

methylene and aromatic carbon atoms have been made from the infrared 

spectra. About one-third of the oil component can be separated out as totally 

saturated material. The remainder of the material was separated into a series 

of fractions that contained increasing proportions of aromatic carbon atoms, 

up to about 35 percent. On the average, the oil fractions would appear to 

contain three rings per molecule. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Boyd, M. L., and Montgomery, D. S., 1963, Composition of Athabaska bitumen 

fractions, as determined by structural-group analysis methods, in Athabaska oil sands: Research Council Alberta Inf. Ser. 45, p. 101-108. 

This paper summarizes the results from determination of the hydrocarbon 

skeletal structure of Athabaska bitumen fractions, largely by means of 

structural-group-analysis methods. The bituminous sample used in this investigation, taken from Fort McMurray, Alberta, contained 15.8 percent bitumen 

by weight. A method of structural-group analysis developed by the authors 

was applied. The composition was expressed in terms of 5 hydrocarbon groups, 

or fractions. This method consisted of correlation of the following properties: 

The elementary composition, molecular weight, density (20°C), refractive 

index (nD20), and aromaticity. The composition of these five fractions ranged 

from a colorless saturated oil, having a molecular weight of 360 and containing three rings per molecule, to a blackish-brown solid, having a molecular 

weight 2500, in which half the carbon atoms were aromatic, and whose molecule contained 23.6 rings. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Brese, W. G., 1963, Outlook for the Alberta sulfur industry, in Athabaska oil 

sands: Research Council Alberta Inf. Ser. 45, p. 231-238. 

The Athabaska oil has a sulfur content of approximately 5 percent by weight. 

Thus, the reserve contains about 1 billion long tons of sulfur. Currently, 
CANADA 187 

four oil-sand development projects have been proposed and would produce up 

to 1,600 long tons of sulfur per day. Rather than being a boon to a sulfurstarved world, such massive production of this sulfur could flood the market 

and, thus, depress the industry. Author's abstract modified. 

Brown, J. S., 1965, Formation evaluation in heavy-oil sands: Jour. Canadian 

Petroleum Technology, v. 4, no. 4, p. 177-187. 

The term "formation evaluation" is here used to mean the process of reservoir detection and evaluation. The process of correlation is implicit, as the 

reservoir must be identified, as well as detected. The area studied includes the 

oil fields of the Chauvin, Wainwright, and Lloydminster areas of Alberta and 

Saskatchewan. The principal heavy-oil reservoir is the Sparky sand. At the 

Wainwright and Chauvin fields reservoir detection is more difficult because 

the oil sands there are thin and have low apparent resistivities, whereas at 

Lloydminster, the oil sands are thick and have high apparent resistivities. 

At Wainwright and Chauvin, a resistivity log, a porosity log, and, commonly, 

a drill-stem test are necessary for a decision to set pipe; at Lloydminster, 

only an electrical log is necessary. Productivity varies considerably from pool 

to pool, probably because of changes in sand permeability and oil viscosity. 

Author's abstract condensed. 

Brusset, M. J., Edgington, A. N., and Gilmour, R. F., 1967, Equipment performance in an Alberta high-pressure steam-injection project: Jour. 

Canadian Petroleum Technology, v. 6, no. 4, p. 115-122. 

During 1966 an experimental steam-injection project was operated cooperatively by the Northwestern Refining Co. and the McWood Corp. at 

Hughenden, Alberta. The project has shown that it is feasible to inject 

high-pressure steam (1,500-1,600 pounds per square inch gage) at high rates 

(22 million Btu per hour) into a sandstone reservoir containing an 18o API 

gravity crude oil at a depth in excess of 2,500 feet without experiencing 

serious mechanical problems and without excessive heat losses. Authors' 

abstract condensed. 

Cameron, A. E., 1921, Hay and Buffalo Rivers, Great Slave Lake and adjacent 

country: Canada Geol. Survey Summary Report for 1921, pt. B, p. 1-44. 

The oil occurrences at Nintsi Point appear as seepages on the exposed 

surfaces of the oil-bearing horizon. A possible explanation of these seepages 

is that the sulfur-bearing waters, which carry considerable quantities of 

calcium and magnesium salts, rise from below and percolate through the 

overlying thin bedded dolomitic limestones, changing them to crystalline 

magnesium limestones and dolomites. In the process, bitumen is set free and 

forced into cavities in the dolomites or is forced through fissures, developed 

during dolomitization, to the surface, where it forms tar and oil pools. If the 

above explanation is true of the conditions at Nintsi Point, it would tend to 

show that the oil seepage there represents only local conditions and that the 

possibility of a commercially economic oil horizon in the Presqu'ile dolomite 

is small. However, the oily matter in the cavities in the Presqu'ile dolomites, 

exposed at Presqu'ile Point and on Burnt Islands, indicates much more 

extensive oil-bearing conditions and tends to prove that the structural conditions control the concentration of the oil. It is the author's opinion that the 

oil seepages at Nintsi Point are probably the result of both chemical action 

and structural conditions. Author's text condensed. 
188 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Cameron, E. M., 1965, Applications of geochemistry to stratigraphic problems in Lower Cretaceous of western Canada: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 49, no. 1, p. 62-80. 

The detrital sediments of the Lower Cretaceous series of the Interior 

Plains of Western Canada were sampled at close vertical intervals in fourteen 

widely spaced sections in Alberta and western Saskatchewan. "Chemical logs" 

were plotted for each section and show that, throughout the study area, the 

series can be separated into three stratigraphic divisions, each having a distinctive soda content. The lower division is poor in soda. The middle division 

is composed principally of sediments that are rich in sodic igneous detritus 

and that interfinger with low-soda strata in the eastern part of the area. 

The upper division consists of sediments that have a low to intermediate 

soda content. Samples of different grain size (such as sand samples versus 

shale samples) share a distinctively similar soda content if they are from 

the same division, or sediment suite. Throughout the sediment series, however, the potash content of different grain-size samples from any one division 

varies far more than does the soda content and, as a result, is much less 

useful as evidence for stratigraphic correlation. Chemical methods of correlating detrital sediments appear to be useful, particularly when applied to 

shales or to mixed assemblages that include shales. Author's text condensed. 

Carrigy, M. A., 1959a, The significance of a grain-size classification of the 

sands of the McMurray formation, Alberta: World Petroleum Congress, 

Proc., 5th, v. 1, p. 575-590. 

The oil sands of the McMurray formation are divided into three classes on 

the basis of sieve analyses and outcrop examination. Class I: Coarse to 

medium sands; samples have a maximum grain size greater than 1 millimeter, 

a median diameter of not less than 0.13 millimeter, and more than 80 percent 

of the total weight greater than 0.07 4 millimeter in size. The deposits of 

Class I are massive crossbedded sands and conglomerates found at the base 

of the formation. Their high permeability has allowed secondary enrichment 

by migrating oil or, as in some places, leaching of all oil. Class II: Fine to 

very fine sands; samples have a maximum grain size less than 0.3 millimeter, 

a median diameter between 0.18 and 0.09 millimeter, and more than 80 percent 

of the total weight greater than 0.07 4 millimeter in size. The deposits of 

Class II are clean massive oil sands with good oil impregnation; they are 

little altered by secondary migration and are commonly found in the middle 

of the formation. Class III: Very fine sands and silts; samples have a maximum size less than 0.3 millimeter, a median diameter less than 0.12 millimeter, and less than 80 percent of the total weight greater than 0.074 

millimeter in size. The deposits of Class III are the horizontally laminated 

shaly sands found in the upper part of the formation. Because of their low 

permeability, oil impregnation is poor. The potential usefulness of the classification is illustrated by mapping the distribution of the sands of Class I of 

the McMurray formation in the subsurface near Fort Mackay and by recognizing the relationship of the coarse sands to the oil impregnation in that 

area. The sediments of the McMurray formation were deposited in fluvial, 

lacustrine, paludal, and lagoonal environments. Author's abstract modified. 

Carrigy, M. A., 1959b, General geology of the McMurray area, pt. III, in 

Geology of the McMurray formation: Research Council Alberta Mem. 1, 

130 p. 
CANADA 189 

A summary of the estimates of petroleum resources of the oil sands indicated that, in 1958, 1.67 billion barrels had been proved by intensive drilling. 

An additional 200 billion barrels is a conservative estimate of the quantity 

of oil underlying the official bituminous sands area. The official bituminous 

sands area comprises 315 townships and covers an area of 11,340 square miles. 

Author's text condensed. 

Carrigy, M. A., 1962, Effect of texture on the distribution of oil in the Athabaska oil sands, Alberta, Canada: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 32, no. 2, 

p. 312-325. 

The Athabaska oil sands consist of uncemented quartzose sand, silt, and 

clay, impregnated by extremely viscous oil. Seventy-six percent of the variation in the oil content of these sediments is related to the median diameter 

and to the percentage of clay-size material (less than 2 microns). As the 

percentage of the clay-size fraction increases, the oil content decreases; but, 

as the median diameter increases, the oil content increases. Analyses of 

variance of the two independent variables show that the percentage of claysize material is more effective than the median diameter in determining the 

amount of oil a sediment can hold. Most of the oil-rich sands in the samples 

tested had median diameters between 250 microns (2cp) and 62 microns ( 4cp) 

and were thus within the range of grain size of most sandstone reservoir 

rocks. Author's abstract condensed. 

Carrigy, M. A., 1963, Paleocurrent directions from the McMurray Formation: 

Bull. Canadian Petroleum Geology, v. 11, no. 4, p. 389-395. 

Grain-size analyses of the crossbedded sands of the McMurray Formation 

show that most of them are well-sorted sands of various grain size. The wellsorted nature of the sands suggests that they represent the load carried by a 

current of uniform velocity. The high angle of the dip, the wide variation in 

dip azimuths for the crossbeds, and the good degree of sorting of the crossbedded sands in the McMurray Formation could be indicative of a fluvial 

environment in which wide streams of low average velocity meandered across 

a gently sloping flood plain. The northerly direction of paleoslope indicated 

by the crossbedding of the McMurray Formation is very similar to that of 

the present land surface. The concept of a northward paleoslope indicates 

that a marine invasion occurred in Early Cretaceous time from the north. 

Logically, therefore, the sediments of the McMurray Formation are believed 

to have been derived from the Precambrian Shield to the southeast of the 

outcrop area and to have been deposited by a drainage system analogous to 

the Clearwater-Athabaska system that now drains the Shield area in Saskatchewan and Alberta. Author's text condensed. 

Carrigy, M. A., 1967, The physical and chemical nature of a typical tar sand. 

Bulk properties and behavior: World Petroleum Congress, Proc., 7th, 

v. 3, p. 573-604. 

The results of in-situ strength tests and confined compressive-strength 

tests on undisturbed samples show that the Athabaska tar sands behave as 

soft sandstones and that the conventional concepts of effective stress used in 

soil mechanics are applicable. Remolded tar sands have lower strengths than 

the in-situ material and, when compacted, their behavior is closely similar to 

that of manufactured bituminous-aggregate mixtures of the same composition. Author's conclusions modified. 

460-209 0 - 72 - 13 
190 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Carrigy, M. A., and Zamora, W. J., 1960, The Athabaska oil sands, in Oil 

fields of Alberta: Alberta Soc. Petroleum Geologists, Calgary, Canada, 

p. 38-49. 

Three basic geological problems pertaining to the oil sands remain unsolved: 

(1) Determining accurately the geological extent of the oil sands; (2) identifying the stratigraphic limits of the oil impregnation; and (3) accurately 

estimating the amount of oil that they hold. Enough wildcat wells have been 

drilled to permit outlining the approximate limits of the oil sands in the 

basal Cretaceous. The oil impregnation, extending from T. 103 to possibly as 

far south as T. 69 and from R. 5 toR. 25, covers an area 204 miles long and 

120 miles wide, or approximately 20,700 square miles. According to Carrigy 

(1959b) the Athabaska oil sands occupy a large structural stratigraphic trap. 

Much more drilling must be done before an accurate evaluation of the oil 

reserves of the oil sands can be made. The present estimate is 300 billion 

barrels. 

Clark, K. A., 1944, Hot-water separation of Alberta bituminous sand: Canadian Inst. Mining and Metallurgy Trans., v. 27, p. 257-274. 

There is little difficulty in recovering more than 90 percent of the oil from 

bituminous sand in a hot-water separation plant, especially if no importance 

is attached to the cleanliness of the recovered oil. It is more difficult to get 

high recovery of oil whose mineral-matter content is low. Two main processes 

are essential for clean separation of oil from bituminous sand: First, the oil 

should be displaced from the sand grains, using a minimum of water. Second, 

the oil, after displacement from the sand surfaces, should be changed into 

oil-froth form, using a minimum of air. Practical application of these processes requires that the bituminous sand be prepared for separation by heating 

and mixing with about 10-20 percent water. A pulp containing 10 percent 

water has enough air for the separation process; however, a pulp containing 

20 percent water has no air, and the right amount of air must be supplied 

as it is submerged and dispersed in hot water. The separation plants erected 

and operated so far have been satisfactory from the standpoint of oil recovery, but they have failed to produce recovered oil having a low sand content. 

Author's conclusions condensed. 

Clark, K. A., 1950, The hot-water-washing method for the recovery of oil 

from Alberta tar sands: Canadian Oil and Gas Indus., v. 3, p. 46-49. 

The bituminous sands of Alberta are particularly amenable to treatment by 

hot water. A batch of bituminous sand is placed in the steam-jacketed mixer 

along with sufficient water to give the pulp a water content of about 12 

percent. Mixing is continued for 15 minutes, and the temperature is raised 

to 185°F. The final pulp is the consistency of thin brick mortar; it will pour, 

but contains no excess water. This pulp is dumped into the feeder, which 

passes it into the stream of hot water circulating through the rest of the 

apparatus. It is promptly dispersed into sand and oil flecks that are small 

but of various sizes. All but the very small oil flecks become associated with 

water vapor or air and form oil bubbles. The sand and oil bubbles are swept 

into the separation cell, where, under comparatively quiet conditions, the sand 

sinks, and the oil floats to the surface as a froth. The formation of the 

oil froth is essential for the primary recovery of the oil; however, because 

oil bubbles float mineral matter, an excess of frothiness can actually be 
CANADA 191 

detrimental by loading the froth with sand particles. Most of the very small 

oil flecks can be recovered by a subsequent operation consisting of passing 

the suspension of clay and fine oil flecks (free of sand) through a flotation 

cell. The importance of secondary oil recovery increases as the clay content 

of the bituminous sand increases. Author's text condensed. 

Clark, K. A., 1957, Bulk densities, porosities, and liquid saturations of goodgrade Athabaska oil sands: Research Council Alberta Circ. 22, 22 p. 

It was found to be useful to divide the material making up the McMurray 

oil sand formation into three catagories: Good-grade oil sand, containing 10 

percent or more by weight of oil; shale, containing 4 percent or less of oil; 

and interbedded oil sand and shale, containing from 4 to 10 percent of oil. 

The present study is concerned only with the good-grade oil sand. The direct 

method for determining the porosity and the percent saturation with oil and 

with water is to measure the volume and the weight with a suitable sample 

of oil sand, and then to determine its contents of water, oil, and mineral 

matter. An indirect method of determining porosity is to use the sieve 

analysis of the mineral aggregate of the sample. This method is not accurate, 

but it can be made precise enough to test whether the directly determined 

porosity is reasonably accurate. Author's text condensed. 

Clark, K. A., 1960, Permeabilities of the Athabaska oil sands: Canadian 

Mining and Metall. Bull., v. 53, p. 239-244. 

The repacked mineral aggregates of good-grade oil sands have permeabilities ranging from 15 darcys to 350 millidarcys. The variation is due to 

the silt content of the aggregates. Few good-grade oil sands contain as much 

as 30 percent silt, most contain less than 20 percent, and a large proportion 

contain less than 10 percent. The permeabilities of repacked good-grade oil 

sands (oil included) depend on the degree of liquid saturation. When saturation with oil plus water reaches 80-90 percent, permeability is reduced to 

zero. As saturation decreases below 80 percent, permeability increases rapidly. 

Permeabilities of 1-2 darcys were observed for total saturation of 60-70 

percent. The mean value of 18 measurements of the permeabilities of "undisturbed" core samples of good-grade oil sands was 50 millidarcys. This value 

is probably too high. The mean value of 20 measurements in core samples of 

interbedded oil sand and shale was 100 millidarcys. The mean value for 11 

measurements on shale was 10 millidarcys. Author's abstract modified. 

Clark, K. A., and Alexander, E. L., 1951, Some laboratory results related to 

mining oil sand by block caving: Athabaska Oil Sands Conf., Proc., 

Edmonton, Canada, p. 158-161. 

Mining ore by the block method involves undercutting the ore over a 

sufficient area to cause the unsupported column to fragment and fall away. 

Oil sand should be amenable to block caving. The material is unconsolidated 

sand held together by a liquid. In its natural state of packing, and with the 

oil at the formation temperature of 36°F, the oil sand is more stable than 

one might suspect. However, it has no inherent strength, and if support is 

removed from below, it should spall and fall away. A laboratory experiment 

was made using a box 16 inches square inside and 5 feet high. It was tamped 

full of oil sand. The density of packing was 109 pounds per cubic foot as 

compared with about 120 pounds for undisturbed_ oil sand. The temperature 

was about 70°F. The bottom of the box had a central section 12 inches square 
192 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

that was removed when packing was complete. Oil sand fell out of this opening until an arch formed. Then nothing more fell away. When the oil-sand 

column was undercut to the sides of the box, caving took place, and the box 

gradually emptied itself. There was no slipping of the oil-sand column along 

the sides of the box. Authors' text condensed. 

Clark, K. A., and Blair, S. M., 1925, The bituminous sands of northern 

Alberta: Research Council Alberta Rept. 12, p. 46-65. 

In general, the bituminous sand formation consists of two main economic 

divisions- a lower and an upper. The lower division immediately overlies the 

Devonian limestone. At some places it has a thickness of 100 feet. It has a 

much higher average bitumen content than the upper division and, in general, 

has a decided cliff-forming tendency. In comparison with the upper division, 

it has few lenses of clay or lean bituminous sand. The upper division consists 

of bands of lean, rich bituminous material overlying the lower division. The 

upper division contains all the bituminous sandstone, in contradistinction to 

the bituminous sand. This sandstone is hard and compact, is partially saturated with bitumen, and occurs near the top of the bituminous sandstone. 

A few very thin partings of brown lignite coal occur in the upper division. 

There is little change in the nature of the bitumen throughout both divisions. 

It is always a heavy dark-brown viscous oil and, with few exceptions, has a 

specific gravity between 1.010 and 1.035. The sulfur content of the bitumen is 

consistently high and ranges from 4.5 to 5 percent. Water moving through 

breaks in the bituminous sands caused by recent slides bring some bitumen 

to the surface. The heat of the sun on the surface of a rich bituminous sand 

will cause a small quantity of bitumen to collect on the face of the outcrop, 

giving rise to surface enrichment. 

Clark, K. A., and Blair, S. M., 1927, The bituminous sands of Alberta: 

Research Council Alberta Rept. 18, 7 4 p. 

The bituminous sand formation is composed of a haphazard assortment of 

lenses of various material. There is a tendency for the upper beds to be 

changeable in nature and composed mostly of lean material, and for the 

thick, massive rich bituminous sand beds to occur toward the bottom of the 

formation. Generally, at least half the thickness of beds is of poor-grade 

material, and most of the good-grade material occurs near the bottom. The 

upper beds virtually constitute an overburden. One broad feature of lateral 

variability should be noted: the bitumen from the southern part of the area 

is heavier than the rest. It contains a smaller proportion of the lower boiling 

point oily constituents and yields a harder asphalt residue. The bitumen in 

the central and northern parts of the area is considerably lighter, contains 

more oil constituents, and forms a softer asphalt residue. A zone of exceptionally light soft bitumen occurs in the vicinity of the Ells River. Authors' 

conclusions condensed. 

Clark, K. A., and Pasternack, D. S., 1932, Hot-water separation of bitumen 

from Alberta bituminous sands: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, v. 24, no. 12, 

p. 1410-1416. 

A procedure is described for determining yield of bitumen in laboratoryscale hot-water separation of bituminous sand. The procedure has been used 

for examining the effects of acidity or alkalinity and the presence of various 
CANADA 193 

salts, hydroxides, and clays in bituminous sand on the efficiency of separation. It was found that acidity in the bituminous sand must be neutralized 

in a preliminary treatment before washing with hot water is effective. Calcium 

and magnesium hydroxides were found to be particularly detrimental. Clay 

affected separation adversely and, commercially, is indicated as the most 

troublesome impurity in bituminous sand. Authors' abstract modified. 

Conybeare, C. E. B., 1966, Origin of Athabaska oil sands- a review: Bull. 

Canadian Petroleum Geology, v. 14, no. 1, p. 145-163. 

Sands of the McMurray Formation were derived mainly from Precambrian 

terrain to the east. Some material was derived from the igneous-metamorphic 

shield, but much was probably derived indirectly by erosion of the sandstones 

of the Athabaska Formation. In the Fort McMurray area, the lower beds of 

the McMurray Formation were deposited in various fluviatile environments; 

the upper beds represent a flood plain developed on a widespread delta. The 

upper, predominantly horizontally bedded strata of the McMurray Formation 

are of late Barremian or Aptian age; the lower, predominantly crossbedded 

and massive strata are of Valanginian age. Erosion of Devonian carbonates 

- especially the Grosmont reef complex- before and during deposition of 

the McMurray Formation may have released large quantities of oil. Oilsaturated detritus and alluvial sands may have been reworked, and part of 

the oil may have been transported and deposited with the McMurray sediments. After the deposition of the McMurray sediments, local migration of 

original transported oil may have occurred. Subsequent introduction of great 

quantities of oil, probably largely from Cretaceous sources but possibly also 

from Devonian sources, continued for an unknown period of time. Author's 

conclusions condensed. 

Corbett, C. S., 1955, In-situ origin of McMurray oil of northeastern Alberta 

and its relevance to general problem of origin of oil: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 39, no. 8, p. 1601-1649. 

The enormous size of the McMurray oil accumulation has made it necessary 

to postulate extraordinary conditions to account for its origin. Geologic 

opinion is divided between deposition in situ and derivation from Paleozoic 

rocks below and basinward. Humic acids derived from land plants were probably the major source materia!" of the McMurray oil. Supporting this idea 

are the following factors: (1) The nature and quantity of the organic matter 

in sediments rich in such material, (2) the abundance of humic acid in the 

runoff waters of well-vegetated areas and the adequacy thereof to account for 

the oil which has been formed from post-Early Devonian source material, 

(3) the broad coincidence in the geologic time periods between the major oil 

resources and the coal resources of the earth, and ( 4) the environmental 

conditions and other factors relating to the deposition of the McMurray formation. Probable steps in the transformation to oil of the organic matter 

entering the sea in the river waters, with special reference to the McMurray 

deposit, have been (1) the formation of an asphalt-like substance, perhaps 

essentially contemporaneous with the precipitation of the organic matter by 

sea water, similar to certain occurrences of asphaltlike material in sands of 

Recent age in which waters from fresh-water swamps mingled with sea 

water, and (2) the solution in this asphaltlike material of bituminous plant 

substances (spores, pollen, resin, etc.) in the deposit. Depth of burial of the 
194 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

McMurray deposit has been insufficient to result in enough pressure or rise in 

temperature to complete the transformation to a typical crude oil, but the 

supersaturation of the sand with organic material probably had an appreciable effect in that direction. Author's abstract condensed. 

Cottrell, J. H., 1963, Development of an anhydrous process for oil-sand 

extraction in Athabaska oil sands: Research Council Alberta Inf. Ser. 

45, p. 193-206. 

This process is essentially a countercurrent solvent-extraction scheme. The 

physical makeup of the sands consists of individual grains of sand surrounded 

by a thin film of water. The water is further e~cased by bitumen, and the 

bitumen partially fills the voids between the individual grains. The problem 

of separation, therefore, is that of dispersing the solid-water particles and 

extracting with solvents the enveloping bitumen films in a water-immisciblesolvent phase. The resultant solvent-bitumen mixture can then be drained 

from the solid-water particles and the drained bed subjected to repeated 

solvent washes to displace the bitumen mixture. Author's text condensed. 

Davis, C. M., 1951, Electrovolatilization of oil in situ: Athabaska Oil Sands 

Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 141-152. 

Electrovolatilization may be defined as the vaporization of a material by 

the electrical application of heat. The material is forced to become an electrical conductor, and the passage of current through it raises its temperature. 

Generally, organic substances offer high resistance to the passage of electrical 

current, but as the impressed voltage is increased, a point is reached at which 

the resistance is broken down and the organic material becomes a good conductor. It is customary to first heat the material electrically and then complete 

the heating by a more economical means. For example, a partial combustion 

of the material, using compressed air, may be used. 

Djingheuzian, L. E., 1951, Cold-water method of separation of bitumen from 

Alberta bituminous sand: Athabaska Oil Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, 

Canada, p. 185-199. 

A flowsheet with standard ore-dressing equipment was developed which 

obtained a net recovery of 95 percent of bitumen from the Horse River sand. 

The use of soda ash is imperative. When its use was discontinued, the result 

was always a low recovery of oil, even when the pH was over 9. The optimum 

range of temperature was found to be 73°-81 oF though good recoveries were 

also obtained at as low a temperature as 70oF and as high as 83°F. The 

optimum pH required appeared to be just over 9. The mineral matter in the 

bituminous sand had to be reduced in the pebble mill from 5-7 percent minus200 mesh to 11-15 percent minus-200 mesh. Increases in clay content adversely 

affected thickness recoveries. Inasmuch as the best separation of oil in the 

classifier took place with a certain content of clay in the mill feed, there 

appears to be an optimum content which will assist in effecting the highest 

overall recoveries. Crude oil of a grade suitable for refinery treatment was 

produced consistently in a continuous process. Author's summary condensed. 

Dor, A. A., Daly, W. J., Floyd, P. H., and Hall, F. T., 1967, Technical problems 

in the processing of mined sand for oil recovery: World Petroleum Congress, Proc., 7th, v. 3, p. 615-623. 
CANADA 195 

Comprehensive testing in a field-test unit of various surface, shaft, and 

bucket drill-core samples has resulted in modifications that were incorporated 

in the basic Clark hot-water process to adapt it to the wide variety of tarsand types that will have to be treated. This has been accomplished principally by using a two-stage flow sheet, including a separation cell, in which a 

primary oil froth is extracted, and a middlings flotation circuit, in which a 

secondary oil froth is recovered from the inner fraction of sands minerals. 

The bitumen froth so obtained is a mixture of water, solids, and oil which 

can be demineralized and dehydrated in conventional centrifuges after dilution with coker naphtha. Authors' conclusions. 

Doscher, T. M., 1967, Technical problems in in-situ methods for recovery of 

bitumen from tar sands: World Petroleum Congress, Proc., 7th, v. 3, 

p. 625-632. 

The fundamentals of a number of possible production-enhancement methods 

are summarized in this paper, along with the limitations and problems associated with the methods. The techniques discussed include hydraulic or 

explosive fracturing, solution and emulsification processes, in-situ combustion, 

steam injection, oxidation and hydrogenation processes, nuclear detonation, 

and combinations of some of these processes. It is concluded that because 

of the physical nature of the Athabaska tar sand, the nature of the viscous 

crude contained therein, and the regional geological setting, possibly the 

only in-situ recovery process with commercial feasibility at this time is the 

one developed by Shell Canada, Ltd.: Selective hydraulic fracturing, or finding 

such naturally occurring communication that might exist, followed by the 

injection of emulsifying chemicals and steam. Author's text condensed. 

Doscher, T. M., Labelle, R. W., Sawatsky, L. H., and Zwicky, R. W., 1963, 

Steam drive- a process for in-situ recovery of oil from the Athabaska 

oil sands, in Athabaska oil sands: Research Council Alberta Inf. Ser. 45, 

p. 123-141. 

The Athabaska oil is so viscous that primary and secondary recovery 

methods common to the petroleum industry are not useful for producing the 

bitumen. To produce the oil without moving the sand, it is necessary to make 

the oil flow. The steam- and chemical-drive method of Shell Canada, Ltd., 

accomplishes this. The process requires that injection and production wells 

be drilled in regular patterns, such as a five-spot pattern. The wells are 

opened to the oil-sand formation, and a horizontal disklike fracture is propagated to connect the sets of injectors to the producers. Steam and aqueous 

alkaline solutions are then injected into the fracture. The oil adjacent to the 

fracture is heated and is then emulsified and driven to the producer as an 

oil-in-water emulsion. Authors' text condensed. 

Ellison, A. H., 1959, Evidence of supersaturated zones in the Athabaska oil 

sands: Jour. Alberta Soc. Petroleum Geologists, v. 7, no. 8, p. 177-178. 

The term supersaturated applied to the Lower Cretaceous McMurray oil 

sands appears to be justified. Theoretical maximum porosity of a well-sorted 

sand is about 35 percent; nonetheless, analysis of some cores taken from the 

Athabaska sand has shown porosity of more than 80 percent in pockets of 

oil containing scattered sand grains. Although the high value of 35 percent 

is frequently approached, the 80-percent-porosity pockets are relatively scarce 

and any sand grains in them are suspended in the oil. At room temperature 
196 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

the sand-free oil flows comparably to a 4o API grade oil, but at the cool 

subsurface temperature of 36°F the viscosity increases to a puttylike quality. 

In the 200 holes drilled in a 13-square-mile area, none of the Beaverhill Lake 

limestone exudes oil or is even stained, although tarry, fossiliferous limestone boulders are common in the surface drift. These facts, together with 

the high viscosity of the oil and the interbedded nature of the sands and 

clays, suggest that transportation, rather than migration, was responsible 

for the oil in the McMurray sand. However, this does not preclude the slow 

.migration of small quantities of viscous fluid from rich sands into zones of 

relatively low pressure, such as tension fissures, which may form over irregular microtopography. Author's text condensed. 

Ells, S. C., 1914, Preliminary report on the bituminous sands of northern 

Alberta: Canada Dept. Mines, Mines Branch Rept. Inv. 281, 92 p. 

Geologically, the bituminous sands represent the Cretaceous Dakota sandstones and directly, but unconformably, overlie Devonian limestones. These 

sands originally were soft sandstones and uncompacted sands; subsequent 

and fairly complete impregnation by heavy asphaltic hydrocarbons has 

resulted in the present coherent material. Overlying the bituminous sands are 

various soft Cretaceous sediments. The residual bitumen is assumed to have 

been derived from an asphaltic petroleum that possibly originated in underlying Devonian strata. Inflow has probably been horizontal, rather than an 

upwelling at many points over a large area. The Devonian strata were probably folded prior to oil impregnation of the Dakota sands. 

Ells, S. C., 1924, Bituminous sands of northern Alberta, in Investigations of 

mineral resources and the mining industry, 1923: Canada Dept. Mines, 

Mines Branch Rept. Inv. 616, p. 4-12. 

The area underlain by bituminous sands cannot be estimated at this time. 

The author examined about 270 individual outcrops, all of which are parts 

of a nearly continuous deposit. These outcrops extend along the Athabaska 

River and its principal tributaries, for a total distance of more than 200 miles. 

The northernmost exposure of apparent commercial value on the Athabaska 

River occurs in sec. 16, T. 98, R. 10. Other exposures of bituminous sand 

occur in Alberta on the Wabiskaw River, on the headwaters of Reid Creek, 

on the Muskeg River, on Buckton Creek, and on the Firebag River, and in 

Saskatchewan at Buffalo Lake. The occurrence of tar springs or seepages of 

bitumen has been recognized throughout the area. The author is familiar with 

about 40 such springs. Although none of them are of commercial value as a 

source of bitumen, they have been regarded as definite indications of the 

presence of petroleum pools. Instead of coming from below, however, the 

bitumen merely seeps laterally from slightly inclined beds of particularly 

rich coarse-grained sand. Author's text condensed. 

Ells, S. C., 1962, Recollections of the development of the Athabaska oil sands: 

Canada Dept. Energy, Mines and Resources Mines Branch Inf. Circ. 

IC-139, 114 p. 

This report is a history of the development of the McMurray district since 

the initial surveys and exploration. 

Falconer, W. L., 1951, Stratigraphy of the McMurray Formation: Athabaska 

Oil Sands Conference, Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 26-29. 
CANADA 197 

The formation containing the Athabaska oil sands is known as the McMurray. It is the basal part of the Lower Cretaceous in northeast Alberta. Its 

main lithologic characteristics are a highly quartzose nature, massive oil 

impregnation, and the ever-present coarse crossbedding. The formation is oil 

saturated in the immediate area 9f the settlement of Fort McMurray and can 

be observed in river cuts for 138 miles along the Athabaska River and for 

40 miles along the Clearwater River. The impregnation is spotty, however, 

and appears to be controlled by the grain size of the sand and its porosity, 

which, in turn, depends on its argillaceous content and the extent of cementation. Normal upward and lateral migration of low-grade residues from 

truncated pools of Devonian age are the most plausible explanations for 

impregnation of the sands. Author's text condensed. 

Fortier, Y. 0., McNair, A. H., and Thorsteinsson, R., 1954, Geology and petroleum possibilities in Canadian Arctic Islands: Am. Assoc. Petroleum 

Geologists Bull., v. 38, no. 10, p. 2075-2109. 

Surface indications of petroleum consist of abundant rocks having a petroliferous odor and asphaltic residues. Active oil and gas seeps have not been 

found. On Cornwallis Island, asphaltic residues in a basal conglomerate 

indicate an exhumed reservoir. Marine and fresh-water oil shales and lowrank coals have been identified in several widely scattered areas. Authors' 

abstract condensed. 

Gallup, W. B., 1960, Current exploratory techniques in the Athabaska bituminous sands area [Alberta]: Canadian Mining and Metallurgy Bull., 

v. 53, no. 576, p. 245-249. 

Current exploratory techniques involve a moderate amount of coring. 

Electrologs and, commonly, radioactive logs are run on most holes, and certain types of these achieved excellent qualitative analysis when backed up 

by some core analysis for calibration. Exploration is moving farther from the 

river, and a permanent network of access roads have been built during the 

last few years. Most exploration is done during winter. Some exploratory 

te~hniques are set up to go into recovery experiments where rich tar beds 

are found. There probably will be several methods of extraction, both mining 

and various in-situ techniques will be applicable, depending upon the condition. Author's abstract condensed. 

Gibbon, Anthony, 1957, Is this the answer to the Athabaska oil sands riddle?: 

World Oil, v. 145, no. 7, p. 171-177. 

Laboratory experiments carried out at the University of Texas on scale 

models of the Athabaska tar sand proved the feasibility of extracting tar by 

in-place operations. A steam-injection well pattern surrounds a producing 

well, from which the melted tar is recovered by flowing and (or) by pumping. 

The laboratory study showed the impossibility of recovering Athabaska tar 

by a single-well injection operation. Steam extraction of the tar must resort 

to steam injection from well to well in order to achieve proper steam condensation and heat transfer to the tar, thereby melting it sufficiently to drain 

and flow to a producing well. The experiment showed that about 50 percent of 

the tar in place may be recovered and at a steam ratio that would not exceed 

5 barrels of vaporized water to 1 barrel of tar. Author's text condensed. 
198 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Gold, Otto, 1967, Technical problems in the mining of tar sands: World Petroleum Congress, Proc., 7th, v. 3, p. 605-614. 

Factors which affect the selection of equipment, mine layout, and sequence 

of operations are discussed as they relate to the open-pit mining of the sands. 

These factors include the overburden-to-sand ratio, geological and hydrological conditions, and general limitations of open-pit methods. Overburden 

removal is discussed from the standpoint of overburden properties, equipment 

selection, and field operations. Tar-sand mining is reviewed with respect to 

alternate methods, selection of ore, rejection of low-grade material, the 

conveying of tar sand and disposal of tailings. Author's abstract. 

Goodspeed, F. E., and Montgomery, D. S., 1962, The determination of methyl 

and methylene groups in the oil and resin fractions of Athabaska bitumen using infrared spectroscopy: Canada Dept. Energy, Mines and 

Resources Mines Br. Research Rept. R98, 25 p. 

A method of determining the methyl and methylene carbon present in the 

oil and resin fractions from the Athabaska bitumen, using infrared absorption 

spectra, is discussed. Absorption bands in the 3- and 7 -micron regions are 

used, and data on pure compounds serve as a basis for quantitative estimates 

of these groups. Estimates obtained for the oil fractions were supported by 

the agreement of the total hydrogen content of the fractions that was obtained from the ultimate analysis with the hydrogen content predicted by this 

method. Authors' abstract. 

Government of Alberta, 1951, Guide to the Alberta oil-sand area along the 

Athabaska River between McMurray and Bitumount: Board of Trustees, 

Oil Sands Project, Edmonton, Alberta, p. 1-18. 

The bituminous sand deposit, in the area of outcrops along the Athabaska 

River, has a thickness of about 200 feet. It occurs in the Lower Cretaceous 

McMurray formation. It is composed of beds of unconsolidated sand, silt, and 

clay impregnated to various degrees with a viscous asphaltic oil. Bituminous 

sand, as mined with less than 20 percent fine material, generally contains 

10-17 percent oil by weight and 2-8 percent water. The specific gravity of the 

bitumen at 25° /25°C ranges from 1.002 to 1.027. Author's text condensed. 

Gussow, W. C., 1941, Northern Alberta oil sands, in Possible future oil provinces in Western Canada: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 25, 

no. 8, p. 1447-1456. 

The oil sands of northern Alberta occur in the McMurray formation, correlated as basal Lower Cretaceous. They lie without angular unconformity on a 

floor of base-leveled Devonian. They are of continental origin and appear to 

be a great delta swept off the Precambrian shield into the margins of an 

Early Cretaceous sea. The oil is a heavy, viscous, tarry crude. Formed and 

remaining in rocks that have little or no dynamic activity- and thus having 

escaped the pressures and heat to which oils in folded rocks have been subjected- it is obviously a virgin oil that has been converted only slightly 

beyond the asphalt stage. When subjected to moderate heat for a reasonable 

period, the whole oil changes from 10° API to 20°-22° API without forming 

free carbon. The oil is not a pore-space filling in the sand, but a film enveloping each sand grain. It is the sole cementing material of the sand; its removal 

leaves the sand as free as that on a beach. To recover the oil the sand must 
CANADA 199 

be mined and the oil distilled, dissolved out, or washed out with hot water. 

The hot-water method is the most practicable and economical, and is the one 

now in use commercially. More than 99 percent of the deposit is too deeply 

buried for mining under present-day conditions. The only workable deposits 

are the benches along the valley walls of Athabaska River and some of its 

tributaries, where the streams have cut through the overlying beds and into 

or through the oil sands. The minable benches are estimated to contain 500 

million to 1 billion barrels of oil. Author's text condensed. 

Gussow, W. C., 1956, Athabaska bituminous sands, in Symposium Sobre 

Yacimientos de Petroleo y Gas, v. 3: International Geol. Congress, 20th, 

Mexico, p. 68-70. 

The McMurray formation is characterized by crossbedding and considerable 

variation in grain size. It is composed of lenticular sands, silts, and clay and 

contains occasional tree trunks and lignitic beds. It varies considerably in 

thickness and has a maximum known thickness of 180-200 feet near McMurray. The Athabaska bituminous sands contain a heavy black, viscous, asphaltic crude having an API gravity of about 10°. Its sulfur content ranges 

up to 5 percent. Published estimates of reserves for these deposits range 

from 100 billion barrels of crude to 500 billion barrels. These sands are 

postulated to be a gigantic stratigraphic-trap accumulation. Author's text 

condensed. 

Haliburton, James, 1947, Liquid diffusion in porous media, with specific reference to the Athabaska tar sands: British Columbia Univ. unpub. M.S. 

thesis, Vancouver, 19 p. 

In chemical engineering, a large number of unit processes depend on the 

diffusion of material through fluid films. Some of these operations are drying, 

rectification, gas absorption, extraction, and crystallization. This paper discusses the theoretical basis of diffusion with special reference to diffusion 

through a porous body, and discusses experimental methods of solvent extraction of bitumen from the tar sands of the Athabaska deposits. According to 

the diffusion theory presented, the mechanism involved in the extraction of 

the tar sand by benzene is one of true molecular diffusion. The diffusion constant was found to be D = 2.39 X 10-5/ft2/hr. Author's text condensed. 

Hardy, R. M., and Hemstock, R. A., 1963, Shearing strength characteristics 

of Athabaska oil sands, in Athabaska oil sands: Research Council Alberta 

lnf. Ser. 45, p. 109-122. 

Measurement of the shearing strength of cores showed that on release of 

stress, gas comes out of solution in the oil phase. Gas pressure in the pores 

increases with increasing temperature of the oil sand, and the oil phase, owing 

to its high viscosity, has the effect of delaying the dissipation of the gas 

pressure. Strength lost because of gas pressure is largely recovered if the 

gas pressure is dissipated. Under in-situ conditions, the oil sands tested had 

strength deformation characteristics consistent with those of a dense sandstone. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Hitchon, Brian, 1963, Composition and movement of formation fluids in strata 

above and below the pre-Cretaceous unconformity in relation to the 

Athabaska oil sands, in Athabaska oil sands: Research Council Alberta 

Inf. Ser. 45, p. 63-74. 
200 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

A high degree of correlation exists between the composition of formation 

fluids from strata above and below the pre-Cretaceous unconformity in 

Alberta. Potentiometric surface maps indicate that there is a free-fluid connection across the unconformity and that the formation-fluid movement close 

to the unconformity is northeastward and in the strata having the highest 

permeability. According to a study of the crude oil composition, the position 

of the lower Cretaceous oil sand deposits on the broad continental shelf, 

which covered nearly all of Alberta in Early Cretaceous time, is reflected in 

the asphaltic nature of the crude oils. These factors are consistent with a 

major Cretaceous source for the oil in the Athabaska oil sands, with a possible additional source in the pre-Cretaceous rocks. Author's abstract condensed. 

Hitchon, Brian, Round, G. F., Charles, M. E., and Hodgson, G. W., 1961, 

Effect of regional variations of crude oil and reservoir characteristics on 

in-situ combu'stion and miscible-phase recovery of oil in Western Canada: 

Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 45, no. 3, p. 281-314. 

Of the more than 20 billion barrels (exclusive of the crude oil in the 

McMurray formation) of original in-place crude oil discovered in Western 

Canada to date, it is expected that about 4.75 billion barrels will be produced 

by primary methods and water flooding. Secondary recovery methods, such 

as in-situ combustion and miscible-phase flooding, could result in the production of an additional 8 billion barrels. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Hitchon, Brian, and Shaw, D. R., 1960, Regional variations in the properties 

of formation fluids in Alberta, in Oil fields of Alberta: Alberta Soc. 

Petroleum Geologists, Calgary, Canada, p. 27-38. 

The following broad generalizations may be made concerning the regional 

variations of the physical and chemical attributes of formation fluids in 

Alberta. The subcrop margins and Sweetgrass Arch region are characterized 

by crude oils with gravities generally heavier than 30° API and by relatively 

methane-rich low-ethane-plus moderate nitrogen, and low or absent hydrogen 

sulfide and carbon dioxide containing natural gases. The associated formation 

waters commonly contain less than 35,000 mg/1 total dissolved solids and in 

places less than 10,000 mg/1 dissolved solids. 

Hodgson, G. W., 1954, Vanadium, nickel, and iron trace metals in crude oils of 

Western Canada: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 38, no. 12, 

p. 2537-2554. 

Typical crude oils from western Canada produced from host rocks ranging 

in age from Upper Devonian to Upper Cretaceous were examined for the 

occurrence of vanadium, nickel, and iron trace metals. The concentration of 

the metals, believed to have been closely associated with the oils since genesis, 

varied inversely with the API gravity of the oils. The concentration of the 

three metals in the oils varies from 0.04 to about 600 parts per million. 

In general, the vanadium-containing organic molecule appears to be less 

stable than the nickel-containing molecule, resulting in a net lowering of the 

vanadium-to-nickel ratio of the oils as the apparent age becomes older. In 

detail, some of the trace-metal results appear to add to knowledge. about the 

time and mode of migration and accumulation of crude oils in Western 

Canada. Author's abstract condensed. 
CANADA 201 

Hodgson, G. W., and Baker, B. L., 1959, Geochemical aspects of petroleum 

migration in Pembina, Redwater, Jaffre, and Lloydminster oil fields of 

Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 

Bull., v. 43, no. 2, p. 311-328. 

The chemical character of the crude oils produced throughout four major 

fields and several minor fields in Western Canada was studied. The variations 

in nickel and vanadium content appear systematic and are undoubtedly a key 

to accumulation history of the oils. The metal variations run parallel to 

variations in sulfur, resins, and asphaltene content of the oil, as well as to 

the gravity, and are sensitive indicators of crude-oil alteration. In the Pembina field, the magnitude of the variations from point to point in the field is 

very large, about tenfold for the metals. Much smaller variations are noted 

for the other fields; this may be a result of the smaller size of these fields. 

If the data are interpreted in light of probable adsorption alteration during 

accumulation and probable source conditions, the Pembina-Cardium oil apparently accumulated in the Cardium sands in a direction away from the 

present updip edge at the northeast; the Redwater oil, from downdip toward 

the south; the Viking Jaffre oil, from downdip at the southwest; and the 

Lloydminster oil pool, from very local source rocks. Authors' text condensed. 

Hodgson, G. W., Matchen, Ben, Peterson, W. S., and Gishler, P. E., 1952, Oil 

from Alberta bitumen- Simultaneous dehydration and coking, using 

fluidized solids: Indus. and Eng. Chemistry, v. 44, p. 1492-1496. 

Two general methods of recovering oil from the mined sand are well known. 

One is a direct distillation of oil from the sand in a fluidized bed to produce 

a clean dry coker distillate in a single operation. The other method makes 

use of water, either hot or cold, as a partition agent for separating the oil 

from the sand in a flotation step. The water-separation processes reject the 

bulk of the sand and produce an unaltered crude oil containing a considerable 

amount of emulsified water. Hot-water separation yields a product of 64 

percent oil, 32 percent water, and 4 percent solids. This paper describes a 

variation of the flotation method, whereby removal of water and solids from 

the crude oil produces a suitable crude feedstock for a refinery. It involves 

feeding the wet crude oil produced by water separation directly to a fluidized 

sand bed maintained at about 500°C. Simultaneous dehydration and coking 

yield a clean dry oil, the properties of which differ markedly from those of 

the oil in the charging stock. Authors' text condensed. 

Hodgson, G. W., Peake, Eric, and Baker, B. L., 1963, The origin of petroleum 

porphyrins: The position of the Athabaska oil sands, in Athabaska oil 

sands: Research Council Alberta Inf. Ser. 45, p. 75-100. 

The Athabaska oil sands contain a crude oil similar in metal-porphyrin 

content to other high-sulfur oils. It has a predominance of vanadyl-porphyrin 

pigments over nickel pigments, and though the bulk of the porphyrin material 

is decarboxylated, a small quantity exists as free acids, and some as organic 

esters. These pigments were examined and compared with those in conventional crude oils, other oil sands, and related source environments. Conventional crude oil shows a trend toward dominance of the nickel porphyrins 

with increasing API gravity and decreasing sulfur. Examination of the pigments in ancient sediments show the presence of porphyrin pigments, and 

recent sediments show the presence of chlorin pigments in addition to por-
202 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

phyrins. The younger the sediments, the more dominant the chlorin pigments. 

Nickel complexes of porphyrins were found in open-sea marine sediments, but 

were overshadowed by vanadyl porphyrins in sediments in a restricted marine 

bay. Metal chlorins are common in recent sediments, in ground water, and 

in plants. Coal, peat, and oxidized marine shales showed extensive degradation of pigment. Precambrian rocks are evidently devoid of porphyrin pigments. The Athabaska oil is apparently typical of a source region of restricted 

circulation that is marked by high rates of deposition and strong reducing 

potentials. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Hopper, D. A., 1945, Liquid diffusion in porous media, referring in particular 

to the Athabaska tar sands: British Columbia Univ. unpub. M.S. thesis, 

Vancouver, 18 p. 

The mechanism of diffusion in porous solids has been applied to the Athabaska tar sands. At present, the tar sands are being worked on a limited 

scale. Following open-pit mining of the tar sand, the asphalt is separated 

from the sand by agitation with hot water and then cracked to produce gasoline and lowered-viscosity residual fuel or asphalt. An alternative recovery 

method might be the solvent extraction of the sands in situ, lifting the 

asphalt solution to the surface by a conventional oil-field water drive. Such a 

method might find application in selected regions of the field where the 

underlying formations would minimize solvent losses. Judging from this 

experiment, extraction of Athabaska tar sand in carbon tetrachloride probably proceeds by molecular diffusion. Author's text condensed. 

Hoskins, A. D., 1964, How hydrogen will be used to upgrade Athabaska tar 

to sweet crude oil: Oil and Gas Jour., v. 62, no. 20, p. 122-124. 

Shell Canada, Ltd., proposes to upgrade 130,000 barrels per day of Athabaska tar to 100,000 barrels per day of 33° API sweet crude oil. The tar will 

be extracted in situ from the tar sands and will arrive at the processing plant 

emulsified with 70 percent water. There, the tar will be dehydrated and fed 

to a thermal-cracking unit, the first step in the upgrading process. The heavy 

residual oil will be removed for fuel, and the total liquid distillate accumulated 

in a naphtha and light gas-oil fraction and a heavy gas-oil fraction. Following 

severe hydrotreating in two separate trickle-phase hydrotreaters to remove 

sulfur, nitrogen, etc., the fractions are combined to form 33o API sweet crude 

oil. Author's abstract condensed. 

Hurne, G. S., 1933, Oil and gas in Western Canada, Chapter 7: Canada Geol. 

Survey Econ. Geology Rept. 5, p. 229-254. 

The McMurray formation (Lower Cretaceous), composed of massive and 

crossbedded sandstones, is considerably impregnated with bitumen. The bitumen content varies from place to place and even in different layers of the 

same exposure. The richest parts contain more than 20 percent bitumen, but 

the average bitumen content is considerably less. The McMurray is at least 

partly a deltaic deposit. The contact of the Devonian limestone with the 

overlying McMurray formation is an erosion surface, and many of the cracks 

and joints in the limestone are filled with bitumen. This has been interpreted 

as indicating that the bitumen came from below, but it seems more reasonable to assume that the cracks and joints were filled by seepage from above. 

The limestone as a whole is dense, white, and free from bitumen. It is difficult 
CANADA 203 

to understand how such a great migration of oil could occur unless it was 

along fissures. Because indications of oil occur in Lower Cretaceous strata in 

Wainwright and other areas, the author assumes that the bitumen in the 

bituminous sands originated in the Lower Cretaceous strata, part of which 

is McMurray strata, and that any bitumen now filling cracks and joints in 

the upper part of the Devonian limestones has resulted from downward (or 

gravitational) seepage. The Lower Cretaceous strata must therefore have 

been capable of forming a very large amount of petroleum, and the bituminous sands are the residue left after evaporation of the lighter oil constituents at the outcrop, where the oxidation of, and changes in, the oil have 

resulted from contact with sulfate waters, etc. Author's text condensed. 

Hume, G. S., 1944, Athabaska bituminous sands, in Petroleum geology of 

Canada: Canada Geol. Survey Econ. Geology Rept. 14, p. 30-34. 

In northern Alberta, 300 miles north of Edmonton, an area of bituminous 

sands in the Lower Cretaceous McMurray formation rests directly on Devonian limestones. The center of the area is at Fort McMurray on the 

Athabaska River, but the sands crop out along the river for 42 miles north 

of Fort McMurray and for 76 miles south of it and on tributary streams. 

The McMurray formation has a thickness of 110 to 180 feet, and as shown 

by large-scale crossbedding, is deltaic. The oil in the Fort McMurray deposit 

may have been derived from the edge of the delta, and, if so, the distance 

of migration would have been small. Drilling exploration to find the grade 

of the bituminous sands in several localities seems to show that the deposits 

are richer close to the outcrops than they are at some distance from them. 

This, if true, partially invalidates the estimates of tremendous volumes of 

oil content in the bituminous sands. There is a suggestion, also, that the 

richer areas of bituminous sands occur in the synclines of the undulating 

surface. At the Abasand location the bitumen content is 15 percent, or 0.9 

barrel per ton of bituminous sand. In some areas (but perhaps not all), the 

lower beds of the bituminous sands are known to be richer than the upper 

beds. These facts suggest some migration, but none of the evidence is conclusive. Author's text condensed. 

Hume, G. S., 1947a, Results and significance of drilling operations in the 

Athabaska bituminous sands: Canadian Inst. Mining and Metallurgy 

Trans., v. 50, p. 298-324. 

The bituminous sands in the Steepbank area, about 22 miles north of Fort 

McMurray was found, from previous investigations, to be reasonably rich in 

bitumen and to have relatively light overburden. The present study shows 

that the bituminous sands vary considerably both in richness and in the 

amount of interstratified clay. In the 520-acre area there is an estimated 

167 million tons of bituminous sands having an average grade of 12.96 percent bitumen by weight. The Horse River area is not considered to be satisfactory for large-scale operations; however, drilling was done to determine 

the size and value of the deposit within a reasonable distance of the plant. 

Immediately adjoining the plant is an estimated 500,000 tons or more of 

bituminous sands containing an average of 15.5-16.3 percent bitumen by 

weight. Eighteen holes were drilled in the east Steepbank area, and two 

reasonably good deposits were outlined. The west deposit, investigated by 

15 holes, was calculated to contain 38 million tons of bituminous sands having 

an average grade of 12.3 percent bitumen in 92 acres. The ratio of the thick-
204 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

ness of bituminous sand to the thickness of overburden there was calculated 

as 1.8 : 1. The less well defined east deposit is inferred to contain 20 million 

tons of sands containing 13.5 percent bitumen in 43 acres. Its ratio of thickness of bituminous sands to the thickness of overburden is 1.5 : 1. Author's 

text condensed. 

Hume, G. S., 1947b, Mildred-Ruth Lakes area, in Results and significance of 

drilling operations in the Athabaska bituminous sands: Canadian Inst. 

Mining and Metallurgy Trans., v. 50, p. 298-324 [p. 300-302]. 

This area is on the west bank of the Athabaska River opposite the mouth 

of Steepbank River, about 22 miles north of Fort McMurray. The bitumen 

beds in the McMurray formation are interstratified with the bituminous 

sands. It is hardly conceivable that the bitumen could have been forced in 

between the sands after they were deposited; therefore, the bitumen beds are 

believd to be part of the succession of deposition. The average bitumen content probably exceeds 15 percent. Author's text condensed. 

Hume, G. S., 1951, Possible Lower Cretaceous origin of bitumen in bituminous 

sands of Alberta: Athabaska Oil Sands Conference, Proc., Edmonton, 

Canada, p. 66-75. 

The evidence appears to favor contemporaneous deposition of the bitumen 

with the McMurray formation of Early Cretaceous age. The McMurray is 

apparently a deltaic or alluvial-plain or fan deposit. At least the late stages 

of deposition were associated with the presence of a sea with a strandline 

along which oil formation could occur. The presence of Early Cretaceous 

fields containing heavy oil in east-central Alberta, western Saskatchewan, 

and elsewhere suggests a common origin for all the bitumens of the bituminous sands, inasmuch as all occurrences are known to be associated with 

near-shore conditions giving alternation of marine beds interstratified with 

nonmarine sediments of Early Cretaceous age. Author's text condensed. 

Huntley, L. G., 1916, Oil, gas, and water content of Dakota sand in Canada 

and [the] United States: Am. Inst. Mining Engineers Trans., v. 52, 

p. 329-352. 

Where the Dakota sandstone (Cretaceous) crops out along the Athabaska 

River, from Crooked Rapids to Fort McKay, and in the tributary streams on 

either side, it is saturated with inspissated petroleum or "tar." This tarsaturated sand continues up the Clearwater River eastward and is also 

reported in the vicinity of Buffalo Lake, across the line in Saskatchewan. 

A large lake of this tar has also been reported between the Athabaska and 

Peace Rivers, and its tar probably exudes from the Dakota a few feet below 

the surface. A small amount of dry sulfurous "tar" also comes along with 

the gas from the old government well at Pelican Rapids. Author's text condensed. 

Innes, E. D., 1967, Canada's first commercial tar-sand development: World 

Petroleum Congress, Proc., 7th, v. 3, p. 633-650. 

The first commercial-scale effort to exploit the Athabaska tar sands is 

nearing completion and is expected to start operation in early summer of 

1967. A geological evaluation was conducted to define the size and shape of 

the deposit and the variations in the important prop~rties. A research and 
CANADA 205 

development program was conducted to determine the optimum process for 

separating bitumen from the sand. Commercially, the tar sand is mined by 

open-pit methods and conveyed to the extraction plant, where the bitumen is 

separated from the sand by means of hot-water separation. The bitumen is 

coked, and the coker distillates are hydrogen ·treated to produce- when 

recombined- a low-viscosity low-pour-point synthetic crude oil that is low 

in sulfur, nitrogen, and aromatics content. The plant is designed to produce 

45,000 barrels of petroleum per calendar day of product. Author's abstract. 

Kidd, F. A., 1951, Geology of the bituminous sand deposits of the McMurray 

area, Alberta: Athabaska Oil Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, 

p. 30-38. 

The McMurray is Lower Cretaceous, equivalent to the lower part of the 

Blairmore formation of the foothills. Throughout the McMurray district, the 

McMurray formation unconformably overlies rocks of known Devonian age. 

Except for its differences in bitumen content, the formation everywhere 

exhibits the same or similar variations in lithology, and, although no two 

exposures are the same, their variations are consistent in type. It has been 

generally accepted that the McMurray formation represents a deltaic deposit, 

whose sediment source was the Precambrian area to the north and east. The 

author suggests that, rather than being deltaic, the formation represents a 

broad flood plain or coastal lowland deposit and that an Early Cretaceous 

sea lay some distance to the west. Outcrops of the McMurray formation occur 

intermittently along the Athabaska River for approximately 100 river miles. 

Along the Clearwater River, main tributary to the Athabaska, the formation 

extends into Saskatchewan; however, it is not impregnated with bitumen 

north of T. 89, R. 5 W., 4th meridian. The area of McMurray formation 

impregnated by bitumen is almost 3,000 square miles, where the thinnest 

section known is more than 100 feet thick. If it were not for the binding and 

cementing effect of the heavy bitumen, the greater part of the McMurray 

formation would be practically nonindurated and unconsolidated. Author's 

text condensed. 

Kinney, G. T., 1963, Black oil may challenge Athabaska: Oil and Gas Jour., 

v. 61, no. 50, p. 54-55. 

Heavy-crude oil reserves outside the Athabaska deposits cover 2,250,000 

acres, from which recovery operations could yield an estimated 35 billion 

barrels of upgraded synthetic-crude oil. The Athabaska deposits cover some 

5, 750,000 acres and contains 626 billion barrels of oil in place; of this, 369 

billion barrels are recoverable. The other deposits have 85 billion barrels of 

oil in place, of which 47 billion barrels are recoverable. The Athabaska 

deposits consist of grains of sand imbedded in almost solid masses of hydrocarbons. The other deposits- especially those in the Peace River area -occur 

as hydrocarbons in a rock matrix. The three major deposits- Athabaska, 

Bluesky-Gething, and Grand Rapids- occupy some 8 million acres, or almost 

5 percent of the entire province. Each deposit occurs in different units of the 

Lower Cretaceous rocks. Author's text condensed. 

Kleinpell, R. M., 1932, Occurrence of bitumen in Queen Charlotte Islands, 

British Columbia: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 16, no. 8, 

p. 797-798. 

460-209 0 - 72 - 14 
206 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

At Tian Head, on the west coast of Graham Island (about lat 53°45' N., 

long 133° W.), tar and thick black oil exude from a white crystalline calcite 

vein or lentil, 2-4 inches thick, in metamorphosed green siltstone and sandstone. These rocks dip gently northwest and underlie a horizontal thick sheet 

of late Tertiary columnar basalt. The bituminous calcite crops out as a vein 

a few yards long. Similar occurrences of bitumen occur in amygdules, 2-3 

inches in diameter, in the metamorphic rocks and along fracture planes in 

the nearby basalt, from which the bitumen is separated by quartz and chalcedony bands. Author's text condensed. 

Krieble, V. K., and Seyer, W. F., 1921, A chemical investigation of the asphalt 

in the tar sands of northern Alberta: Am. Chern. Soc. Jour., v. 43, pt. 1, 

p. 1337-1349. 

The asphalt from the Alberta tar sands was analyzed by the Marcusson 

method and compared with the Trinidad and Bermudez asphalts. A laboratory 

method was devised to extract the hydrocarbon oil from the asphalts on a 

sufficiently large scale for fractional distillation. It is the only extraction 

method so far devised which produces oils identical to those in the original 

asphalt. The results show that heavy hydrocarbon oils can be distilled at 

temperatures up to at least 300° without the aid of carbon dioxide, provided 

the temperature is kept low enough. Thirteen apparently pure hydrocarbons 

were isolated and their physical properties studied. They belong to the 

CnHz,., CnHzn-2, and C,.Hz,.-4 series. Authors' summary condensed. 

Kupsch, W. 0., 1954, Bituminous sands in till of Peter Pond Lake area, 

Saskatchewan: Saskatchewan Dept. Mineral Resources Rept. 12, 35 p. 

The Peter Pond Lake area is in west-central Saskatchewan near Buffalo 

Narrows. The bituminous sands occur on both sides of "The Narrows" between what is locally called Big Buffalo Lake (or Beef Lake) and Little 

Buffalo Lake, together called Peter Pond Lake. The bituminous sands are 

exposed in trenches in the glacial drift on Willow Point and on Fleury Point. 

The sands are physically similar to samples collected from the bituminous 

facies of the McMurray formation in Alberta. These sands are blocks of 

"Athabaska tar sand" transported bodily by the glacier ice. The only source 

of the fragments of "Athabaska tar sand" is to the northwest; thus, ice 

movement from that direction has to be assumed. This is substantiated by 

the occurrence at Buffalo Narrows and Ile-a-la-Crosse of bituminous and 

nonbituminous dolomite erratics with Devonian fossils. The only possible 

source for these erratics is also north-northwest of Peter Pond Lake. The 

evidence presented by the "indicators" in the till of Peter Pond Lake apparently conflicts with that of the deposits on the Precambrian Shield. Ice movement from the northwest is assumed to have occurred at a different time 

during the Pleistocene from that of the ice movement from the northwest. 

Author's text condensed. 

Larson, V. C., Peterson, R. B., and Lacey, J. W., 1967, Technology's role in 

Alberta's Golden Spike miscible project: World Petroleum Congress, 

Proc., 7th, v. 3, p. 533-544. 

Technology has been an important factor in making possible the Golden 

Spike project, where a gravity-controlled gas-driven miscible bank is expected 

to recover 95 percent of the 320 million barrels of oil in place. Almost since 
CANADA 207 

discovery, the Golden Spike reservoir- a Devonian pinnacle reef of limited 

areal extent- has been known to be susceptible to miscible displacement. 

Field application of the Golden Spike project required both advanced technology and a satisfactory means of obtaining the vast quantities of solvent 

required. The miscible bank is generated by stripping light petroleum gas 

from the reservoir oil, which is cycled through the surface facilities and 

returned to the reservoir. Technology's part included studies to resolve bank 

placement, size, and composition and to overcome well plugging resulting 

from injecting the stripped crude. A two-dimensional analysis on a digital 

computer showed that the solvent, inserted between the gas cap and the oil 

column, would blanket the oil in a little more than 2 years. Plugging of the 

injection wells is avoided by heating the stripped crude. Authors' abstract 

modified. 

Link, T. A., 1932, Oil seepages in Belt Series of Rocky Mountains near international boundary: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 16, no. 8, 

p. 786-796. 

The oil seepages in the Precambrian rocks of the Lewis and Clarke Ranges 

may have originated in upper Paleozoic (Devonian or Carboniferous), Jurassic, or, in part, in Colorado (Late Cretaceous) shale source beds. Upper 

Paleozoic porous limestones or dolomites may be the reservoir rock or may 

have acted as "carrier beds." Migration from these beds to the surface may 

have occurred along major overthrust and underthrust faults or fractures 

within the Precambrian rocks. These faults and fractures seem to be the 

determining structural condition. Author's conclusions condensed. 

Link, T. A., 1951, Source of oil in "tar sands" of Athabaska River, Alberta, 

Canada: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 35, no. 4, p. 854-864. 

The Lower Cretaceous "tar sands" of the Athabaska, or "McMurray bituminous sands," in northeastern Alberta, Canada, are believed to have derived 

their bituminous content from the underlying Upper Devonian coral-reef 

reservoirs which came in contact and near contact with the overlying sands 

at the unconformity between Lower Cretaceous and the Devonian. The white 

quartz sands were supplied from the Precambrian "Athabaska sandstone" 

lying at the northeast on the Canadian Shield, and it was suggested that the 

escape of oil and gas through fissures and fractures from the Devonian reservoirs into the "tar sands" occurred primarily during, but also possibly after, 

the deposition of the Cretaceous "tar sands." The Lower Cretaceous heavy 

oil of Lloydminster, Alberta, is also believed to have had a similar history. 

Author's abstract modified. 

Lowell, P. F., Reif, H. E., Burk, R. 0., Hertel, P. H., and Abbott, B. T., 1966, 

Sun building plant designed to recover first commercial tar-sands crude: 

Oil and Gas Jour., v. 64, no. 33, p. 66-72. 

The crude, produced by Great Canadian Oil Sands, Ltd., will be desulfurized 

light synthetic material obtained by processing the heavy bitumen contained 

in the tar sands. The unique properties of this feedstock make it especially 

useful in refining operations. The light sweet crude will have a low pour 

point, low sulfur content, and no bottoms. Studies show that maximum value 

will be realized from the synthetic material when it is processed in blend 

with conventional crudes. Authors' text condensed. 
208 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

McConnell, R. G., 1893, Report on a portion of the district of Athabaska, 

comprising the country between Peace River and Athabaska River, north 

of Lesser Slave Lake: Canada Geol. Survey Ann. Rept., v. 5, part 1, 

Rept. D, 1890-91, 62 p. 

The tar sands must have originally consisted of almost unconsolidated 

sands and soft sandstone, ranging in texture from a fine silt to a coars~ grit, 

but they have since been cemented into a tarry mass, 200 feet thick, by the 

heavy constituents of the oils that have welled up during the past, in almost 

inconceivable quantities, from the underlying Devonian limestones. Downstream along the Athabaska River, the tar sands thicken from 140 feet at 

Crooked Rapid to 200 feet at the forks. The tar sands hold in place lenticular 

beds of limestone, lignite seams 2-3 feet thick, and fragments of fossil wood. 

They vary in color according to the quantity of tar they contain, from a gray 

to dark brown to jet black. Where the sands are heavily saturated, streams 

of tar issue from the banks during the heat of summer and form pools at the 

bases of the escarpments. These sands have been assigned to the Dakota 

(Cretaceous) entirely on lithological and stratigraphic evidence. No fossils 

were obtained from them. They rest on Devonian limestones and occur in the 

same position as the sands of Dakota, which crop out along the east edge of 

the Cretaceous in Manitoba and to the south in Minnesota. Indications of oil 

are also found on the Peace River and at Lesser Slave Lake, where inspissated 

bitumen occurs in a number of places as lining of cracks in nodules. At Tar 

Island in the Peace River, small quantities of tar are brought to the surface 

by a spring. Author's text condensed. 

Mellon, G. B., 1956, Heavy minerals of the McMurray formation, in Geology 

of the McMurray formation: Research Council Alberta Rept. 72, p. 30-43. 

The McMurray formation consists of loosely consolidated quartzose sands 

held together by bitumen. The sands of the McMurray consist of 90-95 percent quartz and minor amounts of orthoclase, muscovite, and heavy minerals. 

The heavy-mineral assemblage of the McMurray formation can be divided 

into two groups: (1) First-cycle minerals, derived from an igneous-metamorphic terrane. This group includes all staurolite, kyanite, chloritoid, garnet 

and apatite, and approximately two-thirds of the tourmaline and zircon. The 

first four minerals are metamorphic, whereas the apatite, zircon, and most 

of the tourmaline indicate an igneous source. (2) Second-cycle minerals, 

derived from preexisting sedimentary rocks. This group includes about onethird of the tourmaline and zircon, and possibly some rutile. The sediments 

of the McMurray formation constitute a petrologic unit. The formation was 

emplaced as a submerging delta. Source of the sediment was to the east 

from a well-weathered area of low relief underlain by igneous, metamorphic, 

and sedimentary rocks- that is, the Canadian Shield. Author's text condensed. 

Mellon, G. B., and Wall, J. H., 1956, Foraminifera of the upper McMurray 

and basal Clearwater formations, in Geology of the McMurray formation: 

Research Council Alberta Rept. 72, p. 1-29. 

Fifteen species and subspecies of foraminifera, of which 12 are new, from 

the upper part of the McMurray formation and the basal part of the Clearwater formation in the lower Athabaska River area of northeastern Alberta 

are figured and described. These faunas are correlated with foraminiferal 

assemblages from the Cummings member of the Mannville formation of east-
CANADA 209 

central Alberta and from the upper part of the Loon River formation of the 

Peace River area of northwestern Alberta. The suites are dated Middle 

Albian in age (late Early Cretaceous). Environment of deposition appears to 

have been brackish lagoonal and shallow marine. Author's abstract. 

Montgomery, D. S., 1951, On the origin of the Athabaska oil: Athabaska Oil 

Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 76-87. 

In density, the Abasand bitumen differs markedly from a typical Devonian 

crude, whereas its density is remarkably similar to the Cretaceous crude oils 

of Canada. The molecular-weight distribution, as indicated by the distribution 

range and the specific gravity of the distilled 250°-275°C cut, suggests very 

strongly that the Alberta bitumen belongs to the class of oils that formed 

during Cretaceous time. The conclusions drawn in this work refer strictly to 

the bitumen of the Abasand quarry. Caution should be exercised in extending 

these conclusions to the entire bituminous sand area, which is said to underlie 

30,000 square miles. Author's text condensed. 

Nagy, B., and Gagnon, G. C., 1961, Elution and spectroscopic analysis of the 

petroleum from the vicinity of McMurray, Alberta, in The geochemistry 

of the Athabaska petroleum deposit: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 23, 

p. 155-185. 

The sandstone and shale beds of the McMurray formation are impregnated 

with a semisolid petroleum. The Athabaska deposit is the largest known 

petroleum deposit in the world. Sandstone samples from the bottom of the 

Abasand quarry, near McMurray, yielded 16.5 percent organic matter upon 

extractiqn with methylene chloride at room temperature. The extract contained approximately 22 percent asphaltenes and was abundant in residuum 

upon distillation to 350°C at atmospheric pressure. Mass spectrometric analyses of the n-heptane, benzene, and pyridine eluate fractions led to the 

identification of the following hydrocarbon constituents: Paraffins, naphthenes, alkylbenzenes, cycloalkyl benzenes, naphthalenes, and phenanthrenes. 

The following nonhydrocarbon components may also be present: Pyridines, 

carbazoles, benzothiophenes, and thiophenophenanthrenes. The organic material in the McMurray formation is a petroleum. Authors' summary condensed. 

Natland, M. L., 1963, Project Oilsand, in Athabaska oil sands: Research 

Council Alberta lnf. Ser. 45, p. 143-155. 

Project Oilsand is a proposed experiment in the peaceful use of nuclear 

energy as an aid in producing oil from the McMurray oil sands buried too 

deeply to permit economic extraction by mining methods. A 9-kiloton nuclear 

device would be detonated 20 feet below the McMurray oil sand, at a depth 

of 1,250 feet. The proposed test site is in a remote undeveloped area about 

64 miles south of Fort McMurray. The contained explosion will create a 

cavity about 230 feet in diameter into which several million cubic feet of oil 

sand will fall and be heated to temperatures at which the oil may be recovered by conventional oil-field methods. Additional oil may be made recoverable 

by the shock energy from the explosion. Author's abstract condensed. 

Oil and Gas Journal, 1960, Four-company team tackles Athabaska: Oil and 

Gas Jour., v. 58, no. 3, p. 44-45. 
210 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Imperial Oil, Ltd., Cities Service Athabaska, Inc., Richfield Oil Corp., and 

Rayolite Oil Co. have joined in a major research project to tap the vast 

reserves locked in the Athabaska deposits. One new technique being tried 

uses a new German mining wheel, a mobile extraction unit, and a combination visbreaker and distillation plant. Six buckets attached to a huge wheel 

dig into the mining face and drop their load on a conveyor belt, which transfers the oil sand directly to an extraction unit. A 38-foot tail boom supports 

the conveyor belt that delivers sand to the mobile extractor. The self-propelled 

extractor moves with the mining equipment. First, it separates rocks and foreign matter from the oil sand. Next, a solvent diluent is added. Hot water is 

then added to precipitate the sand. The mixture of diluent, water, and bitumen is piped from the extraction unit to a separation plant, where the oil 

mixture is decanted and fed to the refinery. Author's text condensed. 

Pasternack, D. S., 1963, Low-ash asphalt and coke from the Athabaska oilsands oil, in Athabaska oil sands: Research Council Alberta lnf. Ser. 45, 

p. 207-229. 

Dehydrated Athabaska oil-sands oil, produced by either the hot-waterwashing process, the cold-water-washing process, or normal coking, yields 

coke which has too high an ash content to be of value for metallurgical purposes. Two simple methods are outlined to prevent excessive ash content in 

the coke; each represents a controlled partial deasphalting by means of 

partial thermal cracking of the oil. The first method consists of thermally 

cracking the oil and then filtrating the residue. The ash content of the coke 

produced from the filtrate depends upon the rate and extent of the thermal 

cracking, but it is generally less than 0.5 percent. In the second method, the 

residue (or the filtrate) from the thermal cracking is diluted with distillate 

and then either filtered or centrifuged to remove the insolubles. Prior removal 

of 40 percent by weight of distillate from the oil by slow thermal cracking 

yields an extract containing about 40 percent of the original asphaltenes and 

a coke with an ash content of about 0.07 percent. Author's abstract condensed. 

Pasternack, D. S., and Clark, K. A., 1951, The components of the bitumen in 

Athabaska bituminous sand and their significance in the hot-waterseparation process: Research Council Alberta Rept. 58, 14 p. 

During experimental work on the process of recovering bitumen from 

Athabaska bituminous sands, by washing them with hot water, irregularities 

occurred in the results which have to do with the mineral content and the 

yield of the recovered bitumen. Some bituminous sand beds at Bitumount 

evidently contain a bitumen whose components are in different proportion to 

each other than are the components of bitumen in other beds in the section. 

The fine clay in the bitumen appears to be closely associated with the 

asphaltenes. A method is proposed for avoiding the formation of troublesome 

emulsions when determining the proportion of saponifiable material in the 

bitumen. Differences in the relative viscosity of the bitumen would appear to 

be due primarily to variations in the relative proportions of the oily constituents. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Pasternack, D. S., Hodgson, G. W., and Clark, K. A., 1951, Oil recovery from 

the Alberta oil sands by the hot-water-washing method: Athabaska Oil 

Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 200-206. 
CANADA 211 

The hot-water-separation process as practiced by the Research Council of 

Alberta involves increasing the water content to about 12 percent by means 

of hot water and (or) steam while the oil sand is being heated to a temperature of about 176oF (80°C); during that time, a certain amount of mixing or 

kneading of the oil sand takes place. When the pulp reaches 176°F, it is 

dropped into a turbulent stream of circulating plant water. The circulating 

plant water passing through the sand distributor transports the pulp into a 

comparatively large body of hot water (in the separation cell), the temperature of which is about 185oF (85°C). In the separation cell the oil floats as a 

froth and is skimmed off, and the bulk of the mineral matter sinks to the 

bottom and is removed and discarded. The plant water containing finely 

divided material in suspension is continuously withdrawn from this separation cell to a water settler. The purpose of the pulping operation is to rupture 

the oil film surrounding each sand grain. The washing operation disperses the 

pulp so that the oil flecks float in the form of froth and the sand grains sink. 

A turbulent flow of water in the sand distributor assists in dispersing the 

pulp. Authors' text condensed. 

Peterson, W. S., and Gishler, P. E., 1951, The fluidized solids technique applied 

to Alberta oil-sands problem: Athabaska Oil Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 207-236. 

The direct distillation of oil from bituminous sand on a small pilot-plant 

scale is described in this report. Bench-scale tests demonstrated that when 

lumps of bituminous sand were dropped into a hot fluidized sand bed, the oil 

flashed off, and the lumps broke into individual grains of free-floating sand, 

each coated with a thin closely adhering film of coke. The heat requirements 

were high because of the high ratio of sand to oil. A net recovery of 80 percent was indicated. Temperature was found to be the only variable significantly affecting the yield or the properties of the oil. At the temperature 

used, considerable cracking takes place, resulting in a product with properties 

that differ markedly from those of the bitumen in the feed. A dry, fairly 

clean coker distillate can be produced simultaneously and continuously from 

the wet crude oil produced in the water-separation processes. Some initial 

work was done on catalytic cracking of wet crude. The pilot plant was not 

designed for this work, but the necessary modifications are planned. Authors' 

text condensed. 

Plewes, A. C., 1951, Removal of sulfur from Alberta bitumen: Athabaska Oil 

Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 306-329. 

The recovery of hydrocarbon distillates from Athabaska crude oil is discussed, and the distillation of the crude in its unaltered state offers the only 

practical means of recovery. The presence of sulfur in the distillates makes 

the products less desirable. It has been found that the only known practical 

sulfur-removal procedure involves the hydrogenation of the coker distillate 

at low pressures. The treatment of coker distillate with bauxite offers no 

solution at present to the sulfur-removal problem, inasmuch as the bauxite 

is incapable of removing the sulfur-containing compounds in this boiling 

range from the distillate. The life of the bauxite catalyst is also reduced by 

the coke formation from olefinic compounds in the distillate. The use of 

furfural and some organic nitriles has been suggested for liquid-liquid extraction procedures. Distillation procedures involving the use of special solvents 
212 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

may be capable of withdrawing aromatic sulfur-containing compounds. Author's summary condensed. 

Pow, J. R., Fairbanks, G. H., and Zamora, W. J., 1963, Descriptions and 

reserve estimates of the sands of Alberta, in Athabaska oil sands: 

Research Council Alberta Inf. Ser. 45, p. 1-15. 

The oil-sands deposits are classified into three main groups, which are 

distinguished from each other by stratigraphic unit and by the area in which 

they occur. The Athabaska deposit occurs almost entirely within the Wabiskaw-McMurray unit, in northeastern Alberta; the Bluesky-Gething deposits 

are in the Bluesky and Gething Formations, in northwestern Alberta; and the 

Grand Rapids deposits occur in the Grand Rapids Formation, in north-central 

Alberta. Estimates of reserves in place, of recoverable reserves of raw oilsand oil, and of recoverable reserves of upgraded synthetic-crude oil are 

listed, respectively, as follows: Athabaska deposit: 626, 369, and 276 billion 

barrels. Bluesky-Gething deposits: 51, 28, and 21 billion barrels. Grand 

Rapids deposits: 33, 18, and 13 billion barrels. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Research Council of Alberta, 1955, Hydrocarbon research: Research Council 

Alberta Rept. 73, 52 p. [p. 24]. 

The geology along the Firebag and Clearwater Rivers was surveyed in 1955 

from the east boundary of Alberta to the Athabaska River. On both rivers, 

the eastern limit of the oil impregnation of the McMurray formation (Cretaceous) has been determined. Heavy oil was found in fractured Devonian 

limestones in T. 97, R. 7, west of the fourth meridian. Stratigraphically above 

the fractured Devonian, the McMurray formation is saturated with oil. Above 

the McMurray formation a black shale section was measured and the microfauna studied. Geologic sections on the upper Clearwater River and the High 

Hills River include an upper sand formation above the McMurray formation, 

separated from the McMurray formation by the Clearwater marine shale. 

Clay-mineral studies on the fine-grained part of the McMurray formation 

indicate that kaolinite-to-illite ratios support the contention that the McMurray is a continental deposit. Author's text condensed. 

Round, G. F., 1960, The shear strength of McMurray oil sands: Canadian 

Mining and Metallurgy Bull., v. 53, p. 233-238. 

Shear strength of this oil sand was measured in a controlled strain-type 

tester, modified so that the rate of deformation could be varied between 

0.01725 and 0.1869 inches per minute. Effect of temperature was investigated 

by adapting the equipment to operate at both 71 °F and 185°F. It was concluded that oil content and temperature were significant variables for the 

degree of shear strength developed by the oil sand; increase in oil content 

and decrease in temperature each cause an increase in shear strength. The 

bulk-density range of 108.7-109.5 pounds per cubic foot gave angles of shearing resistance of 30°-40°F and initial resistance values of 0.37-0.85 pound 

per square inch. For the bulk-density range of 101-102 pounds per cubic foot, 

lower values of shear strength were obtained, indicating that compaction 

density was also of importance. Author's abstract condensed. 

Russell, L. S., 1932, Mollusca from the McMurray formation of northern 

Alberta: Royal Soc. Canada Trans., ser. 3, v. 26, sec. 4, p. 37-44. 
CANADA 213 

Large quantities of the "tar sands" of the McMurray formation have been 

excavated in an effort to develop commercial methods for the extraction of 

the bitumen. This work has brought to light an important fossil fauna in 

the McMurray formation. The McMurray fauna is predominantly composed 

of nonmarine genera and is believed to be of fresh-water habitat. However, 

several forms present do suggest brackish water or possibly marine conditions. We must postulate, therefore, that the deposition of the McMurray 

formation took place near the sea level and shoreline. A lacustrine environment may be assumed for the Viviparidae, including the very abundant 

Lioplacodes bituminis, but their remains may have been transported and 

accumulated by stream action. The remaining species are all of possible 

fluviatile habitat. It is suggested, on the basis of the molluscan fauna, that 

the McMurray formation was developed under estuarine or near-estuarine 

conditions. Author's text condensed. 

Schellhorn, H. W., 1963, Some aspects of high-capacity production with 

bucket-wheel excavators in open pits, in Athabaska oil sands: Research 

Council Alberta Inf. Ser. 45, p. 157-170. 

This paper compares the anticipated conditions of mining in the Athabaska 

oil sands by means of bucket-wheel excavators with the known conditions 

encountered during many years of open-pit mining of brown coal in Germany 

with the same equipment. Excavators used in Germany are capable of producing 130,000 bank cubic yards per day of either overburden or brown coal. 

Surface mining of oil sand could be an excellent application of these wheels 

of large production capacity. The McMurray Formation is an oil-impregnated 

sandstone which will require high digging forces. These high digging forces 

must be applied at all points in the formation from top to bottom. In general, 

the McMurray Formation is 200 feet or less thick, and averages 150 feet. 

These dimensions are roughly similar to those in the coal fields where large 

bucket-wheel excavators are currently used. Author's text condensed. 

Schrayer, G. J., Weismann, T. J., and Zarrella, W. M., 1960, Geochemical 

studies on the McMurray sand oil and selected Alberta Basin crude oils 

[abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1968. 

Chemical characterizations of the oils impregnating the McMurray sands 

from Bitumount to Grand Rapids and of selected Cretaceous and Devonian 

crude oils produced in the Alberta Basin have been determined. The ringanalysis data for the McMurray oil and for a Lower Cretaceous crude oil 

produced at Lloydminster gave similar results; parallel changes in the hydrocarbon structures with increasing molecular weight were also noted in these 

two oils. Mass spectrometric group analysis of the McMurray and Lloydminster pentane eluates showed the absence of free alkanes; about 40 percent 

of the hydrocarbon components were made up of noncondensed cycloalkanes, 

and another 40 percent of condensed cycloalkanes. Equivalent fractions of 

Devonian crude oils gave substantial differences in the ring analyses from 

those obtained in the Lower Cretaceous oils; the mass spectrometric results 

of the Devonian pentane fraction showed the presence of 28 percent free 

alkanes, 39 percent noncondensed cycloalkanes, and 21 percent condensed 

cycloalkanes. Authors' abstract condensed. 
214 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

Scott, Jean, Collins, G. A., and Hodgson, G. W., 1954, Trace metals in the 

McMurray oil sands and other Cretaceous reservoirs of Alberta: Canadian 

Mining and Metall. Bull., v. 47, no. 501, p. 36-42. 

The occurrence of vanadium, nickel, and iron in the McMurray oil sand was 

investigated. The trace-metal content of samples obtained from widely separated points in the oil sand area was remarkably uniform. A typical oil-sand 

analysis is 360 ppm (parts per million) V2 0 5, 93 ppm NiO, and 106 ppm 

Fe20s. A nearly constant proportion was found to exist for the vanadium and 

nickel oxides for the oil-sand oil and other Cretaceous oils. It is concluded 

that the oil-sand oil is not different in kind from other oils and that they 

may have a common origin. The authors believe that the presence of metalcontaining porphyrin compounds in the heavy black oils and the absence of 

similar compounds in the lighter oils indicate that the heavy oil should be 

regarded not as residue products from a common light-oil source, but as the 

precursors of lighter oils. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Smoley, E. R., and Schutte, A. H., 1951, Continuous contact coking: Athabaska 

Oil Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 251-256. 

Coking has been used for converting heavy petroleum and asphalts to 

lighter distillates and coke. Along with the removal of the carbon, heavy 

minerals or metallic compounds are removed. In this proces~ a continuous 

stream of coke particles circulates through the reactor vessel and the reheater. 

This circulation is obtained by means of mass-flow lift, which elevates the 

material as a dense-phase unagitated column. The lifting is powered by highpressure steam. At the oil-coke contacting zone, the lighter portions of the 

feed are vaporized, and the heavier unvaporized material is taken up as a 

liquid film on the coke particles. The wetted coke particles travel slowly down 

through the coking reactor as a compact bed and are allowed a residence time 

of approximately 30 minutes to complete the coking and drying reaction. At 

an intermediate point the product vapors are removed, and the coke descends 

to a stripping zone, where the final drying is obtained in an atmosphere of 

steam. The yields of hydrocarbon products are superior to those obtained by 

previous processes, and the coke product is yielded as a stream of dry highstrength pellets, free of fines. Authors' text condensed. 

Spragins, F. K., 1967, Mining at Athabaska- A new approach to oil production: Jour. Petroleum Technology, v. 19, no. 10, p. 1337-1343. 

This paper reports on two basically different mining approaches that could 

be used in a commercial tar-sands plant, and details both the economics and 

the equipment to be used. The overburden thickness determines how the bitumen might be recovered from the ore body. The Athabaska deposit is generally divided into two principal areas, one where the oil is recoverable by 

mining methods, and the other where oil is considered to be recoverable only 

by in-situ methods. Proved reserves of recoverable synthetic-crude oil in these 

two areas are estimated to be approximately 85 billion and 200 billion barrels, 

respectively. Early studies predicted that the mining ratio of overburden to 

saturated tar sand was about 0.5:1, whereas today it is estimated that the 

stripping ratio will be on the order of 2.5:1 and, under certain conditions, 

will approach 3.5:1. Recovery of synthetic crude oil from in-place bitumen is 

estimated at 70 volume percent for mined sand. By comparison the estimates 

of the recovery factor for the in-situ area is 40 volume percent. Author's text 

condensed. 
CANADA 215 

Sproule, J. C., 1938, Origin of McMurray oil sands, Alberta: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 22, no. 9, p. 1133-1152. 

The writer believes that the in-situ theory, the Clearwater shale theory, the 

residual theory, and the lateral-migration theory are all possible explanations 

of the genesis of the McMurray bitumen, but they all, in some way, conflict 

with facts. However, the theory first proposed by Bell (1885), in which the 

petroleum entered the Cretaceous rocks from the underlying Devonian formations seems to be in close harmony with the evidence now available. It is 

suggested, further, that the petroleum entered the McMurray formation from 

the underlying Paleozoic at some point or points between the Athabaska and 

Peace Rivers, midway perhaps between McMurray and Fort Vermillion. During the Laramide revolution, crevices formed in the region's Paleozoic rocks, 

through which the petroleum invaded the McMurray formation and spread 

outward to the present boundaries of the impregnated body. Author's text 

condensed. 

Sproule, J. C., 1951, The McMurray formation in its relation to oil occurrence: 

Athabaska Oil Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 6-25. 

The sediments making up the McMurray formation have been derived 

mainly from the lower Paleozoic Athabaska formation and adjoining parts 

of the Canadian Precambrian Shield. The oil in the McMurray formation was 

derived mainly from the upper part of the Devonian and, probably, also from 

Mississippian rocks. Undoubtedly, some of it is residual oil that was left 

behind during erosion of the Paleozoic surface, but most of it is probably 

due to oil seepages that have been active from the Early Cretaceous to the 

present, the principal migration having taken place during and immediately 

after the Laramide revolution. Author's text condensed. 

Sproule, J. C., and Lloyd, G. V., 1963, A note on the comparison of McMurray 

and Melville Island oil sands, in Athabaska oil sands: Research Council 

Alberta Inf. Ser. 45, p. 27-29. 

Oil-impregnated sands were discovered in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago 

near Marie Bay, Melville Island, in August 1962, by G. V. Lloyd of J. C. 

Sproule and Associates, Ltd. The areal extent of the oil sands is not known, 

but it seems certain that the oil impregnation in the Bjorne Formation of 

Triassic age is local and controlled by structure. This oil could probably be 

produced from wells if it occurs below the permafrost zone, which is 1,600 

feet thick. Authors' abstract. 

Stewart, G. A., 1963, Geological controls on the distribution of Athabaska 

oil-sands reserves, in Athabaska oil sands: Research Council Alberta Inf. 

Ser. 45, p. 15-26. 

The Athabaska oil sands within an area of 13,000 square miles in northern 

Alberta contain approximately 560 billion barrels of oil. Pre-Cretaceous 

topography developed on the eroded Devonian surface controls the distribution 

of the McMurray Formation and, in part, the oil it contains. Structures resulting from leaching of Elk Point evaporites, block faulting of Precambrian 

rocks, and several periods of subaerial erosion contributed to the development 

of the pre-Cretaceous landscape. Exploratory drilling has outlined the probable extent of the McMurray oil sands. Deposits of rich oil sand are concentrated in the basinal areas. Eighty percent of the oil reserves are found in 
216 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

only 40 percent of the total volume of McMurray sediments. Current knowledge of mining and processing Athabaska oil sand suggests that approximately 14 billion barrels of oil could be recovered by open-pit mining. Author's 

conclusions. 

Vigrass, L. W., 1965, General geology of Lower Cretaceous heavy-oil accumulations in Western Canada: Jour. Canadian Petroleum Technology, v. 4, 

no. 4, p. 168-176. 

Lower Cretaceous sand reservoirs contain about 750 billion barrels of viscous heavy oil along a broad arcuate belt that extends from northwestern 

Alberta into west-central Saskatchewan. The heavy oil is pooled in the Mannville Group and, in a general sense, occurs in a marine-continental transition 

facies. The accumulation at Peace River is in a regional onlap feature. The 

accumulation in the Athabaska-Lloydminster region occurs across the crest 

and on the southwest flank of a regional anticlinal feature associated with 

the solution of salt from Middle Devonian beds. These features had formed 

by the end of Early Cretac.eous time. Chemical and physical properties of 

oils from different accumulations show that they belong to a single oil system 

and suggest a common mode of origin. The Athabaska oil is young and immature and not evaporated, altered, or polymerized. The most tenable working 

hypothesis is that the hydrocarbons moved out of sediments in the deep basin 

in micellar solution in compaction waters. The hydrocarbons were deposited 

as heavy asphaltic oil where physical-chemical conditions were suitable. Early 

formed stratigraphic and structural "traps" served as loci of deposition for 

the heavy oil. Since deposition, and governed by buoyancy and capillarity, 

there has been some adjustment in position of the oil in the traps. Author's 

abstract. 

Vigrass, L. W., -1968, Geology of Canadian heavy oil sands: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 52, no. 10, p. 1984-1999. 

About 750 billion barrels of viscous heavy oil is in place in the Southern 

Interior Plains of Western Canada. Most of this oil occurs in sandstone beds 

of the Lower Cretaceous Mannville Group along a 600-mile belt that extends 

from Peace River, Alberta, through the "Athabaska tar sands" area, to 

Lloydminster, Saskatchewan. The Peace River deposit (50 billion barrels) 

is in a regional updip sandstone pinchout. The Athabaska-Lloydminster region 

(700 billion barrels) lies across the crest or on the southwest flank of a 

regional anticlinal feature associated with the solution of salt from Middle 

Devonian beds. The oils in Lower Cretaceous rocks belong to a single oil 

system, and all appear to be at or near the site at which a discrete oil phase 

was formed. The most acceptable hypothesis of origin is that hydrocarbons 

which moved out of the deep basin in micellar or colloidal solution in compaction waters were "precipitated" on anticlinal structures or in sandstone 

pinchouts, possibly as a result of a change in salinity of the formation waters. 

Author's abstract condensed. 

Von Der Lin, Frances, 1961, Alberta reveals three new buried treasures: Oil 

and Gas Jour., v. 59, no. 31, p. 253. 

In the course of drilling for oil and gas, three new oil-sand deposits similar 

to Athabaska were discovered. They are the Peace River, Hotchkiss East, and 

Red Earth Northeast deposits. Combined proved and possible reserves of the 

three have been conservatively estimated at more than 44 billion barrels of 
CANADA 217 

oil in place. The Peace River deposit is about 90 miles west of the Athabaska 

oil-soaked sand of the McMurray formation. The Peace River deposit is in 

the Gething (Lower Cretaceous) formation at a depth of about 2,000 feet; it 

correlates with the McMurray. Forty billion barrels of proved and possible 

reserves are estimated for the Peace River deposit. The Hotchkiss East deposit is about 50 miles west of Athabaska; it is also in the Gething, but is 

only 1,000 feet deep. Proved and possible reserves are believed to total about 

3.3 billion barrels. The Red Earth Northeast deposit is the smallest of the 

three. Located near Peerless Lake, about 30 miles west of Athabaska, it has 

possible reserves of about 1 billion barrels. This oil accumulation occurs in 

the McMurray formation at a depth of 1,000 feet. Author's text condensed. 

Ward, S. H., and Clark, K. A., 1950, Determination of the viscosities and 

specific gravities of the oils in samples of Athabaska bituminous sand: 

Research Council Alberta Rept. 57, 22 p. 

A method was devised to extract oil from the bituminous sand in a standardized reproducible way and to correct the viscosity and specific-gravity 

measurements for any alterations that have occurred. The viscosity-temperature relationships for oils from bituminous sands from widely separated locations were determined. A relationship between the viscosity of a bituminous 

sand oil at 84.4°F and its specific gravity at 77°F/77°F has been established. 

Results show that at 50°F, which is about the temperature of bituminous 

sand at the quarry face, the viscosity of the oil in the southern part of the 

bituminous sand area in the neighborhood of McMurray is 100 times that of 

the oil in the northern part around Bitumount. The viscosity varies considerably from bed to bed throughout the 60-foot thickness of bituminous sand 

exposed at Bitumount. The specific gravities at 77°F/77°F of bituminous sand 

oils examined vary between 1.002 and 1.027. Authors' abstract condensed. 

Warren, T. E., 1951, Distribution of heat liberated from a well in bituminous 

sand: Athabaska Oil Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 153-157. 

This experiment is used to present quantitative data that can be used in 

assessing the feasibility of heating a bed of bituminous sand from a centrally 

located heat source. It is assumed that the initial temperature of the bituminous 

sand bed is 35°F. If heat is supplied at the rate of 850 Btu per linear foot of 

pipe per hour, the temperature at the pipe is calculated to rise to 720oF in 1 

year. If the rate of heating is reduced to 670 Btu per foot of pipe per hour, the 

temperature at the pipe reaches 720°F in 10 years. Author's text condensed. 

Warren, T. E., Booth, F. L., Carson, R. E., and Bowles, K. W., 1951, Hydrosulphurization of coker distillate from Athabaska bitumen: Athabaska Oil 

Sands Conf., Proc., Edmonton, Canada, p. 289-305. 

Five . operating variables- temperature, pressure, liquid hourly space 

velocity, hydrogen feed rate, and sulfur content of feed- have been investigated. The temperature variable was found to exercise the greatest influence 

on the properties of the product. A small decrease in temperature below 420°C 

(788°F) -while the other operating conditions, as stated above, remained 

constant- caused a large increase in the sulfur content of the product. 

Webber, H. J., 1967, The oil sands of Alberta: Jour. Canadian Petroleum Technology, v. 6, no. 4, p. 146-149. 
218 ASPHALT-BEARING ROCKS, UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

In addition to the Athabaska deposit, another area in Alberta contains 

heavy-hydrocarbon deposits. This area, known as Cold Lake, is about 125 miles 

northeast of Edmonton. The properties of the heavy hydrocarbons there are 

transitional between bitumen of the oil sands to the north and the heavy crude 

oil of the Lloydminster area to the south. The Cold Lake oil sands occur within 

the Mannville Group of Early Cretaceous age. The quantity of bitumen in place 

in the evaluated area has been estimated at about 75 billion barrels, and, therefore, the area ranks as the third largest deposit in the world, behind the Atha· 

baska and Venezuela's Orinoco oil sands. Author's text condensed. 

Williams, M. Y., 1949, Whence the oil of the Athabaska tar sands?: Royal Soc. 

Canada Trans., v. 43, ser. 3, sec. 4, p. 149-156. 

Some time between the deposition of the McMurray sands and the Pleistocene, oil migrated into the sands and cemented them into their present condition. According to the monomolecular law, straight-parafine molecules have 

been converted into cyclic-hydrocarbon molecules, and lighter gaseous fractions 

have separated from the heavier fractions. In the presence of sulfur-bearing 

waters, asphalt has formed. Gases have been lost into the atmosphere by 

seepage. It seems clear that the clean fresh-water deltaic sands of the McMurray formation, with its tree trunks and land-plant fragments, were not the 

source of the bitumen. Present knowledge favors the theory that the oil in the 

bituminous sands of the Athabaska region originated in the underlying Middle 

Devonian limestones. Author's text condensed. 

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1972 0 - 460-209