NOTICE: This publication is available digitally on the AFDPO WWW site at: 

http://www.e-publishing.af.mil.

BY ORDER OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE 

AIR FORCE MANUAL 36-2236

12 NOVEMBER 2003

Personnel

GUIDEBOOK FOR AIR FORCE INSTRUCTORS

OPR: HQ AETC/ED 

(HQ AU/CFS, Dr M. Jenkins) 

Certified by: HQ AETC/ED

(Lt Gen D. Lamontagne)

Supersedes AFMAN 36-2236, 

15 September 1994 

Pages: 461

Distribution: F

This training manual presents basic teaching principles and their application in Air Force teacher-learning

situations. It implements both AFPD 36-22, Military Training, and AFPD 36-23, Military Education. The

text addresses how people learn and how they communicate. It discusses various teaching methods and

techniques, and ways to evaluate learning and the reasons for such evaluation. The manual is for instructors engaged in on-the-job training (OJT) and informal instruction as well as those assigned to Air Force

formal schools. Send comments and suggested improvements on AF Form 847, Recommendation for

Change of Publication, through channels, to HQ AU/CFS, 60 Shumacher Street, Maxwell AFB AL

36112-5337. The use of a name or trademark of any specific manufacturer, commercial product, commodity, or service in this publication does not imply endorsement by the Air Force. Maintain and dispose

of records created as a result of processes prescribed in this publication in accordance with AFMAN

37-139, Records Disposition Schedule. 

SUMMARY OF REVISIONS

This document is substantially revised and must be completely reviewed.

This revision adds a chapter on the experiential method of instruction and updates the examples for each

teaching method.

Chapter 1—THE AIR FORCE INSTRUCTOR 20

1.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 20

1.2. Curriculum Planning. ................................................................................................. 20

Figure 1.1. Air Force Model for Instructional Systems Development. ....................................... 21

1.3. Instructor Skills Useful In Other Duties. ................................................................... 21

1.4. The Air Force Approach To Academic Instruction. .................................................. 21

1.5. Overview of Manual. ................................................................................................. 22
2 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

1.6. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 23

Chapter 2—LEARNING THEORY 24

2.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 24

2.2. A Historical View. ..................................................................................................... 24

2.3. Combining the Approaches. ...................................................................................... 25

Figure 2.1. Levels of Knowledge and Understanding. ................................................................ 26

Figure 2.2. Levels of Attitude and Values. ................................................................................. 27

Figure 2.3. Levels of Skill. .......................................................................................................... 28

2.4. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 28

Chapter 3—WRITING STUDENT-CENTERED OBJECTIVES AND TESTS 29

3.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 29

3.2. Planning For Student-Centered Outcomes. ............................................................... 29

Table 3.1. Cognitive Taxonomy. ................................................................................................ 30

Table 3.2. Types of Learning. .................................................................................................... 31

Figure 3.1. Air Force Proficiency Code. ..................................................................................... 32

Figure 3.2. Comparison of Taxonomies of Learning Outcomes. ................................................ 33

3.3. Writing Lesson Objectives: ....................................................................................... 33

Figure 3.3. Sample Test Item. ..................................................................................................... 36

3.4. Summary: ................................................................................................................... 37

Chapter 4—THE LEVEL-OF-LEARNING LESSON PLANNING PROCESS 39

Section 4A Overview 39

4.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 39

4.2. Bloom's Cognitive Taxonomy. .................................................................................. 39

Figure 4.1. Key Words for Knowledge, Comprehension, and Application Levels. ................... 40

Section 4B Learning Levels 40

4.3. Knowledge. ................................................................................................................ 40

4.4. Comprehension: ......................................................................................................... 40

Figure 4.2. Relationship Between Factory Production and Unemployment. .............................. 41

4.5. Application. ................................................................................................................ 42
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 3

Section 4C Level-of-Learning Objectives 43

4.6. Overview. ................................................................................................................... 43

4.7. Student Centeredness. ................................................................................................ 43

4.8. LOL. ........................................................................................................................... 43

4.9. Specific Subject. ........................................................................................................ 44

4.10. Example of an LOL Objective: .................................................................................. 44

Figure 4.3. Example Level-of-Learning Objectives. ................................................................... 44

Section 4D Samples of Behavior 45

4.11. Overview. ................................................................................................................... 45

4.12. Defining a Sample of Behavior: ................................................................................ 45

Figure 4.4. Behavioral Verbs. ..................................................................................................... 46

Figure 4.5. Recall of Information. ............................................................................................... 46

Figure 4.6. Understanding Information. ...................................................................................... 47

Figure 4.7. Applying Information. .............................................................................................. 47

4.13. Considerations in Writing Samples of Behavior: ...................................................... 47

4.14. Determining What To Sample. .................................................................................. 48

Figure 4.8. Air Force Curriculum. ............................................................................................... 49

4.15. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 49

Chapter 5—WRITING CRITERION OBJECTIVES 51

Section 5A Introduction 51

5.1. Overview. ................................................................................................................... 51

5.2. Relationship Between Samples of Behavior and Criterion Objectives. .................... 51

Figure 5.1. A Comparison of Samples of Behavior and Criterion Objectives. ........................... 52

Section 5B Constructing Criterion Objectives 52

5.3. Importance of Construction. ...................................................................................... 52

5.4. Essential Elements. .................................................................................................... 53

Figure 5.2. Essential Elements of a Criterion Objective. ............................................................ 53

5.5. Formats. ..................................................................................................................... 53

Figure 5.3. Formats for Criterion Objectives. ............................................................................. 54

5.6. Mastery Learning. ...................................................................................................... 55
4 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

5.7. Content Communicated by the Criterion Objective. ................................................. 55

Figure 5.4. Example 1 of a Criterion Objective. ......................................................................... 56

Figure 5.5. Example 2 of a Criterion Objective. ......................................................................... 56

Figure 5.6. Example 3 of a Criterion Objective. ......................................................................... 57

Figure 5.7. Example 4 of a Criterion Objective. ......................................................................... 58

Figure 5.8. Example 5 of a Criterion Objective. ......................................................................... 59

Figure 5.9. Example 6 of a Criterion Objective. ......................................................................... 60

Figure 5.10. Example 7 of a Criterion Objective. ......................................................................... 60

Figure 5.11. Example 8 of a Criterion Objective. ......................................................................... 61

5.8. Performance. .............................................................................................................. 63

5.9. The Action Verb. ....................................................................................................... 63

Figure 5.12. Verb Descriptors of Student Performance (Criterion Objectives). ........................... 64

5.10. Object of the Action: .................................................................................................. 64

5.11. Common Errors. ......................................................................................................... 65

5.12. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 65

Section 5C Standards 65

5.13. Overview. ................................................................................................................... 65

5.14. Types of Standards. .................................................................................................... 66

5.15. Common Errors. ......................................................................................................... 68

Section 5D Planning Tools 69

5.16. Task Steps As Planning Tools: .................................................................................. 69

Figure 5.13. Task Analysis of a Criterion Objective. .................................................................... 70

Figure 5.14. Sample Instruction Designs For a Task Analysis of a Criterion Objective. ............. 71

5.17. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 72

Figure 5.15. Criterion Objective Writer's Checklist. ..................................................................... 72

Chapter 6—DEVELOPING THE LESSON PLAN 74

6.1. The Importance of a Lesson Plan: ............................................................................. 74

6.2. Determining the Objective. ........................................................................................ 74

6.3. Researching the Topic. .............................................................................................. 74

6.4. Selecting Instructional Methods. ............................................................................... 75
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 5

6.5. Lesson Planning Format. ........................................................................................... 76

Figure 6.1. Recommended Content and Components of a Lesson Plan. .................................... 77

6.6. Organizing the Lesson. .............................................................................................. 77

Figure 6.2. Outline of a Lesson on Nonverbal Communication. ................................................ 81

6.7. The Strategy Statement: ............................................................................................. 82

Figure 6.3. Strategy Statement—Example 1. .............................................................................. 84

Figure 6.4. Strategy Statement—Example 2. .............................................................................. 85

Figure 6.5. Strategy Statement—Example 3. .............................................................................. 86

6.8. Choosing Support Material: ....................................................................................... 88

Figure 6.6. Choosing Appropriate Examples. ............................................................................. 90

6.9. Beginning and Ending the Lesson. ............................................................................ 92

6.10. Preparing The Final Outline: ..................................................................................... 94

Figure 6.7. Sample Keyword Outline – Nonverbal Communication. ......................................... 95

6.11. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 96

Chapter 7—DEVELOPING KNOWLEDGE-LEVEL LESSONS 97

7.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 97

7.2. Appropriateness of Classroom Instruction at the Knowledge Level. ........................ 97

7.3. Planning Knowledge-Level Lessons. ........................................................................ 98

7.4. Developing the Teaching Outline. ............................................................................. 98

Figure 7.1. Teaching Outline—Example 1. ................................................................................ 99

Figure 7.2. Teaching Outline—Example 2. ................................................................................ 101

Figure 7.3. Teaching Outline—Example 3. ................................................................................ 102

7.5. Support Material: ....................................................................................................... 102

7.6. Teaching the Lesson. ................................................................................................. 103

7.7. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 104

Chapter 8—DEVELOPING COMPREHENSION-LEVEL CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLE 

LESSONS 105

8.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 105

8.2. The Teaching of Concepts. ........................................................................................ 105

8.3. Organizing a Concept Teaching Plan. ....................................................................... 106

8.4. Testing Concept Learning. ......................................................................................... 107
6 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

8.5. Sample Concept Teaching Plans (Part I): .................................................................. 107

Figure 8.1. Sample Part I Lesson Plan. ....................................................................................... 108

Figure 8.2. Sample Lesson Plan Cover Sheet. ............................................................................ 109

8.6. The Teaching of Principles. ....................................................................................... 110

8.7. Logical Lesson Planning. ........................................................................................... 110

8.8. Testing Principle Learning: ....................................................................................... 112

8.9. Sample Plans for Teaching Principles (Part I—Cover Sheet). .................................. 112

Figure 8.3. Topical Pattern Sample. ............................................................................................ 113

Figure 8.4. Sample Multi-Objective Plan. ................................................................................... 114

Figure 8.5. Sample Problem-Solution Organizational Pattern. ................................................... 115

Figure 8.6. Sample Cause-Effect Organizational Pattern. .......................................................... 116

Figure 8.7. Sample Pro-Con Plus One Organizational Pattern. .................................................. 117

8.10. Sampling Achievement of the Objective. .................................................................. 117

Figure 8.8. Sample 1—Topical Pattern. ...................................................................................... 118

Figure 8.9. Sample 2—Parallel Principles. ................................................................................. 119

Figure 8.10. Sample 3—Problem-Solution Pattern. ...................................................................... 120

Figure 8.11. Sample 4—Cause-Effect Pattern. ............................................................................. 120

Figure 8.12. Sample 5—Pro-Con Plus One Pattern. ..................................................................... 121

8.11. The Comprehension-Level Summary. ....................................................................... 121

Figure 8.13. Comprehension-Level Summary. ............................................................................. 122

8.12. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 122

Chapter 9—DEVELOPING HIGHER-LEVEL COGNITIVE LESSONS 124

9.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 124

9.2. Higher Levels of Cognitive Learning: ....................................................................... 124

Figure 9.1. Instructional Objectives at the Application Level. ................................................... 125

Figure 9.2. Instructional Objectives at the Analysis Level. ........................................................ 126

Figure 9.3. Instructional Objectives at the Synthesis Level. ....................................................... 126

Figure 9.4. Instructional Objectives at the Evaluation Level. ..................................................... 127

9.3. Principles of Teaching and Learning at the Higher Levels. ...................................... 127

9.4. Lesson Planning. ........................................................................................................ 129
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 7

9.5. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 131

Chapter 10—WRITING AND MEASURING AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES 132

10.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 132

10.2. A Structure For Attitude Development—The Affective Taxonomy. ........................ 132

Figure 10.1. Krathwohl's Affective Taxonomy. ............................................................................ 134

10.3. Lesson Planning for Affective Development. ............................................................ 134

Table 10.1. Cognitive and Affective Consequences. ................................................................... 135

10.4. Relationship of Affective Domain to Other Domains. .............................................. 136

10.5. Affective Objectives Can be Specified and Measured. ............................................. 136

10.6. Techniques for Specifying and Measuring Affective Objectives. ............................. 136

Figure 10.2. Lesson Objective and Purpose Statement. ................................................................ 137

Figure 10.3. Lesson Objective and Outline of Main Teaching Points. ......................................... 137

10.7. Similarity of Cognitive and Affective Learning Outcomes. ...................................... 138

10.8. Interpreting and Modifying Criterion Objectives. ..................................................... 138

Figure 10.4. Suggested Changes to Affective Objectives. ............................................................ 139

10.9. Stating Purely Affective Objectives. ......................................................................... 139

Figure 10.5. Main Point Sample. ................................................................................................... 140

Figure 10.6. Samples of Behavior. ................................................................................................ 140

Figure 10.7. Sample Lesson Plan. ................................................................................................. 141

10.10. Measuring Changes In Student Attitudes: ................................................................. 141

10.11. Using Published Attitude Scales. ............................................................................... 141

10.12. Making Our Own Attitude Assessment Scale. .......................................................... 142

10.13. Pretest-Posttest Design. ............................................................................................. 142

Figure 10.8. Attitude Test—Pretest-Posttest Design. ................................................................... 142

Figure 10.9. Multiple-Choice Format. .......................................................................................... 143

10.14. Measuring Attitude Changes Following the Experience. .......................................... 144

Figure 10.10. End-of-Course Critique—General. ........................................................................... 144

Figure 10.11. End-of-Course Critique—Specific. .......................................................................... 145

Figure 10.12. Sample School Criterion Objective. ......................................................................... 145

Figure 10.13. Either-Or Format. ...................................................................................................... 146
8 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 10.14. Open-Ended Question Format. ................................................................................. 146

10.15. Dealing With the Higher Affective Levels. ............................................................... 146

10.16. Which Affective Measure Should Be Used? ............................................................. 147

10.17. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 147

Chapter 11—USING QUESTIONS FOR LEARNING 148

11.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 148

11.2. The Starting Point. ..................................................................................................... 148

11.3. Determine Purpose. .................................................................................................... 149

11.4. Questions Categorized By Direction. ........................................................................ 150

11.5. Effective Questioning Techniques. ............................................................................ 151

11.6. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 153

Chapter 12—SURVEY OF TEACHING METHODS 154

12.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 154

12.2. Presentational Methods. ............................................................................................. 154

12.3. Student Verbal Interaction Methods. ......................................................................... 156

12.4. Application Methods. ................................................................................................. 157

12.5. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 158

Chapter 13—THE TEACHING LECTURE METHOD 159

13.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 159

13.2. Types of Lectures. ...................................................................................................... 159

13.3. Other Types of Oral Presentations. ............................................................................ 159

13.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture Method. ............................................ 160

13.5. Preparing the Lecture. ................................................................................................ 161

13.6. Presenting the Lecture. .............................................................................................. 164

Figure 13.1. Guidelines for Manuscript Lessons. ......................................................................... 165

13.7. Summary: ................................................................................................................... 171

Chapter 14—THE GUIDED DISCUSSION METHOD 172

14.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 172

14.2. Selection and Planning Factors. ................................................................................. 172

14.3. Organizing the Guided Discussion. ........................................................................... 174

14.4. Conducting a Guided Discussion. .............................................................................. 176
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 9

14.5. Post-Discussion Actions. ........................................................................................... 179

14.6. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 179

Chapter 15—THE CASE STUDY METHOD 181

15.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 181

15.2. Using Case Studies. ................................................................................................... 181

15.3. Teaching Value and Limitations: ............................................................................... 181

15.4. Typical Case Applications. ........................................................................................ 182

15.5. Types of Cases. .......................................................................................................... 183

15.6. Mode of Presentation: ................................................................................................ 184

15.7. Case Methodology. .................................................................................................... 184

Figure 15.1. Lesson Plan Process. ................................................................................................. 187

15.8. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 189

Chapter 16—THE TEACHING INTERVIEW METHOD 191

16.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 191

16.2. Background: ............................................................................................................... 191

16.3. Uses of the Teaching Interview. ................................................................................ 191

16.4. Initial Planning Factors. ............................................................................................. 192

16.5. Coordination. ............................................................................................................. 193

16.6. The Interview Lesson: ............................................................................................... 194

16.7. Introducing the Interview Lesson. ............................................................................. 194

16.8. Conducting the Interview. .......................................................................................... 194

16.9. Ending the Interview. ................................................................................................. 196

16.10. Sample Lesson Plan for a Teaching Interview. ......................................................... 196

16.11. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 196

Chapter 17—THE DEMONSTRATION-PERFORMANCE METHOD 197

17.1. Introduction: ............................................................................................................... 197

17.2. Planning and Developing a D-P Lesson. ................................................................... 197

17.3. Factors to Consider When Using the D-P Method: ................................................... 199

17.4. The Sample D-P Lesson Plan: ................................................................................... 200

17.5. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 200
10 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 18—USING GAMES FOR LEARNING 201

18.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 201

18.2. Benefits of Using Games. .......................................................................................... 201

18.3. Classifying Games. .................................................................................................... 201

18.4. Various Games for Classroom Use. ........................................................................... 202

18.5. Designing a Game. ..................................................................................................... 203

18.6. Writing Game Questions. .......................................................................................... 203

18.7. Writing a Game Lesson Plan. .................................................................................... 203

18.8. Administering the Game. ........................................................................................... 204

18.9. Cautions on Using Games. ......................................................................................... 204

18.10. General Considerations When Using Games. ............................................................ 205

18.11. Dr. Sivasailam Thiagarajan's Considerations. ........................................................... 205

Figure 18.1. Dr. Thiagarajan's Experiential Checklist. ................................................................. 206

18.12. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 206

Chapter 19—SELECTING TEACHING METHODS 207

19.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 207

19.2. Assumptions. .............................................................................................................. 208

Table 19.1. Teaching Methods Grid or Decision Table. .............................................................. 209

19.3. Definition of Terms. .................................................................................................. 210

19.4. Recommendations for Teaching Methods. ................................................................ 212

19.5. Lecture: ...................................................................................................................... 212

19.6. Indirect Discourse: ..................................................................................................... 213

19.7. Demonstration-Performance: ..................................................................................... 214

19.8. Reading: ..................................................................................................................... 215

19.9. Self-Paced Methods: .................................................................................................. 216

19.10. Questioning: ............................................................................................................... 218

19.11. Nondirected Discussion: ............................................................................................ 219

19.12. Guided Discussion: .................................................................................................... 220

19.13. Practical Exercises—Individual Projects: .................................................................. 221

19.14. Practical Exercises—Field Trips: .............................................................................. 222

19.15. Practical Exercises—Experiential. ............................................................................. 223

19.16. Case Studies: .............................................................................................................. 224
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 11

19.17. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 226

Chapter 20—INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 227

20.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 227

20.2. Instructional Aids: ...................................................................................................... 227

20.3. Selecting Instructional Aids. ...................................................................................... 227

20.4. Types of Instructional Aids. ....................................................................................... 228

20.5. Proofreading. .............................................................................................................. 230

20.6. Distance Learning. ..................................................................................................... 230

20.7. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 230

Chapter 21—INTRODUCTION TO EVALUATION 231

21.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 231

21.2. Nature of Evaluation. ................................................................................................. 231

21.3. How We Evaluate. ..................................................................................................... 232

21.4. Characteristics of Evaluation. .................................................................................... 232

21.5. Determining Means of Measurement. ....................................................................... 236

21.6. Reasons for Evaluation. ............................................................................................. 236

21.7. Nature of Required Behavior: .................................................................................... 236

21.8. Availability of Time and Facilities. ........................................................................... 237

21.9. Availability of Qualified Faculty: .............................................................................. 237

21.10. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 237

Chapter 22—CONSTRUCTING AND ADMINISTERING CLASSROOM TESTS 239

22.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 239

22.2. Suggestions for Preparing Any Test Item. ................................................................. 239

22.3. Selection Test Items. .................................................................................................. 239

Table 22.1. Comparison Between the Two Major Types of Test Questions. .............................. 240

22.4. Multiple-Choice Items. .............................................................................................. 241

Figure 22.1. Stems. ........................................................................................................................ 241

Figure 22.2. Alternatives. .............................................................................................................. 242

Figure 22.3. Multiple-Choice Alternatives. .................................................................................. 242

Figure 22.4. Stem Written As a Question. .................................................................................... 243

Figure 22.5. Stem Written As an Incomplete Statement. .............................................................. 243
12 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 22.6. Multiple Response. ................................................................................................... 243

Figure 22.7. Definition. ................................................................................................................. 244

Figure 22.8. Stem Supplemented by an Illustration. ..................................................................... 244

Figure 22.9. The Negative Variety. ............................................................................................... 245

Figure 22.10. Association. ............................................................................................................... 245

Figure 22.11. Problem-Situation. .................................................................................................... 245

Figure 22.12. Example of a Problem-Situation Format. ................................................................. 246

Figure 22.13. Checklist for Writing Multiple-Choice Items. .......................................................... 246

Figure 22.14. Multiple-Choice Test Item. ....................................................................................... 247

Figure 22.15. Corrected Item. ......................................................................................................... 248

22.5. Matching Test Items. ................................................................................................. 248

Figure 22.16. Example of Equal Columns. ..................................................................................... 249

Figure 22.17. Example of Unequal Columns. ................................................................................. 250

Figure 22.18. Example of Inference Matching. .............................................................................. 250

Figure 22.19. Example of Cause-and-Effect Matching. .................................................................. 251

Figure 22.20. Example of Coded Alternatives for Scientific Reasoning. ....................................... 251

Figure 22.21. Sample Matching Test Item. ..................................................................................... 252

Figure 22.22. Checklist for Writing Matching Test Items. ............................................................. 252

Figure 22.23. Questions to Ask. ...................................................................................................... 253

Figure 22.24. Corrected Sample Matching Test. ............................................................................ 253

22.6. True-False Items. ....................................................................................................... 254

Figure 22.25. Declarative Statement. .............................................................................................. 254

Figure 22.26. Cluster. ...................................................................................................................... 255

Figure 22.27. Statement with Illustration. ....................................................................................... 255

Figure 22.28. Double True-False. ................................................................................................... 255

Figure 22.29. Checklist for Writing True-False Items. ................................................................... 256

Figure 22.30. Sample True-False Item. ........................................................................................... 256

Figure 22.31. Corrected Item. ......................................................................................................... 257

22.7. Supply Test Items. ..................................................................................................... 257

22.8. Completion Items. ...................................................................................................... 257
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 13

Figure 22.32. Example 1 – Incomplete Statement. ......................................................................... 258

Figure 22.33. Example 2 – Sentence or Paragraph Completion. .................................................... 259

22.9. Checklist for Writing Completion Items. .................................................................. 259

Figure 22.34. Checklist for Writing Completion Items. ................................................................. 259

Figure 22.35. Sample Item. ............................................................................................................. 259

Figure 22.36. Corrected Item. ......................................................................................................... 260

22.10. Short-Answer Items. .................................................................................................. 260

Figure 22.37. Direct Question Example. ......................................................................................... 261

Figure 22.38. Association. ............................................................................................................... 261

Figure 22.39. Short Explanation Example. ..................................................................................... 261

Figure 22.40. List Example. ............................................................................................................ 262

Figure 22.41. Picture or Diagram Example. .................................................................................... 262

22.11. Essay Items. ............................................................................................................... 262

Figure 22.42. Guided Essay Item. ................................................................................................... 265

22.12. Checklist for Writing Essay or Short Answer Questions. ......................................... 265

Figure 22.43. Checklist for Writing Short-Answer and Essay Items. ............................................. 266

Figure 22.44. Short Answer or Essay Item. .................................................................................... 266

Figure 22.45. Corrected Essay Test Item. ....................................................................................... 267

22.13. Assembling the Test. .................................................................................................. 267

22.14. Administering the Test. .............................................................................................. 267

22.15. Scoring Supply Items. ................................................................................................ 268

22.16. Scoring Essay Test Items. .......................................................................................... 268

Figure 22.46. Sample Essay Test Question. .................................................................................... 270

Figure 22.47. Sample Scoring Key for Essay Test Items. ............................................................... 270

22.17. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 271

Chapter 23—MEASURING LEARNING OUTCOMES 272

23.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 272

23.2. Overview and Review. ............................................................................................... 272

Figure 23.1. Sample Knowledge-Level Test Question. ................................................................ 273

Figure 23.2. Sample Comprehension-Level Test Question. ......................................................... 274
14 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 23.3. Sample Test Questions at the Comprehension Level. .............................................. 275

23.3. Test-Writing Process. ................................................................................................. 276

23.4. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 277

Chapter 24—EVALUATION BY RATING 278

24.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 278

Figure 24.1. Rating Scale. ............................................................................................................. 278

24.2. Rating Methods. ......................................................................................................... 279

Figure 24.2. Descriptive Scale for Rating Student Performance. ................................................. 279

Figure 24.3. Examples of Typical Forms of the Graphic Scale. ................................................... 281

Figure 24.4. Checklist for Rating Proficiency in Instrument Flying. ............................................ 282

Figure 24.5. Product Scale. ........................................................................................................... 283

Figure 24.6. Single Block of Forced-Choice Instrument. ............................................................. 284

24.3. Constructing the Rating Device. ................................................................................ 285

Figure 24.7. Example of a Rating System for Two Duty Assignments. ....................................... 287

24.4. Common Rating Errors. ............................................................................................. 287

24.5. Classifying Rating Errors. .......................................................................................... 287

Figure 24.8. Error of Central Tendency. ....................................................................................... 288

Figure 24.9. Error of Standards. .................................................................................................... 289

Figure 24.10. Halo or Horns Error. ................................................................................................. 290

Figure 24.11. Logical Error Ratings. ............................................................................................... 291

24.6. Improving Ratings. .................................................................................................... 291

24.7. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 291

Chapter 25—CRITERION-REFERENCED EVALUATION 292

25.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 292

25.2. A CRT Reporting Format. ......................................................................................... 292

Figure 25.1. Simple Reporting Format for CRT Test Data. .......................................................... 293

Figure 25.2. Detailed Reporting Format for CRT Data. ............................................................... 294

Figure 25.3. Summary Table of Mastery or Nonmastery by Curriculum Objectives. .................. 294

25.3. CRT Item Analysis. ................................................................................................... 296

Figure 25.4. Ease Index Formula. ................................................................................................. 297
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 15

Figure 25.5. Percent of Correct Responses to Test Items. ............................................................ 298

25.4. Group CRT Data as a Management Tool. ................................................................. 299

25.5. Characteristics of CRT Evaluation. ........................................................................... 299

Figure 25.6. Three Usable Approaches to Determine Validity. .................................................... 300

Figure 25.7. Possible Problems Causing Lack of Differentiation. ................................................ 301

25.6. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 301

Chapter 26—NORM-REFERENCED ANALYSIS 303

Section 26A Overview 303

26.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 303

Section 26B Grading Methods 303

26.2. Overview. ................................................................................................................... 303

Figure 26.1. Tabulation of a Frequency Distribution. ................................................................... 304

26.3. Rank-Order Grades. ................................................................................................... 304

Figure 26.2. Computation of Rank-Order Grades. ........................................................................ 305

26.4. Percentile-Rank Grades. ............................................................................................ 306

Table 26.1. Computation of Percentile-Rank Grade. ................................................................... 307

26.5. Percentile-Group Grades. ........................................................................................... 308

Table 26.2. Computation of Several Percentile-Group Grades with Different Percentage 

Groupings. ................................................................................................................ 309

26.6. Arithmetic Mean. ....................................................................................................... 310

26.7. Standard Deviation. ................................................................................................... 310

Table 26.3. Computation of Mean, Standard Deviation, Standard Scores, and T-Scores. .......... 311

26.8. Standard Score. .......................................................................................................... 312

26.9. T-Scores. .................................................................................................................... 312

26.10. Grading Methods Compared. ..................................................................................... 313

Figure 26.3. Raw Scores Made by Two Students. ........................................................................ 313

Figure 26.4. Rank-Order Scores Made by Same Two Students. ................................................... 314

Figure 26.5. Percentile-Rank Scores Made by Same Two Students. ............................................ 314

Figure 26.6. T-Score Grades Made by Same Two Students. ........................................................ 315

Figure 26.7. Comparison of Grading Methods. ............................................................................ 316
16 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 26.8. Weighted Scores Made by Same Two Students. ...................................................... 317

Section 26C Effectiveness of Individual Test Items 317

26.11. Ease Index of Test Items. ........................................................................................... 317

26.12. Simple Formula for Ease Index. ................................................................................ 317

Figure 26.9. Distribution of Responses to Test Item. .................................................................... 318

26.13. Interpreting the Ease Index: ....................................................................................... 318

26.14. Differentiation Index (DI) of Test Items. ................................................................... 319

26.15. Computing Differentiation Index. .............................................................................. 319

26.16. Interpreting the Differentiation Index. ....................................................................... 320

26.17. Analyzing All Responses To a Test Item. ................................................................. 320

Figure 26.10. Analysis of All Responses To a Test Item. ............................................................... 321

26.18. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 322

Chapter 27—USING FEEDBACK IN THE CLASSROOM 323

27.1. Introduction: ............................................................................................................... 323

27.2. Definition and Theory. ............................................................................................... 323

27.3. Giving Feedback to Students. .................................................................................... 324

27.4. Characteristics of Effective Feedback: ...................................................................... 324

27.5. Methods of Giving Feedback. .................................................................................... 326

Figure 27.1. Ground Rules To Aid the Instructor in Giving Feedback. ........................................ 328

27.6. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 328

Chapter 28—STUDENT DIFFERENCES 329

28.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 329

28.2. Match the Method to the Student. .............................................................................. 329

28.3. Match Students to the Planned Learning Experience. ............................................... 329

28.4. Combining the Two Approaches. .............................................................................. 330

28.5. Group Differences. ..................................................................................................... 330

28.6. Individual Differences. .............................................................................................. 332

Figure 28.1. Techniques for Motivating Students. ........................................................................ 334

Figure 28.2. Benefits Associated With Grading System. .............................................................. 336

Figure 28.3. Elements Found in Learning Contracts. ................................................................... 338

Figure 28.4. Personalized Instruction. ........................................................................................... 340
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 17

28.7. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 341

Chapter 29—THE DYNAMICS OF SMALL LEARNING GROUPS 342

Section 29A Overview 342

29.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 342

29.2. Small Learning Group Defined. ................................................................................. 342

Section 29B Small-Group Learning Influences 342

29.3. Benefits of Small-Group Learning. ........................................................................... 342

29.4. Norms. ........................................................................................................................ 343

29.5. Cohesiveness. ............................................................................................................. 343

29.6. Increasing Cohesiveness. ........................................................................................... 344

29.7. Consensus. ................................................................................................................. 344

Section 29C Roles of Class Members and Instructors 345

29.8. Class Member Roles. ................................................................................................. 345

29.9. Dealing with Nonproductive Roles. ........................................................................... 346

29.10. Dealing with Nonproductive Groups. ........................................................................ 347

29.11. Student Needs. ........................................................................................................... 347

29.12. The Instructor As Leader. .......................................................................................... 348

Figure 29.1. Instructor Task and Maintenance Roles. ................................................................... 348

29.13. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 349

Chapter 30—THE INSTRUCTOR AS A HELPER 350

Section 30A Overview 350

30.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 350

30.2. Counseling Defined. .................................................................................................. 350

30.3. Counseling as a Process. ............................................................................................ 350

30.4. The Helping Relationship. ......................................................................................... 351

30.5. Improvement or Change in Student Behavior. .......................................................... 351

30.6. Student Requests for Assistance. ............................................................................... 351

Section 30B The Helping Relationship 351

30.7. Importance of the Helping Relationship. ................................................................... 351

30.8. The Counseling Environment. ................................................................................... 351
18 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

30.9. Stages of a Helping Interview. ................................................................................... 352

30.10. Instructor Attitudes. ................................................................................................... 353

30.11. Interviewing Skills. .................................................................................................... 354

Section 30C Counseling Approaches 355

30.12. Overview. ................................................................................................................... 355

30.13. Cognitive Approach. .................................................................................................. 356

30.14. Behavioral Approach. ................................................................................................ 357

30.15. Affective Approach. ................................................................................................... 357

Section 30D Referrals and Communications 358

30.16. Referral. ..................................................................................................................... 358

30.17. Communications Between Instructors and Students in a Counseling Environment: 359

30.18. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 359

Chapter 31—SELF-CONCEPT 361

31.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 361

31.2. Description of the Self-Concept. ............................................................................... 361

31.3. Formation of the Academic Self-Concept. ................................................................ 362

31.4. Self-Concept Defense Mechanisms. .......................................................................... 364

31.5. Enhancing the Self-Concept: ..................................................................................... 365

31.6. Suggestions for Improving Self-Concepts: ................................................................ 365

31.7. Summary. ................................................................................................................... 367
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 19

Attachment 1—GLOSSARY OF REFERENCES AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION 368

Attachment 2—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR FORMAL LECTURE METHOD 389

Attachment 3—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR INFORMAL LECTURE METHOD 396

Attachment 4—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR GUIDED DISCUSSION METHOD 

PROBLEM-SOLUTION PATTERN 404

Attachment 5—EXAMPLES OF CASE METHOD OBJECTIVES WITH CASE 

ELEMENTS 412

Attachment 6—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR CASE STUDY METHOD 

PROBLEM-SOLUTION PATTERN 414

Attachment 7—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR CASE STUDY METHOD 

TOPICAL PATTERN 425

Attachment 8—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHING INTERVIEW 434

Attachment 9—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR DEMONSTRATION-PERFORMANCE 

METHOD 442

Attachment 10—EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 

LEARNING GAME 449

Attachment 11—FEEDBACK FOR STUDENT SPEAKING 458

Attachment 12—GUIDELINES FOR PROVIDING FEEDBACK ON STUDENT WRITING 460
20 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 1 

THE AIR FORCE INSTRUCTOR 

1.1. Introduction. This manual provides the practical information needed to teach adult students. While

it applies to most adult education situations, the emphasis is on a military setting. The manual was written

and tested at the Air Force's Academic Instructor School at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. 

1.1.1. As a new instructor, you will find the manual useful because it summarizes the best of what

experts in education have written. If you have been to a library for material on teaching recently, you

were probably bewildered by the array of topics and the number of specialized texts. 

1.1.2. This manual concentrates on the "academic" classroom. While it is hard to clearly distinguish

between technical and academic instruction, you might find the following comparison useful. Technical instruction normally includes a much higher proportion of the full range of theory and skills the

graduate will need. When technical students are tested, the instructor can be sure of what they can do;

the instructor has "proof" they have mastered the course material. In academic instruction, the course

usually has a more general range of possible skills, objectives, and content. Unlike technical instruction, the course often has no "cap," and students are encouraged to go beyond the minimum stated

objectives. Instead of having technical instruction's "proof" of learning, the academic classroom often

has only samples of learning as evidence. Instructors must often be satisfied with a sampling process

when designing individual class periods and evaluating student achievement. The process of sampling

is further discussed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 (planning lessons) and Chapter 21 through Chapter

25 (evaluation). 

NOTE: Do not expect to learn everything you need to know about teaching solely from a manual. Extensive as this manual may appear, it cannot provide you with the final stages of the process—teaching and

being judged on your teaching skills. Even experienced instructors can profit from constructive feedback—from other teachers and students—on their lesson preparation and presentation. 

1.2. Curriculum Planning. The official Air Force process for curriculum planning is Instructional System Development (ISD). ISD is a deliberate and orderly but flexible process for planning, developing, and

managing high quality instructional programs. It is a sound approach which has been successful in a variety of civilian and military contexts. Figure 1.1. is a model of the functions and phases of ISD. The five

functions of ISD are: management, support, administration, delivery, and evaluation. The four phases in

the ISD process are: analysis, design, development, and implementation. All of the functions and phases

occur within a quality environment that has both external and internal constraints imposed upon it. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 21

Figure 1.1. Air Force Model for Instructional Systems Development. 

1.2.1. These functions and phases are described in detail in AFMAN 36-2234, Instructional Systems

Development, and AFH 36-2235, Information for Designers of Instructional Systems, Volumes 1

through 11. This does not duplicate these publications but complements them by spelling out the

instructor's tasks and responsibilities related to classroom work. Use AFMAN 36-2234 and AFH

36-2235 when planning curriculum. 

1.2.2. The phases in the ISD process are used as an organizing theme in this manual. Understanding

the four phases will help you see how your efforts fit into the total curriculum or "instructional system" for your school or course. When planning individual lessons, be aware of how the school determined the objectives and join in the process of validating them. When evaluation results are in, study

them for possible use in modifying the course. Not all instructors have the same degree of involvement in curriculum planning. Nor is it intended that reviewing this manual would qualify you as an

ISD specialist. Courses for specialists in ISD more fully explain the principles and techniques presented in AFMAN 36-2234 and AFH 36-2235. 

1.3. Instructor Skills Useful In Other Duties. Military personnel often comment on the value of

instructor training for more general duties as an NCO or an officer. Air Force supervisors, like instructors,

must give briefings, communicate in groups, counsel subordinates, and evaluate performance. Students or

graduates of the resident course often comment on the value of areas such as counseling and human relations in assignments other than instructing. While you may find material in this manual helps develop

such skills, it is included primarily because it is necessary for the successful instructor. 

1.4. The Air Force Approach To Academic Instruction. A major theme of this manual is the focus on

the students, rather than the instructors or the subject matter. This focus requires student-centered objectives and conscious attention to how the students react to the instruction received. For efficient instruction, students need feedback that reinforces learning while identifying and correcting errors. Students
22 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

need the opportunity to try what has been taught. Too often, instruction is limited to the delivery of information, either through reading assignments, lectures, films, or type 0 and type 1 computer-based training.

Academic instruction should allow adult learners to practice what has been taught, receive feedback on

their performance, and incorporate improvement as they move on to new material. 

1.4.1. Evidence of Successful Teaching. In the approach presented in this manual, the only acceptable evidence that successful teaching has taken place comes from indications of change in student

behavior. As important as good texts, lectures, and audiovisual materials are, they are only part of the

process. At least as important is feedback to the student in the form of encouragement, comments on

written papers, correction of mistakes, and similar teaching activities. Instructors must plan opportunities for observing student work so they can provide timely feedback. Feedback in technical courses

is common but is often overlooked in academic classrooms. In addition to feedback from the instructor, a well-designed course can include features such as self-tests and evaluation checklists that allow

"self-correction" by the students. 

1.4.2. Creativity in the Classroom. Creativity is the imaginative combining of known elements into

something new and useful. One of the charges often made against military instruction is that it is too

traditional and lacks creativity; dry-as-dust presentations are more like briefings than real teaching

lectures. Instructors who are stiff and expressionless fail to communicate fully, forcing students to

memorize and recite low-level information. Hopefully, these type of military classes are largely things

of the past. However, we must guard against becoming complacent. Modern technology may turn our

well-intended teaching efforts into briefings or "talking heads" presentations. As such, we must constantly be aware of the barriers to our creativity. 

1.4.3. Barriers to Creativity. A barrier is something that inhibits our ability to be free, natural, and

spontaneous, thereby decreasing the opportunity for creative ideas. Recognizing and understanding

various barriers is the first step in overcoming them. 

1.4.3.1. Experts have identified four broad categories of barriers to creativity—inertia, fear, prejudice, and habit. Inertia causes many of us to continue doing what we are now doing unless we are

challenged. Instructors who are afraid to be different may avoid attracting attention by leaving

things as they are. Instructors who are prejudiced reject new approaches and methods because they

automatically prejudge anything new without trying it. Habit is a very real problem for Air Force

instructors. Courses may be taught the same way time after time—not because the course is a good

one, but because "that's how it's always been done." 

1.4.3.2. Air Force instructors, then, should be creative instructors, who know when to be guided

by time-tested methods and when to strike out boldly in new directions. 

1.5. Overview of Manual. This manual should be read from chapter to chapter in order. This allows the

new instructor to benefit most from what this manual has to offer. Many of the chapters build on information presented earlier. You may find it difficult to understand a particular chapter if read out of sequence;

but if you know what you are looking for, you can go directly to the appropriate chapter. 

1.5.1. Lesson Planning chapters (Chapter 2 through Chapter 6, and Chapter 10) introduce the theory and practice of writing student-centered objectives for academic instruction. The system of lesson

planning combines both behavioral and cognitive learning theories. Because student behavior in the

academic setting represents more than what simply meets the eye, it is important to plan for changes
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 23

in the level of student learning. The techniques presented will prepare you to plan for lessons designed

to develop skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes. 

1.5.2. Lesson Development chapters (Chapter 7 through Chapter 9) develop, organize, and support

academic lessons. We must plan carefully to achieve different levels of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Several approaches and patterns of lesson development promote student learning. Regardless of

how well we write learning objectives, poor lesson development can hinder or even prevent desired

learning outcomes. 

1.5.3. While the academic instructor has a wide variety of methods available, Instructional Media and

Methods chapters (Chapter 11 through Chapter 20) focus on several of the most valuable—Teaching

Lecture, Guided Discussion, Case Study, Teaching Interview, Demonstration-Performance, and Experiential Method of Instruction. Chapter 19, Selecting Teaching Methods, presents other methods in

less detail. In addition, the questioning chapter focuses on the skills of classroom questioning which

are fundamental to nearly all methods of instruction. 

1.5.4. The Evaluation chapters (Chapter 21 through Chapter 27) introduce the two major

approaches to evaluation—Norm Referenced (comparing individual student performance to that of the

group) and Criterion Referenced (comparing individual student performance to a predetermined

objective or standard). These chapters introduce several ways to measure student performance and

discuss the human element involved in providing meaningful feedback to students. 

1.5.5. Chapter 28 through Chapter 31 deals with the learner rather than the learning process. No

instructional system can succeed unless student needs are taken into account. We must address these

needs whether we are planning for group or individualized learning. Instructors have a responsibility

to establish a helping relationship with students. 

1.6. Summary. This manual is a fresh rethinking of a complex and not completely understood subject—

how to teach in the academic classroom so Air Force people will be more effective on the job. No book on

this subject can have all the answers. But those who study this manual carefully will know the standard

terminology and be able to ask and answer many of the right questions. With the help of this manual,

instead of improvising in the classroom, we can approach our teaching job more systematically. 
24 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 2 

LEARNING THEORY 

2.1. Introduction. Learning means many things to many people. To some, learning is simply a change in

behavior as a result of experience; to others, it is something more difficult to see and measure which

involves changing thinking processes. We learn to name objects as children and solve complex problems

as adults. We learn attitudes and values. We can even learn to learn by improving study skills. But, how do

we explain learning? Can any one theory of learning explain how we have learned all of what we can do,

what we know, and why our attitudes and values are what they are? More importantly, what do we need to

know about learning theory to be effective Air Force instructors? 

2.2. A Historical View. Many theories try to explain how we learn, but psychologists and educators do

not totally agree on any one of them. Most agree, however, that learning is best explained by one or a

combination of two theories: behaviorism or cognitive theory. 

2.2.1. Behaviorism. We know that all animals can learn. Many psychologists and educators believe

that all animals, including humans, learn in about the same way. Behaviorists believe that we learn by

having our behavior reinforced, and that our behavior can be shaped or controlled by external stimuli.

In the classroom, the external stimuli are the instructors. If what we do as students is positively reinforced, we will learn to do it better and more often. If we get no reinforcement, or are punished for

something we do, we tend to stop doing it. Therefore, in general, instructors can shape or modify a

student's behavior by rewarding (encouraging the behavior) or punishing (inhibiting the behavior). It

has been shown that positive reinforcement is a very strong tool for increasing a behavior. This suggests that, as instructors, we should reward the behavior students exhibit that we wish to see them continue to perform. 

2.2.1.1. The technical features of behaviorism are far more complex than this simple explanation.

Those of us who need understanding of behaviorism and its principles, especially authors of programmed instruction and other self-paced learning materials, should read the works of B. F. Skinner and Holland. As classroom instructors, though, we need to realize the importance of

controlling learning experiences by manipulating the classroom environment (stimuli) which

gives our students a chance to behave or perform (respond) in the way we desire and can reward

(reinforce). 

2.2.1.2. Behaviorism can certainly be used to explain the way our students learn much of what we

teach. We need to be aware of the importance of stimulus, response, and reinforcement as they

affect our classrooms. Whether or not we view ourselves as behaviorists, these are important concepts to consider as we plan, deliver, and evaluate instruction. 

2.2.2. Cognitive Theory. Much of psychological thinking and experimentation today falls into the

general category of cognitive psychology. Unlike the behaviorists, the cognitive psychologists are

very concerned about what is going on inside the learner. Learning is not just a change in behavior; it

is a change in the way a student thinks, performs, and/or feels. Learning can be measured in terms of

behavior. But the behavior only represents learning; it is not equal to the learning in this theory. 

2.2.2.1. Motivation, generalization, insight, and discovery are significant concepts to cognitive

theorists. Instructors have the responsibility to set up an environment that motivates students. Fur-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 25

thermore, we must plan learning experiences that allow students to go beyond simple recall and

cause students to gain an insight of what they study. 

2.2.2.2. Like the behaviorists, the cognitive psychologists acknowledge the importance of reinforcing behavior and measuring changes. We need to measure behavior because it is the only way

we can get a clue about what the student thinks, feels, and/or can do. While students may be able

to do much more with what we teach than we are able to test, we still have to measure what we

can. And, what we measure is usually limited to the kinds of behavior we can capture with a

paper-and-pencil test or a performance exam. There will be errors as we try to measure these

behavioral indicators, but since understanding and feelings cannot be measured directly we have

little choice. Since we want to quantify learning, we have to measure and interpret student behavior. 

2.3. Combining the Approaches. Both the behaviorist and cognitive approaches are useful learning theories. We can see from the two brief descriptions that each theory has contributed to the way we plan,

deliver, and evaluate Air Force instruction. Perhaps the best approach to planning and managing instruction is to include features of each major theory. Retaining the notion of cognitive learning while measuring behavioral outcomes seems to be the most workable approach. We can plan for low or high order

cognitive outcomes and determine if these outcomes have been achieved by measuring and interpreting

behavior. We often say that students really understand something because they can do this or that. Therefore, we can plan for cognitive learning, but we must use behavioral evidence to measure the learning. 

2.3.1. Several approaches for planning instruction exist that combine cognitive concepts and behavioral evidence of learning. This manual presents an approach for writing and measuring cognitive levels of learning that stresses the need to specify and measure behavior. We will use the cognitive

taxonomy of Dr Benjamin Bloom as a frame of reference to plan instruction and to give us a better

understanding of the range of possible cognitive learning outcomes. By using this taxonomy, or classification of learning outcomes, we will carefully specify behaviors that will give us reasonable evidence of learning at the various levels of knowledge and understanding. Figure 2.1. contains the basic

description of the cognitive domain according to Bloom. The approach to using this taxonomy will be

explained in considerable detail throughout this manual. 
26 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 2.1. Levels of Knowledge and Understanding. 

2.3.2. A similar scheme for specifying attitudinal objectives has been developed by Dr. David R.

Krathwohl (Figure 2.2.). Like the Bloom taxonomy, Krathwohl attempts to arrange attitudinal objectives in an order of difficulty. We can then attach behavioral evidence to the various levels of this taxonomy for purposes of measurement. Chapter 10 provides ways in which this taxonomy may be

useful for planning instructional objectives that deal with attitudes. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 27

Figure 2.2. Levels of Attitude and Values. 

2.3.3. There are several taxonomies that deal with cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning.

However, this manual will use the Cognitive Taxonomy by Bloom and the Affective Taxonomy by

Krathwohl. It will not deal with psychomotor skills to any significant degree (Figure 2.3.). 
28 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 2.3. Levels of Skill. 

2.4. Summary. While we can plan for different levels of understanding and attitude development, we

must measure student behavior. The behaviorists have taught us the value of several basic learning concepts including stimulus, response, and reinforcement. We need to plan instruction that capitalizes on

these sound concepts. 

2.4.1. In addition, we must remember that behavior represents a sample of learning in many cases. It

is possible to change viewpoints, increase understanding, or affect the way a student feels about something. These changes in the student cannot be observed and must be inferred from observed behavior.

As such, we must determine learning outcomes that provide evidence that we are doing our jobs as

instructors. We have no choice then, but to measure behavioral indicators, which we will accept as

evidence of learning. 

2.4.2. The system presented here combines several essential elements of behavioral and cognitive

learning theory. It is not simple, but neither is learning; however, it is workable. Years of experience

with this and other similar systems indicate that Air Force instructors can use it to plan, prepare,

deliver, and evaluate effective instruction. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 29

Chapter 3 

WRITING STUDENT-CENTERED OBJECTIVES AND TESTS 

3.1. Introduction. When we are deciding what to teach and how we're going to measure our success in

the teaching environment, it isn't enough to simply determine who our students are, what they will need to

know, or how we will present the material to them. When our planning stops there, we've failed to consider the most important element of the lesson-planning process—what our students will be able to do

once they have received and processed the information we present. 

3.1.1. It doesn't necessarily follow that what we present in class is what the student will learn. This

belief has driven our public educational system for years, in violation of our most basic intuitions.

When we break down the teaching process into its basic elements we realize that, just as in any form

of human communication, there is always the possibility of transmitting false messages or receiving

misunderstood symbols in the teaching-learning relationship. Without effective and meaningful feedback to both the teacher and the student, the resultant problem will go undetected and uncorrected. 

3.1.2. For this reason, we advocate a change from the traditional model that places all the responsibility for learning on the student. According to this older model, if the student doesn't get the message, it

is the student's fault. To underscore this, we have even listed the teacher's activities, responsibilities,

and objectives in the lesson plan implying that if the teacher does what is required, then the student

will be "educated." Notice that when we design instruction completely in terms of teacher behaviors,

there is little room for checking feedback the students can give us by way of behavioral change or

improved abilities after the instruction has taken place. 

3.1.3. Our current model attacks the assumption that, in order to plan effective lessons, it is enough to

determine what the teacher must do in the classroom. Education is a shared process. Both the student

and the teacher have certain responsibilities and expectations. But we also stress the primacy of the

teacher's responsibility to plan lessons that bridge the gap between teacher and student responsibilities. And we propose that this gap be bridged by writing objectives that focus on the abilities we want

the student to display after having received the instruction. With student-centered objectives, teachers

are better able to plan teaching activities designed to efficiently impart and display the knowledge we

want the students to learn. 

3.2. Planning For Student-Centered Outcomes. Since the 1950's, there has been a movement within

military and business establishments to promote student-centered instruction through the use of appropriate objectives. As a result, student-centered objectives that describe learning in terms of student outcomes

versus instructor inputs have been used for four generations of Air Force personnel. Contributing to the

widespread acceptance of this new model are publications such as AFMAN 36-2234, Instructional Systems Development, AFH 36-2235, Volumes 1 through 11, and this manual. All of these have capitalized

on the experience and principles gleaned from civilian texts used in public and private industries for

years. 

3.2.1. With the continued push for accountability in expenditures, the trend toward student-centered

instruction is sure to continue. We have found that this approach is "results driven," goal oriented, and

client centered. It is so much more effective in meeting our educational goals that it is the Air Force

standard. Moreover, since student learning is defined in terms of objectives, our measurement of success in instructing is now based on comparing student performance to the objectives rather than on
30 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

comparing students to each other in a given class. Hence, we have a more accurate, objective, and stable foundation on which to make academic judgments about our students and predictions of their

future success. 

3.2.2. As stated earlier, learning may be defined as a change in behavior based on instruction. If this

is true, our students should perform differently after receiving instruction. Moreover, if we have used

student-centered objectives, that behavior should be what we predicted it would be. Table 3.1. and

Table 3.2. are examples of educational taxonomies used when writing objectives. These educational

taxonomies help instructors classify student learning outcomes. Figure 3.1., on the other hand, helps

instructors classify student learning outcomes in the training field. Figure 3.2. compares the various

learning outcomes as presented in Table 3.1., Table 3.2., and Figure 3.1. We will be able to demonstrate our students' success in learning by having them complete an evaluation that demonstrates the

same physical or mental skill described in the objective. But how do we write lesson objectives? Paragraph 3.3. provides information on writing lesson objectives. 

Table 3.1. Cognitive Taxonomy. (note) 

NOTE: Adapted from "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Handbook I: Cognitive Domain," ed. B. S.

Bloom, et al, New York; David McKay, 1956. 

L

I

N

E 

A B 

Level of Learning Definition 

1 Knowledge Recall previously learned material (facts, theories, etc.) in essentially 

the same form as taught. 

2 Comprehension See relationships, concepts, and abstractions beyond the simple 

remembering of material. Typically involves translating, interpreting, 

and estimating future trends. 

3 Application Use learned intellectual material in new and realistic situations, 

including the application of rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, 

and theories. 

4 Analysis Break down material into its component parts so that the organizational 

structure may be understood, including the identification of the parts, 

analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the 

organizational principles involved. 

5 Synthesis Put parts together to form new patterns or structures, such as a unique 

communication (a theme or speech), a plan of operations (a research 

proposal), or a set of abstract relations (schemes for classifying 

information). 

6 Evaluation Judge the value of material for a given purpose. Learning in this area is 

the highest in the cognitive hierarchy because it involves elements of 

all the other categories, plus conscious value judgments based on 

clearly defined criteria. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 31

Table 3.2. Types of Learning. 

L A B 

I

N

E Learning Categories Proof of Learning 

1 Forming Associations Associate, name, or respond to a specific input (stimulus). The person 

associates the response with a specific input only. The response may be 

vocal, subvocal (say it to yourself), written, or motor. 

2 Forming Chains Recall sequences of actions or procedures that must be recalled in a 

specific order. In a chain, the response to one input becomes the input 

to the next response. This may involve chains of verbal responses or 

chains of motor responses. 

3 Making Discriminations Make different responses to the various members of a particular class; 

it means being able to distinguish among input information sources 

and/or types and then respond appropriately to each. 

4 Making Classification Respond in a single way to all members of a particular class of 

observable or abstract events. This involves recognizing the essential 

similarity among a class of objects, people, events, or abstractions and 

recognizing the differences separating those objects, people, events, or 

abstractions that are not members of the class. 

5 Using Rules Apply rules to a given situation or condition by responding to a class of 

inputs with a class of actions. A rule states the particular relationship 

between two or more simpler concepts. It is helpful to think of rules as 

"if-then" statements. 

6 Problem Solving Compare previously learned rules to create a higher order rule. 
32 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 3.1. Air Force Proficiency Code. 

PROFICIENCY CODE KEY 

SCALE 

VALUE DEFINITION: The Individual 

1 Can do simple parts of the task. Needs to be told or shown how to do 

most of the task. (EXTREMELY LIMITED) 

2 Can do most parts of the task. Needs help only on hardest part. 

TASK (PARTIALLY PROFICIENT) 

PERFORMANCE 

LEVELS

3 Can do all parts of the task. Needs only a spot check of completed work. 

(COMPETENT) 

4 Can do the complete task quickly and accurately. Can tell or show how 

to do the task. (HIGHLY PROFICIENT) 

a Can name parts, tools, and simple facts about the task. 

(NOMENCLATURE) 

b Can determine step-by-step procedures for doing the task. 

*TASK (PROCEDURES) 

KNOWLEDGE 

LEVELS

c Can identify why and when the task must be done and why each step is 

needed. (OPERATING PRINCIPLES) 

d Can predict, isolate, and resolve problems about the task. (COMPLETE 

THEORY) 

A Can identify basic facts and terms about the subject. (FACTS) 

B Can identify relationship of basic facts and state general principles 

**SUBJECT about the subject. (PRINCIPLES) 

KNOWLEDGE 

LEVELS

C Can analyze facts and principles and draw conclusions about the 

subject. (ANALYSIS) 

D Can evaluate conditions and make proper decisions about the subject. 

(EVALUATION) 

EXPLANATIONS 

* A task knowledge scale value may be used alone or with a task performance scale value to define a 

level of knowledge for a specific task. (Examples: b and 1b) 

** A subject knowledge scale value is used alone to define a level of knowledge for a subject not 

directly related to any specific task, or for a subject common to several tasks. 

^ This mark is used alone instead of a scale value to show that no proficiency training is provided in 

the course. 

X This mark is used alone in course columns to show that training is required but not given due to 

limitations in resources. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 33

Figure 3.2. Comparison of Taxonomies of Learning Outcomes. 

3.3. Writing Lesson Objectives: 

3.3.1. Determine Level-of-Learning Objective. It is usually helpful to plan learning systems with a

general-to-specific strategy; that is, by starting with general objectives and ending with very precise

performances. By writing general, but carefully developed, nonbehavioral objectives as the first step

in planning (see Table 3.1.), we are better able to describe the general type of behavior we're looking

for from our students. An example of a nonbehavioral objective at the comprehension level would be,

"The objective of this lesson is for each student to comprehend the Air Force vision statement." Notice

that the verb "comprehend" has two important characteristics. It is nonbehavioral because any student

can comprehend something without doing anything that displays the comprehension and it identifies a

particular level of learning—comprehension. 

3.3.1.1. At this point in the process, we don't want to use behavioral verbs because behavioral

verbs alone cannot tell us the level of learning they describe. It is easy to misinterpret behavioral

verbs in isolation from their specified levels of learning because actions are often performed for

unstated reasons or in response to unrecognizable stimuli. The level of learning identifies the character of the behavior for the teacher and student and prevents misinterpretation. What nonbehavAir Force Air Force 

Cognitive Types of Learning Proficiency Code Proficiency Code 

Types Taxonomy (AFH 36-2235, Subject Task 

of (AFMAN 36-2236, Volume 10, Knowledge Knowledge 

Learning Table 3.1.) Table 3.2.) (Figure 3.1.) (Figure 3.1.) 

Remembering Knowledge Forming Facts Nomenclature 

Associations Procedures 

Forming Chains 

Making 

Discriminations 

Reasoning Comprehension Making 

Classifications 

Principles Operating 

Principles 

Problem Application Using Rules Analysis Complete 

Solving Theory 

Analysis Problem Solving Evaluation 

Synthesis 

Evaluation 
34 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ioral level-of-learning objectives do, then, is describe the nature and context of the behavior. It is

very important to decide the level of learning before we attempt to describe its evidence by precise

behavior. 

3.3.1.2. For example, requiring a student to give a definition would be an ambiguous task without

specifying whether we would accept a verbatim recall of a definition (knowledge level) or require

a definition in his or her own words (comprehension level). In each case, the behavior is "to

define," but recall is a simpler task than understanding which requires, at the very least, an ability

to translate something into your own words. Alternatively, we might even expect students to

derive a definition as a result of problem solving at the end of a course—an even higher level of

learning. When we state the general level of learning at the first step in the writing process in the

design phase, it makes each of the following activities that lead to the anticipated performance

more exact. 

3.3.2. List Indicators (Samples) of Behavior. After we have carefully communicated the level of

learning we want our students to reach, we must decide which student behaviors we will accept as evidence of learning. In physical tasks or simple cognitive learning, the decision is quite simple; there

may be a one-to-one correlation between the behavior required and the real-world activity. For example, in order to measure whether a student knows the spelling of the word "university," we would ask

the student to spell the word. Or to test one's driving skill, the teacher would have the student drive a

car. 

3.3.2.1. In higher level cognitive or affective learning, however, the relationship between student

behavior and the level of learning is not always that clear. We must decide what behaviors are

associated with that thinking skill or attitude we want to measure. We know we cannot directly

measure understanding or attitudes, so we must decide which behaviors give us the best evidence

of learning. Although there is always the danger that we may err in translating learning into behavior, it is a task we must accomplish because the value of measuring learning by its outcomes far

outweighs the risk of error. 

3.3.2.2. We may accept many or just a few student behaviors as evidence of learning. The important thing for us to ensure is that any performance must be comprehensive enough to give reasonable assurance that what we accept as evidence gives a true representation of that knowledge. The

sample performance should provide us a measurable, observable, reliable, and verifiable behavior

that directly relates to the level of learning identified in the lesson objective. 

3.3.2.2.1. The behavior should be significant enough to prove to the instructor that the student

has reached the objective. But what is "significant?" To answer that question, one must consider the complexity of the lesson content. A simple lesson may have multiple samples of

behavior in which each behavior encompasses the entire lesson content or objective. 

3.3.2.2.2. As an example, a knowledge-level lesson designed to teach a list of eight leadership

terms may have performance samples that require the student to name, list, write, identify, etc.,

the eight leadership terms. Each of these behaviors is measurable, observable, reliable, and

verifiable, and encompasses the entire content or objective of the lesson, such as to know eight

specific leadership terms. If, on the other hand, the objective encompasses multiple major topics or areas, you may want the student to exhibit performance behaviors associated with each

topic or area. Chapter 4 and Chapter 10 discuss the concept of sampling cognitive and affective objectives in more detail. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 35

3.3.2.2.3. Consider a comprehension-level lesson on student evaluation that includes areas on

types of evaluation, constructing evaluation instruments, guidelines for using evaluation

instruments, and common errors associated with using evaluation instruments. In this lesson,

you may want to write performance expectations for each of the major topics or areas. When

taken together, the student performances in each of the areas will indicate whether or not the

student has met the overall lesson objective; that is, to comprehend performance evaluation.

Areas needing additional instruction are identified when the student is unable to perform the

expected behavior in a given area or areas. If the student is unable to perform the behaviors for

one or more of the areas that make up an overall lesson objective, then the overall objective is

not being met. The problem areas indicate where additional instruction may be needed. 

3.3.2.2.4. To help clarify what kind and how many samples of behavior are needed, let's compare them to tiles in a mosaic. To accurately portray the image you desire, you need the correct

number, size, and color of tiles. Tiles that are too large will not give the detail you desire and

if they are too small, you may be forever trying to put them all together. Also, the correct color

is required or aspects of the picture will be misrepresented. The same can be said for samples

of behavior. If they are too large and general, they do not pinpoint the behaviors you expect

from your students. If they are too small, you will be forever writing and measuring every

imaginable behavior related to the lesson. A sampling is just that, a representative sample that

proves to you that the student has met your objectives. 

3.3.2.2.5. There needs to be a balance between the two extremes. Ultimately, you must decide

how many and what kinds of behavior you require to convince you the students are where you

intended them to be at the end of the instruction. The more complex the lesson, the more samples you may require. Remember, however, the level-of-learning objective is the ultimate destination, while the samples of behavior are the indicators that tell you if the students are getting

there the way you intended. 

3.3.3. Develop Criterion Tests. The lesson-planning process concludes with the construction of test

items and tests to measure learning. Other chapters discuss this concept in detail. At this point, we

construct test items from samples of behavior to measure our objectives. These test items are one

method we use to gather evidence that students have learned what we intended them to learn. Test

items are written prior to instruction because we will use these requirements to determine what needs

to be taught. For example, if our test item is to identify the phases of the Air Force's ISD Model, determining this test item ahead of time gives us a pretty good idea of what needs to be covered in the lessons we will plan later. The support material in the lesson should enable the student to perform the

samples of behavior (SOB). 

3.3.3.1. Writing a Test Item: 

3.3.3.1.1. The practice of measuring the achievement of stated objectives—known as criterion-referenced testing—is a rigorous process. Because of this rigor, criterion-referenced testing has been accepted only reluctantly and slowly in some sectors of the Air Force even

though student-centered objectives are widely used. Let us take an example of a simple concept—leadership—and demonstrate the results of each of the steps for writing a test item (Figure 3.3.). 
36 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 3.3. Sample Test Item. 

3.3.3.1.2. The construction of many instructional objectives is much more difficult than the

example we've provided here. In some instances, there may be several samples of learned

behavior rather than just one. Objectives, whether written or assumed, can be much more elaborate and may require several paragraphs to describe the requirement. Additionally, there are

many more alternative and complex ways to test learning outcomes than using simple test

items. But regardless of how complex the subject matter or how high the level of learning

might be, this process for developing student-centered objectives and test items works. The

results of this systematic thought process will be consistent with sound educational practice

and will satisfy the critical elements of the design phase in ISD. 

3.3.4. Criterion-Referenced Objectives. As mentioned earlier, the focus of this manual is on the

academic classroom using level-of-learning objectives and samples of behavior. However, instructors

must also be aware of the procedures for writing technical instruction objectives. These tend to be best

expressed as criterion-referenced objectives (CRO) that consist of the performance expected of the

students, the conditions under which they will accomplish it, and the standards they will be held

accountable to. (See Chapter 5 for more details on writing CROs.) Samples of behavior in the academic learning environment are very similar to the performance aspect of a CRO. The difference is

they do not specifically state the conditions or standards. A CRO usually focuses on physical skills

and abilities instead of cognitive processes. 

3.3.4.1. An example of what a CRO might look like is, "Upon completion of instruction, each student will be given a muzzle-loading musket with rammer, three percussion caps, and three cartridges which consist of paper, musket-ball, and black power (conditions). They will load and fire

the musket (performance) 3 times within a 1-minute period. The sequence for loading and firing

must be without instructor assistance and in accordance with the nine steps outlined in the 1862

Step 1. LEVEL-OF-LEARNING OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to know

the meaning of leadership. 

Step 2. SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR: Each student will define leadership. 

Step 3. TEST ITEM: The AFROTC handbook defines leadership as __________. 

 a. The willingness to exercise management control over subordinates. 

 b. The process of inspiring effective individual effort in a group environment toward achieving an 

objective. 

 c. Planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling the capital, material, and human resources 

of an organization. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 37

version of Hardees Manual of Arms (standards)." Just as with the SOB, you can get too detailed in

your description of the performance, conditions, and standards. Some may feel it is understood

that the test will be after the instruction and would leave that statement out. Also, it can be

assumed that the performance will be outside. Others may assume that the student would realize

what a cartridge consists of and therefore not detail its contents. Again, you must decide how

much is enough. You do not want to be too vague with the CRO, but you can also get bogged

down into minute details when dealing with complex CROs. Try to strike the appropriate balance. 

3.3.4.2. CROs, like level-of-learning objectives and the associated samples of behavior, should be

provided to the students prior to instruction. They serve as valuable tools to the students for focusing efforts and telling them what is expected in terms of performance, conditions, and standards.

The actual performance of the students is the test you will use to determine if they have met your

objectives. Tell your students what you are going to teach and what you expect from them—then

do exactly that. 

3.3.5. Organization of Objectives. So far, our discussion has centered on objectives for a single lesson or period of instruction. However, there is usually a hierarchy of objectives associated with

instruction that consists of two or more levels. Top-level outcomes describe the end result of the learning experience and may be stated as goals and/or objectives while developmental objectives are a

series of enabling outcomes that increase the probability of achieving a complex top-level outcome

(AFH 36-2235, Volume 10). 

3.3.5.1. When organizing objectives, you may start with general statements and work toward specific lesson objectives to produce this hierarchy. This allows the students to see how the components of the instruction fit together in a developmental format, what they can expect to achieve

overall, and what the enabling outcomes are for each portion of the instruction. 

3.3.5.2. One way to label the portions of instruction is by: units or periods (individual lessons);

phases or blocks (multiple units that make up a given set of related lessons); areas (blocks of

instruction that make up a major portion of the curriculum such as communication skills); and

course (the overall mission of the instruction). 

3.3.5.3. Each of these levels should have objectives and measurable behaviors, whether stated as

CROs or levels of learning, with related samples of behavior. 

3.4. Summary: 

3.4.1. You are probably in the midst of a difficult transition from teacher-centered to student-centered

instruction because most of your educational experience during early schooling has reflected

teacher-centered instruction. In spite of this tradition, the Air Force has come a long way in specifying

and measuring student-centered learning outcomes. Air Force instructors and other progressive educators have worked to develop appropriate techniques to fully implement the concept of student-centered instruction. While many techniques need further development, a helpful program for

student-centered instructional planning consists of determining level-of-learning objectives, listing

indicators (samples) of behavior, and developing criterion-referenced tests. For technical instruction,

you may want to develop CROs that consist of a student's performance, the conditions they will do it

under, and the standards you will hold them accountable to. 

3.4.2. The lesson planning, methodology, and evaluation chapters of this manual incorporate these

procedures. While there are many approaches to student-centered instructional planning, these strate-
38 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

gies will work. The process of going from general level-of-learning objectives to precise criterion test

items will be explained more fully in the remaining chapters. This chapter has provided an overview

of the system for writing student-centered objectives and tests. With this information, you're in the

right frame of mind for efficiently improving your teaching skills. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 39

Chapter 4 

THE LEVEL-OF-LEARNING LESSON PLANNING PROCESS 

Section 4A—Overview 

4.1. Introduction. In Chapter 3 we introduced a process for developing objectives and criterion-referenced tests. In our examination of this process, we briefly introduced the academic concepts of educational taxonomies, level-of-learning objectives, and samples of behavior. However, instructors must also

be aware of the procedures for writing technical instructional objectives that are called criterion-referenced objectives. This chapter will examine, in more detail, level-of-learning objectives and samples of

behavior in Bloom's cognitive taxonomy. Chapter 10 will then cover this process for the affective taxonomy. 

4.2. Bloom's Cognitive Taxonomy. Before we can begin writing level-of-learning objectives, we need

an understanding of the types of learning outcomes represented by each level of the taxonomy. 

4.2.1. This taxonomy is simply a means of rank ordering learning within the cognitive domain. We

must pass through each of the rank orders or levels as we move to the more complex behaviors. We

must have some knowledge in a subject area before we can comprehend concepts or principles in the

same subject area. We must have comprehension of principles before we can apply these principles to

new situations, and so on up the ladder of the taxonomy. Each of the levels in this rank order forms the

basis for writing level-of-learning objectives, as well as sequencing lessons within a block of instruction. Next, we will begin with the knowledge level of learning and work our way through evaluation. 

4.2.1.1. Knowledge. Knowledge is the recall or recognition of previously learned material (facts,

theories, etc.) essentially in the same form as taught. 

4.2.1.2. Comprehension. Comprehension is defined as seeing relationships, concepts, and

abstractions beyond the simple remembering of material. This typically involves translating, interpreting, and estimating future trends. 

4.2.1.3. Application. Application is the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations, including the application of rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. 

4.2.1.4. Analysis. Analysis is the ability to break down material into its component parts so that

the organizational structure may be understood, including the identification of the parts, analysis

of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved. 

4.2.1.5. Synthesis. Synthesis is the ability to put parts together to form new patterns or structures,

such as a unique communication (a theme or speech), a plan of operations (a research proposal), or

a set of abstract relations (schemes for classifying information). 

4.2.1.6. Evaluation. Evaluation is defined as the ability to judge the value of material for a given

purpose. Learning in this area is the highest in the cognitive hierarchy because it involves elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value judgments based on clearly defined criteria. 

4.2.2. Student performance at the analysis, synthesis, and evaluation levels (when taken together) represents complex problem solving. However, a review of Air Force schools indicates that more than 90

percent of the material taught is at the lower three levels of the taxonomy. This fact is not surprising,

and with a few exceptions, such as our senior PME schools, the situation is as it should be. 
40 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

4.2.2.1. In most cases, the higher levels are more effectively reached through on-the-job experience; therefore, we will concentrate our attention on the lower three levels. (For those instructors

teaching at the three higher levels, we recommend the discussion in the Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives Handbook I: Cognitive Domain, ed. B. S. Bloom, et al, New York: David McKay,

1956). 

4.2.2.2. As mentioned in Chapter 3, we cannot directly observe such general behaviors as knowledge, comprehension, or application. In order to help us write our level-of-learning objectives, let

us look at some key words or phrases which would reflect knowledge, comprehension, and application (Figure 4.1.). 

Figure 4.1. Key Words for Knowledge, Comprehension, and Application Levels. 

Section 4B—Learning Levels 

4.3. Knowledge. At the knowledge level of the taxonomy, we are asking that students recall or remember

information in essentially the same form in which it was given to them. The source of the information has

no bearing on what we expect the student to be able to do to meet our knowledge-level objective. The students may have received the information from lectures, readings, computer-based instruction, video or

audio tapes, or other means. In any case, they simply memorize and store information, which they then

give back to us, essentially verbatim, when evaluated. 

4.4. Comprehension: 

4.4.1. At the comprehension level of the taxonomy, we go beyond simple recall and attempt to attach

a meaning to what is communicated. In doing so, we try to establish relationships between pieces of

information in order to form rules, laws, concepts, principles, and generalizations. Within the comprehension level, we can establish what we might call a mini-taxonomy. Thus, after reaching the knowledge level, students pass through all three levels of comprehension (translation, interpretation, and

extrapolation) before they reach the application level. 

4.4.1.1. Translation. First, we would expect a student to translate material from one form to

another. As an example, we might ask students to tell us in their own words what something

means, ask them to paraphrase a lengthy reading, or ask them to look at a graph or chart and tell us

Knowledge Comprehension Application 

Recall Translate Solve 

Remember Interpret Use 

Recognize Extrapolate Modify 

Memorize Implications Compute 

Store Consequences Construct 

Effects 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 41

verbally, or in writing, what the various parts mean. Or, in a context that we are all familiar with,

we might ask to have a passage written in a foreign language translated into English. We can see

that we have gone a step beyond simply recalling information; we are now asking the students to

give a meaning to what they have learned. 

4.4.1.2. Interpretation. At the second level of comprehension, we are primarily interested in students' abilities to see relationships between various aspects of a communication. In order to interpret, they must first translate what the individual parts mean and then see the relationship between

these parts. We can see the evidence for interpretation when students perform such activities as

making inferences, generalizations, and summations. 

4.4.1.3. Extrapolation. At the third level of comprehension, we want our students to be able to

answer the question, "What would happen if?" That is, we want them to go beyond the literal message contained in the communication and make predictions or extensions of consequences or

trends. These predictions or extensions are based on what is given rather than on information

brought from other experiences. We also expect the students to be able to tell us, with some reasonable degree of accuracy, the probability of their prediction—not statistical probability necessarily, but general probability such as "it would very likely happen" or "it's only slightly probable."

The following illustrates the three levels: 

4.4.1.3.1. Let us assume that we want our students to comprehend the relationship between

factory production and unemployment as illustrated in these two graphs (Figure 4.2.). First,

we would want to be sure the students could translate the information contained in the graphs.

For instance, we might ask students to tell us what Point A on the factory production graph and

what Point B on the unemployment graph represent. If they can successfully read the graph,

they have demonstrated the ability to translate from graphic to verbal or written form. 

Figure 4.2. Relationship Between Factory Production and Unemployment. 

4.4.1.3.2. Our next step, interpretation, would be to ask students to identify the relationship, at

least as illustrated by the two graphs, between factory production and unemployment. Now,

simply knowing the meaning of Point A and Point B is no longer enough; the students must

now see each graph as a whole (that is, factory production has increased, unemployment has

decreased), and then make a generalization concerning their relationship (such as, "as unem-
42 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ployment decreases, factory production goes up" or "there is an inverse relationship between

unemployment and factory production"). 

4.4.1.3.3. Finally, we could evaluate our students' ability to function at the extrapolation level.

Suppose we asked the students the following question: "Based on the trends illustrated in the

two graphs, predict the level of factory production at the end of the first quarter of 2000." We

have asked the students to go beyond the literal communication (the two graphs) and answer

the question, "What would happen if?" If they can extrapolate, students are able to function at

the highest level of comprehension. 

4.4.2. Before we leave comprehension, we should keep in mind two general concepts when writing

objectives at this level: 

4.4.2.1. First, we can think of all levels of the taxonomy above knowledge as increasingly complex levels of understanding. Students can be asked to predict at any of these levels. The predictions become more complex at the higher levels and students will be required to bring in

abstractions from other experiences, such as a general principle or rule of procedure. Again, referring to our graphs, at some higher level of the taxonomy students could bring in many other factors in addition to unemployment, such as interest rates, sales predictions, energy sources, to make

a prediction about factory production. However, at the extrapolation level of comprehension, the

prediction must be based solely on the information the students are given in the literal communication (that is, the two graphs). 

4.4.2.2. Second, if our course is designed to bring students to the application level of learning, we

must ensure in our comprehension level objectives that we bring students through the extrapolation level of comprehension. 

4.5. Application. At the application level of the taxonomy, we ask our students to take the concepts and

principles they formed at the comprehension level and put them to use in new situations. For example,

suppose we just completed a block of instruction in which our students learned to comprehend several

concepts of management and one of the concepts they learned was delegation of authority. We want to

evaluate their application of the concept. We might give them a scenario of an Air Force organization in

which the concept of delegation of authority was violated, causing problems in the organization. We then

ask them to read the scenario and give us their solutions to the problem, but we don't tell them which concept was violated. Our criteria for evaluation is for the students to solve the problem by applying the delegation of authority concept to the organization described in the scenario. 

4.5.1. Many instructors have difficulty in differentiating between application and the higher levels of

comprehension and, indeed, the difference can sometimes be confusing. However, if we keep the following ideas in mind, distinguishing between the two should not be difficult: 

4.5.1.1. At the comprehension level, students can demonstrate the use of a principle or concept

when the principle or concept is identified. At the application level, when given a problem situation, students must identify the concepts and principles involved by themselves and then demonstrate use of the principle or concept in solving the problem. Thus, at the comprehension level,

students demonstrate use of an identified concept or principle. At the application level, students

use the concept or principle when confronted with a problem situation new to them. 

4.5.1.2. For example, in the "delegation of authority" situation, if we tell students that the scenario

involves the misuse of delegation of authority and then tell them to solve the problem, they are
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 43

working at the comprehension level. But, by not telling them which concept is being violated and

by making them come to this determination by themselves, we ensure they are working at the

application level. 

4.5.2. As we have suggested, the application level of the taxonomy is the point where students first

encounter the problem-solving process. Application is, or should be, the level of learning most Air

Force schools attempt to reach. Just because students comprehend concepts and principles, we have

no guarantee they can apply these concepts and principles in new situations. The opportunity for practice of application level-of-learning activities must be provided for our students before we can expect

them to function at this level. 

4.5.3. Before we leave the application level, let us be sure we are clear on an area that often presents

problems to both students and instructors. The word application, used at the cognitive level of learning, is not synonymous with the meaning of the word as we use it in our everyday speech. If we put

this in terms of educational objectives, the term "apply" is not necessarily synonymous with the term

"be able to." We find the confusion most prevalent in dealing with skill development. 

4.5.3.1. Suppose we use the objective: "Be able to solve an algebraic equation for one unknown."

If we think back to our high school or college algebra courses, most of us can remember how we

learned to meet this type of objective. We simply memorized the rules that applied and used these

rules to solve the equation. Seldom was there any effort on our part or the teacher's, to have us

comprehend the meaning behind the rule. 

4.5.3.2. Thus, we could solve the problem, but we were not really at the application level of learning. We often saw the results of this type of learning when we were asked to solve word problems

in algebra or other types of mathematics where we needed a comprehension of the concepts and

principles involved to solve the problem. 

4.5.4. There is a clear implication here for instructors and curriculum developers. If our students are

expected to problem-solve or troubleshoot on the job, then they must be at the application level of

learning. And, to get there, they must have satisfactorily passed through the lower levels of the taxonomy. 

Section 4C—Level-of-Learning Objectives 

4.6. Overview. A level-of-learning (LOL) objective, as introduced in Chapter 3, contains three elements—student centeredness, level of learning, and specific subject. Let us now take a closer look at the

function of each element. 

4.7. Student Centeredness. Because the purpose of any educational objective is to express the outcome

of the lesson in terms of learner behavior, this part of the LOL objective ensures that our focus is on the

word "student." We might want to write this portion of the objective as: "The objective of this lesson is for

each student to... ." However, because this part of the objective is a given, we can infer that all our objectives have this as an opening statement, whether it is actually written or not. 

4.8. LOL. Every objective should state the level of the taxonomy we expect our students to reach by the

end of a period or block of instruction. By using an ISD or systems approach to curriculum development,

this decision may have already been made in the analysis phase. 
44 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

4.9. Specific Subject. LOL objectives may be written to varying degrees of specificity. For example, if

we are writing a LOL objective for an entire block of instruction that could include many hours, our subject might be quite general. Normally, as we write objectives toward smaller and smaller units of instruction, the objectives become more specific. 

4.10. Example of an LOL Objective: 

4.10.1. Let us examine the three elements of the LOL objective as we relate them to an example from

a block of instruction in educational evaluation. We will assume for this example that we plan to

devote 30 hours to achieve our block objective. 

4.10.1.1. Student Centeredness. Note that we chose to not include the statement "The objective

of this lesson is for each student to know (comprehend, apply, etc.) ...", but we see that this statement is implied in each of the objectives in Figure 4.3.

4.10.1.2. LOL. Each objective contains a specific LOL (know, comprehend, or apply), but only

one level is contained in each objective. For this reason, we should always state the highest level

we want our students to reach in the period or block of instruction. 

4.10.1.3. Specific Subject. How specific to make the subject of the lesson normally depends on

two variables—the scope of the content covered by the objective and the LOL. 

4.10.2. In Figure 4.3., the block objective (at the application level) is quite general because of its

broad scope. We would not expect our students to meet this objective until after many hours of

instruction. At the other end of the scale (the knowledge level), both Period 1 and Period 2 objectives

are very specific. Our basic guideline here is to make objectives as specific as possible: the more specific the objective, the easier it will be to plan lessons and assess achievement of the objective. 

Figure 4.3. Example Level-of-Learning Objectives. 

Block Objective—Apply the principles of test construction, performance rating, and test analysis 

to assess student achievement of objectives. 

Period 1 (2 hours) Know the mechanics for writing selection (multiple-choice, true-false, and 

matching) and supply (essay, short answer, and completion) test questions. 

Period 2 (2 hours) Know the procedures for planning, constructing, and grading selection and supply 

tests. 

Period 3 (2 hours) Comprehend that testing is a useful tool in assessing achievement of student 

learning. 

Period 4 (4 hours) Apply principles and techniques of classroom test construction to measure student 

achievement. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 45

4.10.3. Note that the block objective includes three major elements of content: principles of test construction, performance rating, and test analysis. Up to this point we have dealt with only the first element of our block objective (that is, principles of test construction). We would then proceed to write

period objectives for performance rating and test analysis. We will not continue this procedure in this

example, but the same logical progression would be used—starting our students at the knowledge

level and progressing through application. 

Section 4D—Samples of Behavior 

4.11. Overview. We have discussed our inability to directly observe students knowing, comprehending,

or applying. However, both instructors and students need to know how well the student met the LOL

objectives. Thus, we need a vehicle that will give us a base on which to plan our evaluation of achieving

LOL objectives. This vehicle is called a sample of behavior. 

4.12. Defining a Sample of Behavior: 

4.12.1. We can define a sample of behavior as a statement that specifies one of several measurable,

observable, reliable, and verifiable behaviors that students should be able to demonstrate at the end of

a period or block of instruction and which gives us significant evidence they have achieved our objectives. These samples eventually become the basis for our evaluation, most often in the form of test

questions. The actual process of converting these samples to test questions is covered in Chapter 22. 

4.12.2. The word evidence is the key here. There may be a great variety of behaviors we would expect

students to demonstrate to us as evidence that, for example, they comprehend a concept or principle.

In fact, there would be far more ways than we could ever have time to observe and evaluate. For this

reason, we list a reasonable number (a sampling) of behaviors that are as equivalent in nature as we

can possibly make them. We conclude that if students can demonstrate these behaviors, they will be

able to demonstrate others. This sampling procedure is the same as any other sampling procedure—

the larger the sample, the greater confidence we can put in the evidence obtained. 

4.12.3. Certain behavioral verbs lend themselves for use at each level of the taxonomy. A partial list

is in Figure 4.4.
46 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 4.4. Behavioral Verbs. 

4.12.4. When we use any of these verbs in a sample of behavior, we cannot guarantee that the sample

is written at any particular level of learning. The activity following the behavioral verb determines the

level at which the student will respond to the sample. The whole sample of behavior must be looked

at in context. But, as a general rule, we use these type of verbs at each level. 

4.12.5. As a corollary, the same verb may be used at several different levels of the taxonomy. For

example, consider the word "identify." In Figure 4.4., this word is shown at the knowledge level

because it is primarily associated with this level. Now, let's look at how this word could be used at

three different levels of the taxonomy. 

4.12.5.1. In Figure 4.5., our sample is only calling for recall of specific information. 

Figure 4.5. Recall of Information. 

4.12.5.2. In Figure 4.6., we are giving the students three examples of student learning outcomes

they have not seen before. Their job then is to see the relationship between what they have learned

about criterion objectives and the three statements. 

Level of Learning Sample Behavioral Verbs

Knowledge List, name, match, describe, define, state, outline, identify, select, explain, give an 

example 

Comprehension Explain, compare, contrast, differentiate, predict, summarize, generalize, 

paraphrase, distinguish, solve, compute, identify, give an example 

Application Solve, compute, prepare, use, develop, construct, modify, conduct, identify, teach 

Knowledge 

Objective: Know the five phases in the ISD process. 

Sample of Behavior: Name the five phases in the ISD process. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 47

Figure 4.6. Understanding Information. 

4.12.5.3. In Figure 4.7., we have asked the student to solve a problem (identify the solution) by

applying a previously learned concept to a new situation. 

Figure 4.7. Applying Information. 

4.12.6. Behavioral verbs by themselves do not give us assurance of a specific level of learning; they

must be looked at in context with the total behavioral statement. 

4.13. Considerations in Writing Samples of Behavior: 

4.13.1. Kind of Verb. First, the verb must reflect an observable behavior. Second, there should be a

good variety of verbs. Thus, if our objective was at the comprehension level and we decided to write

five samples, we would not want all of our samples to specify "explain." Instead, we might have one

sample using "explain," and others with "differentiate," "compare," "paraphrase," "predict," and so

forth. These samples would give us a wide variety of behaviors on which to base our judgment that the

student comprehends our objective. 

4.13.2. Level of Learning. The sample must reflect the same level of learning as specified in our

objective. If the sample is written at a higher or lower level, it will invalidate our effort to assess

achievement of the objective at the specified level. 

Comprehension

Objective: Comprehend that criterion lesson planning focuses instruction on student achievement of 

limited precise learning outcomes. 

Sample of Behavior: Given three logical examples of student learning outcomes, identify the one best 

suited for a criterion objective. 

Application

Objective: Apply the management concept of "delegation of authority" to a problem situation. 

Sample of Behavior: Given a scenario in which a problem has arisen due to the misuse of delegation 

of authority, identify the best solution to the problem. 
48 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

4.13.3. Evidence of Achieving Objective. The sample should give us significant evidence that our

objective has been achieved. Since we may be limited in the number of samples we can test, we cannot afford to write samples dealing with trivial or peripheral information. 

4.13.4. Clarity. The samples must be clear, simple, and concrete. Clarity will help us, as instructors,

devise our evaluation instrument. More importantly, if we give the sample to students—and we

should—they will know what they are responsible for. 

4.13.5. Number of Samples. There is no magic number of samples. Instructors or curriculum developers must decide how many are needed to determine that the students have met the objectives. At the

knowledge level, we are dealing with the recall of a good deal of factual information. So, we will

probably require many samples to cover a reasonable amount of information. As we move to the

higher levels of learning, we will need fewer—but usually more complex—samples. 

4.13.6. Time Available for Evaluation. Ideally we would want to test our students on every sample

of behavior we write. Realistically, though, testing all samples is not always possible because of time

constraints. Two basic alternatives to this problem are to write only the number of samples we will

have time to test or write the number of samples we think will adequately evaluate the objective, but

actually test only a portion of the samples. 

4.13.6.1. Assuming that students will be given the samples as a part of the course overview, the

second alternative is preferred. The primary drawback with the first alternative is that many students will key in on the small number of samples and disregard the rest of the material. By using

the second alternative, students can identify all of the key ideas we want them to get from the lesson but will not know which of the samples we will test. Thus, they are forced to study all the key

material we have indicated in the samples. 

4.13.6.2. The primary deficiency in this system is that we get no feedback on student learning

from those samples we do not test. However, if we teach a course several times a year, we can use

alternate tests and, perhaps over a period of several classes, test all the samples. 

4.14. Determining What To Sample. What do we sample? The answer might appear obvious—our

objectives. That is true, but the next question that must logically follow would be, "Which objectives?"

The answer to this question must be based on two variables: the structure of our evaluation program, and

the use to be made of the evaluation results derived from the samples. Let us examine each of the variables to see how we can determine which objectives should be sampled. 

4.14.1. The Structure of Our Evaluation Program. The curriculum for an Air Force school might

be designed in the hierarchy shown in Figure 4.8.
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 49

Figure 4.8. Air Force Curriculum. 

4.14.1.1. Although we would probably never write samples from our mission statement because

it would simply be too broad to work with, any of the other levels of a course could be sampled.

The key to what should be sampled is based on our evaluation program. If we have a program

where tests are given after very large blocks of instruction (most often seen in longer PME

courses) and in the form of a very comprehensive essay example, writing samples for the course

or area objectives might be all that is necessary. 

4.14.1.2. On the other hand, in shorter courses or where testing is conducted relatively often on

shorter blocks of instruction it would be more feasible to write samples on block or period objectives. 

4.14.2. The Use to Be Made of Evaluation Results. If the primary purpose of all our testing is summative in nature (that is, used to determine students' grades or whether they pass or fail), then the

guidelines in paragraph 4.14.1. are all we need. However, many schools use formative (often referred

to as diagnostic or enroute) evaluation; that is, some tests are given only to give students and instructors feedback on student progress—not for grades or pass-fail. In this situation, we might want to

write samples for every period or block of instruction even though summative evaluation might be

based only on samples from area or course objectives. If your school or course falls in this latter category, you should never use samples designated only for formative evaluation in an evaluation mode

that is summative in nature. When this mistake is made, we usually end up testing peripheral or trivial

information instead of our primary objectives. 

4.15. Summary. The level-of-learning objective is our first step in describing learning outcomes. 

4.15.1. Knowledge-level objectives state outcomes where recall of specific information is our primary concern. Comprehension-level objectives state outcomes that require students to give meaning

to what they have learned, establish relationships, and extrapolate beyond the literal message of a

communication. Application-level objectives and above require the student to put previously learned

concepts and principles into use in progressively complex situations. 

Mission statement 

Course objectives 

 -- Area or phase objectives 

 --- Block objectives 

 ---- Period objectives 
50 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

4.15.2. Samples of behavior allow us to evaluate student achievement of level-of-learning objectives.

Samples are statements that specify a measurable, observable, reliable, and verifiable behavior that

students should be able to demonstrate at the end of a period or block of instruction. They give evidence that the students have achieved our objectives. Samples are always written at the same level as

the objective. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 51

Chapter 5 

WRITING CRITERION OBJECTIVES 

Section 5A—Introduction 

5.1. Overview. A criterion objective is a word picture of what we expect students to do, the conditions

they should be able to do it under, and the standards we will hold them accountable for once they have

received our instruction. This chapter deals with criterion objectives as separate planning tools by illustrating their content and formats, describing many of the errors made in writing them, and providing some

insight into ways they can be used to sequence instruction. 

5.1.1. The criterion objective may range in length from a sentence or two to many paragraphs. A simple criterion objective might read, "Without the use of references, correctly name all three parts of a

criterion objective." More complex criterion objectives are illustrated later in this chapter. The criterion objective may be written and given to students or it may exist only in the minds of instructors as

they prepare tests to measure learning. In either event, the most efficient way to describe what students should learn is to describe carefully what they will be able to do if instruction is successful. The

assumption made in this chapter is that the objectives will be written and given to students and others. 

5.1.2. When we stop to think about it, the idea of expressing objectives or expectations in measurable

terms is already familiar to us. We are used to reading the raised lettering on an automobile tire that

tells us what the inflated pressure should be when the tire is cool. Or, through Saturday afternoon television, we know that a world class sprinter, timed electronically, can run the 60-yard dash in 6.1 seconds indoors. In both cases, we describe the performance of the subject in measurable terms. We can

tell what the subject does on a test and we also know about the environment and the quality or quantity

of the performance. 

5.1.3. In our Air Force experience, as well, we can understand the requirement for an Air Force manual to be written at a specific grade level (as measured in a standardized way). We ask airmen in basic

training to name each major air command or list, in order, all enlisted and officer ranks without error.

In a management course, we might expect the successful student to propose a solution to a particular

type of personnel problem. In each of these instances, we have the beginnings of a fairly precise and

quite easily understood instructional objective. 

5.1.4. With very little additional information, two individuals, each competent in a particular field,

could agree whether a student had achieved our objective. Once we agree on the information needed

to express an objective, we can easily communicate the objective and measure it. Concern about clear

communication and consistent evaluation is the primary reason for using criterion objectives in

instructional planning. 

5.2. Relationship Between Samples of Behavior and Criterion Objectives. Samples of behavior

(SOB) are observable and measurable behavioral indicators that help us determine if the student has

achieved our general LOL objective. Because we can not "see" comprehend, we use samplings of behavioral indicators to measure our instructional success. LOL objectives and SOBs are typically used in educational settings where the student is participating in cognitive and affective learning. 

5.2.1. Often our objective is to change what a student thinks or feels. However, we must use the

resultant change in behavior to measure the degree of learning. 
52 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

5.2.2. The criterion referenced objective (CRO), on the other hand, is found extensively in training

environments. In this environment, students are usually learning a task they must perform. The CRO,

when written as a performance, condition, and standard, is inherently observable and measurable.

Both the SOB and the CRO are attempting to define the behavior we expect from the student once the

instruction is complete. The SOB is taking a cognitive and/or affective outcome and making it observable and measurable while the CRO is defining the expectations of the student while performing a

specific task under specified conditions. 

5.2.3. The difference between an SOB and a criterion objective is that the CRO is more specific and

detailed as to standards and conditions. However, a comprehensively written SOB may contain all the

elements of a criterion objective. A simple criterion objective may read like an SOB if either or both

of the conditions or standards are assumed. Rather than split hairs about where the SOB leaves off and

the criterion objective begins, remember that the SOB generally contains only a statement of performance. The criterion objective generally goes into more detail by adding standards and conditions to

the performance statements. See Figure 5.1. (as well as those later in this chapter) for a comparison of

SOBs and criterion objectives. 

Figure 5.1. A Comparison of Samples of Behavior and Criterion Objectives. 

Section 5B—Constructing Criterion Objectives 

5.3. Importance of Construction. The content of a criterion objective is far more important than the format used to communicate it, but the format can and does affect what we read and understand. Therefore,

agreeing on a basic format and elements is an important step. By agreeing on and sticking to formats,

which include all of the essential elements of information needed to describe learning outcomes, we can

be sure that we will not leave out any significant information in our instructional objectives. 

Illustrative Samples of Behavior Interpreted as a Criterion Objective 

1. define...(insert term) Without the use of references, define...according to AFM 

xx-xxx. (knowledge) 

2. give an example of...(insert concept) Given the concept of...as developed in class, give new 

examples of (insert concept) consistent with its attributes. 

(comprehension) 

3. write a position paper on... (insert 

subject) 

Using the library, local experts, and a topic assigned from the 

area of..., write a position paper which meets the content and 

format standards provided in class and in the assigned text. 

(application) 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 53

5.4. Essential Elements. Both Air Force and civilian educators agree there are certain items of information that must be included in a well-stated criterion objective. While many authors have different labels

for these items of information, there is general agreement that criterion objectives should consist of the

elements shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2. Essential Elements of a Criterion Objective. 

5.5. Formats. The precision and exact language of a criterion objective varies from instructor to instructor. The final product from any instructor, however, should be a clear statement that communicates the

intended outcomes of learning. A common format for writing objectives makes communicating easier.

Both the readers of the objective and the writer know in advance the type of information that will be contained in the objective. Writing a criterion objective, though, is more than an exercise to satisfy an official

requirement. An objective that meets the format requirement but does not communicate fully is worse

than no objective at all. An instructor can send students on a wild goose chase by giving them a criterion

objective that does not honestly reveal what will be taught and tested. This practice will result in two curriculums—one that exists on paper and the real one used in the classroom. 

5.5.1. The order in which the elements of a criterion objective are written does not matter, although

the common sequence is conditions, performance or behavior, and standards. While generally written

as a sentence or short paragraph (Figure 5.3., Format 1), criterion objectives may also be written in

columns (Figure 5.3., Format 2). The sentence or paragraph format lends itself to easy reading and

efficient use of space in catalogs or lesson plans. The column format, which may be layered vertically

or side by side (Figure 5.3., Format 2), avoids questions of grammar and punctuation and lends itself

to worksheets used to construct objectives. 

CONDITIONS A description of the testing environment including those problems, materials, 

and supplies that will be given (included) or specifically excluded from a 

measurement situation. 

PERFORMANCE The observable student behavior (or the product of that behavior) acceptable to 

the instructor as proof that learning has occurred. 

STANDARDS The qualitative and quantitative criteria against which student performance or 

the product of that performance will be measured to determine successful 

learning. 
54 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 5.3. Formats for Criterion Objectives. 

5.5.2. For some sophisticated instructional systems, the column format may be preferable. It is easier

to analyze with the objective broken out by elements into columns. We can tabulate the supplies and

materials needed for instruction by analyzing the conditions column. If we examine the performance

column on several plans, we may find that different instructors are having students do the same things.

Then it would be more efficient to have a common unit of instruction to save duplicated effort. Analysis of the standards column could reveal questionable or ambiguous standards. Both formats for writing criterion objectives require the same elements of information, but the column format may make

data gathering and analysis easier. 

Format 1 

Criterion 

Objective: 

(Conditions) Given a rifle with 10 bullets and a target 50 yards away, (Performance) 

shoot the target (Standards) so that 9 out of 10 bullets hit the bull's eye. 

Format 2

Criterion Objective:

Performance Conditions Standards

Prepare a written critique of the Given: 1. All deviations from the 

proposed course manuals and pamphlets noted. 

1. A proposal for a new course 

with the following supporting 2. At least one plausible 

documents: suggestion for improvement 

—System requirements offered for each deviation 

—Lesson plans noted. 

—Criterion objectives 

—Assigned readings 3. Written critique free from 

—Examination errors in spelling, grammar, 

and punctuation. 

2. AFMAN 36-2236 

3. AFMAN 36-2234 

4. AFH 36-2235, Volume 10 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 55

5.6. Mastery Learning. Students who achieve the criterion objective are often said to have "mastered"

the objective. The term "mastery learning" has become strongly associated with criterion objectives and

tests that measure the achievement of criterion objectives. From the point of view of criterion objectives,

however, mastery does not mean that a student must perform a task or apply a principle with 100 percent

accuracy. Mastery means that the student can demonstrate achievement of the criterion objective at the

level of proficiency stated. The proficiency level may well be 100 percent accuracy, but it may also be any

other percentage or standard appropriate for the objective. The decision about whether a student has

achieved an objective is essentially a "yes or no" decision. Regardless of the error rate permitted by the

objective, if students can perform under a given set of conditions to the standards stated in the objective,

we say they have mastered the objective. See Chapter 25 for further discussion of criterion-referenced

measurement. 

5.7. Content Communicated by the Criterion Objective. Criterion objectives should be as simple and

straightforward as possible. They are designed and written to communicate. Because good communication is the ultimate goal, no absolute set of rules for constructing a criterion objective can be provided.

The suggestions in this chapter may be of assistance in writing better objectives; however, they cannot be

used to defend objectives that satisfy the format but do not communicate well. 

5.7.1. No criterion objective can express all the possible conditions, performances, or standards for

measuring student achievement. However, the criterion objective is one of the best devices for communicating between two or more reasonable people. The content of a criterion objective should be

constantly reviewed to make sure that format and jargon do not get in the way of full and accurate

communication. Even though our criterion objective may seem clear to us, the objective is unsatisfactory if our students find it unclear or incomplete. 

5.7.2. With the experience gained in writing criterion objectives for both academic and technical

instruction, we can make some generalizations and establish some ground rules. We should keep the

following points in mind as we write statements of conditions, performance, and standards: 

5.7.2.1. Conditions. A well-written condition statement will tell students what to expect when

they are evaluated. What will they encounter, for instance, when they sit down to solve a problem

or answer a test item? Will they have a simulated management problem to solve or just a word list

from the text? If students are to write or speak on a topic, who will select the topic and what outside help may they seek? This kind of information gives students a context for their evaluation. If

we describe the conditions well, our students can spend less time second-guessing about how they

will be tested and more time learning the material. 

5.7.2.1.1. If we remember that we are trying to draw a word picture, condition statements for

physical tasks or performance items are relatively simple. Figure 5.4. through Figure 5.7. provide examples of criterion objectives that require overt physical performance on the part of the

learner. The condition statements should be easy to identify even without the highlighting. The

description contained in the criterion objective provides an adequate word picture of the conditions under which the learner will be tested. Generally speaking, criterion objectives that call

for overt student behavior give a more complete accounting of equipment, materials, and other

physical factors in the environment than do objectives requiring responses to paper and pencil

items. 
56 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 5.4. Example 1 of a Criterion Objective. 

Figure 5.5. Example 2 of a Criterion Objective. 

Criterion Objective: Given a simulated patient requiring an ankle wrap and without assistance or 

references, WRAP THE ANKLE WITH AN ELASTIC BANDAGE correctly 

according to checklist EB-3.

Analysis: We are asking students to copy a simple task (wrapping the ankle). Following a 

memorized procedure, they will reproduce a method for such wrappings on a 

simulated patient. This task is much like folding a flag, replacing a spark plug, 

or arranging ribbons and devices worn by members of the armed forces. These 

tasks can be performed from memory with little understanding required of the 

performer. Students need no special skills to perform the task. 

Criterion Objective: THE STUDENT WILL LOCATE AND REPAIR MALFUNCTIONS IN A 

PGN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT BOARD. These malfunctions will be limited to 

shorts and incomplete circuits planted by the instructor at those points most 

often affected by these malfunctions. Repair manual PGN-1, schematic 

drawings, screwdriver, pliers, standard electrical meters, and supplies as 

necessary may be used. Seventy-five percent of all planted malfunctions must be 

identified and repaired, with a 10-minute time limit for each. 

Analysis: Although two verbs are used in the performance statement, the requirement to 

"locate and repair" can be dealt with as a single objective. It may be 

inconvenient to separate closely associated tasks into separate objectives. If the 

need exists; however, each action verb could be used as the basis for a separate 

objective. Each of the three essential elements—performance, conditions, and 

standards—is stated as a separate sentence. These sentences could be arranged 

in any order. The general condition statement describing the malfunctions is 

satisfactory, although more detail could be added if it served a useful function. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 57

Figure 5.6. Example 3 of a Criterion Objective. 

Criterion Objective: Students will be given the following purchasing information: name and 

description of item, stock number (if available), quantity and unit cost, whether 

the request is recurring or nonrecurring, a reason to purchase, and a date by 

which the item is needed. THEY WILL USE THIS INFORMATION TO 

PREPARE A TYPEWRITTEN AIR FORCE FORM 9, REQUEST FOR 

PURCHASE. The form must be according to AFMAN 23-110, Volume 2, USAF 

Supply Manual, have no errors in typing, spelling, or format, be free from math 

errors and have the correct organization number and fund classification code. 

Analysis: This condition statement is quite specific because it lists each of the bits of 

purchasing information. An acceptable substitute would also be given the 

necessary information. Although the standards indicate that both the typing and 

math are to be error free, we could assume this requirement if it was omitted. 

There is no time standard given, so we can assume that any problem used in this 

exercise will be field-tested and a reasonable time allowed based on actual 

experience. 

Legend: Conditions, PERFORMANCE, Standards
58 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 5.7. Example 4 of a Criterion Objective. 

Criterion Objective: A physician's order to start intravenous fluids. 

Conditions: A cooperative, conscious adult patient. 

A routine situation in which extraordinary measures are not required. 

Equipment and supplies, including 

IV fluid (as directed) in bag or bottle Tape 

Tubing Arm board 

Alcohol swabs Tourniquet 

Needle IV pole 

PERFORMANCE: START INTRAVENOUS FLUIDS IN ARM OR HAND. 

Standards: Compliance with all hospital procedures and Air Force instructions (including 

presentation of self and proper identification of patient against orders).

Acceptable nursing practice for procedure (cleansing of puncture area, site and 

application of tourniquet, and blood return).

No swelling above puncture.

Flow regulated to rate directed by physician's orders.

Patient discomfort not to be excessive for procedure considering condition of 

skin and visibility and condition of veins.

Task to be performed without assistance.

Analysis: This is a very significant task and a lengthy objective. However, there are 

several bits of information that limit the scope of the task. Notice that the 

intravenous fluids are to be started in the arm or hand. Other locations for 

administering these fluids such as the foot or jugular vein are not included. In 

addition, the conditions rule out children, comatose patients, and hostile adults. 

The listing of equipment and supplies is quite complete, but they could have 

been assumed with a statement such as "given all necessary equipment and 

supplies." Several of the standards require judgment, but no useful purpose 

would be served by making them more precise (e.g., how much discomfort is 

excessive?) Notice that the first standard deals with a large amount of 

information by referring to two external sources for information. 

Legend: Conditions, PERFORMANCE, Standards
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 59

5.7.2.1.2. Condition statements for paper and pencil test items, (Figure 5.8. through Figure

5.11. are written with the same techniques as those for performance testing. However, many

instructors find them more difficult to write. In paper and pencil testing, it is usually more difficult to actually observe each of the elements (conditions, performance, and standards). Often

we see only the product of the performance, such as a research paper, rather than actually

observing the writing of the paper. But the elements are still present, and the word picture for

the paper and pencil test requires no less precision than with other types of performances. 

5.7.2.1.3. The condition statements in the paper and pencil testing, particularly Figure 5.9.,

Figure 5.10., and Figure 5.11., focus more on the problem presented to the student than they

do to the physical environment. In addition, by carefully manipulating the conditions of testing, we can produce criterion objectives that measure a wide range of proficiency. 

Figure 5.8. Example 5 of a Criterion Objective. 

Criterion Objective: After viewing a videotape that recreates a discussion between persons of 

different racial or ethnic backgrounds and contains a number of instances of 

spoken and nonverbal communication labeled by the base human relations 

council as racially or ethnically degrading, IDENTIFY at least two-thirds of

THOSE INSTANCES. 

Analysis: This criterion objective again calls for students to exercise their understanding 

of a situation to see how well they agree with a panel of experts. Notice that the 

objective assumes those students will be doing the task on their own and within 

a reasonable, but unstated, period of time. This approach is correct as long as 

there is no apparent need to spell out supervision constraints and time standards. 

Legend: Conditions, PERFORMANCE, Standards
60 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 5.9. Example 6 of a Criterion Objective. 

Figure 5.10. Example 7 of a Criterion Objective. 

Criterion Objective: Students will be given five scenarios with descriptions of misconduct 

punishable under the UCMJ and three articles from the UCMJ that may have 

been violated. Without assistance, notes, or references, SELECT THE 

ARTICLE THAT HAS BEEN VIOLATED IN EACH CASE. Satisfactory 

performance will be no less than 4 of 5 UCMJ articles selected correctly within 

20 minutes per scenario. 

Analysis: This criterion objective describes a fairly high-level task. Much is assumed 

about the difficulty and complexity of the scenarios, but it is probably not 

reasonable to attempt much more descriptive information here. Whatever the 

degree of difficulty, both the instruction and the testing should be essentially the 

same. "Correctly" in the standard makes two assumptions: that one or more 

experts in the field have determined what is correct, and that the student must 

come up with an answer consistent with that of the experts. Although very 

simple examples could be identified at the comprehension level, violations of 

the UCMJ are generally so complicated it is more likely they would require 

understanding at the application level. 

Legend: Conditions, PERFORMANCE, Standards
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 61

Figure 5.11. Example 8 of a Criterion Objective. 

5.7.2.2. Common Errors. As we write condition statements for criterion objectives, we may find

ourselves making errors common to many writers. Some of these errors are predictable and can be

anticipated. 

5.7.2.2.1. Mixing the Outcomes of Learning With the Process of Learning. Statements

such as "by the end of this course" or "after a lecture by the base commander" are generally not

appropriate in a criterion objective. Remember, we are describing the test—not giving a course

outline. If we include information like this, we are saying that part of the testing situation

includes attending the course or listening to a lecture by the base commander—which is probably not the case. 

5.7.2.2.2. Omitting Significant Items of Information. Significance obviously involves a

value judgment. Something significant to one instructor about a testing situation may not be

significant to another. Here again, the real measure is what will affect the performance of our

students. We may assume our students understand that they may refer to their notes, look up

words in a dictionary, or ask questions. But do they know this information far enough ahead of

time to prepare for their exams adequately? They will, only if we have included all the significant items of information in our condition statement. 

5.7.2.2.3. Including Information of Little or No Significance. Some condition statements

look like a list of items purchased at a shopping mall. Everything imaginable is listed. Quite

often, the weekend shopping inventory is lengthy, including insignificant items while excludCriterion Objective: Using a personally selected topic and without restrictions on reference materials 

or lesson planning formats, PREPARE A 

DEMONSTRATION-PERFORMANCE LESSON PLAN containing: 

A criterion objective with all required elements,

A valid criterion-referenced test that determines mastery of the criterion 

objective, and

A teaching plan generally consistent with accepted principles of learning and 

instructional design.

Analysis: This criterion objective is broad in scope and complex. Many pages of 

information are dealt with in the standards. It is probably unreasonable to put 

much more information into the objective. The objective calls for several 

qualified value judgments ("generally consistent with" and "validly determines 

mastery"), but such judgments can be expected in an objective at this level. In 

this case, both judgments require the instructor to be an expert, and neither can 

be quantified easily. 

Legend: Conditions, PERFORMANCE, Standards
62 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ing significant items. One example of this error involved a course designed to teach mid-level

supervisors how to manage effectively. The primary methods were case study and guided discussion. The criterion objectives were so poorly written they destroyed the credibility of the

instructor. While completely overlooking the significant conditions for evaluation, such as

simulated management problems in case form, the writer was very careful to mention in the

criterion objective that the students would be given paper and ballpoint pen. We can hardly

argue against paper and ballpoint pen, but that bit of information could certainly be assumed

without much effect on the objective. The information left out was significant and did have an

effect on the students. Other routine environmental factors, such as light, air, tables, and chairs

need not be listed unless there is some concern that they might not normally be available. 

5.7.2.2.4. Talking Around the Genuine Conditions. Some writers of objectives seem to

have trouble telling their students what to expect in terms of the conditions for testing. Often it

is not a lack of writing skill or subject expertise; these instructors still have difficulty accepting

the idea that they should be as open with their students as suggested here. For years, many

instructors have succeeded in keeping their students in constant suspense about what they

were required to learn, and instructors who have really developed the skill of deception have

been able to transfer them to writing criterion objectives. Often such expressions as "given

necessary supplies and materials" or "given any management situation" are used to hide a

more understandable statement. Does "given the materials," mean they will all be pre-selected

and laid out for the students, or do they have to make some decisions about what materials or

supplies are appropriate? Does "any management situation" really mean "any," or is there actually a very limited set of situations that could be described more precisely? 

5.7.2.2.5. Describing the Mechanics Rather Than Conditions. Particularly in an academic

setting, it is often easier to describe the mechanics of test administration than conditions

affecting student performance. A condition statement like "given a test with 30 items about..."

misses the whole idea of the criterion objective. Such a statement is probably inappropriate

unless the test is measuring a single criterion objective that requires 30 common items. Those

who fall victim to this attractive shortcut tend to write worthless condition statements. The

temptation is to view paper-and-pencil tests containing several items as a single learner performance. It is possible that a written test of many items may measure a single criterion objective,

but this is not usually the case. 

5.7.3. Most paper-and-pencil tests measure more than one criterion objective: Test items 1 through 5

on a particular exam may measure criterion objective #1; items 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 may measure

objective #2; and so on. A paper-and-pencil test measuring several objectives generally does not need

another overall criterion objective. Chapter 25 discusses one exception where the instructor has

grouped individual criterion objectives together in a package and established an overall passing criterion. When asked what objectives a test is measuring, we should be able to point to the criterion objectives being measured by the various items within the test. In our operating instructions, we may wish

to specify the minimum number of objectives required to pass the course rather than some overall test

score or percentage for the exam. 

5.7.4. The word picture created by describing the conditions should be clear and complete. Our students, another instructor, or any other reasonable person should be able to understand and recreate, if

necessary, the testing environment in which we intend to measure student learning. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 63

5.8. Performance. The performance portion of the criterion objective tells us what the student will be

doing, or will have done, to prove learning. The description of behavior is most easily communicated by

using an action verb and a clear description of the object of that action. 

5.9. The Action Verb. There is no mysterious list of "magic" or forbidden words to learn. Generally

speaking, active verbs that describe observable, measurable student behavior are best. The criterion objectives illustrated in this chapter contain several acceptable verbs for describing student behavior. As you

can see from these examples of performance testing and paper-and-pencil testing, the verb gives a good

indication of what the student will do. But verbs that describe an internal state of mind (know, comprehend, etc.), while acceptable to indicate the level of learning, do not give us the information we need to

write a criterion objective. Figure 5.12. shows a sampling of verbs generally felt to be acceptable and

unacceptable for writing criterion objectives. 

5.9.1. Some descriptions of student behavior do not fall clearly into either performance testing or pencil-and-paper testing. We may have to refine the performance description further to communicate our

real intent. This ambiguity is rarely an issue for overt physical tasks, but it often enters the picture

when the behavior is incidental, rather than critical, to the objective, which is the case in most pencil-and-paper testing. For instance, does the verb "write" in a criterion objective communicate a critical physical act, or is it incidental to the act of "editing," "composing," or "solving?" The listings in

Figure 5.12. illustrate several verbs that may fall into either the critical or noncritical categories. 
64 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 5.12. Verb Descriptors of Student Performance (Criterion Objectives). 

5.9.2. When we write the performance information, it may help to visualize the actual measurement

situation. What will we actually see? What will really be evaluated? Will we watch the student actually perform the task or will we collect some product produced by the student—written paper, multiple-choice exam, or a properly folded flag? 

5.10. Object of the Action: 

5.10.1. An observable, measurable action verb gives half of the required information in the performance description; the object of the action verb is the other half of the required information. The

object of the performance statement is not usually emphasized as much as the action verb, but it is

very important. Note that in the sample criterion objectives (Figure 5.4. through Figure 5.11.) the

object of the performance is clearly stated and included as a part of the performance statement. 

Acceptable Verbs (observable and measurable) Unacceptable Verbs (going on inside the 

learner) 

shoot 

define know 

describe comprehend 

splice apply 

fasten analyze 

turn synthesize 

edit evaluate 

assemble understand 

drive appreciate 

remove be familiar 

load 

speak 

May be acceptable depending on context (affected by writer preferences, rules of the school, need for 

extreme precision, etc.) 

Acceptable Verbs Better if Specific Behavior is Critical

list list in writing 

solve write solution 

critique verbally critique 

summarize write a summary 

identify identify by circling 

name 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 65

5.10.2. Objectives frequently indicate that a student will be able to write, repair, or critique a "thing."

Often the "thing" in the performance statement is taken for granted and given little attention. The

object of the action of the verb should be precisely stated. Here again, reasonableness can be a problem. Is the military letter, the object of the verb "write," the real target of performance, or is the target

really "any written communication" with the military letter just a convenient device for testing? In

addition, does the object named have a generally accepted definition, or is a definition or description

necessary? Do our readers share the jargon or technical language used in the objective? 

5.11. Common Errors. Of the three criterion objective elements, the performance description should be

the least difficult to write. There are, however, a few common errors we can anticipate and avoid. Some of

these errors are: 

5.11.1. Substituting Levels of Learning for Action Verbs. Writing objectives for specific levels of

learning was introduced in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3. Chapter 4 explains the approach to planning

indepth level-of-learning objectives. These levels, or categories of learning, serve a valuable function

by grouping equivalent student behaviors for sampling. They are not meant to be substituted—nor can

they be—for the action verb in a criterion objective. Any attempt to replace the criterion objective

action verbs with verbs from the levels of learning (know, comprehend, etc.) will produce an unsatisfactory criterion objective. 

5.11.2. Using Vague or General Action Verbs When Specific Verbs Communicate Better. It may

seem that choosing between good (specific) and poor (vague and general) verbs is quite simple. However, some verbs may seem to be better than they are at first glance. Verbs such as demonstrate, operate, or prepare may leave important unanswered questions: to demonstrate—by doing what? to

operate—which operations? to prepare—which tasks of preparation? It is possible to use such verbs in

well-written objectives; however, they have to be seen in context and evaluated on their ability to

communicate clearly. 

5.11.3. Overly Generalized or Poorly Defined Objects of Performance. A verb may clearly

describe the desired learner behavior, but the object of that behavior may be poorly stated. Often, such

terms as "any" and "all" in a performance statement do not mean "any" or "all." Generally, we find

some limit on the type of problem or kind of object being acted on. It is unlikely that a student in a

leadership school can solve all management problems. It is just as unlikely that a technical student

could make all repairs on any object. The scope of the performance may be limited in the performance

statement or in the condition statement. It does not matter which item does the limiting as long as the

limits are communicated. 

5.12. Summary. The performance section of the criterion objective must contain an action verb (do

what?) and an object (to what?). Along with the condition statement, the performance description

describes everything of significance that will occur during the test or measurement situation. All that

remains is for us to tell our students what criteria or standards to use to evaluate their performance. 

Section 5C—Standards 

5.13. Overview. The standards for criterion objectives are often difficult to write. Many difficulties show

up quickly as we try to express standards to students so they can be understood. Some of our problems can

be traced to the limits of written language, others to a lack of conscious awareness of our own standards,

and still others to philosophical problems many of us have with revealing our standards to students. 
66 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

5.13.1. Many standards are difficult to express in words. Standards should describe how well students

must do a task to be acceptable, but often language lets us down. How smooth should a "smooth" finish be? When is a description of an object or event "complete?" How clear is a "clear" explanation?

This problem with language cannot be completely overcome. A careful, honest attempt to describe

standards, along with trial and error, is the best we can hope to do. 

5.13.2. The creative use of models and other media to supplement our word pictures may be helpful.

We must realize, however, that the perfect (satisfying to all readers) set of standards for a complex criterion objective is probably yet to be written, particularly for qualitative standards. This problem may

be best summarized by the instructor who says, "I know a passing effort when I see one, but I just can't

express it in the right words." 

5.13.3. Some standards, particularly quantitative, should be easy to express because they lend themselves to precise terms. However, even these standards are often poorly written and incomplete

because of an instructor's inability to verbalize all of the standards that will be used to evaluate student

performance. 

5.13.4. When there are many standards for an objective, there is a temptation to list the most obvious

and easiest to express and measure. The student is put at a great disadvantage, however, when additional unstated standards are used to determine satisfactory performance. Instructors often apply

unstated time standards and assumed quality standards to student work. No standard should be used to

evaluate student performance that is not written into the criterion objective or reasonably assumed. If

a student can meet all of the criteria in the criterion objective, but the performance is still unsatisfactory, we should reevaluate the objective for additional standards. 

5.13.5. A third and more fundamental reason for poor statements of standards is negative instructor

attitude about revealing standards. In spite of the Air Force commitment to ISD and instructional

objectives, many instructors feel there is something wrong with telling students exactly what is

expected of them. Most of us are products of traditional schools that were not "systems" oriented. Few

of us have had more than a course or two, in or out of the Air Force, where objectives were carefully

spelled out. As successful students in those traditional schools, some instructors question ISD in general and criterion objectives in particular. 

5.13.6. If instructors cannot see the benefits of this approach in terms of more relevant course content,

as well as more effective, efficient instructional techniques, they may have trouble expressing their

own objectives. Some would say, "I never had anyone spell the course out for me like that. Why

should I spoon-feed my students?" This weak argument against writing criterion objectives is best

summarized by an instructor who was overheard saying, "I'm not going to write criterion objectives.

Why, if I tell my students exactly what they have to do and how well they have to do it, they will only

study that and nothing else!" 

5.14. Types of Standards. Many different types of standards may be used to evaluate student performance. Some of these types include: 

5.14.1. Referring To an External Authority. Making reference to an external authority in criterion

objectives may save time and space. Authors of source material often state qualitative and quantitative

standards very well. Plus, rephrasing may be a waste of time with no improvement. Reference to specific instructions, manuals, authors, checklists, or rating scales is appropriate and should be encouraged. Figure 5.3. through Figure 5.8. illustrate ways in which external authority may be referenced. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 67

5.14.2. Expressing or Implying a Percentage or Ratio. We frequently see a percentage or ratio in

criterion objectives, as when a student must solve 80 percent of a set of problems or locate a malfunction in 2 of 3 cases. Where this type of standard is appropriate, it is easy to state and easy to measure.

Figure 5.5. through Figure 5.8. illustrate percentage or ratio standards. 

5.14.2.1. We often find it natural to write a standard that says "with 100 percent accuracy" or

"without error." If there is any doubt the reader will not assume this standard we should include it,

although we may find that the phrases become very repetitious. Often, we can assume the standard

of "no error" in our objectives without spelling it out as long as our students understand what we

mean. 

5.14.2.2. Figure 5.3. and Figure 5.6. spell out the standard of "no error." Other objectives, such

as in Figure 5.7. and Figure 5.11. assume the "no error" standard, and a percentage or ratio are not

stated. 

5.14.3. Specifying Repetition or Redundancy of Testing. Standards that express a percentage or

"no error" usually indicate a one-time test; that is, if the student does something without error once or

locates two or three malfunctions one time, the objective has been met. If this is what we intended, we

have said all we need to say, but we may want the student to show mastery of the objective more than

once to prove that learning occurred. In that case, to a standard such as 75 percent as shown in Figure

5.5., we would add another statement to the standard, such as "in two consecutive tests" or "in two of

three examinations separated by at least 2 weeks." We may even wish to extend our test or retest

period beyond graduation and use the retest as part of the graduate follow-up program. 

5.14.4. Specifying Physical Measurements and Tolerances. Many types of physical measurements

will appear in criterion objectives, such as tolerances, weight, number of words, pounds of pressure,

distance, degrees, and rate. We should use these standards, which are generally easy to express, when

appropriate. Figure 5.7. provides an example of this type of physical measurement in the rate of flow

of the intravenous solution. 

5.14.5. Specifying the Time Requirements. We should express time as a standard when it may

affect student performance. If time is not included as a standard, we assume that a "reasonable" period

of time will be allowed for performance testing. A reasonable period allows any learner who has mastered the skill to complete the task without running out of time. If we plan to time the test or measurement in any way, we normally include time as a standard in the criterion objective. In

paper-and-pencil testing, we may or may not include time for each objective being tested. In any case,

the total time for the test should be the sum of times estimated for each of the objectives being tested.

Figure 5.5. and Figure 5.10. illustrate the use of testing time as a specific standard. "Reasonable

time" is an assumed standard in the other examples. 

5.14.6. Specifying the Rate of Production. Many performance skills are measured in rate of production. This measure should be included in appropriate objectives. Skill development situations that

might use this standard include keyboarding, typing, shorthand, and production work. The typing

problem described in Figure 5.6. could be modified to include production rate as a standard by adding

"at a rate of 12 forms per hour." 

5.14.7. Specifying Qualitative Requirements. Many of the most significant standards applied to

student performance are qualitative and may require judgments involving sight, sound, taste, and

other inexact measures. To the greatest extent possible, we should legitimately quantify standards. If

there is a color or smoothness scale, we should use it. If there is a format for a written course require-
68 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ment, we should refer to it. If a "properly supported" argument means, among other things, that it

includes at least three acceptable statistics or examples, we should state that in the objective. But often

no such external standard exists, and qualitative standards are often genuinely difficult to express. If

there is no reasonable way to define the qualitative standard objectively (e.g., run smoothly; fold

neatly; develop fully), we use the qualitative term. We must keep in mind, however, that the qualitative term may not be interpreted the way we mean it. All of the criterion objectives in this chapter contain one form or another of a qualitative standard, but particularly Figure 5.3. (standard 2) and Figure

5.7. (standards 2 and 5). 

5.14.8. Specifying Degrees of Supervision or Assistance. The degree of supervision or assistance

provided during a test may affect the quality of the results. Students require a much higher degree of

skill and need a greater depth of understanding to perform a task without supervision or assistance. If

we do not specify a level of supervision or assistance, it is assumed that the student must perform

without supervision and without assistance. Figure 5.7. illustrates a specific assistance standard. The

other examples may be interpreted to read "without supervision and without assistance." 

5.15. Common Errors. A wide range of difficulties may be encountered in writing standards for criterion objectives. There is no way, short of extensive experience, to identify all the possible problems we

may encounter. The information that follows deals with many of the more common errors and should help

in writing better objectives. 

5.15.1. Overestimating the Value of an External Authority (Regulation, Pamphlet, Rating

Scale). Information actually contained in the cited authority may not be precise enough or complete

enough to use for student evaluation. The authority cited might include unacceptable or inappropriate

information for the learning situation. In many cases, since these documents were not written to be

used as part of a criterion objective, they may contain generalities that are not easily understood or

measured. 

5.15.2. Inappropriate or Inexact Percentage or Ratio. Few standards are as easy to express and

measure as percentages. Unfortunately, we can be tempted to use exact percentages when other more

difficult criteria are appropriate. Instructors often mistakenly use percentages because of past practice

rather than a careful analysis of real criteria. Often we express or imply a standard of 100 percent

accuracy when it is unwarranted and unrealistic. We can easily fail to take into account such factors as

fatigue or simple errors in math in cases where performance at less than 100 percent is acceptable for

mastery. 

5.15.3. Assuming Retention Based Upon a Single Evaluation. If retention is important, we need to

program reasonable retesting into our learning situations. Students should be told that they are going

to be tested on the same objective more than once (for example, query, block exam, or phase exam). 

5.15.4. Understating or Oversimplifying Measurements. Some instructors write standards for criterion objectives to the lowest acceptable level of performance. Such a standard may be invalid if performance on the task is generally expected to be higher than the bare minimum. We may have many

reasons for setting classroom standards higher than the lowest acceptable level of performance on the

job. Additionally, we may make the mistake of using convenient, easily measured standards when

other more difficult to express standards are more appropriate. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 69

5.15.5. Overlooking Time As a Factor in Testing. Many criterion objectives are written without

reference to time; however, time constraints are imposed upon students during testing. When time

standards are set, they are often guesses and not verified to determine their reasonableness. 

5.15.6. Incomplete or Inaccurate Production Rates. The per-minute or per-hour production rate is

often an important standard. Additionally, it is often important to specify the period over which the

per-minute or per-hour standard is to be maintained. For example, there is a big difference in typing 60

words per minute for 1 minute rather than for 10 minutes. We may also make an error in the actual unit

of production being measured. It may be more appropriate to measure the number of business letters

typed rather than the number of words typed or the number of words typed per minute. 

5.15.7. Poorly Stated Quality Standards. Quality standards are generally difficult to write as compared to measures of quantity. However, we often excuse poorly written standards simply because

they contain quality standards. We should avoid such expressions as "to the satisfaction of the instructor" or "until the work is acceptable." With these statements, the instructor has succeeded in keeping

the real standards from the students. Students often have no idea what these types of expressions may

mean. 

5.15.8. Failing to Account for Supervision or Assistance. We may assume that students will perform a task without supervision or assistance and omit that information from the criterion objective.

However, when students don't realize they must perform without supervision, we may be forced to

provide additional instruction during the exam, answer questions, or inadvertently correct obvious

errors as they are being made. 

Section 5D—Planning Tools 

5.16. Task Steps As Planning Tools: 

5.16.1. Criterion objectives give a great deal of information about what a student should be able to

perform after instruction. But criterion objectives do not tell us how we are going to get our students

from where they are to where we want them to be. An effective technique for planning our instructional strategy is to analyze the mission, job, duties and tasks a person may be expected to perform.

While it is beyond the scope of this publication to go in depth with an explanation of this analysis, the

reader must have an overall knowledge of the terms and how they are used to develop CROs. 

5.16.2. The curriculum designer must be aware of the mission goals and the job a person will perform

to accomplish that mission. The following information is paraphrased from AFH 36-2235, Volume 10: 

5.16.2.1. A job is made up of the duties, tasks, and task elements that a person performs. It is the

basic unit used in carrying out the personnel actions of selection, training, classification, and

assignment. 

5.16.2.2. We can then examine the job to determine all the duties and tasks performed by a person

at a given skill level. Duties are large segments of work performed by an individual. 

5.16.2.3. A given duty is made up of tasks or units of work activity. Tasks usually have a clear

beginning and end that is observable and measurable and frequently results in a product that can

be evaluated. A task is not dependent upon other tasks, although it may fall in a sequence with

other tasks in a duty or job array. 
70 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

5.16.2.4. Task steps are the specific actions a person performs to accomplish a task. These are

often identified as checklists, technical order procedures, operating instructions, etc. Once you

know the level of the objective, (for example, mission level, job level, duty level, or task level) the

curriculum designer can write the appropriate CRO. In this case we are interested in the task steps

required to perform a given task so the designer would write a task level CRO. 

5.16.3. For planning purposes, task steps are expressed behaviorally, but are usually written without

conditions or standards, as with criterion objectives. If we are individualizing or self-pacing instruction, we may wish to write task steps as criterion objectives, but this is generally not required. If we

can enable our students to perform all the task steps correctly, then they will be able to accomplish the

CRO for that task. 

5.16.4. Analysis of a criterion objective into a relatively simple sequence of task steps might look like

Figure 5.13. In this illustration, a student who starts with no skill must learn to perform four task steps

or gain four items of supporting knowledge in order to show mastery of the objective. An analysis of

this type is useful to make sure that all significant task steps and the necessary background are

accounted for in planning the course or lesson. Listing these steps in order will provide a checklist if

we wish to evaluate our students as they progress independently. 

Figure 5.13. Task Analysis of a Criterion Objective. 

5.16.5. Although the task steps must be performed in a 1-2-3-4 sequence, our students may not need

to learn them in that order. For instance, we may not have a workstation for each student, or some students may already possess one or more of the sub-skills. Figure 5.14. illustrates two of the possible

instructional designs that might result from such an analysis of a criterion objective. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 71

Figure 5.14. Sample Instruction Designs For a Task Analysis of a Criterion Objective. 

5.16.6. This criterion objective represents the same learning outcome illustrated in Figure 5.13. In

that figure, however, we were illustrating a sequence in which all of the task steps had to be performed

in sequence to demonstrate mastery in the skill described in the criterion objective. Figure 5.14.

shows two of several possible sequences in which the students might learn the skill. The skill and the

component steps are imaginary, but the diagrams can be used to make the desired point. In Figure

5.14., example 1, the analysis of the task has revealed that task step 1 must be learned before task step

2 can be learned and that task step 3 must be learned before task step 4. But, we have also discovered

that task steps 3 and 4 are not dependent upon learning to perform task steps 1 and 2. Such a situation

might exist when task step 1 is "measuring," task step 2 is "computing," and task steps 3 and 4 are

"sawing" and "fastening." Example 2 represents another analysis in which the performance of task

steps 3 and 4 are dependent upon learning the first two task steps, but the order in which students learn

the first two task steps is not significant. 

5.16.7. The value of this type of analysis is twofold: (1) We can account for all component tasks and

spell them out in detail, and (2) As we discover which skills are dependent upon other skills in the

learning process, we become aware of appropriate strategies for instruction sequencing. These illustrations are quite simple, but the analysis of more complex skills may look like the electrical wiring

diagram of a color television set. Refer to other instructional design texts for more comprehensive and

detailed explanations of this procedure. 
72 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

5.17. Summary. The criterion objective is an effective way to communicate precise outcomes of learning. Each criterion objective describes the proof an instructor will accept that a learning outcome has been

mastered. 

5.17.1. While many formats for writing criterion objectives may be used, they all require three basic

items of information: performance, conditions, and standards. The checklist in Figure 5.15. will help

us write criterion objectives with all the required elements. Criterion objectives provide the basis for

tests that measure student performance for comparison with an objective standard. 

Figure 5.15. Criterion Objective Writer's Checklist. 

5.17.2. In spite of a tendency for beginning writers to make fairly predictable errors and to oversimplify the learning process, criterion objectives have changed the face of instructional programs. Criterion objectives are invaluable to the technical instructor for specifying exact optimal levels of training.

They are also valuable to the academic instructor in establishing the base line of instruction or minimum objectives upon which more open-ended courses, such as professional military education, are

developed. Criterion objectives also help us to consider the environment for testing as well as the standards for evaluation so we can deal fairly with our students. In addition, criterion objectives help us to

Conditions: 

1. Are there any physical factors, such as, materials, equipment, supplies, or references in the performance 

situation that should be noted as being present or specifically excluded? 

No ( ) Yes ( ) If yes, specify: 

2. Is there any problem or situation that will confront students to which they must respond? 

No ( ) Yes ( ) If yes, specify: 

Performance:

1. What are students required to do? Specify with an action verb: 

2. To what? Specify: 

Standards:

Which of the following standards will be used to evaluate student performance? 

( ) 1. External authority. Specify: 

( ) 2. Percentage or ratio. 

 ( ) Without error/100 percent correct. 

 ( ) Other. Specify: 

( ) 3. Requirement to be tested more than once. Specify: 

( ) 4. Physical measurements and tolerances. Specify: 

( ) 5. Time limitation. Specify: 

( ) 6. Production rate. Specify: 

( ) 7. Qualitative standards. Specify: 

( ) 8. Degree of supervision. Specify: 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 73

better visualize our measurement instruments so we can make valid reliable assessments of student

achievement. 
74 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 6 

DEVELOPING THE LESSON PLAN 

6.1. The Importance of a Lesson Plan: 

6.1.1. A lesson plan is a plan for learning. As is true in most activities, the quality of planning affects

the quality of results. Successful executives and professional people know the price of excellence is

careful preparation. A lawyer spends hours planning a case before appearing in court. A minister does

not ad-lib a sermon, but plans days or weeks in advance. In anticipation of the big game, the coach

spends hours planning the plays and watching the team execute them. Should we attempt such a complicated process as learning with less attention than is given to other important activities? The answer

is obvious: of course not. The effective instructor devotes much time and energy in carefully planning

and preparing each lesson, whether the lesson encompasses one or several periods of instruction. 

6.1.2. To ensure the greatest probability of learning, we must carefully select and arrange activities

that will produce the desired learning outcomes in our students. Only through careful planning can we

be certain we include all necessary information and have our lesson plan properly organized to

achieve the lesson objective. 

6.1.3. The complete cycle of lesson planning includes the following steps (paragraph 6.2. through

6.10.): determining the objective, researching the topic as defined by the objective, selecting the

appropriate instructional method, identifying a usable lesson planning format, deciding how to organize the lesson, establishing a strategy statement, choosing appropriate support material, preparing the

introduction and conclusion of the lesson, and preparing a final outline. 

6.2. Determining the Objective. We often begin our lesson planning with an objective or objectives

clearly in mind. At other times, the objective may be shaped by the research and additional planning we

do. In other words, although the first step of the lesson planning process is to determine the objective, our

objective may not fully evolve until after we have completed other steps of the process. 

6.2.1. Objectives need to be student-centered. We should not state them in terms of what we want to

teach, but rather in terms of what we want our students to learn. For instance, the objective of a lesson

on developing a lesson plan might be for each student to know the eight steps of effective lesson planning as listed in this chapter. 

6.2.2. Of course we might teach the lesson at a higher level than the knowledge level. We might want

each student to comprehend the eight steps appropriate to effective lesson planning or even to be able

to apply the eight steps of lesson planning. But whatever the level, the student-centered objective

should guide our subsequent planning. Without a clear objective, we won't know if we, or more

importantly, our students ever get there. 

6.3. Researching the Topic. After writing or determining an instructional objective, we are ready to

decide on the main points of the lesson and gather materials about the lesson topic. Normally we do not

collect a mass of research materials and then develop an objective to match the findings. Not only is this

approach inefficient, but it is also likely to be ineffective. It may well ignore the specific needs of the students and the Air Force. The objective should determine the research needed. On the other hand, research

may justify a decision to modify an objective or rearrange main points for greater accuracy or clarity. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 75

6.3.1. Appropriateness and usefulness are two important criteria for selecting relevant material. To be

appropriate, information should relate to the lesson objective and have a high possibility for student

retention. To be useful, it should aid both the instructor and the students in the teaching-learning process. If the instructor selects material solely on the basis of its interest, a lesson may be filled with

interesting information of little learning value. On the other hand, dry, uninteresting facts—even

though very important—may also defeat the instructor's purpose. Students are more likely to grasp

and retain facts and concepts enriched with interesting support material and arranged in a way to

enhance learning. 

6.3.2. With the objective clearly in mind, we are now ready to gather actual material or do research on

the subject. The sources for this material are our own experiences, the experience of others we gain

through conversation and interviews, and written or observed material. Instructors concerned with

teaching a good lesson will often draw from all of these sources. 

6.3.2.1. Self. The first step in researching a lesson topic is to see what we ourselves know about

the subject. Our personal knowledge may suggest a tentative organization, but more importantly,

it will point to gaps in our knowledge needing further research. 

6.3.2.2. Others. The second step in the research process is to draw on the experience of others.

The most fruitful source is the expert who may help us clarify our thinking, provide facts and testimony, and suggest sources for further research. 

NOTE: While personal experience, conversation, and interviews provide valuable content for lessons,

we must usually do further research. If we have properly narrowed our subject and kept the purpose in

mind, our research will be easier. 

6.3.2.3. Library and Internet. Libraries and the internet provide an abundance of sources such

as books, newspapers, magazine articles, scholarly journals, abstracts, subject files, and microfilms. Quantity is no problem; quality is more difficult. We must always concern ourselves with

the accuracy and relevance of the material we select. For example, using an article from 1950 to

discuss atomic physics today might well lead to inaccurate, irrelevant conclusions. 

6.3.3. The next step in the research process is to evaluate the material gathered. We will probably find

we have enough material for several lessons. We must now combine some ideas, eliminate others, and

perhaps expand on what we found in the research materials. We will also want to give special attention

to the types of support material we have selected (definitions, examples, comparisons, statistics, and

testimony). Later in this chapter we will discuss types of support material in detail. 

6.3.4. Sometimes we have an organizational pattern in mind before we start. If not, as we gather our

material, we will probably see the ideas begin to form into some type of pattern. Later in this chapter,

we will discuss ways of organizing the lesson. 

6.3.5. During the research phase, the instructor is likely to find material students should read to prepare for a given class session. If we keep this possibility in mind when we begin our research, we can

prepare a suggested student reading list and save time in selecting student references. When deciding

on supplementary reading for the students, choose interesting and informative materials that reinforce

or support the lesson objectives. 

6.4. Selecting Instructional Methods. After deciding exactly what to teach, the instructor determines

how best to teach it and what instructional method to use. When related to instruction, "method" refers to

a combination of techniques or skills used by the instructor to engage students in meaningful learning
76 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

experiences. A method is a broad approach to instruction—for example, the lecture method or the guided

discussion method. A technique, on the other hand, is a specific concrete skill or procedure used in implementing a method—for example, the technique of using the chalkboard or of using an analogy as support

material. Chapter 12 provides an overview of several instructional methods available to Air Force

instructors. Chapter 13 through Chapter 18 present a number of these methods in detail. 

6.4.1. Philosophy Underlying Selection. We should choose a teaching method suited to the student's

needs as a learner. In making the selection, we consider the ways people learn—by doing, discussing,

listening, observing, and participating. We should select the instructional method most effective for

guiding students toward desired learning outcomes. Our role is to select the method and the techniques that will result in a meaningful learning experience. 

6.4.2. The Selection Process. No one method is suitable for all teaching situations, because no single

method is sufficiently flexible to meet the needs of students in every learning situation. Chapter 19

presents an expanded discussion of the factors to consider in the selection of teaching methods. In

general, the nature of a learning outcome suggests the type of activity most helpful to students in

achieving that outcome. 

6.4.2.1. If, for example, we want students to gain skill in performing a certain task, one of the

activities should be practice in performing the task. If the desired outcome is knowledge, students

should observe, listen, and/or read so they can relate what they are learning to their own experience. If students must learn to apply a principle, the instructor should ask them to solve problems

or perform tasks requiring an application of that principle. 

6.4.2.2. The instructional approach we choose for one learning outcome may be different from the

approaches we select for other outcomes in the same lesson. Our primary concern is to plan and

select the most appropriate approach for students to achieve each outcome. 

6.5. Lesson Planning Format. Good lesson planning is essential for any systematic approach to instruction. Although many instructors become discouraged with the time required for good lesson planning, a

well written and properly used lesson plan can be a very worthwhile teaching aid. 

6.5.1. Experienced instructors use written lesson plans for a variety of purposes. They can be checkpoints to ensure well-planned learning experiences. They can serve as teaching guides during lessons

and as references for other instructors who may teach for us in emergencies. They can also serve as

convenient records of an instructor's planning techniques and methods of teaching. One of the most

practical functions of lesson plans is they serve as step-by-step guides for instructors in developing

teaching and learning activities. 

6.5.2. Authorities differ about the content and form of lesson plans, and many commands and schools

have developed their own formats to satisfy particular needs. On the whole, however, most authorities

generally agree on the essential characteristics of a good lesson plan. Figure 6.1. lists these characteristics as well as those items of information routinely included. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 77

Figure 6.1. Recommended Content and Components of a Lesson Plan. 

6.6. Organizing the Lesson. After we have researched the topic, selected the appropriate instructional

method, and identified the lesson planning format to use, we must decide how to organize the lesson.

Every lesson needs an introduction, body, and conclusion. In most instances, the body of the lesson should

be prepared before the introduction or conclusion. After we prepare the body or main part of the lesson,

we will be in a better position to begin or conclude the lesson. The first consideration in planning the body

is how to organize the main points. Organization of subpoints is also important. Arranging the main points

and subpoints of a lesson will help both the instructor and the students—the instructor in teaching, the students in learning. Most lessons, regardless of their length, divide nicely into two to five main points. 

Major Components Information/Materials to be Included

Part I: Cover Sheet Lesson identification 

Instructor's name 

Method used 

Objective (with behavioral indicators of achievement) 

Main teaching points or task steps 

References consulted 

Instructional aids used 

Handouts needed 

Part II: Lesson Development Content outline 

Notes on delivery techniques 

Cues for use of visual aids 

Notetaking space for instructor inputs 

Comments on effectiveness of plan made after lesson is presented 

Part III: Evaluation Test items 

Record of student performance on test items 

Statistical analysis 

Record of test item revisions 

Part IV: Related Materials Handouts 

Homework assignments 

Reading assignments 

Supporting documents 

Actual instructional aids 

Class text 
78 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

6.6.1. Typical ways of organizing main or subpoints of a lesson are by chronological, sequential, spatial, cause-effect, problem-solution, pro-con, or topical patterns (paragraph 6.6.1.1. through

6.6.1.7.2.). Furthermore, certain strategies can be used with each pattern from known to unknown, for

instance, or from simple to complex. How does an instructor decide which patterns and strategies to

use? The lesson material will often organize itself easier with one pattern and strategy than with

another. Let us consider how various patterns and strategies can be used to organize the main points of

a lesson. 

6.6.1.1. Chronological. Our vocabularies are filled with words that refer to time: now, tomorrow,

yesterday, today, sooner, later, earlier, last week, a month from now, 4 years ago, next time. We

work, play, sleep, and eat at certain times. Major events in our lives are organized by time: births,

engagements, marriages, deaths. The chronological or time pattern of lesson organization is a natural way of arranging events in the order in which they happen. Similar to this is an arrangement

in the way certain things are carried out, their sequence. 

6.6.1.2. Sequential. Certain processes, procedures, or historical movements and developments

can often be explained best with a time sequence pattern. 

6.6.1.2.1. The medical technician presenting a lesson on mouth-to-mouth resuscitation would

probably use a sequential ordering of the main points: (1) preliminary steps—proper body

position, mouth open, tongue and jaw forward, (2) the mouth-to-mouth process, and (3) caring

for the patient once breathing resumes. The sequential order is also a logical approach to lessons dealing with such subjects as how to pack a parachute, development of the F-15 fighter,

or how to prepare a speech. 

6.6.1.2.2. Furthermore, any lesson on a subject with several phases lends itself well to the

sequential pattern. For example, given an objective for students to know the three planned

phases of the Common Market (where phase one precedes phase two, and phase two precedes

phase three), a lesson might have these main points: (1) Phase one—a customs union where

nations agreed to reduce duties, (2) Phase two—an economic union allowing laborers and

goods to move freely across national borders, and (3) Phase three—a political union with

national representatives as members of a common parliament and using a common currency. 

6.6.1.2.3. Of course, rather than looking forward in time from a given moment, the strategy

might be to look backward from a point in time. In other words, the strategy might be to move

from recent to earlier time rather than from early to late. Regardless of which strategy is used,

the flow of the lesson and the transitions should make the chronological relationships between

main points clear to the students. 

6.6.1.3. Spatial. A spatial or geographical pattern is effective in describing relationships. When

using this pattern, the lesson material is developed according to some directional strategy such as

east to west or north to south. For instance, if an instructor was describing the domino theory of

guerrilla infiltration, a good organization for the lesson would make the main points of the lesson

correspond to the geographical locations of various nations. 

6.6.1.3.1. With lessons about certain objects, the strategy might be to arrange the main points

from top to bottom or bottom to top. A fire extinguisher might be described from top to bottom, an organizational chart from the highest ranks to the lowest in the organization, a library

according to the services found on the first floor, then the second, and finally those on the

third. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 79

6.6.1.3.2. Sometimes the strategy is to organize the lesson from the center to the outside. For

example, the control panel in an airplane might be discussed by describing first those instruments in the center most often used, then by moving out toward the surrounding instruments

that are used least often. 

6.6.1.3.3. In all lessons arranged spatially, we need to introduce each aspect or main point

according to some strategy. Just as with a lesson organized by time, the subject matter and the

transitions should include elaboration and clarification of how the main points relate to one

another. A simple listing of the various objects or places without elaboration as to how they are

related may confuse the students and make the points harder to remember. 

6.6.1.4. Cause-Effect. We use a cause-effect pattern of organization in a lesson when one set of

conditions is given as a cause for another set. In such lessons we may use one of two basic

arrangements for our main points. We begin with a given set of conditions and show how these

produce or have already produced certain results or effects. With an effect-cause strategy, we take

a certain set of conditions as the effects and allege they resulted from certain causes. 

6.6.1.4.1. The cause-effect strategy might be used in a lesson concerning the increasing number of women in the Air Force. The lesson might first discuss the fact that women are now

assuming more responsible leadership roles in the Air Force. One effect of women assuming

such roles might be that women are joining the Air Force with increasing frequency. 

6.6.1.4.2. The effect-cause strategy might be used in a lesson on child abuse. The first point

might explain the effects of child abuse upon the children themselves, the parents, and even on

society. The second point might suggest that the causes are that parents themselves were

abused as children or they lack proper education on parenting. 

6.6.1.4.3. Whichever strategy is used, you must beware of false causes and of single causes.

For false causes: just because one event or circumstance precedes another does not mean the

former causes the latter. Many persons assume that "First A happened, and then B took place,

so A must have caused B." For single causes: few things result from a single cause. There may

be several causes and they may not act independently. Their effect may be greater or less than

the sum of their parts. For example, lack of safety features on automobiles does not by itself

cause most highway accidents, but this cause plus careless driving and unsafe highways may,

in combination, account for many highway accidents. 

6.6.1.5. Problem-Solution. This pattern, sometimes called the disease-remedy pattern or the

need-satisfaction pattern, presents students with a problem and then proposes a way to solve it.

With this pattern, we must show that a problem exists and then offer a corrective action that is

practical, desirable, capable of being put into action, and able to relieve the problem. It must also

be one that does not introduce new and worse evils of its own. For example, the issue of controlling nuclear weapons has long been debated. Those against control argue that erosion of national

sovereignty from arms control is more dangerous than no control. 

6.6.1.5.1. There are different strategies we might employ when using the problem-solution

method. If the students are aware of the problem and the possible solutions, we might discuss

the problem briefly, mention the possible solutions, and then spend more time in showing why

one solution is better than others. For instance, our objective is for students to comprehend that

solar energy is the best solution to the energy crisis. Our main points might be that the world is
80 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

caught in the grip of an energy crisis, several solutions are possible, and solar energy is the best

long-term solution. 

6.6.1.5.2. If the students are not aware of the problem or need, we may describe the exact

nature of the problem in detail. Sometimes when students become aware of the problem, the

solution becomes evident, and little time is needed to develop the solution in the lesson. At

other times, we need to spend time developing both the problem and the solution. 

6.6.1.5.3. Still another strategy is to alternate or stagger portions of the problem with portions

of the solution. For example, the cost of a project may be seen as one problem, workability

another, time to do the project as a third. Taking each in turn and providing solutions to cost,

work ability, and time as we present these aspects of the problem may be more satisfying to

students than if we had discussed all of the problem and then its total solution. 

6.6.1.5.4. Whatever strategy is used, with the problem-solution pattern students must become

aware that a problem exists before a solution will be agreed upon. 

6.6.1.6. Pro-Con. The pro-con pattern, sometimes called the for-against pattern or advantages-disadvantages pattern, is similar to a problem-solution pattern. A major difference, however,

is that fairly even attention is usually directed toward both sides of an issue with a pro-con pattern. 

6.6.1.6.1. There are various strategies to consider when using the pro-con pattern. One consideration is whether to present pro or con first. Another is whether to present both sides and let

students draw their kown conclusions or to present the material in such a way students are led

to accept the "school solution." For instance, with a lesson on the effects of jogging, we have

to decide whether to present the advantages or disadvantages first. Then we must decide

whether to let students decide for themselves whether the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. Pro-con plus one is the label given to the organization used when we draw a final conclusion based on the two sides. 

6.6.1.6.2. When deciding the specific strategy to use with the pro-con pattern and determining

how much time to spend on each, the following guidelines may be helpful: (1) giving both

sides fairly even emphasis is most effective when the weight of evidence is clearly on the

favored side; (2) presenting both sides is more effective when students may be initially

opposed to the school solution; (3) presenting only the favored side is most effective when students already favor the school solution or conclusion; and (4) presenting the favored side last

is generally more favorable to its acceptance, especially if the side not favored is not shown in

too strong a light. 

6.6.1.7. Topical. A topical division of the main points of a lesson involves determining categories

of the subject or lesson objective. This type of categorizing or classifying often springs directly

from the subject itself. For instance, a lesson about a typical college population might be divided

into topical divisions of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors, with each class division serving as a main point. Housing might be discussed in terms of on-base and off-base housing. A lesson on the Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile might be arranged with the main points of

warhead, guidance, and propulsion systems. 

6.6.1.7.1. At times, the material itself suggests certain strategies for ordering the main points.

For instance, a lesson on levels-of-learning lesson planning would most likely begin with

knowledge-level planning as the first main point because knowledge-level lessons are generally simpler to understand. Then the lesson would move on through the hierarchy to compre-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 81

hension, application, analysis, synthesis, and finally, evaluation levels. In other words, our

lesson would follow a simple-to-complex strategy in organizing the "topics" or levels of learning. 

6.6.1.7.2. Other topically organized lessons might follow strategies of known to unknown,

general to specific, or specific to general. The number of strategies for arranging topical main

points is practically infinite. The important consideration, as with any pattern, is that we give

thought to the strategy of arrangement in order to improve student understanding and learning. 

6.6.1.8. Combining Patterns. Our lessons will make more sense if we use a single pattern to

organize the main points. We will be able to remember more readily what the main points are

when we teach the lesson. Even more important, students will be able to follow the lesson more

easily and retain the material if we use a single, logical pattern of organization. 

6.6.1.8.1. While we may choose a certain organizational pattern for the main points, we may

decide to use different patterns for subpoints. Figure 6.2. provides a tentative outline of a lesson on the importance of nonverbal factors of communication. 

Figure 6.2. Outline of a Lesson on Nonverbal Communication. 

6.6.1.8.2. Notice the main points (performance and nonperformance factors) are arranged topically. The subpoints for main point I (upper, middle, and lower body) are organized spatially.

A pro-con pattern is used to discuss positive and negative effects from each body performance

I. Performance factors 

 A. Upper body (head and face) 

 1. Positive effects 

 2. Negative effects 

 B. Middle body (arms, hands, torso) 

 1. Positive effects 

 2. Negative effects 

 C. Lower body (hips, legs, feet) 

 1. Positive effects 

 2. Negative effects 

II. Nonperformance factors 

 A. Objects 

 B. Space 

 1. Personal or body 

 2. Furniture arrangement 

 C. Time 
82 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

factor. The subpoints of main point II (objects, space, and time) are organized topically, similar

to the two subpoints under space. The important thing to remember is that each set of main

points or subpoints should follow a given pattern of organization as shown in Figure 6.2.

6.6.1.8.3. Of course, it may be that none of the formal patterns of organization discussed in

this chapter adequately fit our content. If this is the case, we must simply strive to organize our

lesson in the way that will help present the information to our students in the most meaningful

fashion. As we construct our tentative outline, we must do so with our students' needs in mind.

But whatever pattern or strategy we choose, it should be a conscious and rational choice and

we should be able to defend or explain it. Quite often, the experienced teacher revises the outline three or four times before satisfactorily putting it into final form on the lesson plan. 

6.7. The Strategy Statement: 

6.7.1. Character and Purpose. The strategy statement is simply a detailed plan that explains your

overall lesson objective and the steps you intend to take in achieving that objective most efficiently

and effectively. A well-written strategy statement benefits the writer of the lesson plan by helping to

determine the best options to adopt when deciding on methodology, teaching techniques, interim

objectives, and type and amount of proof and clarification support. It also helps anyone else who is

tasked to teach or modify the lesson later by spelling out the detailed rationale for choosing these

options. 

6.7.1.1. When the teachers understand why the different elements of a plan are included and when

these reasons are sound, the teachers can more easily adopt the process as their own or adapt the

plan more coherently—both internally and as it relates to other lessons in the curriculum. And, just

as importantly, the strategy can also benefit the students immensely because it provides a well-formulated overview for the lesson introduction itself by telling the students exactly what will be

covered in the lesson without exposing the lesson itself. 

6.7.1.2. The strategy statement should be designed in such a way as to walk the instructor through

the entire lesson, focusing on every element of the lesson. A comprehensive strategy statement

helps the writer of the plan by forcing the writer to consider these questions often taken for

granted: Is the overall lesson outline and order of main points and subpoints the most logical and

intuitively acceptable? Are the teaching techniques decided upon the most appropriate for the lesson? How much leeway can you take in the presentation before you change the actual objective?

Moreover, it provides a quick mental outline of the entire lesson helping to prevent the instructor

from having to script, or slavishly rely on, the lesson plan (thereby destroying the spontaneity of

the presentation). 

6.7.2. Method of Presentation. The strategy statement should move the reader through the lesson

simultaneously from the general to the specific elements as well as sequentially, from attention step

through the closure. No part of the lesson plan and no decision about teaching techniques (use of demonstrations, use of questions, where to insert mini-lectures) should be overlooked or assumed in the

statement. Spelling out each element about what we sometimes make subconscious decisions on lesson formulation often reveals conventions we sometimes misuse or overuse in the practice of education—again, a benefit to the writer and any other teacher of the lesson. 

6.7.2.1. We suggest you start by looking at your lesson objective and organizational pattern to

decide on an overall strategic ordering of the main points. State this ordering up front; for exam-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 83

ple, general to specific, specific to general, most to least important, known to unknown, simple to

complex. This decision will give you a general focus to lead you toward the objective efficiently. 

6.7.2.2. Follow this with a sequential statement of each main point and its associated subpoints to

include method of presentation and rationales for the method and order of presentation. Each of

these steps is important to help the lesson planner fit the elements together and consider all the factors necessary for justifying each decision. In effect, this method can be simplified by meticulously asking and answering the three questions indispensable for comprehensive lesson

development—what, how, and why. A practical approach to writing a strategy statement and

answering those questions is to use a matrix outlining your main points. The process then becomes

a matter of filling in the information (Figure 6.3. through Figure 6.5.). 
84 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 6.3. Strategy Statement—Example 1. 

WHAT? HOW? WHY? 

LESSON TYPE: Informal Lecture. 

PART IB 

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Topical. 

STRATEGY: This lesson is the second lesson in a series of three that cover the problem of positional 

warfare in World War I. It logically builds upon the theories of Fuller and Hart which were studied in the 

first lesson and introduces the concept of Blitzkrieg, a combined arms approach to warfare, which will act 

as a bridge to the third lesson of the series on applied airpower theory from World War I. 

This lesson discusses the Blitzkrieg theory of combined arms warfare by Germany during the interwar 

years and examines the contextual and operational art elements that affected its development. It is best 

presented using the informal lecture method and a topical format centered on the contextual and 

operational art elements introduced in the Nature of War course. Begin the lesson with a definition of the 

key term "Blitzkrieg" and clarify the distinction between Mechanized and Motorized forces. This will help 

provide the student with a clear understanding of these key terms and concepts, which is necessary to fully 

understand the lesson. Review with the students the problem of trench warfare in WWII, the difficulty of 

assaulting prepared positions, and the tactics employed by Germany and other countries during WWI to 

try and deal with this problem. This will set the stage for future lessons that will contrast how development 

of combined arms and armored warfare evolved in Germany with how mechanized warfare theory 

evolved in other European countries. 

A majority of the classroom time should be spent discussing the contextual and operational elements that 

existed in Germany during the interwar years and explaining how those factors influenced development 

of the Blitzkrieg theory in Germany. The information should be presented in a topical format using each 

applicable contextual and operational art element as a topic. This approach is favorable since it helps to 

reinforce the importance of contextual and operational art elements in any wartime situation and also 

because the framework is already familiar to the students. 

After presenting the influences that affected the development of the Blitzkrieg theory, the instructor should 

present Guderian's theory or vision for employing mechanized arms. Guderian is credited as being the 

"Father of the Blitzkrieg." With the rise of Hitler and nazi Germany, Guderian was given command of a 

Panzer force and became instrumental in molding how the theory of mechanized arms was actually put 

into practice. The body of the lesson should conclude by using three historical examples from the early 

battles of WWII that illustrate the resounding success that this new method of warfare produced. 

To conclude, summarize the main points of the lecture by highlighting the significant subpoints and by 

emphasizing the significance that technology and contextual elements have on the development of new 

warfare theory. This conclusion is important because in later lessons a similar look at the development of 

Air Power, which also had its roots in WWI and the interwar years, will be undertaken. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 85

Figure 6.4. Strategy Statement—Example 2. 

WHAT? HOW? WHY? 

LESSON TYPE: Demonstration-Performance. 

PART IB 

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Sequential. 

STRATEGY: The lesson on determining cash value will proceed in sequential order to show how each 

step of the calculation builds on the next. The lesson will start with a brief explanation of present value 

and cash flows. This explanation will help students understand the benefit of using this method in 

determining the time value of their money. Next, I will give a demonstration and explanation of each task 

step of the process of calculating the present value of an unequal stream of payments to show each student 

how to extract necessary data from a scenario and obtain the present value of each amount. This 

demonstration and explanation step will also teach students how to use the present value table. I will then 

have the students perform the calculations themselves while I read the task steps to give the students 

practice under controlled conditions. Once the students have completed the task steps, they will practice 

once more on their own with the last practice occurring under conditions duplicating the final evaluation 

so the instructor can be sure each student is ready. The demonstration and explanation of problem, the 

controlled practice problem and the independently done practice problem should provide enough 

repetition of the required sequence of steps while providing adequate time for questions to ensure students 

are learning the procedure. I will then have the students perform the computations without assistance, and 

then grade the results to ensure the students have performed to the required standards. 
86 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 6.5. Strategy Statement—Example 3. 

6.7.3. Interrelating the Questions. Whenever there is a significant lesson element, it constitutes an

answer to the "what" question that must be answered in the strategy. A significant lesson element is

every main point or subpoint the instructor includes in the lesson. Each point must be denoted in the

strategy statement. Often, segments of the lesson, such as the introduction, attention step, interim

summary, or conclusion, represent significant elements that should also be mentioned in the strategy.

Significant lesson elements tell the teacher (and sometimes the student) what will be covered or where

there is an important or required tactical decision. But this is just the beginning of the process because

if we were to stop with these determinations of what we intend to do and where we intend to do it, we

would be left with simply a laundry list of elements to be touched on during the lesson. Of more significance to the lesson planner are the answers to the "how" and "why" questions. 

6.7.3.1. Asking and answering "how" to each of these "whats" forces us to determine and delineate the method, manner, or sequence of presenting the significant elements included. It is important to make these determinations because we have a palette full of teaching techniques, patterns,

and methodologies from which to choose. And it is often helpful to specify these decisions to

WHAT? HOW? WHY? 

LESSON TYPE: Teaching Interview. 

PART IB 

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Topical. 

STRATEGY: The interview will start with lead-off and follow-up questions about the general role and 

purpose of the Security Assistance Training Program (SATP) to show the main point, "The SATP promotes 

national security." Then a series of lead-off and follow-up questions addressing the particular role the 

International Officers School (IOS) plays in the training process will demonstrate the other main point, that 

"IOS promotes national security." Students will learn what the SATP is from the point of view of its initial 

purpose as well as how it operates today. This will be done by use of a practicing expert within the SATP. 

The interviewing of the expert is chosen for two reasons: 1) to effectively present the concept of the SATP 

in an understandable and interesting format with the use of personal experience and real-life examples, and 

2) to foster an affective response on the part of the students by testimony of one who believes in the goals 

of the SATP. I will use a topical pattern to explain the goals and importance of the SATP as well as the goals 

and importance of IOS as it contributes to reaching that goal through the use of Air Force training 

resources. The interview will proceed from a general explanation and understanding of the role of IOS. 

This strategy should be more effective in fostering a deeper comprehension of the importance of the 

program as well as pointing out the personal relevance of the program to the ordinary Air Force civilian or 

military member, all of whom are likely to encounter an international military student during their careers. 

After the formal interview of the guest, there will be a question-and-answer period to further illuminate the 

topic. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 87

encourage precision in our lesson formulation. For example, very often we state that we will discuss a particular topic when we have absolutely no intention of discussing it at all (as evidenced by

our failure to plan discussion questions in that part of the plan). Answering the "how" question

helps us to focus our intentions and prevent us from making the mistake of saying we will discuss

something without providing discussion questions within the lesson plan. Alternatively, we might

want to demonstrate, or even have a student demonstrate, something within the lesson or we might

want to show a movie or slides to illustrate a lesson element most effectively. But if we state in the

strategy that we will explain a given concept in this part of the lesson, this disconnect with what

we actually plan in the lesson will be more evident. 

6.7.3.2. One cannot determine the final answer to "how" without giving full consideration to why

the decision is made. Therefore, the answer to "why" must be fully integrated into the strategy

statement. This answer provides the intellectual glue that binds the parts of the strategy statement

into a cohesive whole. It justifies each decision the planner makes and fits the elements of this

puzzle together. It helps to prevent our adding the dazzle and flash that add no educational value

to the lesson. Everything must have a sound reason for its inclusion or it should be left out of the

lesson. The "why" should ask why the main points and subpoints are in the order we choose as

well as force us to provide a reason for our choice of techniques, patterns, methods, and the inclusion of every other "what" in the lesson. 

6.7.3.3. This explanation of the role of "what, how, and why" in writing a comprehensive strategy

should stimulate at least a preliminary understanding of how the strategy statement can help us

plan much better lessons. A full appreciation can only be aroused, however, by our use of this

technique and by comparing lesson plans based on this process to those written without comprehensive strategies. But beyond the immediate benefits to lesson planning, there are other benefits

just as valid and sometimes more helpful. For example, lesson plans are continuously modified or

updated—often by other than the original lesson developer. What a benefit it is to be able to make

minor adjustments with a clear understanding of the reasoning dictating the original form of the

lesson! 

6.7.4. Significance of the Questions. Why is it so important to be this specific in writing the strategy? All techniques and methods (or combinations of these) are potentially appropriate in a lesson

until the lesson planner determines the most effective. If the writer does not make this decision or

doesn't realize what is best to do in a given scenario, the lesson will never be as effective as it could

be. In almost any human endeavor the effectiveness of interpersonal communication is inversely proportional to how much one allows to be left unstated or "understood." 

6.7.4.1. In order to emphasize the importance of including the answers to each of these questions

in the strategy statement, an appropriate comparison can be made between the strategy statement

and a cooking recipe. In each case, the intended result is a palatable concoction of ingredients. But

none of us can combine a list of ingredients (what) of a dish (what) to produce the desired result

unless we know the correct measurements of each (how) as well as the method (how) and time

(how) of cooking. Even the order of combining the ingredients (how) at each stage of the cooking

process is often important to get the desired result. For instance, adding salt too early in a meat

recipe could reduce the succulence of the dish. But without a working understanding of what each

of the ingredients does in a recipe (why), we would be unable to easily and successfully modify

the recipe for the microwave in lieu of the oven or to substitute elements such as mayonnaise for

oil and eggs in a cake recipe. 
88 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

6.7.4.2. Therefore, it is imperative to ask and answer these three questions in a well-developed

strategy statement. It is equally important to interweave the answers throughout the strategy. This

careful choice and justification of all lesson plan elements will result in better preparation. 

6.7.4.3. Figure 6.3., Figure 6.4., and Figure 6.5. are examples of strategies that demonstrate the

principles we have just discussed. Notice first that the "what, how and why" statements are interwoven throughout the statements. This helps to ensure everything in the plan has a justifiable purpose. Secondly, notice that some of these statements serve double duty, for example, some "what"

statements are also "how" or "why" statements. This is perfectly legitimate—any type statement

can serve more than one purpose. This may even help to strengthen the cohesion of the overall

strategy. 

6.8. Choosing Support Material: 

6.8.1. Developing the Lesson Outline. A major factor in developing the lesson outline is determining the kind of support material to use. While organizing the ideas forms the basic structure of any lesson, almost all ideas need some form of clarification or proof if the student is to learn. 

6.8.1.1. Most students find it difficult to understand unsupported ideas or assertions. Suppose, for

instance, we tell our students it is important to organize a speech or a lesson according to one of

several patterns of presentation. We then tell them the most common patterns are chronological,

sequential, spatial, cause-effect, problem-solution, pro-con, and topical. Most likely, we will not

have provided enough information so our students can actually use these patterns of organization.

We must go on to explain each of these patterns, as has been done in paragraphs 6.6.1. through

6.6.1.7.2. This explanation would include supporting ideas or assertions. 

6.8.1.2. The subject, the method, the ability of students, the size of the class, and similar factors

will help determine the amount and kinds of support material we need. We may also want to use

visual support. Chapter 20 discusses types of visual support materials and some rules governing

their use. 

6.8.1.3. Verbal support is needed either to clarify or explain our points or to prove our assertions.

Definitions, examples, and comparisons are used primarily for clarification support. Their use as

proof is limited. Statistics and testimony of experts can be used either for clarification or proof.

With lectures and other presentational methods, the instructor actually furnishes the support. With

methods involving student interaction, such as the guided discussion, instructors use questions to

encourage support materials from the students. Chapter 11 discusses how to use questions effectively. 

6.8.2. Definitions. Definitions are often needed to clarify or explain the meaning of a term, concept,

or principle. But like so many words, the term definition can mean different things and function in different ways. 

6.8.2.1. In some lessons we need to use technical or complex words. With the increasing specialization of Air Force schools in both theoretical and applied subjects, the output of words races

ahead of dictionaries. 

6.8.2.2. At other times we need to define words we employ frequently and loosely. Some words

simply have different meanings for different people. Words such as "democracy," "equal rights,"

"security needs," and "loyalty" can often be defined easily. For instance, "disseminate" can be

defined very simply as "spread widely." At other times we might seek novel and memorable ways
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 89

to define our terms. "Pragmatism" might be defined as "a fancy word to mean that the proof of the

pudding is in the eating." 

6.8.2.3. Sometimes it takes a little longer to fully define what we mean by a certain term. A

former prisoner of war (POW) might define the sacrifice of one prisoner for another as, "When

you see an American prisoner giving up his meager ration of fish just so another American who is

sick can have a little more to eat, that is sacrifice. Because when you don't have anything, and you

give it up, or you have very little and you give it up, then you're hurting yourself, and that is true

sacrifice. That's what I saw in the prison camp." 

6.8.2.4. Use definitions to explain the meaning of acronyms—words formed from initials. For

instance, when discussing PME at AU, we might have to explain that PME at AU means professional military education that is taught at Air University. We might go on to mention that PME

includes AWC, ACSC, SOS, ABC, and SNCOA—that is, Air War College, Air Command and

Staff College, Squadron Officer School, Aerospace Basic Course, and Senior Noncommissioned

Officer Academy. 

6.8.2.5. Finally, instructors may need an entire lesson to define or otherwise introduce students to

a new term, concept, or principle. For example, when talking about the meaning of communication as transaction, it would probably be insufficient simply to say the transactional approach

means to consider the total communication process and the interaction of the various parts of the

process on each other. Other forms of support material such as examples and comparisons might

be needed to fully define what we mean. 

6.8.3. Examples: 

6.8.3.1. Any time students ask us to give a "for instance," they are asking for an example to clarify

the point we are trying to make. Sometimes the examples we use may be reasonably long. At other

times a short example is sufficient. In some cases, short examples are similar to definitions. The

earlier definition of "sacrifice" given by the former POW might also be considered a short example. The fact that some support materials might be classed either as definitions or examples should

not overly concern us. As classroom instructors, we are more interested in using effective support

material than in classifying it. Consider the questions in Figure 6.6. when deciding whether to use

a particular example. 
90 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 6.6. Choosing Appropriate Examples. 

6.8.3.2. Often short examples can be clustered together in order to help students gain a more complete understanding of the point. In a lesson on a barrier to effective communication, we might

cluster examples of spoonerisms: "Is the bean dizzy?" (Is the dean busy?); "I'll have a coff of

cuppee" (I'll have a cup of coffee); "A half-warmed fish within us" (A half-formed wish within

us). 

6.8.4. Comparisons. Description often becomes more graphic when we place an unknown or little

understood item beside a similar but better known item. We might want to compare things that are

unlike or things that are very much alike to help our students visualize what we are talking about. 

6.8.4.1. Metaphors such as Winston Churchill's "iron curtain" or similes (using the words "like"

or "as," such as Robert Burns' "My love is like a red, red rose," or the saying "strong as an ox") are

comparisons of things that are unlike in most ways. We often use comparisons of unlike things in

lessons. For instance, we might say, "The flow of knowledge is like the relentless and uncompromising flow of a river after the spring thaw as it imposes on us the requirement that we not only

adjust but anticipate the future." Or we might show that being a member of a branch in an Air

Force organization is like living in a family where we have intimate contact with each other. We

might carry the analogy or comparison further by pointing out that in a unit, as in a family, members can protect, help, or irritate one another. 

6.8.4.2. Although analogies that compare things that are unlike serve as an excellent method of

clarification, they have limited utility as proof. To prove an assertion, we must compare "like"

things. Comparing the airpower of an adversary with US airpower or a mayor and city council

with a base commander and his or her staff are "like" comparisons. Arguing for a longer orientation session for students in one NCO academy because it has improved academic performance at

another would be comparing "like" phenomena—in this case, two NCO academies. 

Questions to Ask About Using Examples in Lessons: 

Do they accurately represent the point? 

Will students clearly understand their meaning? 

Do they fit the content? (Avoid those that may confuse.) 

Do humorous ones add rather than distract from the lesson? (Chapter 13 presents some guidelines for 

using humor.) 

Do they come from personal experience or can other examples be personalized in such a way as to seem 

real? 

Can anything be gained from clustering more than 3 or 4 examples? (Usually not.) 

Do long ones take too much time? (At times affective or attention-getting value of long examples may 

justify their use.) 

Are they interesting? 

NOTE: The appropriate answers to these questions should be obvious. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 91

6.8.4.3. Contrast is a special form of comparison. For instance, showing how Air Force training

differs from civilian training or how today's standard of living differs from that of a generation ago

clarifies and explains a point by showing contrast or differences. 

6.8.4.4. Obviously, any kind of comparison may be very brief like those given here or they may

be quite long. We need to decide what will work best in a given situation. But whether long or

short, comparisons are a valuable and generally underused method of verbal support. 

6.8.5. Testimony. Words and thoughts of others become particularly useful when we wish to add

strong proof support for assertions or points we make. None of us are expected to be experts on all

subjects; we must often rely on what others have said. At times, we use the testimony of others simply

to clarify or explain an idea, but often testimony provides proof for a claim. 

6.8.5.1. A lesson dealing with managerial effectiveness in an organization may have the importance of effective downward communication as one of its main points. In other words, we want to

stress how important it is for supervisors to keep their subordinates informed. We might quote

from a recent Air Force policy letter that states, "Commanders and supervisors have an increased

responsibility to keep Air Force military and civilian members informed." We might also report

the findings from a recent study by the International Association of Business Communicators that

show "face-to-face communication, including group meetings and one-on-one dialogue, proved

the most effective means of communicating with employees." 

6.8.5.2. Sometimes we will use direct quotations as we have done here. Other times we will paraphrase what another has said. Whatever the case, there are two questions we will want to ask about

the sources of testimony we plan to use: (1) Are the sources competent—do they know what they

are talking about? and (2) Can they be trusted—are they free from bias? We might also consider

whether the testimony is relevant, clear, and interesting and whether quotations are longer than

necessary. 

6.8.6. Statistics. Statistics are probably the most misused and misunderstood type of verbal support.

When properly collected and wisely used, statistics can help instructors clarify their ideas. Statistics

are also the most powerful proof support we can use. However, not all figures are statistics; some are

simply numbers. Statistics show relationships (largeness or smallness, increases or decreases) or summarize large collections of facts or data. When we choose statistics to use in our lessons, there are

some questions we should ask. 

6.8.6.1. Are the statistics recent? Figures concerning the cost of living in 1960 would have limited

usefulness for planning a budget for today's family. When selecting statistics to use in our lessons,

we should be on guard for outdated statistics or those not dated at all. 

6.8.6.2. Do the statistics indicate what they purport to? A single test score may not be a true measure of a student's ability. For instance, comparing the simple number of planes may not indicate

the comparative strength of two countries' air forces. 

6.8.6.3. Do the statistics cover a long enough time to be reliable? The results of how one class

responded to a new curriculum change would be less meaningful than how three or four classes

responded to the change. 

6.8.6.4. If the statistics are drawn from a sample, does the sample accurately represent the group

to which we are generalizing? Public opinion surveys and experimental researchers are generally
92 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

sensitive to the importance of obtaining a representative sample. Instructors also need to be sensitive to this need. 

6.8.6.5. When statistics report differences, are the differences significant? Minor variations can

often be attributed to chance. In other words, if we were to collect our statistics again, the results

might differ. 

6.8.6.6. When comparing things, are the same units of measure used to make the comparison?

Failure in one course might have a different meaning from failure in another. If more students fail

one course than another, we cannot necessarily conclude the content of one course is more difficult. Perhaps the grading scale rather than the content was more difficult. 

6.8.6.7. Do the statistics come from a reliable source? And is the source clearly indicated? It is

more effective to state the source of the information than to say, "recent surveys show." 

6.8.6.8. Are the statistics presented to their best advantage to aid student understanding? Could

we use visual aids to present the statistics in graphic or tabular form for easier understanding?

Have figures been rounded off where possible? Students are more likely to remember nearly

$45,000 than $44,871.24. Is the number of statistics limited so students are not overwhelmed by

them? Could the significance of statistics be clearer with meaningful comparisons? To say that

World War II cost the United States $200 billion would be clearer if we converted the figures into

today's dollars or compared the figures to the cost of other wars using a standard measure. 

6.9. Beginning and Ending the Lesson. So far we have selected the verbal and visual material that best

supports our lesson and made necessary changes in the original tentative outline. We are now ready to cast

our lesson into a final content outline. However, we usually want to consider how to begin and end the lesson before we outline. If the lesson is not the first in a block of instruction, we may have little to do in the

way of beginning or introducing the lesson. If other lessons in the same block of instruction are to follow

this lesson, we may not need an extensive conclusion. But, especially if the lesson is to stand alone, we

need to give some attention toward preparing an introduction and conclusion. 

6.9.1. Introduction. The introduction to a lesson should serve several purposes—to establish a common ground between the instructor and students, to capture and hold attention, to outline the lesson

and relate it to the overall course, to point out benefits to the student, and to lead the student into the

lesson content. While humor may be appropriate, the introduction should be free of irrelevant stories,

jokes, or incidents distracting from the lesson objective. It should not contain long or apologetic

remarks likely to dampen student interest in the lesson. Educators often speak of three necessary elements in the introduction of a lesson: gain attention, motivate, and provide an overview of lesson

material. 

6.9.1.1. Attention. To gain attention, the instructor may relate some incident focusing students on

the subject and providing a background for the lesson. Another approach may be to make an unexpected or surprising statement or ask a question that relates the lesson to group needs. A rhetorical

question (Have you ever...? or Can you imagine...?) may be effective. In all instances, the primary

concern is to focus student attention on the subject. 

6.9.1.2. Motivation. The instructor should use the introduction to discuss specific reasons why

the students need to learn the lesson. In the motivation, the instructor should make a personal

appeal to students and reinforce their desire to learn. The appeal may relate the learning to career

advancement or to some other need. But in every instance, the instructor should cite a specific
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 93

application for student learning experiences. In many cases, the need for this lesson as a foundation for future lessons is strong motivation. This motivational appeal should continue throughout

the lesson. If a brief mention of needs is made only in the introduction, the instructor is filling

squares—not motivating. 

6.9.1.3. Overview. For most instructional methods, the introduction should provide an overview

of what is to be covered during the class period. An overview should have a clear, concise presentation of the objective and main points as a road map for learning. Effective visual aids can be

helpful at this point. A clear overview can contribute greatly to a lesson by removing doubts in the

minds of the students about where the lesson is going and how they are going to get there. Students

can be told what will be covered or left out and why. Inform them about how the ideas have been

organized. Research shows students understand better and retain more when they know what to

expect. The purpose of the overview is to prepare students to listen to the body of the lesson. 

6.9.2. Conclusion. The conclusion of a lesson may stick with the students longer than anything else

said. For this reason, we should give much care to its preparation. The conclusion of most lessons

should accomplish three things: summarize, remotivate, and provide closure. 

6.9.2.1. Final Summary. Short or interim knowledge-level summaries may be appropriate at various places in a knowledge-level lesson; for example, after each main point has been made. But

final knowledge-level summaries come after all main points of the lesson have been made. An

effective knowledge-level summary retraces the important elements of the lesson. As the term

suggests, a final knowledge-level summary reviews the main points in a concise manner. By

reviewing the main points, it can aid students' retention of information and give them a chance to

fill in missing information in their notes. 

6.9.2.1.1. In lessons designed to reach a conclusion (principle), a comprehension-level summary is desired as the final summary. Short or interim comprehension-level summaries may

come at the conclusion of main points. But the final comprehension-level summary comes

after covering all main points of the lesson and serves as the first part of the lesson conclusion. 

6.9.2.1.2. The comprehension-level final summary may require several minutes. While containing a brief restatement of significant information, it requires an expansion of key items to

establish relationships that lead to a generalization. The generalization is the lesson objective.

New support material can be introduced when needed to establish the generalization. 

6.9.2.2. Remotivation. The purpose of the remotivation is to instill in students a desire to retain

and use what they have learned. Effective instructors provide motivation throughout the lesson.

But the remotivation step is the instructor's last chance to let students know why the information

presented in the lesson is so important to the students as individuals. The remotivation may also

provide the groundwork for future lessons or reasons the information will help the students do

their jobs more effectively. But whatever the reasons given, they should be ones appealing directly

to the students and show the importance of the subject matter learned. 

6.9.2.3. Closure. For many instructors, the closure presents the most difficult challenge in planning a lesson. Students need to be released from active participation. In lectures, they need to be

released from listening. In interactive methods, they need to know that it is time for their verbal

participation to end. Sometimes instructors who don't know how to close will say, "Well that's

about all I have to say," or "I guess I don't have anything else." This type of closure is not very satisfying. There are many more effective ways of closing. Sometimes vocal inflection can signal
94 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

that the lesson is ending. Quotations, stories, or humorous incidents can also provide effective closure. Sometimes when the lesson is to be followed by others in the same block of instruction, we

might say something such as, "Next time, then, we will continue with our discussion of... .

Between now and then if you have any questions, come to my office and I'll see if I can answer

them for you." 

6.10. Preparing The Final Outline: 

6.10.1. After researching the topic, selecting an instructional method, identifying the lesson planning

format to use, organizing the lesson, choosing the support materials, and deciding how to begin and

end the lesson, you are ready to prepare the final content outline. In fact, you may want to prepare two

versions of the outline. One that is very complete—almost in manuscript form—so you can return to

it several weeks or months later when you have to teach the lesson again or when someone else must

teach the lesson. Another version will be much briefer—perhaps only one page long, or written on

cards so you can carry it to the classroom and teach from it. 

6.10.2. This brief outline, or keyword outline, may have key words and phrases of main points, subpoints, support material you plan to use, questions to ask, and the things you want to mention in the

introduction and conclusion of the lesson. This keyword outline is a basic minimum for most of us to

take into the classroom. The following discussion focuses on its construction: (NOTE: The longer

version of the outline will follow the same principles, but will include much more information.) 

6.10.2.1. Division. Divide the outline into three main parts: introduction, body, and conclusion.

As discussed previously, the introduction will generally have three subparts: attention, motivation,

and overview. The body will have the main points as major subdivisions. The conclusion will have

three subdivisions: final summary, remotivation, and closure. 

6.10.2.2. Symbol System. To show the relative importance of lesson materials in the body of the

lesson, use a number or letter symbol before each entry. A roman numeral may designate main

points, capital letters for subpoints, Arabic numerals for sub-subpoints, and so forth. When outlining, remember that only one symbol should be used per point or idea, subordinate points should be

indented, and the principle of subpoints or subordination means that a point follows logically or

supports the point above it. 

6.10.2.3. Sample Keyword Outline. Figure 6.7. provides a sample keyword outline. Earlier we

considered how to make a tentative outline for a lesson on nonverbal communication. Now consider how to revise that outline to teach from. This outline has been prepared to use with the lecture method. The same outline could be revised slightly to use with a guided discussion or

teaching interview method by simply replacing references to support material the instructor supplies with questions that would prompt students or an expert to supply appropriate support material. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 95

Figure 6.7. Sample Keyword Outline – Nonverbal Communication. 

INTRODUCTION 

Attention: "Actions speak louder than words." "Dinner jacket" example 

Motivation: Dr. Ray Birdwhistle—65 percent of message communicate nonverbally 

Importance—jobs, family, church, clubs 

Overview: Chart listing main points and first level subpoints 

Define "performance factors" and "nonperformance factors" 

BODY

Know performance factors of nonverbal communication 

Upper Body—importance capitalized on by F.D.R. 

Head 

Theory of origin of head gesture 

Cultural differences 

Eyes—very important 

Show interest in others—example of blind student 

Nonverbal feedback—cultural differences 

Increase credibility—describe U of Mo. studies 

Facial Expression 

Affect displays—read Charles Darwin quote on expression 

Affect recognition—use everyday examples 

Middle Body

Arms—demonstrate how we use them 

Hands—primary means of gesturing 

Compare meanings from different cultures—OK and Victory signs 

Demonstrate use of hands 

Torso—demonstrate shoulder, chest, stomach—belly dancer example 

Lower Body

Hips—Elvis example 

Legs—compare with foundation of building 

Feet—show different angles 

Nonperformance Factors

Objects 

Present—clothes, home, office 

Past—things we have constructed—example of my former home 

Space 

Personal 

Stress cultural differences—give example of visit to Greece 

Space bubble—example of waiting for bus or in line 

Acceptable distance—cite statistics by Hall 

Constructed—office arrangement, fences, etc. 

Time—humorous definition from Esquire, Wetumpka example 

CONCLUSION

Summary: Reteach main points 

Remotivation: Stress importance of nonverbal to each student 

Closure: Tell humorous story of how deaf man solved problem; challenge students to do likewise 
96 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

6.11. Summary. The complete cycle of lesson planning may include eight steps: (1) Determine the

objective and state in terms of what the students are expected to learn, (2) Research the topic as defined

by the objective. We can draw appropriate subject matter material from our own personal knowledge of

the subject, the expertise of others and finally make effective use of a library, (3) Select the appropriate

instructional method with regard to designated student outcomes and acceptable student activities, (4)

Identify a usable lesson planning format. We need to select a format that serves as a checkpoint for

well-planned learning experiences and provides a worthwhile teaching aid, (5) Decide how to organize

the lesson. Organization of main points and subpoints is important because it helps instructors and students remember the material. Commonly used patterns of organization are time, space, cause-effect, problem-solution, pro-con, and topical. Strategies for how we organize material with these patterns are also

important. Although we may choose one pattern for organizing our main points, we may choose a different pattern for organizing subpoints, (6) Choosing support material. Students understand supported ideas

or assertions better than if support is not given. Definitions, examples, and comparisons are used mainly

as clarification support. Statistics and testimony from experts can be used for either clarification or proof,

(7) Beginning and ending the lesson. The beginning or introduction generally has three necessary elements: attention, motivation, and overview of what is to follow. The conclusion has three parts: final summary (or summation in lessons teaching principles), remotivation, and closure, and (8) Preparing the final

outline. We may prepare two versions of the outline. One version will be very complete so the information

remains intact if we want to return to it at a later time. A second version will be much briefer so we can

teach from it in the classroom. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 97

Chapter 7 

DEVELOPING KNOWLEDGE-LEVEL LESSONS 

7.1. Introduction. Most of us could not do our jobs without knowing a great many facts. As described in

previous chapters, the ability to recall or recognize facts is classified as learning at the knowledge level.

According to most systems for classifying learning objectives, the task of memorizing factual information

is a low-level mental process (see Chapter 3). 

7.1.1. According to Bloom's taxonomy, the basis of this chapter, knowledge-level learning is the most

elementary and least complex level of learning in the cognitive domain. Although it is the lowest level

of learning, it is absolutely necessary as the foundation for all higher levels of learning. 

7.1.2. Learning facts is not necessarily easy. Some information is fairly simple to remember; for

example, the US Air Force rank structure, the major commands, or the range and payloads of various

aircraft. Other information, such as complex operating procedures and the wide range of complex regulations is extremely difficult to learn and remember. 

7.2. Appropriateness of Classroom Instruction at the Knowledge Level. As difficult as knowledge-level lessons can be for the student, they are generally the easiest for instructors to plan and teach.

Because of this, instructors may be tempted to teach at the knowledge level to avoid the more difficult

task of developing understanding. To teach facts, we should normally use reading assignments, video or

computer-based training, and other noninstructor controlled methods whenever possible to save available

classroom time for other uses. There are many classroom situations, however, when we need to teach

knowledge-level information. Use class time for knowledge-level lessons if any of the following conditions exist: 

7.2.1. Rapidly Changing Subject Matter. Many areas of instruction change too rapidly to keep

printed materials and other media up to date. To keep instruction current, we may have to teach

knowledge-level lessons in class, even though other methods of presentation could better do the job. 

7.2.2. Cost-Effectiveness. In many cases, it may simply cost less to teach knowledge-level information in a classroom setting. We may discover that the cost of preparing another medium is more than

the cost of the classroom presentation. Considerations that might affect this decision include the costs

for media production, course administration, study carrels, and costs of changes or updating. 

7.2.3. Need for Interpretation of Facts. No matter how clear and straightforward, many facts are

difficult to learn without instructor assistance. We rarely get a class of adult students with backgrounds and reading levels that match perfectly with what they need to learn. An instructor may be of

assistance in interpreting technical terms, important data, and charts or graphs. It is difficult for students to memorize knowledge-level information if they do not understand the basic terminology used. 

7.2.4. Increasing the Significance of Subject Matter. We can make knowledge-level material more

significant to students by bringing it out of the text and into the classroom—this gives it special attention. Of the many facts that could be learned from any course, we may signal to our students that some

material is more important than others by devoting some class time to it. A review of a reading assignment, going over a handout in class, or bringing in an outside speaker to impart information are all

cues that the subject matter has special significance. 
98 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

7.2.5. Need for Human Interaction. Because much of the knowledge-level information that must

be learned is dry and difficult, students become discouraged or disinterested. Even highly motivated

students quickly tire with this type learning. It may be better to have some instruction in a group to

raise interest or sustain motivation. Individualized study assignments, especially over a long period of

time, often fail to satisfy basic needs for interaction with others. An awareness of group dynamics is

important even at this level of instruction. 

7.3. Planning Knowledge-Level Lessons. Teaching information at the knowledge level is relatively

simple compared to the higher levels of learning. Good planning, however, is as vital at this level as it is

at any other. Planning for students to learn and remember important factual information can be a challenge. Much of that challenge comes from the need to keep instruction on target and free from unnecessary complications. 

7.3.1. Factual information should be well organized for learning. Although the reasons for learning

many facts are obvious, the pattern and strategy of the plan can affect learning. Although the material

on organizational patterns and strategies is introduced in Chapter 6, a brief discussion of how they

apply to teaching at the knowledge level is appropriate. 

7.3.2. The pattern of lesson development can help a student organize and retain information. In

knowledge-level lessons, the organizational pattern should be obvious and logical. Information about

the structure of a unit may be learned more easily and retained if it is presented spatially (top to bottom as in an organization chart, or by geographic regions going from one direction to another in a logical fashion). Safety information, first aid, and many other similar topics can be organized into a

cause-and-effect pattern. Sequencing or ordering is a very successful way to organize for teaching

procedures. Topical planning is a very useful pattern for knowledge-level instruction. Topical planning is especially effective since much of the material we teach naturally groups itself this way when

the topic outline is made clear to the students. 

7.3.3. Strategies for dealing with factual information may be looked at as applied common sense.

Most of us prefer to learn new information by relating it to what we already know. There are many

strategies for presenting facts to our students that capitalize on this need to relate the new to the old.

The obvious strategy of known to unknown works well at the knowledge level. 

7.3.4. Building from simple information to more complex information, still at the knowledge level, is

generally another good strategy. Unfortunately, many experts fail to plan for linking new information

to old because the relationship seems so obvious to them—but it's not so evident to the student. The

plan for teaching and learning should be focused on the needs of students and must take their beginning level of knowledge into account. 

7.4. Developing the Teaching Outline. By the time we sit down to develop an actual outline for teaching and learning, several important steps in the planning process are already done. Lesson objectives have

been written by or for us. We have researched the subject, and we begin to see a logical organization of the

material and a basic strategy for teaching. We may even be given a skeleton lesson outline, which we are

to expand on and "personalize." In most cases, we have already selected an appropriate teaching method. 

7.4.1. The teaching outline of our lesson plan will be the product of our decisions in all of these matters. Whether we are writing our own teaching outline from scratch or personalizing one given to us,

the teaching outline must make sense both to us and to our students. The lesson organization and plan-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 99

ning strategy should be obvious. In addition to keeping us on track with our lesson, we should also

share our outline with the students in an overview so they will know how the lesson will proceed. 

7.4.2. The teaching outline for this level of learning may range from a few note cards to several pages,

but the outline should always be simple and straightforward. The following examples illustrate three

simple knowledge-level teaching outlines. Each example contains objectives written at the knowledge

level and main points in outline form. Considerably more detail would be required to satisfy the need

for a teachable plan, but Figure 7.1., Figure 7.2., and Figure 7.3. illustrate the relatively simple

teaching outline of most knowledge-level lessons. 

7.4.2.1. Figure 7.1. illustrates a plan organized topically; the teaching strategy is probably known

to unknown. The instructor has calculated that these three objectives represent a logical way to

organize this material for both teaching and learning. In addition, the instructor has started the lesson plan with information on the mission because it is assumed that students have some previous

knowledge in this area. After receiving the information on mission and history, students are now

prepared to tackle the most complex and lengthy area—organization. 

Figure 7.1. Teaching Outline—Example 1. 

Objectives and Main Points 

1. Know the mission of the ____________________. 

 a. ..... 

 b. ..... 

2. Know the history of the _____________________. 

 a. ..... 

 b. ..... 

3. Know the organization of the _________________. 

 a. ..... 

 b. ..... 
100 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

7.4.2.2. Figure 7.2. shows the nature of the ISD model and the three items concerning each and

provides us with at least two logical patterns for instructional system lesson development. The

first outline follows a topical development for the objectives with a sequential development for the

main points. An equally good alternative is illustrated in the second outline. In this case, the objectives in the lesson outline are the sequential process steps in the ISD process, and the three areas

of information for each are set up as topical main points. The strategy is also driven by the ISD

model. The philosophy behind this approach to teaching and learning is already built into the

model and forms the strategy of the lesson. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 101

Figure 7.2. Teaching Outline—Example 2. 

7.4.2.3. Figure 7.3. shows the fairly common cause-effect pattern of organization. Depending on

the actual topic being developed, the main points might have been arranged in a simple-to-complex or known-to-unknown strategy. 

Objectives and Main Points 

1. Know the phases of the USAF Instructional System Development (ISD) Model. 

 a. Analyze 

 b. Design 

 c. Development 

 d. Implementation 

2. Know techniques required to use the ISD Model. 

 a. Analyze 

 b. Design 

 c. Development 

 d. Implementation 

3. Know major problems expected in implementing the ISD Model. 

 a. Analyze 

 b. Design 

 c. Development 

 d. Implementation 

OR

Objectives and Main Points

1. Know the analysis phase of the USAF Instructional System Development (ISD) Model. 

 Description 

 Techniques 

 Problem areas 

2. Know the design phase of the USAF Instructional System Development (ISD) Model. 

 Description 

 Techniques 

 Problem areas 
102 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 7.3. Teaching Outline—Example 3. 

7.4.3. Each of these examples illustrates simple but logical development for a knowledge-level lesson. Basic outlining skills and a little planning will add greatly to effective teaching at the knowledge

level. 

7.5. Support Material: 

7.5.1. All lessons, no matter what level, require adequate and appropriate support material. But unlike

support material for lessons at higher levels of learning, support for knowledge-level lessons is provided for its own sake—to contribute directly to the student's ability to remember what is being

taught. Examples are not given to enable the student to generate new examples. Steps in a procedure

are taught in a way that will make the student remember, not so the student can interpret the reason for

the procedure. Statistics and testimony are taught to be remembered themselves—not to raise the students' understanding to a higher level of abstraction. 

7.5.2. Testimony, supplemental data, and statistics—important for the higher levels—should be kept

to a minimum if they interfere with the learning of important information. For this reason, very little

information, which is not important enough to be remembered, should be contained in a knowledge-level plan. Instructors who use support material to develop understanding rather than to promote

retention should reexamine the lesson objective. Continued need for new examples, need for discusObjectives and Main Points 

1. Know the primary causes of child abuse. 

 a. Cause 1 

 b. Cause 2 

 c. Cause 3 

2. Know the primary effects of child abuse. 

 a. Effect 1 

 b. Effect 2 

 c. Effect 3 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 103

sion to clarify points, or a dissatisfaction with the low level of test items may be a clue that we should

be teaching to a higher level of learning. 

7.6. Teaching the Lesson. Instructors teaching at the knowledge level must make a real contribution to

learning. If not, they come close to being little more than audiovisual aids. Instructors can best add those

benefits that come from interaction among students. Keeping in mind that the flow of knowledge-level

information lessens the importance of a live instructor, we should at least make certain we are no less

effective than a well-prepared visual aid. 

7.6.1. Clarity of Presentation. Our lesson plan should be developed well enough that we have little

need to restate ourselves for the sake of clarity. The presentation in a knowledge-level lesson should

add to the student's ability to learn the factual information. The more complex the facts or the processes being taught, the greater the need for a clear presentation. 

7.6.2. Redundancy of Information. Some redundancy is probably desirable in a knowledge-level

lesson. Don't be afraid to say something more than once or through a different medium if it can help

students to remember. We can build desirable redundancy into knowledge-level lessons in several

ways: 

7.6.2.1. Summarize When Needed. Interim and final summaries ensure that all information has

been noted. 

7.6.2.2. Supplement Presentations. Readings and handouts are invaluable study aids for knowledge-level lessons, particularly if we show students how they support the lesson. 

7.6.2.3. Use More than One Teaching Medium During the Lesson. Seek opportunities to support verbal information with visuals. Overhead transparencies, slides, and other projected media

allow us to go after learning by sight as well as sound. Perhaps our best teaching aid for the average size class or seminar is still the dry erase board. We owe our students the chance to have what

they hear reinforced by what they see. 

7.6.2.4. Help Students Remember. Knowledge-level information can be presented in group situations, but students normally need to study on their own to memorize. If we have to learn a long

string of facts, we would probably not try to do it while someone is lecturing. We should organize

and present knowledge-level lessons so that we have done all we can to help students remember

what has been taught. Take advantage of what we know about memory to help students get the

most from the lesson. For instance: 

7.6.2.4.1. Avoid needless distracters during the presentation. Humor, for instance, can add

greatly to a lesson, but it may also interfere with the orderly transfer of information. See

Chapter 13 for a further discussion of humor while lecturing. 

7.6.2.4.2. Stick to a well-thought-out plan. When we teach in a system using objectives, we

must resist the temptation to take off in an unplanned direction because it seems more attractive at the moment. 

7.6.2.4.3. Build in memory aids where possible. We should suggest acronyms, word pictures,

and other memory aids when possible. These devices can help the memory retain facts. 

7.6.2.4.4. Encourage and plan for study to aid retention. Students should develop effective

study systems for learning facts. Suggest flash cards, drill and repetition, studying with

another, or other methods that seem appropriate. 
104 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

7.6.2.4.5. Quiz and review frequently. Students should have an opportunity to test their memories before formal evaluation. By the time they are tested for real, students should already

know whether they have been able to store and retrieve the information given them. Periodic

checkups on the subject matter are also good ways to lessen the rate of forgetting. Material

taught once and tested once may be forgotten at once. 

7.7. Summary. Teaching at the knowledge level requires logical planning and effective presentation.

Classroom lessons at the knowledge level should be carefully looked at to see if they can be replaced by

readings or other media. Knowledge-level material presented in class should be presented in the clearest

way possible so that students truly benefit from the presence of an instructor. 

7.7.1. The pattern of organization for this level of instruction should be clear and help the student

learn and retain the material. The strategy for teaching should take into account the need for students

to relate new material to what is already known. 

7.7.2. Lessons should be planned and taught with a focus on memory. Aids to memorization such as

redundant teaching and use of multimedia are important points at this level of learning. While knowledge-level lessons are at the lower end of the cognitive taxonomy, learning and remembering facts are

the foundation stones upon which the understanding of concepts and principles is built. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 105

Chapter 8 

DEVELOPING COMPREHENSION-LEVEL CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLE LESSONS 

8.1. Introduction. Most instruction in American schools and colleges involves comprehension and not

just simple recall. Similarly, we conduct much Air Force academic instruction at the comprehension level

of learning or higher. Unless students progress through the comprehension level to determine how and

why something is done, they will experience difficulty applying information or skills in new situations on

the job. 

8.1.1. Comprehension is defined as the ability to generalize or to grasp the meaning of material. Students are expected to understand what is being communicated and to be able to make some use of the

material or ideas contained in it. A student can demonstrate this ability by translating material from

one form to another, interpreting material, or estimating future trends. Comprehension is one step

beyond simply remembering the material and represents the lowest of the understanding levels. 

8.1.2. When conducting lessons at the comprehension level, instructors often teach either concepts or

principles. Using this classification system, concept teaching needs to be addressed first, since principles are statements of relationship between two or more concepts. 

8.2. The Teaching of Concepts. A concept is a class of people, objects, events, ideas, or actions grouped

together on the basis of shared attributes or characteristics, and are called by the same name. When we

teach a concept, we are referring to one of these classes or categories. The members in the class are put

into the same category on the basis of shared attributes. These shared attributes are critical to identifying

the concept. All members of the class sharing the critical attributes are called by the same name. 

8.2.1. The term "instructor" is a concept. It refers to a class of people distinguished from others by

distinctive duties and responsibilities. Only those performing these duties can be called instructors.

The concept "bomber" refers to a class of objects with critical attributes that distinguish it from

fighter, transport, and reconnaissance aircraft. Terms such as doctrine, strategy, and tactics are also

concepts. Most of the terms we use in the classroom are concepts. 

8.2.2. A specific individual, object, event, idea, or action is not a concept. No class is represented.

Sergeant Ed Jacobs is an individual and not a category of people. While "war" is a concept, World War

II is a specific event and not a class of wars. "Book" is a concept, but Tolstoy's War and Peace is not,

since no class or category is presented. 

8.2.3. For planning purposes, instructors need to understand the reasoning process students go

through in comprehending concepts, such as generalizing and discriminating, so they can organize

their concept teaching plan. 

8.2.3.1. Generalizing. Humans have the mental ability to make the same response (give the same

name) to a new example of something that differs in some way from previously met examples. For

example, when children reach the comprehension level on the concept "dog," they can point to a

schnauzer, poodle, or collie and say "dog." Although each new example of a dog differs from their

own beagle or German shepherd, they can correctly call each new example a dog. Similarly, a student who comprehends the concept "strategy" can correctly label a new grouping of actions by a

military commander as strategy. In each instance, the person is generalizing. 
106 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

8.2.3.2. Discriminating. Humans also have the mental ability to make a different response for a

nonexample of something that shares some properties or characteristics with previous examples.

This process is called discrimination. For instance, children who comprehend the concept "dog"

can correctly differentiate a dog from a cat or fox even though all share certain attributes such as

four legs and sharp teeth. Similarly, a student who comprehends the concept "strategy" can differentiate the term from "tactics" even though the actions share certain attributes or characteristics. 

8.2.4. When we evaluate student performance at the comprehension level, we often ask students to

give or recognize a new example of something we have taught. Students who respond correctly are

able to generalize. When we ask students to differentiate between examples and nonexamples of

something we teach and they respond correctly, they are able to discriminate. Students who comprehend a lesson on the concept "prejudice" should be able to identify which written summaries of human

interactions are examples illustrating prejudice and which are not. 

8.2.5. Concept teaching is fundamental to instruction at the comprehension level. As instructors, we

want our students to be able to solve problems on the job (application). Problem solving requires that

certain rules or principles have been learned. These principles cannot be learned until certain concepts

have been learned. In short, some educational objectives are prerequisites to others. 

8.2.6. Being able to spout a memorized definition of an important concept is of little or no value on

the job if a student cannot recognize new examples and nonexamples of that concept and use the concept in the work setting. Reciting the definition and characteristics of leadership (a concept) is of little

value on the job unless the person can apply leadership in real-life situations. Thus, knowledge-level

instruction for teaching concepts is insufficient. Comprehension-level instruction provides the missing link between recalling information about a concept and the direct application of the concept in

real-life settings. 

8.3. Organizing a Concept Teaching Plan. Since concept teaching is fundamental to instruction at the

comprehension level, focus on organizing the lesson plan. Whether 5 minutes or several hours are

required to teach a concept, the following format can be used: define the concept, teach its critical

attributes, give examples and nonexamples. 

8.3.1. The Definition. Defining the concept is the first step in concept teaching. Concept definitions

can be found in dictionaries, glossaries, and in the content of textbooks. Subject experts can form their

own definitions. Concept definitions are statements that identify critical attributes and indicate how

these attributes are combined. Often, we can start with the critical attributes and use them to write a

definition. 

8.3.2. The Attributes. A difficult step in teaching a concept is to differentiate among its attributes.

An attribute is a special name used to refer to characteristics that determine whether a person, object,

event, idea, or action is a member of a particular class (a concept). Critical attributes must be present

in all members of the class. Variable attributes are characteristics shared by some but not all members

of the class, but are not necessary for determining class membership. 

8.3.2.1. If we wanted to teach the simple concept "stool" to students, we might start with a dictionary definition. A stool is a single seat supported on legs or a pedestal and without arms or a back.

In this definition, the critical attributes are (1) a single seat with (2) the seat resting on legs or a

pedestal, and it cannot have (3) arms or (4) a back. Variable attributes would include characteristics such as a round seat, a rotating seat, four legs, and a covering of leather material. The variable
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 107

attributes are shared by some members of the class, but do not determine class membership. A

stool may have a square seat, a fixed seat, a varying number of legs, or have a cloth covering or no

covering at all. 

8.3.2.2. If we do not have the expertise to label characteristics properly as critical or variable

attributes, then we should turn to experts for assistance. 

8.3.3. Examples. To make conceptual learning meaningful, we need good sets of examples and nonexamples. We build an understanding of concepts on examples. We vary the examples in such a way

that students are able to make the discriminations and generalizations on which real understanding

depends. In selecting teaching examples, use those that are as different as possible in variable

attributes. Otherwise, students may believe a particular variable attribute is critical to comprehending

the concept. If each example of a stool shows a round seat, the student may believe that all stools have

round seats. However, all examples must illustrate the critical attributes possessed by members of the

class. 

8.3.4. Nonexamples. Select nonexamples that vary in the critical attribute omitted. For the stool

example, a good nonexample would be a seat for two people, such as a love seat. Since a stool must

have legs or a pedestal, a single seat suspended from the ceiling would serve as another nonexample.

Nonexamples containing arms and a back should also be included. 

8.3.4.1. Technically, everything that is not an example is a nonexample. However, most nonexamples are not useful for concept instruction. Only nonexamples that resemble examples, thus representing a source of confusion for students, are useful. Generally, when we use the word

nonexample we are referring to those instances a student might incorrectly call an example. For

each example we provide we should try to give a matched nonexample. 

8.3.4.2. When a comprehension-level lesson calls for a definition, a concept lesson or concept

teaching point is probably needed. The recommended organization in this chapter can be used for

simple concepts like stool or for complicated concepts like ISD. 

8.4. Testing Concept Learning. Students who learn new concepts should be able to generalize their

learning to the point that they can recognize new examples of the concept when they see them. In addition, they must be able to discriminate between an example and a nonexample of a given concept. 

8.4.1. Test items that require generalizing and discriminating are essential for testing concept learning. Test items that test concept learning may be either selection or supply items (see Chapter 22).

These items generally require the use of a scenario or other description of an alleged example of a

concept. 

8.4.2. In supply questions, you may ask students to identify a concept from a scenario or require them

to describe a scenario that meets all the critical attributes of a given concept. Selection items, particularly multiple choice, often contain a description or scenario in the stem. Then ask students which concept the scenario illustrates or whether there is enough information given to qualify as an example or

nonexample of the concept. 

8.5. Sample Concept Teaching Plans (Part I): 

8.5.1. The Part I lesson plan illustrated in Figure 8.1. can be used for teaching a single concept. In this

model, the term "concept" is included in the lesson objective. The objective might also be written simply as "comprehend prejudice." Samples of behavior are based on the lesson objective. Notice that the
108 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

first main point is taught at the knowledge level, but the first sample of behavior requires an explanation in the student's own words. In teaching the concept, at the end of the first main point the student

should simply be able to recall the definition the instructor gave. However, by the time the lesson is

complete and the concept is developed, the instructor would want students to define the concept in

their own words to show comprehension. The main points outlined in this model plan illustrate a recommended approach for teaching concepts at the comprehension level. 

Figure 8.1. Sample Part I Lesson Plan. 

8.5.2. The lesson plan cover sheet illustrated in Figure 8.2. can be used for teaching multiple concepts in a single period or several periods of instruction. Here, three concepts are being taught.

Although the term "concepts" is omitted from the objective, each term represents a class or category

of leadership. Samples of behavior are taken from the concepts. The instructor should ensure an adequate sampling of each objective. Each concept is developed using definitions, attributes, examples,

and nonexamples. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend the concept of prejudice. 

Samples of 1. Define prejudice in student's own words. 

Behavior:

2. Distinguish critical attributes of prejudice from variable attributes and 

nonattributes. 

3. Give new examples and nonexamples of prejudice. 

4. Given scenarios containing transactions between persons, differentiate 

between prejudicial and nonprejudicial interactions. 

5. Explain the concept of prejudice. 

Main Points: 1.*(K) The definition of prejudice. 

2.**(C) The critical attributes of prejudice. 

3.**(C) Selected examples and nonexamples of prejudice. 

* Knowledge Level - Bloom's Cognitive Taxonomy 

** Comprehension Level - Bloom's Cognitive Taxonomy 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 109

Figure 8.2. Sample Lesson Plan Cover Sheet. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend (1) authoritarian, (2) laissez-faire, and (3) democratic 

leadership. 

Samples of 1. Define authoritarian, laissez-faire, and democratic leadership in student's 

Behavior: own words. 

2. Distinguish critical attributes of authoritarian, laissez-faire, and democratic 

leadership from variable or nonattributes. 

3. Distinguish examples from nonexamples of authoritarian, laissez-faire, and 

democratic leadership. 

4. Explain the concepts of authoritarian, laissez-faire, and democratic 

leadership. 

Lesson Objective: 1. (C) Authoritarian leadership. 

Main Points: a. (K) The definition of authoritarian leadership. 

 b. (C) The critical attributes of authoritarian leadership. 

 c. (C) Selected examples and nonexamples of authoritarian leadership. 

Lesson Objective: 2. (C) Laissez-faire leadership. 

Main Points: a. (K) The definition of laissez-faire leadership. 

 b. (C) The critical attributes of laissez-faire leadership. 

 c. (C) Selected examples and nonexamples of laissez-faire leadership. 

Lesson Objective: 3. (C) Democratic leadership. 

Main Points: a. (K) The definition of democratic leadership. 

 b. (C) The critical attributes of democratic leadership. 

 c. (C) Selected examples and nonexamples of democratic leadership. 
110 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

8.5.3. As we have seen thus far, the terms we use for communicating in the classroom usually represent concepts. When understanding key concepts is essential to comprehending a lesson objective, we

need to take the time to ensure students reach the comprehension level on each concept in the objective. Once students understand the concepts we are teaching, we can build on these concepts to more

complex learning. 

8.6. The Teaching of Principles. A principle is a statement of the relationship between two or more concepts. The principle is stated in terms of a conclusion (generalization) about a class of people, objects,

events, ideas, or actions. 

8.6.1. The statement, "Barriers to creativity inhibit innovation in classroom instruction," is a principle. A relationship is established between concepts. To comprehend this relationship in a lesson, students need to comprehend the following concepts: barriers, creativity, inhibition, innovation,

classroom, and instruction. In addition, students need to comprehend the new concept formed by combinations of these concepts. When barriers and creativity are combined, we have a new concept—barriers to creativity. Similarly, when the concepts in the statement's predicate are combined, a new

concept is formed representing actions (a class) that "inhibit innovation in classroom instruction." The

relationship between the combined concept in the subject and the combined concept in the predicate

becomes very important when we plan lessons using deductive reasoning. 

8.6.2. Other examples of principle statements are: visual aids enhance an instructor's presentations;

values influence a person's motivation; and the tactics employed by urban guerrillas pose a direct

threat to the international order. Each statement has a subject and a predicate with a relationship established between the concepts. Each statement could serve as a lesson objective or as a main supporting

point for another principle or concept being developed as an objective. 

8.6.3. The statement, "Sergeant Jones teaches military science," is not a principle. The subject, Sergeant Jones, is not a concept. The predicate is a concept representing a class of people who teach military science. Since the subject of the statement is not a concept, we do not have the statement of a

relationship between concepts. Neither is "military strategy in unconventional warfare" a principle;

while the phrase involves more than one concept, a critical attribute of a principle is missing—the

statement of a relationship between concepts. Closer examination of the phrase "military strategy in

unconventional warfare" will reveal that it is a concept, which could be effectively taught using definitions, attributes, examples, and nonexamples. 

8.6.4. The teaching of principles is very important in Air Force instruction. If students are going to

comprehend the principles taught, they must be able to reason logically. Logically organized lesson

plans will assist students in reasoning through to the principles we are teaching. 

8.7. Logical Lesson Planning. As we organize our lessons to teach principles, some understanding of

approaches that may be used will assist in planning topically organized lessons. The following provides

information on these approaches: 

8.7.1. General-to-Specific: 

8.7.1.1. The general-to-specific presentational approach (often referred to as "deductive reasoning") is a mental process in which we start with a principle to be taught and then apply this principle in specific instances to form supporting main points. The reasoning is from general to specific. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 111

8.7.1.2. For example, suppose our lesson objective read: "The objective of this lesson is for each

student to comprehend that barriers to creativity inhibit innovation in classroom instruction." The

italicized portion of the objective is a principle representing the content to be taught. If a topical

pattern is chosen for lesson development, the focus should be on the subject of the objective statement—barriers to creativity. By moving from the general to the specific, we know from our

review of lesson content that four common barriers to creativity are fear, prejudice, habit, and inertia. 

8.7.1.3. If the lesson content provides logical support for the principle in the objective, then we

can reason that fear, prejudice, habit, and inertia (the specific instances) each inhibit innovation in

classroom instruction. The reasoning might be depicted as follows: Barriers to creativity inhibit

innovation in classroom instruction. Fear, prejudice, habit, and inertia are barriers to creativity.

Therefore, fear inhibits innovation in classroom instruction. 

NOTE: By starting with the principle, we topically divide the subject (first concept of the principle) into

more specific instances and then draw a new conclusion about these specific instances. 

8.7.1.4. The next step is to write main points as principles, which support the lesson objective.

The simplest way is to use the principles developed through the general-to-specific approach. The

first main point might read, "Habit inhibits innovation in classroom instruction." Using a second

approach, we might write the principle, "Habit causes instructors to resist change." The second

principle is more specific than the first in showing how habit inhibits innovation in classroom

instruction. Notice that the predicate in the second principle supports the predicate of the principle

stated in the lesson objective. When the main points are made more specific, this requirement must

be met. We could continue the process and write principles for fear, prejudice, and inertia using

either approach. NOTE: If the more specific statement is used in the first main point, then the

same approach should be used in writing the other main points. 

8.7.1.5. Since instructors seldom have time to develop all aspects of a topic, sampling is usually

required. In this lesson, the instructor must provide sufficient evidence to support the lesson objective. If two barriers to creativity are discussed in depth, this support should provide sufficient evidence for students to accept the conclusion stated as the principle in the objective. In this

illustration, sampling of two of the four barriers should provide sufficient evidence to get students

to accept the broader generalization. 

8.7.1.6. On another occasion we could be faced with fourteen defense mechanisms for use in supporting the principle "defense mechanisms allow the individual to cope with stress." Three might

be chosen as main points to show how each allows the individual to cope with stress. Then we

would ask the students to accept a conclusion about all defense mechanisms based upon a sampling of three. Samples should be representative of all members of the class. Enough samples

should be chosen to provide sufficient evidence for drawing the correct conclusion. 

8.7.1.7. When a topical organization is chosen as the best means for developing the lesson, the

process just described can be used effectively to develop main points from an objective stated as a

principle. Similarly, a main point stated as a principle can be divided topically into subpoints by

using the same method. Other common organizational patterns for use on comprehension-level

plans will be developed in the sample plans, which follow in this chapter. 

8.7.2. Specific-to-General. While the general-to-specific approach assists us in breaking down a

principle into its component elements, the specific-to-general approach (often referred to as "induc-
112 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

tive reasoning") can assist us in developing principles from specific examples. In teaching principles,

we ask students to take pieces of evidence we present to form a related pattern and then draw a conclusion from the evidence. The pieces of evidence are definitions, examples, statistics, comparisons,

and quotations or testimony used as support material. When skillfully put together by the instructor,

these pieces of evidence and their relationship form a pattern, which leads to a generalization. Movement in the lesson is from specific instances (support) to a general conclusion (the principle). 

8.7.2.1. For instance, a security forces instructor presents the following evidence: A security

forces vehicle overturned on perimeter road last week during an emergency run in the rain. On

Monday, a dependent's car slid on a wet road into a base exchange oil truck. And, an airman's

motorcycle went out of control on a base street following a rain shower. Based on this evidence,

we would conclude that base roads are slippery when wet. The conclusion would be even stronger

if a statistic was then added: "Last year, according to security forces records, 45 accidents

occurred on base roads following rainstorms." The statistic serves as a summary of specific

instances and as proof support for the conclusion drawn. 

8.7.2.2. In teaching principles at the comprehension level, instructors should keep in mind both

the inductive and the deductive nature of lesson development. In lecturing, we should include only

those items of support material needed to clarify and prove the principle being taught. In discussions, we should keep students on track so material that is irrelevant to support of the principle

does not develop. 

8.7.2.3. No matter what method is used, we should ensure that we develop sufficient support for

comprehending of the principle. Often, strong support is lacking and we can only say that, based

upon available evidence, the conclusion stated as a principle is probably correct. In all cases, we

must ensure that logical organization is used. 

8.8. Testing Principle Learning: 

8.8.1. Students who learn new principles should be able to understand the relationship between two or

more concepts. They ought to be able to translate these relationships into their own words, interpret

instances where the principle is applied or ought to be applied, and make simple predictions based on

their understanding of the principle involved. It is essential that test items that measure principle

learning determine the extent to which students understand the relationship expressed in the principle

rather than just an understanding of the individual concepts contained in the principle. 

8.8.2. Test items that test concept learning may be either selection or supply items (see Chapter 22).

Like concept test items, items that measure principle learning often require scenarios to set up the

proper conditions for testing. In supply questions, students may be asked to identify a principle that is

working or ought to be working in a given scenario. Selection items, particularly multiple choice,

often contain a description or scenario in the stem. Students are then asked to identify the principle at

work, explain the principle involved, or make a limited prediction about the situation based on their

understanding of the principle. 

8.9. Sample Plans for Teaching Principles (Part I—Cover Sheet). Various organizational patterns can

be used successfully in teaching principles at the comprehension level. Some of the most common patterns are illustrated in Figure 8.3. and Figure 8.4.

8.9.1. Topical Pattern: 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 113

8.9.1.1. The lesson plan cover sheet (Part I) provided at Figure 8.3. illustrates the use of topical

organization to teach a principle. Main points one and two are supporting principles, which serve

as specific instances, developed from the lesson objective. Because only two of four common barriers are covered, the main points are samples that serve as evidence in support of the objective. If

the students comprehend the two conclusions stated as main points, then the instructor has sufficient evidence to support the lesson objective. 

Figure 8.3. Topical Pattern Sample. 

8.9.1.2. On the sample plan, notice that the lesson objective is repeated as the third main point.

This approach is recommended to ensure that the instructor gives attention to development of the

lesson objective. Additional barriers to creativity can be introduced in the third main point showing how they inhibit innovation in classroom instruction. The instructor has the final responsibility

for tying the lesson together to show how all the lesson parts lead to the conclusion stated as the

principle in the lesson objective. 

8.9.1.3. Figure 8.3. illustrates a single objective plan. The key principle in the objective was supported by the principles stated as main points. However, it would be possible for each main point

to stand by itself as an objective for a lesson. 

8.9.1.4. Figure 8.4. illustrates a multi-objective plan. Two objectives are being taught in the same

period of instruction. Each objective is then supported by main teaching points. The main points

under each objective are developed topically. Each is a specific instance (principle) that supports

the broader principle stated in the objective. Notice that the predicates of the objectives are

repeated as predicates for the main points. While repeating the predicates in the main points

appears redundant, such action ensures that principles are taught instead of concepts. For instance,

teaching "fixed attitudes" as a concept requires different organization and support than teaching

that "fixed attitudes cause instructors to resist creative change." While the experienced instructor

may not repeat the predicate each time on the lesson plan, the mental connection is still made

between the concepts to form the principle (between fixed attitudes and things that cause instructors to resist creative change). 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend barriers to creativity inhibit innovation in classroom instruction. 

Main Points: 1. (C) Habit causes instructors to resist change. 

2. (C) Prejudice restricts an instructor's thinking. 

3. (C) Barriers to creativity inhibit innovation in classroom instruction. 
114 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 8.4. Sample Multi-Objective Plan. 

8.9.2. Problem-Solution. Another common pattern is problem-solution. Figure 8.5. illustrates a plan

organized with a problem-solution organizational pattern. 

Lesson Objective One: Comprehend that habit causes instructors to resist creative change. 

Main Points: 1. Reliance on old solutions for solving new problems causes instructors to 

resist creative change. 

2. Fixed attitudes cause instructors to resist creative change. 

3. Fixed behavioral patterns cause instructors to resist creative change. 

4. Habit causes instructors to resist creative change. 

Lesson Objective Two: Comprehend that prejudice restricts an instructor's creative thinking.

Main Points: 1. Emotional bias restricts an instructor's creative thinking. 

2. Sticking to favorite teaching methods restricts an instructor's creative 

thinking. 

3. Any irrational attitude of hostility directed against an individual student or 

group of students restricts an instructor's creative thinking. 

4. Prejudice restricts an instructor's creative thinking. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 115

Figure 8.5. Sample Problem-Solution Organizational Pattern. 

8.9.2.1. On this Part I, the lesson objective is a statement of a relationship between concepts, so a

principle is involved. Main point one states the problem and main point two, the solution. Main

point two is a repeat of the objective indicating the instructor is putting emphasis on the solution

for evaluation purposes. 

8.9.2.2. If the instructor wanted to put equal emphasis on both the problem and solution in this

lesson, it would be a multiple-objective plan whose objectives might read: "Comprehend that (1)

child abuse damages the health of children and (2) widespread public concern is the most effective

weapon available for combating child abuse." 

8.9.2.3. With a problem-solution pattern, the problem is normally covered before the solution

although the reverse strategy might be used. Another common strategy is to develop the problem

as a main point, examine several possible solutions as a main point, and then pick the best solution

for development as the final main point. 

8.9.2.4. Although the main points are organized using a problem-solution pattern, the subpoints

could be developed topically. Using the principle in the first main point, child abuse could be

divided into physical and mental abuse. Supporting subpoints might read: (1) Physical abuse damages the child both physically and psychologically and (2) mental abuse damages the child psychologically. Or, more simply, (1) Physical abuse damages the health of children and (2) mental

abuse damages the health of children. Similarly, the subpoints for the solution could be developed

topically. 

8.9.2.5. Thus far we have examined topical and problem-solution patterns commonly used in

developing comprehension-level lessons for teaching principles. A cause-effect pattern can also

be used effectively. 

8.9.3. Cause-Effect. Figure 8.6. illustrates a cause-effect organizational pattern. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend that widespread public concern is the most effective weapon

available for combating child abuse. 

Main Points: 1. (C) Child abuse damages the health of children. 

2. (C) Widespread public concern is the most effective weapon available for 

combating child abuse. 
116 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 8.6. Sample Cause-Effect Organizational Pattern. 

8.9.3.1. This particular lesson objective is a statement of the relationship among three concepts.

Usually only two of the concepts are stated in the objective, but as the lesson will point out, a third

concept (the distant problem or condition) will be used to cancel or explain the concept stated as

the proximate problem or condition. The statement will consist of two major concepts representing sexism (the proximate problem or condition) and actions inhibiting effectiveness of skilled

female employees (the result). 

8.9.3.2. The last main point is a statement of the lesson objective because instructor emphasis in a

cause-effect pattern of organization is usually on the effect (linking of the proximate problem and

the result). However, if the principles stated as cause and effect are of equal importance, then the

plan would reflect a compound objective. The objective might read, "Comprehend that (1) a negative self-concept fosters sexism in the workplace and (2) sexism inhibits the effectiveness of

skilled female employees." 

8.9.4. Pro-Con Plus One. A fourth pattern for teaching principles might be labeled pro-con plus one.

Students are often asked to examine both sides of an issue. If a discussion is being conducted, the lesson might end with students comprehending the pro and con positions but not drawing a final conclusion. This development is acceptable for certain subjects, especially those involving a great deal of

controversy. At other times, the instructor can lead students to a final conclusion if the lesson is

planned properly. Figure 8.7. illustrates this type pattern. 

8.9.4.1. While each main point is an important principle, the key principle in the objective goes

beyond the main points in the reasoning process. Therefore, Figure 8.7. illustrates the Part I of a

single objective plan. The objective is to draw a final conclusion. Main point three, the lesson

objective, requires development that will encompass comparing and contrasting the pro-con arguments. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend that sexism inhibits the effectiveness of skilled female employees. 

Main Points: 1. (C) A negative self-concept fosters sexism in the workplace. 

2. (C) Sexism inhibits the effectiveness of skilled female employees. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 117

Figure 8.7. Sample Pro-Con Plus One Organizational Pattern. 

8.9.4.2. For strategy, the instructor wants to develop a logical arrangement to support the lesson

objective. By starting with the con argument, students comprehend how planned obsolescence

exploits our natural resources, then attention turns to the value of such a program. Instead of leaving students wondering what conclusion should be drawn, the instructor leads them to a final conclusion (the lesson objective). 

8.10. Sampling Achievement of the Objective. Paragraphs 8.9. through 8.9.4.2. addressed placing

emphasis on the organization of main points in support of a lesson objective. We will now focus on samples of behavior written on the same objectives. 

8.10.1. Sample One: Topical Pattern. Figure 8.8. provides a sample of a lesson organized topically.

Two principles were used as main points in support of the lesson objective. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend that a program of planned obsolescence must represent a balance

between the exploitation of our natural resources and the generation of a higher standard of living. 

Main Points: (C) Planned obsolescence exploits our natural resources. 

(C) Planned obsolescence generates a higher standard of living. 

(C) A program of planned obsolescence must represent a balance between the 

exploitation of our natural resources and the generation of a higher standard of 

living. 
118 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 8.8. Sample 1—Topical Pattern. 

8.10.1.1. Notice that the samples of behavior are written on the lesson objective—not on main

points. The principle in the objective is a broader generalization than the principles stated as main

points. Although samples of behavior written on the main points might provide some evidence of

achievement of the objective, significant evidence must develop from samples of behavior written

directly on the objective. 

8.10.1.2. If samples are written on the principles stated as main points, they should be used for test

questions written for purposes of formative evaluation (sometimes referred to as diagnostic testing

where results are used to assist students in overcoming deficiencies before a final evaluation or

posttest is given). Samples written on the objective would be used for summative evaluation (the

final evaluation or posttest). 

8.10.2. Sample Two: Parallel Principles. Figure 8.9. shows two parallel principles stated as individual objectives. The objectives are of equal importance, so a similar number of samples of behavior

are written on each. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend that barriers to creativity inhibit innovation in classroom 

instruction. 

Samples of 

Behavior:

1. Describe the relationship between barriers to creativity and classroom 

instruction. 

2. Estimate the consequences on classroom instruction when barriers to creativity 

are in operation in a classroom. 

3. Explain why barriers to creativity inhibit innovation in classroom instruction. 

4. Interpret the relationship of the barriers to creativity to each other as they interact 

to inhibit innovation in classroom instruction. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 119

Figure 8.9. Sample 2—Parallel Principles. 

8.10.3. Sample Three: Problem-Solution Pattern. Figure 8.10. shows Part I organized using a

problem-solution pattern. The solution represented the last main point and the lesson objective. In this

lesson, the instructor is putting emphasis on the solution for evaluation purposes. Therefore, the samples of behavior are only written on the solution. In most problem-solution lessons, it is only necessary to test the solution because an understanding of the solution can only be based upon an

understanding of the problem. However, if the problem and solution are of equal importance, then a

multi-objective format can be used and samples of behavior would be written for the problem and the

solution. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend that (1) habit causes instructors to resist creative change and (2) 

prejudice restricts an instructor's creative thinking. 

Samples of 

Behavior:

1a. Predict the effect on a group of instructors when a new supervisor takes over 

and makes an effort to innovate. 

1b. Explain the relationship between an instructor's habits and the desire to be 

creative in the classroom. 

1c. Give original examples of habits that cause instructors to resist creative change. 

2a. Interpret the relationship between prejudice and an instructor's reactive 

thinking. 

2b. Explain how prejudice acts as a barrier to an instructor's creativity in the 

classroom. 

2c. Give original examples of prejudice operating to restrict an instructor's original 

thinking. 
120 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 8.10. Sample 3—Problem-Solution Pattern. 

8.10.4. Sample Four: Cause-Effect Pattern. Figure 8.11. illustrates Part I using a cause-effect pattern. The objective and main point two stated the effect. In this lesson, emphasis is placed on the effect

and not the cause. Therefore, samples of behavior are needed for the effect alone. In most cause-effect

lessons, testing of the effect is all that is needed because an understanding of the effect is based upon

an understanding of the cause. However, if the cause and effect are of equal importance, the plan

would be multi-objective with samples of behavior written on both the cause and the effect. 

Figure 8.11. Sample 4—Cause-Effect Pattern. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend that widespread public concern is the most effective weapon 

available for combating child abuse. 

Samples of 

Behavior:

1. Estimate the consequences of an aroused public on the problem of child abuse. 

2. Interpret the relationship between public arousal over child abuse and the 

number of cases of child abuse. 

3. Explain how a concerned public can reduce the number of child abuse cases. 

4. Generalize as to actions a concerned public can take that will reduce the number 

of child abuse cases. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend that sexism inhibits effective use of skilled female employees. 

Samples of 

Behavior: 

1. Give original examples that illustrate ways sexism inhibits effective use of 

female employees. 

2. Generalize as to the relationship between sexism and the effective use of female 

employees. 

3. Estimate the consequences when sexism prevents effective use of skilled 

female employees. 

4. Explain how sexism inhibits effective use of skilled female employees. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 121

8.10.5. Sample Five: Pro-Con Plus One Pattern. Figure 8.12. illustrates a pro-con plus one pattern. Because there is a final conclusion in this lesson (the objective and main point three), samples of

behavior should be based upon this conclusion. Samples based upon main points one and two would

not provide the best source of evidence for evaluating achievement of the objective. If samples are

written for main points one and two, they should be used as a basis for interim evaluation of students

and not a final evaluation. 

Figure 8.12. Sample 5—Pro-Con Plus One Pattern. 

8.11. The Comprehension-Level Summary. In developing a comprehension-level lesson plan, we must

plan summaries carefully. This rule holds true even in guided discussions where most of the support material comes from students. 

8.11.1. A comprehension-level summary (or summation) reviews and expands on key material and

develops relationships that lead to a generalization that is (or supports) the instructional objective.

Only the most significant information is restated and expanded. The focus is on how the items are

related. This relationship allows a general conclusion to be drawn. The generalization will either be a

concept or a principle. The concept or principle developed is the stated lesson objective or is used to

support the objective. 

8.11.2. This type of summary permits the introduction of new support material (from instructor or students) needed to establish the generalization. The summary may require anywhere from a few minutes

to a much longer period of time depending on the amount and complexity of the material. 

8.11.3. Use a comprehension-level summary to summarize support material needed to achieve a comprehension-level main point. A summary of this type is not used for a knowledge-level objective or a

knowledge-level main point. 

Lesson Objective: Comprehend that a program of planned obsolescence must represent a balance 

between the exploitation of our natural resources and the generation of a higher standard of living. 

Samples of 

Behavior:

1. Explain the economic cycle initiated by the practice of planned obsolescence. 

2. Differentiate between positive and negative effects on our national economy of 

a program of planned obsolescence by the US auto industry. 

3. Estimate the effect on our economy of a program of planned obsolescence. 

4. Predict ways in which industry and the government can work together to 

achieve a balance in conserving resources and a higher standard of living through 

planned obsolescence. 
122 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

8.11.4. Figure 8.13. is an example of a comprehension-level summary for a lesson illustrated (the

Part I) earlier in this chapter. While comprehension-level summaries would normally be given after

each of these main points, only the summary in the lesson conclusion is illustrated. 

Figure 8.13. Comprehension-Level Summary. 

8.12. Summary. Comprehension is a step beyond the simple remembering of material and represents the

lowest level of understanding. Students who comprehend are able to grasp the meaning of material. 

Objective: Barriers to creativity inhibit innovation in classroom instruction. 

Main Points: 1. Habit causes instructors to resist change. 

2. Prejudice restricts an instructor's thinking. 

3. Barriers to creativity inhibit innovation in classroom instruction. 

Summary: In this lesson we have examined two barriers to creativity that inhibit innovation in classroom 

instruction. As a barrier to creativity, habit causes instructors to resist change. We find instructors using 

old solutions in trying to solve new problems because such an approach is comfortable. Instructors also 

develop fixed attitudes, which prevent them from accepting something that is new or different. Many 

instructors develop fixed behavioral patterns that establish a very comfortable instructional routine. Old 

solutions, fixed attitudes, and fixed behavioral patterns are habits, which cause instructors to resist change. 

Such habits become a barrier to the instructor's creativity. 

 Prejudice, a second barrier to creativity, restricts an instructor's creative thinking. When instructors are 

prejudiced, emotional bias can cause them to reject new ideas. Prejudice can also cause instructors to stick 

to favorite teaching methods instead of trying innovative instructional methods. Or instructors can reserve 

the assignment of key curriculum hours for personal friends, often preventing new and talented instructors 

from improving a course. Emotional bias, sticking to favorite teaching methods, and assigning key 

curriculum hours to friends are forms of prejudice that restrict an instructor's creative thinking. Such forms 

of prejudice become barriers to the instructor's creativity. 

 In viewing barriers to creativity, four are often mentioned. In addition to habit and prejudice, fear and 

inertia can serve as barriers to an instructor's creative efforts. The fear of ridicule, failure, being laughed 

at, or being branded as an oddball limits the frequency of new, original, or unconventional ideas among 

instructors. Inertia causes groups to accept things as they are and discourages members from looking for 

new and better ways of doing things. 

 The Air Force has a continuing need for instructors with the imagination to develop new and useful 

educational tools. However, corrective action will not occur until instructors understand that barriers to 

creativity inhibit innovation in classroom instruction. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 123

8.12.1. Concept teaching is fundamental to instruction at the comprehension level. A concept is a

class of people, objects, events, ideas, or actions grouped together on the basis of shared attributes

(characteristics) and are called the same name. 

8.12.2. A student who comprehends a concept is able to generalize and recognize new examples of

the concept that differ in some way from previously met examples. The student is also able to discriminate by identifying nonexamples that share properties or characteristics with previous examples. 

8.12.3. In teaching a concept, instructors define the concept, teach its critical attributes, give examples, and then nonexamples. A very difficult step in planning for concept teaching is to identify the

critical attributes. 

8.12.4. A principle is a statement of the relationship between two or more concepts. Principles represent conclusions drawn in comprehension-level lessons and are based upon support material used in

the lesson. Deductive reasoning is often used to develop main points that provide logical support to

the lesson objective. Deductive or inductive reasoning is used in the classroom when an instructor

puts supporting points together to draw conclusions. 

8.12.5. Common organizational patterns used in comprehension-level lessons for teaching principles

include topical, problem-solution, cause-effect, and pro-con plus one. 
124 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 9 

DEVELOPING HIGHER-LEVEL COGNITIVE LESSONS 

9.1. Introduction. Teaching and learning at the higher levels of understanding are difficult and challenging. These higher levels of understanding include the ability to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate.

This is not to say that the two lower levels of the cognitive taxonomy—knowledge and comprehension—

necessarily come easily to students. They may not. But when students learn at the higher levels, they are

called upon to put theory into practice. Both the instructor and the student are challenged to determine

whether they can put into use what is being learned. 

9.1.1. Little of what we learn in the classroom has real value in and of itself. Few concepts or principles have value unless students can apply them in real work situations. We should seriously question

the learning of concepts and principles for which there is no apparent need for application. 

9.1.2. Not all lessons should be taught and tested at the higher levels of learning. Efficient, effective

teaching should be directed at levels that are neither higher nor lower than those appropriate for the

desired learning outcomes. 

9.2. Higher Levels of Cognitive Learning: 

9.2.1. Application. Students who can apply concepts and principles in new and different situations

are operating at the application level of understanding. When students apply or recognize the application of principles and other generalizations, they have clearly gone beyond simple understanding. Students who can answer theory questions about principles of management, human relations, and other

significant topics but are not able to put their understanding into practice are not yet at the application

level of learning. 

9.2.1.1. Students who solve problems by applying principles and other generalizations and are

able to explain why are working at least at the application level. It is likely that any educational

experience beyond an introductory course or basic principles course will and should involve the

application level of learning. Instructors and course developers should plan lessons to this level

with the realization that they require more advanced planning and more effective classroom skills

than the lower levels of learning. 

9.2.1.2. Figure 9.1. contains typical application-level student-centered instructional objectives. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 125

Figure 9.1. Instructional Objectives at the Application Level. 

9.2.2. Analysis. The ability to analyze a problem or situation into its component parts and to determine relationships that exist between them characterizes the student at the analysis level. Students

retain and use analytic skills long after they have forgotten the specific subject matter used as a vehicle to develop the skills. "Scientific problem solving" and other examples of management tools for

decisionmaking characterize this level of learning. 

9.2.2.1. Learning and testing at the analysis level and higher can be very complicated. There are

few opportunities for "school solutions," and solutions to problems may not be clearly right or

wrong. One student's analysis may be better than another, but both may be correct. Often students

will discover relationships between elements of a situation not anticipated by the instructor. Being

unable to anticipate and plan for all student interpretations can make teaching at the analysis level

very challenging for even the most experienced instructor. 

9.2.2.2. Figure 9.2. contains some typical student-centered instructional objectives at the analysis

level. 

- Apply the concepts of ISD to actual curriculum development situations. 

- Apply basic human relations skills to situations involving superior-subordinate 

 interpersonal relations. 

- Apply their understanding of the Russian definition of democracy to the interpretation of 

 real or hypothetical situations. 

- Apply the principles of war to scenarios in simulated, fictitious theaters of operation. 
126 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 9.2. Instructional Objectives at the Analysis Level. 

9.2.3. Synthesis. Students who can rearrange elements of a problem or situation in new and creative

ways to form relationships not previously apparent are functioning at the very high level of cognition

known as synthesis. Since creativity is so important to this level of understanding, instructors may

have to evaluate learning at this level without a model to compare to the student's answer or solution.

Previously learned skills of deductive and inductive reasoning play a critical role in the student's ability to synthesize. 

9.2.3.1. Learning and planning for learning at the synthesis level are certain to be complex and

time consuming. Only experienced instructors should attempt to bring students to such a high

level of understanding. Fortunately, or unfortunately depending on your point of view, few right or

wrong answers to problems exist at this level. Rather than judge student work against a set of

absolute standards, instructors must engage in a shared experience to explore new alternatives

with students while providing scholarly guidance and seeking expert opinion. 

9.2.3.2. Figure 9.3. contains some typical student-centered instructional objectives at the synthesis level. 

Figure 9.3. Instructional Objectives at the Synthesis Level. 

- Analyze the communication network of an organization to determine discrepancies 

 between the formal and informal organization chart. 

- Conduct an analysis of work flow within an organization to determine potential areas of 

 improved productivity. 

- Analyze several sources of input into an accident investigation to determine fact and 

 uncorroborated assumptions or allegations. 

- Analyze apparently unrelated government documents to identify principles of strategy 

 or tactics. 

- Synthesize data from recent armed conflicts to propose new principles of warfare that may 

 affect future conflicts. 

- Synthesize a variety of inputs from management decision-making techniques to determine a 

 course of action that is highly supportive of the mission. 

- Prepare an accident prevention plan for a new facility that synthesizes appropriate regulations 

 as well as the most applicable principles of safety engineering. 

- Synthesize relevant research and expert opinion into the revision of existing USAF instructor 

 manuals and other related literature. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 127

9.2.4. Evaluation. Carefully considered judgments made by students based upon objective standards

are characteristic of students at the highest level of learning, evaluation. Informed judgment on the

part of students requires them to separate personal feelings from objective analysis and apply a set of

quantitative and qualitative criteria to given situations. This level of learning requires understanding

so complex that few Air Force schools will include it in their curriculums. Where it is applicable,

however, it represents the highest level of cognitive behavior and creative problem solving. 

9.2.4.1. Teaching and testing at this level is the most difficult task facing an experienced instructor. (NOTE: Those instructors not at this level themselves should not attempt to teach these lessons.) The constant search for new and different problems to be evaluated for creative solutions is

time consuming and difficult. Lack of time prevents many instructors from attempting higher

learning outcomes. Teaching at this level represents the best of what we mean when we refer to the

instructor as a real expert or a genuine scholar. 

9.2.4.2. Figure 9.4. contains some typical student-centered instructional objectives at the evaluation level. 

Figure 9.4. Instructional Objectives at the Evaluation Level. 

9.3. Principles of Teaching and Learning at the Higher Levels. There are several important principles

to keep in mind as we plan and teach at all the higher levels. The significance of one principle over

another varies from situation to situation. However, they all apply generally to instruction at the higher

levels. It is unlikely that instruction can be successful at these levels if any of these principles have been

violated. Several of these principles are as follows: 

9.3.1. Carefully planned learning experiences at the desired level of learning facilitate the transfer of

learning. 

9.3.1.1. Students who are attempting to reach the higher level of learning need sufficient opportunity to practice their newly acquired skills. If we take our students through the understanding of

theory and then ask them to apply the theory without appropriate guidance, we are violating this

critical principle. 

9.3.1.2. Students need to be guided through experiences at each level of the taxonomy so they can

benefit from the constructive feedback of their instructor and other experts. Giving good feedback

in carefully structured learning situations isn't spoon feeding; it's good teaching and critical for

learning. 

9.3.2. Experience with new, unfamiliar, or substantially different learning and testing situations promotes insight at the higher levels of learning. One of the most demanding elements of learning at the

higher levels is the need to come up with many new and different situations for applying, analyzing,

synthesizing, or evaluating principles and other generalizations. Essential principles may be the same

- Evaluate alternative operational plans to determine a justifiable course of action. 

- Evaluate an original research project including data-gathering techniques, research 

 methodology, validity of findings, and logic of recommendations. 

- Evaluate a system for the comparative assessment of the performance of subordinates to 

 determine its applicability to a given situation. 
128 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

in apparently diverse situations, but there must be enough newness about the problems that students

cannot solve them from rote, memory, or recollection. This critical need for instructors to develop

apparently different teaching and learning situations with common principles places great demands on

their subject matter expertise. 

9.3.3. Effective feedback for learning demands flexibility in evaluating the products of student outputs at the higher levels. 

9.3.3.1. Teaching, learning, and testing at the higher taxonomy levels places considerable extra

demands on the flexibility of both the instructor and the student. Creativity is characteristic of all

the higher levels and should be encouraged! Because instructors and students bring their unique

backgrounds with them into the classroom, it is often impossible to anticipate the exact solution

any student may offer to a given problem. 

9.3.3.2. While it is possible to retain the notion of a "school solution" for some application level

learning, most learning at the application level and beyond probably does not lend itself to predetermined model answers. Feedback to the students becomes much more difficult and subjective.

Evaluation of the student becomes more complex because a solution or strategy proposed by a student may be 180 degrees in the opposite direction of one proposed by the instructor, and yet may

be of equal or greater value. 

9.3.3.3. As complex as this situation may be, the instructor should remember that feedback and

evaluation must remain objective to be worthwhile. Students are to solve problems and propose

alternatives based on solid facts and a thorough grasp of higher principles. Learning at the higher

levels is disciplined and scholarly and must not be reduced to expressions of personal preference

and unsubstantiated opinion, as is often the case. 

9.3.4. The need for supplemental expert evaluation of student outputs increases as the level of learning increases. 

9.3.4.1. The increased use of expert judgment in evaluation is closely related to the need for flexibility in evaluating the products of student learning we have just described. By definition, students must produce creative insights or solutions when working at the higher taxonomy levels.

Often, this creativity is best judged by an objective evaluation of proposed student evidence of

learning by one or more experts in a given subject matter area. The instructor may or may not be

one of the expert judges. 

9.3.4.2. Since learning activities at the higher levels are often highly individualized, students may

be doing much, if not most, of their work outside of class. Often, instructors and students engage

in mutual goal setting through negotiation. Research proposals and individual learning contracts

are often characteristic of learning at these levels. In these cases, a mutually agreed upon plan is

developed so that both the instructor and the student agree to the scope and procedures of the

learning activity as well as the goals. Often, such research and individual contracts contain a provision to have them evaluated by third parties. The instructor may also evaluate the student product, but a more qualified expert may be consulted if the project is highly specialized or technical. 

9.3.5. The focus of evaluation at the higher levels gradually shifts from a primary concern about the

process used to arrive at a decision on the quality of the decision itself. 

9.3.5.1. As students function at the higher levels of taxonomy, it becomes less important to predict

their exact behavior in the process of insight or problem solving. The product of their efforts even-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 129

tually becomes more important than the process they go through. Sooner or later the student's

work needs to be evaluated on whether or not a proposed solution will work. 

9.3.5.2. Eventually the books must balance and the solution must have the potential to relieve a

problem. A solution that comes about as a result of applying a scientific problem-solving method

but doesn't work is unacceptable at the highest levels of learning. Checklists or models often helpful at the application level may be of little or no value at the evaluation level. In fact, solutions

generated by students functioning at this level of learning are characteristically different from one

student to another in their approach and process. 

9.3.5.3. When giving students feedback on their products, it may be necessary to help them with

difficulties they had in their process of problem solving. This feedback should aid them in their

next attempt to produce a product. 

9.3.5.4. The concept of sampling described in Chapter 4 still has validity but must be approached

with more caution at the higher levels. Predictable samples of behavior characterize the knowledge and comprehension levels but become increasingly difficult from that point upward in the

taxonomy. Many samples of behavior are broad indicators of student activity which serve as a

baseline for evaluation. The samples can still be of value if they sufficiently describe the essential

elements of the product at these levels. However, efforts to write criterion objectives at these levels may produce such general objectives that they are meaningless. 

9.4. Lesson Planning. The basic skills for planning lessons at the higher cognitive levels are generally as

described elsewhere throughout this manual. The questioning skills discussed in Chapter 11 are critical

to promoting learning at these levels. Chapter 27 describes feedback considerations that become more

important as we go up the ladder of the taxonomy. Discussion skills (Chapter 14), student differences

(Chapter 28), and counseling skills (Chapter 30) take on new and more important dimensions as we

attempt to cause learning at the highest levels. Differences in planning techniques between lower and

higher levels are most often in terms of degree rather than totally different skills. 

9.4.1. Style and Format. Actual lesson plans are often quite simple for conducting class sessions at

these levels. The detailed step-by-step outline that characterizes lower-level lesson plans may not be

appropriate here. The sample lesson plans in the attachments (Attachment 2 through Attachment 10)

illustrate the amount of detail recommended for teaching at the knowledge and comprehension levels. 

9.4.1.1. Typical application-level lesson plans, as well as those for higher levels, might be brief

outlines of activity or as complex as those shown in Attachment 2 through Attachment 10. These

lesson plans go into great detail to include all of the information needed to teach the lessons.

Often, an outline is developed around a set of locally produced or commercially prepared materials. 

9.4.1.2. The exercises involved might include case studies, gaming exercises, in-basket exercises,

role-playing scenarios, or other elaborate simulations. See Chapter 12 for a description of these

and other teaching methods. (These complex exercises will not be attempted in this manual

beyond the case study in the attachments found at the back of the manual. Good simulation exercises are often many pages long and go beyond the scope of this chapter.) 

9.4.2. Classroom Instruction as a Part of a Total Learning Package. The higher the level of

learning, the less relative significance traditional classroom instruction and time in class are likely to

play. Much of what is to be learned will be learned outside of class. Readings, research, personal inter-
130 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

views, and other individualized learning experiences play more of a role than at the lower levels. The

classroom experiences may become the group anchor for individualized experiences. At higher

level-of-learning sessions, students may share what they have gleaned from their personal research

and share their creative ideas for peer and instructor reaction. Depending on the overall methodology

chosen, actual classroom time may account for just a fraction of the time spent in the total learning

experience. 

9.4.3. Quality of the Simulation in the Learning Experience. Perhaps the single biggest factor that

discourages teaching at the higher cognitive levels is the need for quality simulation exercises. In

order to develop a deep understanding in a subject area, it may be necessary for students to have several different opportunities to practice their new insights and skills in problem solving. Each practice

exercise must include the elements critical to developing the higher levels of understanding and must

be sufficiently different so that it cannot be resolved through simple recall. Case studies, in-basket

exercises, games, and role-playing scenarios are a few of the complicated, time-consuming, and often

expensive approaches used to bring these simulations to the students. 

9.4.4. Time Devoted to Instruction. Although classroom activity may constitute a smaller percentage of the time spent on learning at the higher levels, more total classroom time may be required than

at lower levels. That is, actual classroom time may be just 3 or 4 hours of a learning experience (reading, research, writing), but this time may be double that typically devoted to any single topic in the

curriculum. 

9.4.4.1. Instructors often raise the level of learning and increase the amount and complexity of

outside work only to find they are unsuccessful because no additional classroom time was built

into the schedule. Classroom time required for a higher level lesson may be two, three, or more

times that of a lower-level lesson. 

9.4.4.2. A common mistake is to take a sequence of instructional periods and allocate them evenly

without regard to the level of learning. One-third of the periods may be allocated to knowledge-level lesson, one-third to comprehension, and the remaining third to application level and

beyond, or an even distribution of time may be made among departments competing for scarce

time. A good course analysis might reveal that the time allocation should be more like 10 percent

to knowledge lessons, 30 percent to comprehension, and a full 60 percent or more of the available

time allotted to the higher levels. 

9.4.5. Maturity and Sophistication of Students. Students must take a more active role in their own

learning process at the higher levels. Those used to being passive learners may suffer some initial

trouble coping with learning at these higher levels. They may mistake the lack of lectures by the

instructor as weakness or disinterest. They may need close attention and assistance during this period.

In the opposite vein, relatively sophisticated students may resent interference from the instructor as

they pursue objectives with a higher degree of motivation. The instructor may become a barrier to

learning in their eyes. As instructors, we will have to use our teaching and counseling skills to the fullest to try to map our individual strategy with each student. See Chapter 27 and Chapter 28 for further

discussion about dealing with the individual student. 

9.4.6. Subject Matter Expertise of Instructors. The level of learning to which we teach is limited

by the level of our own understanding. To be effective at the higher levels, we must be genuine experts

in our subjects. We can stay with a canned lesson plan at the lower levels and be quite successful. We
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 131

are doomed to failure if we try that at the higher levels. We cannot apply, analyze, synthesize, and

evaluate student learning outcomes unless our own level of understanding permits us to do so. 

9.4.7. Special Emphasis Upon Feedback. The highly individualistic nature of higher level learning

makes quality feedback to students especially critical. Feedback here has the same meaning as that

described in Chapter 27 of this manual. Evaluation, or the passing of judgment on a student effort, is

far less important than constructive feedback at these levels. At some point, however, the instructor

has to decide whether learning has occurred. But the primary emphasis should be placed on feedback

to foster learning rather than labeling or grading. Good lecturers and even good discussion leaders

may be uncomfortable with this feedback role. But the increased use and importance of feedback must

be anticipated and planned into the curriculum. It is obvious that the quality of this feedback is related

directly to both the subject matter expertise and the teaching and counseling skills of the instructor.

The degree to which these skills are available must have a significant impact on the planning of individual lessons and the entire course. 

9.5. Summary. The five important principles described earlier in this chapter for teaching and learning at

the higher taxonomy levels place heavy demands on both instructors and students. Instructors become

more like helpers or counselors and become partners in the learning process to a much greater extent than

most of us are used to experiencing. While this change in roles may be very uncomfortable to some, most

expert instructors find teaching at this level to be most rewarding. At these levels of learning, it is not

unusual to hear instructors say, "I've learned as much as my students!" 

9.5.1. As could be expected, there is a great deal of extra energy and effort expended by both instructors and students in working at the higher levels. Expenditures of energy and effort are very difficult

to measure; however, there is no doubt that there are increased demands upon both students and

instructors. But this increased energy and effort does affect a very tangible asset—time. The time necessary to plan for and conduct higher level learning experiences is substantially greater for both

instructors and students. In addition to the time spent in class by both, there is the need to do considerably more planning and preparation. One-on-one conferences, individualized evaluations, and

increased emphasis on feedback all place additional demands on time. Time, as a critical factor, must

be accounted for by the instructor and the curriculum planner as instruction is developed at the higher

levels of the cognitive taxonomy. 

9.5.2. Instruction at these higher levels becomes increasingly student-centered. Being student-centered shifts much more of the burden for learning from instructors to students. Often, more learning

occurs outside of class periods than within. Trial and error, discovery, and creative insight characterize

student activity. Students may incorrectly sense a lack of direction or shortcomings in instructor

expertise as they discover fewer and fewer answers that are clearly right or wrong. With the patient

and skillful help of instructors with great subject matter expertise, these students can be guided to the

highest and most satisfying levels of learning. 
132 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 10 

WRITING AND MEASURING AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES 

10.1. Introduction. All instructors should care about the attitudes of their students. We want our students

to have positive feelings about our courses, our schools, and us as instructors. Some courses are designed

specifically to affect attitudes but do so only informally, or with no real plan. Whether we plan to or not,

much of what we do as instructors affects the attitudes of our students. But, the potential to affect student

attitudes about instructors and the way they feel about what is taught is too important to leave to chance. 

10.1.1. As we have seen in previous chapters, we can and should plan for measurable learning outcomes. Although we have focused on cognitive or subject matter outcomes to this point, we should

not ignore the need to plan for attitude development. Attitude development is complicated and must

be approached with caution, but the affective domain should still be of great interest to us as instructors. We should realize our potential effect upon student attitudes. Further, we should be aware that

many of the techniques for writing and measuring cognitive objectives apply to the affective domain.

We may find affective objectives are more difficult to write and the measuring tools are less precise,

but paying more systematic attention to the affective domain will improve our course. 

10.1.2. There are at least four elements of writing and measuring objectives for student attitude development that should be of concern to the instructor: clarifying what is meant by the term attitude (or

affect), writing attitude development objectives, measuring student attitudes, and designing a curriculum to develop attitudes in a desired direction. This chapter will discuss the first three of these topics

(which are of practical concern to the classroom instructor). 

10.1.3. The fourth topic, designing a curriculum to develop attitudes in a desired direction, is beyond

the scope of this manual. Classroom instructors are not usually involved with curriculum development

at this level. Among the many schools and courses that successfully develop attitudes are Basic Military Training, Officer Training School, pilot training, survival training, and virtually all safety

courses. A person who wants to develop an effective curriculum plan for developing student attitudes

on a systematic basis would be wise to study the programs of successful schools. 

10.1.4. Although most of our objectives are cognitive, often we want to know how our teaching

affects student attitudes. In those cases, it is not necessary to plan for affective outcomes separate from

cognitive outcomes. Much of the affective impact of cognitive lessons is in the way teachers deal with

the subject matter. If we teach effectively, student attitudes will probably be positive. Conversely, if

we do a poor job, student attitudes might be negative. 

10.1.5. There are still the other areas of interest to the instructor in developing student attitudes without getting into the broad implications of curriculum development. The definition and structure of student attitude development are important to us. The way we write and measure attitude objectives for

our own classes is something we should understand. We should also care about the ways our daily

classroom behavior affects student attitudes. 

10.2. A Structure For Attitude Development—The Affective Taxonomy. A basic structure for attitude development was first presented by Krathwohl and associates in 1956. Their work provides a taxonomy we can use to plan and classify affective instructional objectives. As introduced in Chapter 2, the

affective taxonomy is developmental. Attitudes seem to develop through several identifiable stages; a per-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 133

son cannot reach a level of attitude development without going through the level below. The affective taxonomy levels are: 

10.2.1. Receiving. The first step in teaching is to get the students to receive—to pay attention or listen to the presentation. Awareness of what is being communicated is the issue at this level. Willing

attention is a logical follow-on to awareness, followed by selective attention. Selective attention is

important because students choose the stimulus they will attend to. 

10.2.2. Responding. For learning to occur, students must do more than simply listen to a message.

After receiving information, we want them to do something with it. Responding involves some sort of

action or response on the part of the student. At first, the student may respond by merely complying.

Later, the student may willingly perform an action and obtain satisfaction from the act. Responding

behavior at a high level is reflected in what we commonly refer to as "interests," that is, those activities bringing personal satisfaction. 

10.2.3. Valuing. As a person responds, some worth or value may be seen in what is done. Students

may accept, prefer, or commit to an object or activity because of its perceived worth or value. When

students value something, we can also say they "appreciate it." 

10.2.4. Organization. At this level, students compare, relate, and synthesize values into their own

value system. Conflicts between the new material and the existing value system must be resolved

because we cannot hold two strongly opposing values or attitudes at the same time. Hence, this synthesizing step must occur as part of the development of a philosophy of life which takes place in the

next level. 

10.2.5. Characterization. At the highest affective level, the student incorporates values into a system and that system now becomes characteristic of the student. These values now are the student; they

represent a student's way of life or lifestyle. Behaviors resulting from such values are considered typical for a given individual. 

NOTE: Figure 10.1. summarizes the affective taxonomy, its levels of learning, and those activities characteristic of each level. 
134 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 10.1. Krathwohl's Affective Taxonomy. 

10.3. Lesson Planning for Affective Development. As an example of attitude development, let us take

the topic of "lesson planning" and trace the building of a value through the various levels of development

within the affective taxonomy. When potential instructors take an instructor training course, a goal is to

teach them how to plan a lesson. Lesson planning may be a pretty dry subject to some, so we have to capture our students' attention and focus it on lesson planning as best we can. Upon attaining that focus, we

have made students aware at the receiving level that lesson planning exists. 

10.3.1. To further illustrate the point, consider the basic design for lesson planning introduced in

Chapter 6. For cognitive reasons we can see that a good attention step can help students focus on the

subject and get them ready to learn. Affectively, we stimulated the students to tune in and begin

receiving. Recall that "receiving" is the lowest level in the affective taxonomy. Remember, the student

must begin receiving before the worth of the topic can even be considered. The other lesson parts have

important cognitive and affective consequences as well. These consequences are summarized in Table

10.1.
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 135

Table 10.1. Cognitive and Affective Consequences. 

10.3.2. Awareness is not enough. Our next step is to get the students to act on the information. At first,

students plan lessons because they are told to do so—simple compliance at the responding level. Willingness to respond emerges and later develops into satisfaction with responding. As students go

through lesson planning procedures, some of them will begin to see some worth or value in planning

a lesson. A lesson plan helps them clearly state what is to be accomplished. It is a handy outline they

can use in giving a presentation. It helps them remember visual aids, stories, and examples. Most students will begin to feel more confident with a lesson plan available. Hence, we have obviously arrived

at the valuing level of the affective taxonomy. 

10.3.3. As experience increases, the value of lesson planning may be assimilated into the students'

value system through the process of organization. This phase helps the student fit the new value into

his or her existing structure of values. 

10.3.4. At some point in the future someone may say, "Let's do a lesson on a new topic," and the

immediate reply will be, "First, we'll have to develop a lesson plan." This positive attitude toward lesson planning now seems to be typical or characteristic of the student. Student behavior can then be

generally predicted in terms of the value of lesson planning. The characterization level has been

achieved. 

I 

T

E

M 

A B C 

Lesson Part Cognitive Consequence Affective Consequence 

1 Attention Step Students focus on subject 

matter and get ready to learn. 

Students are stimulated to be attentive, to 

begin receiving, and to consider the worth of 

the topic. 

2 Motivation Students know why they should 

listen. 

Students are urged to see the worth of the 

subject and to respond. They are encouraged 

to develop an interest in the subject. 

3 Overview Students follow more 

effectively when they see the 

logical sequence of ideas and 

methods the lesson will include. 

Students are oriented when they have the 

security of knowing where they are going 

and how they are to get there. 

4 Body (Lesson 

Development) 

Students acquire knowledge or 

gain understanding of the 

subject. 

When support is credible, students see and 

develop positive attitudes and appreciation. 

5 Summaries Students see relationships 

between main ideas. The 

essential ideas are summarized. 

Students feel confident about lesson content 

and have a feeling of security and 

completeness. 

6 Remotivation Students realize how the lesson 

can be put to use. 

Students see worth in the lesson and leave 

with a positive feeling. 

7 Closure Students recognize the lesson is 

over. 

Students sense a psychological 

completeness. 
136 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

10.4. Relationship of Affective Domain to Other Domains. Although it is very convenient to think of

the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains of learning as being separate, they are not. Educators

have treated the domains of learning as separate entities to make it easier to conceptualize them. In reality,

learning takes place and behavior is affected in more than one domain at the same time. 

10.4.1. Consider, for instance, the Air Force specialty of pararescue. This job involves highly dangerous situations where a person may parachute or be lowered by cable from a moving helicopter into a

combat situation or to the scene of a natural disaster for the purpose of aiding the stranded or

wounded. In what domains of learning do the pararescue specialists operate? 

10.4.2. Certainly the psychomotor domain is involved: lines must be operated, knots tied, and first aid

rendered. Obviously cognitive learning also comes into operation: procedures must be remembered,

situations evaluated, and the best courses of action taken. It is not difficult to see that the affective

domain is also involved. The mere fact that people would volunteer for such a job tells us something

about their feelings about the job and other human beings. They probably operate at the valuing level

or even higher. 

10.4.3. It is clear, then, that learning often takes place in all three domains at the same time. While we

separate the domains to plan better for learning and evaluation, it is often impossible to distinguish

between them in real life situations. 

10.5. Affective Objectives Can be Specified and Measured. Few military or civilian schools have

undertaken the task of specifying affective outcomes, planning and developing lessons to account for

affective outcomes, or measuring such outcomes. Although little has been done to account formally for

changes in student feelings and attitudes, in many cases there is at least an implied concern for these affective changes. Many schools have demonstrated their concern by putting affective goal statements into

their curriculum catalogs. These statements, which quite often sound and look good, might be useful as

mission statements, but they represent a level of abstraction too high for measurable objective statements. 

10.5.1. Consider the following two unmeasurable objectives: Students should be stimulated toward

reaching their maximum potential as teachers and to strengthen those professional values necessary

for a full career of dedication and service to their country. 

10.5.2. These statements are worthwhile goals, but they are of little value as objectives because they

are not measurable. How do we know when students have been stimulated toward their maximum

potential as a teacher? How do we know when airmen have strengthened their professional values?

The answer is that we have no effective way of measuring such broadly stated objectives. That does

not mean we should not be concerned about affective outcomes. The problem is that the objectives

were not stated so they could be measured. These value objectives do indicate a concern and an

acknowledgment of the importance of affect in education, but the writers of these statements simply

do not go far enough to specify a measurable affective objective. Let's begin looking at how to write

or specify measurable affective objectives by looking at their similarity to cognitive objectives. 

10.6. Techniques for Specifying and Measuring Affective Objectives. A wide range of techniques for

specifying and measuring affective objectives is available. What follows will introduce a few of these

techniques: 

10.6.1. Stating Affective Objectives. Stating affective learning outcomes is not especially difficult

given the complexity of the area with which we are dealing. Many of the objectives we have seen or
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 137

perhaps have already written reflect concern for affect. Consider the example at Figure 10.2. of a lesson objective and purpose statement. 

Figure 10.2. Lesson Objective and Purpose Statement. 

10.6.1.1. In Figure 10.2., concern for affect is seen in both the objective and the italicized purpose

statement. Not every school requires that purpose statements be written. It is almost certain, however, that every instructor has some purpose in mind when planning a lesson. Purpose statements

answer the question, "Why does the student need to learn this material?" The lesson objective

itself deals with what the lesson is about. Purpose statements, whether written or not, very often

reflect the instructor's concern for student feelings and attitudes that should result from the lesson.

This instructor wants the students to comprehend and feel that overpopulation is detrimental. The

use of the word detrimental implies a value judgment about overpopulation. In this case, the purpose statement also reflects a concern for affect. 

10.6.1.2. A look back at the taxonomy will reveal that "appreciation" is synonymous with "valuing." We have an objective and a purpose statement that reflect affective concern at a specific level

within the affective taxonomy. The writer of this objective may not have realized attitudes as well

as understanding were under development. 

10.6.2. Sampling Changes in Student Feelings. Using another example closer to the classroom,

consider the lesson objective and outline of main teaching points at Figure 10.3. Notice that the third

point is clearly affective. 

Figure 10.3. Lesson Objective and Outline of Main Teaching Points. 

10.6.2.1. We must now attempt to determine whether students do in fact "value classroom examinations as learning experiences" as stated in this objective. Using the same concepts as were used

to measure cognitive learning, we proceed to sample student behavior. Using behavioral terms, we

construct samples of behavior that will prove the students do value classroom examinations. The

samples might be listed as follows: (1) Propose using examination feedback to improve performance. (2) Select use of examinations to improve performance when given the opportunity. (3)

Justify the continued use of classroom examinations to improve performance. 

10.6.2.2. The idea is that if our students do one or more of these three tasks (out of many we could

have listed), we will have some evidence students achieved this attitude objective. We can see that

the same sampling procedures apply in affective lessons as in cognitive lessons. Of course, the

samples we would require as evidence of learning might not be the ones listed paragraph 10.6.2.1.

We might select others. We might also decide that three is not enough, or that three is too many. 

The objective of this lesson is for each student to comprehend that overpopulation is 

detrimental to world development so that the student may better appreciate the need for 

population control. 

The objective of this lesson is for each student to comprehend that classroom examinations 

play a valuable role in the learning process. Comprehend that examinations aid teachers 

by.... Comprehend that examinations aid students by.... Value classroom examinations as 

learning experiences. 
138 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

10.7. Similarity of Cognitive and Affective Learning Outcomes. If we think for a moment about the

schools where we have taught or attended as students, we realize that most schools have specifically

stated cognitive objectives. Perhaps some have specified psychomotor objectives as well. Few, however,

specify affective objectives. But if we closely examine the purpose for most schools, we will discover

they are also very interested in whether or not their students are conscientious, empathetic, receptive,

interested, willing, participating, dependable, and ethical. 

10.7.1. What are some of the lessons learned from working with the cognitive domain that will help

us get started on writing and measuring affective objectives? We will use and build upon the lesson

planning concepts illustrated earlier in this manual. We will not have to learn new approaches to lesson planning. Devices used to measure changes in learning are imperfect. Anyone who has attempted

to test understanding or rate skilled performance knows the difficulties involved. 

10.7.2. The same is true for the affective domain. In the affective domain we will often observe

behavior and make judgments or inferences about what the behavior means. Many of the assumptions

made when working in the cognitive domain will also apply in the affective domain. For instance, we

will sample behavior and assume it is typical of the way students behave. We cannot possibly measure

all behaviors, so we will use the concept of sampling. Behavior is the primary indicator of what people

feel, just as it is the primary indicator of what people know. We cannot look inside the brain to determine how a student feels about something any more than we can determine what is understood. 

10.7.3. Consider a brief example on using behavior in the affective domain. Joe is a student in one of

our classes. While talking to another instructor we might say, "Joe has a bad attitude about this

school." Our colleague may respond by asking, "What makes you think so?" The evidence we give for

Joe's having a bad attitude will probably sound like this: "Why do I believe that Joe has a bad attitude?

Well, it's pretty obvious because he comes to class late (or not at all), doesn't bring his textbook,

doesn't take notes, sleeps in class, stares out of the window, cleans his fingernails in class, talks during

lectures, doesn't participate in class discussions, or reads magazines during class." 

10.7.4. What has happened is we have sampled Joe's behavior and inferred from it that he has a bad

attitude about our school. We frequently reach conclusions about people's attitudes and feelings in this

way. How can we possibly know how people feel except through their actions or behavior? We infer

how people feel from what they do. We need behavioral indicators of attitude just as we need them in

the other domains. 

10.8. Interpreting and Modifying Criterion Objectives. The previous examples addressed a

level-of-learning objective. The same concern for affect may be interpreted in even the simplest criterion

objective. Consider the following criterion objective: "Without the use of references, correctly identify

200 of the 206 bones of a human skeletal model." 

10.8.1. At first we may question whether there is anything at all affective about this objective. Let us

examine it more closely, however. It takes a great deal of time and effort to memorize 206 bones, their

Latin names, and to be able to point to each on a human skeleton. The mere fact that people would

take on this task indicates they are probably at the responding level of the taxonomy. Learning the

names of these bones reflects at least compliance and possibly an even higher level. The point is that

even criterion objectives may reflect implied feelings of a student toward the learning task. 

10.8.2. Minor changes can be made to criterion objectives to help us better express our affective

intent. Consider the following criterion objective that might be part of an Air Force school curriculum:
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 139

"Upon completion of tasks in the school laboratory, replenish supplies to maintain the stock levels

specified in the laboratory handbook." 

10.8.3. With minor changes we can attempt to account for changes in student attitudes in this straightforward objective. To add this element to the objective, we can add a phrase such as "without supervision." The criterion objective would then read "Upon completion of tasks in the school laboratory,

replenish supplies to maintain the stock levels specified in the laboratory handbook without supervision." 

10.8.4. If students meet this objective without supervision, no one will watch them, pressure them, or

remind them to replenish supplies—they must now do it on their own. If students meet such an objective, they are functioning at the responding level of attitude, or perhaps even higher. 

10.8.5. Consider another criterion objective: "Upon completion of assigned laboratory tasks, return

all tools and equipment to designated storage places." 

10.8.6. We might add a different phrase to this objective to account for attitude and end up with:

"Without being told to do so and upon completion of assigned laboratory tasks, return all tools and

equipment to designated storage places." 

10.8.7. Now the student must do the task without being told. Here again, we are at least at the

responding level of attitude development. 

10.8.8. Any number of changes to criterion objectives can help better express affective objectives.

Consider the list of suggested changes in Figure 10.4.

Figure 10.4. Suggested Changes to Affective Objectives. 

10.8.9. Notice the last three of these phrases in particular. If students do something on their own time,

initiate something on their own, or do something in spite of social pressure to do otherwise, they are

displaying behavior at the valuing level of the taxonomy or perhaps higher. 

10.9. Stating Purely Affective Objectives. The changes described so far are used when we want to "add

on" some affective outcomes. But what if the primary purpose of a lesson is affective? If the main purpose

of a lesson is affective, we should plan and conduct the lesson accordingly. Sometimes, it might be best to

have both a cognitive and an affective objective for the same lesson. In either case, we need to know how

to write an objective that describes affective outcomes. 

Voluntarily takes action to.... 

Without being told to do.... 

Without promise of reward.... 

Without threat of punishment.... 

Without being reminded.... 

On student's own time.... 

In spite of social pressure to do otherwise.... 

Initiates on his or her own.... 
140 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

10.9.1. If we teach management, we have probably spent time ensuring our students know it is important for good interpersonal relations to exist between supervisors and subordinates. However, knowing what to do is one thing and being willing to do it is something else. We want to determine whether

our students will, in fact, establish good relations between supervisors and subordinates when given

the chance. What sort of affective lesson objective could we plan to help express our desired goal? 

10.9.2. First, we select the desired level of learning from the affective taxonomy and state the lesson

objective using that level. We might choose the responding level and begin with the following lesson

objective: "The objective of this lesson is for each student to respond to the desirability of having good

interpersonal relations between supervisors and their subordinates." 

10.9.3. As with a cognitive lesson plan, we must outline the main points we want to teach in support

of our lesson objective. In this instance, we will select a main point at the responding level of learning

as indicated by the lesson objective. The first main point (MP) might look like the sample in Figure

10.5.

Figure 10.5. Main Point Sample. 

10.9.4. This main point also points toward a teaching method—guided discussion. Here we will use

the discussion for something other than a cognitive purpose. 

10.9.5. As in previous examples, the next step is to write several samples of behavior using behavioral terms. The samples in Figure 10.6. might be appropriate in this situation. 

Figure 10.6. Samples of Behavior. 

10.9.6. Putting the objective, the first main point, and the samples of behavior together, we end up

with the plan in Figure 10.7. The objective of this lesson is for each student to respond to the desirability of having good interpersonal relations between supervisors and their subordinates. 

MP 1 Respond, during guided discussion, to the importance of effective 

supervisor-subordinate communications. 

1. Present arguments to support the desirability of open communications 

between supervisors and subordinates. 

2. Voluntarily tell personal experiences that illustrate problems that arise from 

a lack of good supervisor-subordinate communication. 

3. Select organizational designs that emphasize interaction between supervisors 

and subordinates over those that do not. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 141

Figure 10.7. Sample Lesson Plan. 

10.9.7. We would of course continue this process for subsequent main points and samples. Notice that

in this lesson plan, we deal primarily with the affective domain and the major purpose of the lesson is

to get students to respond positively to our topic. At the same time, we provide built-in evaluation criteria that tells whether or not we have met the objective. 

10.10. Measuring Changes In Student Attitudes: 

10.10.1. Let us look again at the samples of behavior in Figure 10.6. These samples actually form a

small attitude assessment instrument—an attitude scale. The behaviors students exhibit in the samples

will tell us something very specific about their attitude toward the task. Such evidence gives us some

indication the affective objective was met. In measuring attitudes, we cannot be concerned with

hair-splitting measurements. We are primarily concerned with general tendencies and whether these

tendencies are positive or negative. 

10.10.2. Because of the broad range of possible behaviors, we should not be satisfied with a measure

of just one sample of behavior by itself. Attitudes are so very complex—we run a big risk of misinterpreting a student's overall attitude if we use only one or two samples of behavior. Always use several

samples in an important attitude measurement to have confidence in the resulting decision. 

10.11. Using Published Attitude Scales. When we first discussed measuring attitudes, we were probably reminded of some sort of attitude scale or test written by a psychologist. Most of us have taken such

tests or completed such scales at one time or another. Most libraries have copies of Buro's publication,

Mental Measurements Yearbook, which reviews a wide variety of commercially available scales and

inventories. Scales can measure attitudes toward such items as teachers, education, politics, student ratings, self, study habits, and many more. If we find a scale in Buro that measures what we are interested in,

it may save time in developing one of our own. 

10.11.1. If we are faced with measuring the attitudes of a large group of people, a commercially published attitude scale may be just what we need. If we go back to the example level-of-learning objective just used and its accompanying samples of behavior, we can see that to determine whether or not

students can perform each of those samples without a written test would require close observation during the learning process. If we had a large group of students, we might find it difficult to observe and

record the necessary responses accurately and objectively. When we are tasked to measure the attitudes of a large group of people, some sort of written instrument will probably be most accurate, efficient, and reasonable to use. 

MP 1 

Respond, during guided discussion, to the importance of effective 

supervisor-subordinate communications. 

 a. Present arguments to support the desirability of open communications 

between supervisors and subordinates. 

 b. Voluntarily tell personal experiences that illustrate problems that arise 

from a lack of good supervisor-subordinate communication. 

 c. Select organizational designs that emphasize interaction between 

supervisors and subordinates over those that do not. 
142 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

10.11.2. We might find the following affective criterion objective for these commercially available

scales to be of value: "Given the (name of the scale) attitude scale, show a statistically significant gain

in (whatever the scale measures) on a posttest as compared to a pretest." 

10.12. Making Our Own Attitude Assessment Scale. As useful as the published attitude assessment

instruments may be, the one we need may not be available in print. In such cases, we might write our own.

Constructing a scale to measure attitudes and feelings is not an easy task, however. The complexity of

human behavior makes us appreciate the difficulty of accurately measuring changes in attitudes. Whether

instructor-made evaluation instruments can accurately and consistently record changes in student attitudes is questionable. But these instruments can be of value. To the instructor using self-made attitude

assessment devices, some words of caution: use the results carefully and do not generalize results to a

large population. Use the data primarily for your own information. With those reservations in mind, we

can approach the process of developing attitude assessment scales. 

10.13. Pretest-Posttest Design. Probably the most widely used strategy in affective measurement is the

pretest-posttest design. In this design, students' attitudes are measured at one point in time to determine

their attitudes before instruction. Students are then exposed to some sort of intervening learning experience. After the intervening activity, attitudes are again measured and the results compared to those

obtained in the pretest. What we want to measure is a change of attitude and its direction (positive or negative). Figure 10.8. illustrates the pretest-posttest design. Many formats are available to use in the pretest-posttest design, such as: 

Figure 10.8. Attitude Test—Pretest-Posttest Design. 

10.13.1. Word List Format. Suppose we were interested in the attitudes of Air Force middle management personnel toward a new management technique. One way to begin would be to survey these

1. Administer a pretest word list to the managers who had not used the technique before coming to 

our school. The word list might look like this. Circle 10 of the words listed below that best describe 

your reaction to management technique "A." 

Rational Efficient 

Helpful Bothersome 

Inefficient Irrational 

Stable Effective 

Traditional Volatile 

Ineffective Modern 

Rewarding Hindrance 

Workable Unworkable 

2. Teach the managers the concept and principles behind the new technique and give them the 

opportunity to apply it successfully to relevant situations. 

3. Re-administer the word list following the course. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 143

managers and ask them, at random, to list words that describe other management techniques they

know. These words would come from techniques with which they have been both successful and

unsuccessful. With the words obtained, we could develop a master list of both positive and negative

adjectives such as effective, efficient, and logical. 

10.13.1.1. Assume that we then have a group of managers in our course who have never used a

particular management technique. Further assume that we are interested in finding out what happens to the attitudes of these managers as a result of attending our school and learning this new

technique. Our attitude test could be conducted as in Figure 10.8.

10.13.1.2. The idea is that once the managers actually learn and use the new technique in the

school setting, their attitudes should change toward the positive. If we are successful, they will

likely conclude that the new technique is of real value to them as managers. Therefore, when the

word list is re-administered the number of positive words selected should increase. We can construct a criterion objective for this pretest-posttest situation that would look like this: "Given a list

of mixed (positive and negative) adjectives used to describe a technique of management, select 10

that include more positive connotations on a posttest as compared to a pretest." 

10.13.2. Multiple-Choice Format. A multiple-choice question for measuring the affective domain

will have no right or wrong answer. Rather, it will permit students to express their feelings about a

topic in a structured way (Figure 10.9.). 

Figure 10.9. Multiple-Choice Format. 

10.13.3. Bipolar Scale Format: 

10.13.3.1. A variation of the word list technique, the bipolar scale format does not require the person taking the test to select single words, but instead asks them to rate something along a line

between two extremes. This format could also be used to measure attitudes about the new management technique example in paragraph 10.13.1. The major difference from the word list format is

that the managers would now be given the opportunity to indicate their feelings at some point

along a line between two extremes. For example, instead of making the adjective "irrational" an

option, we might put the word "irrational" at one end of a continuum and the word "rational" at the

other end. 

10.13.3.2. In this example, the respondents would place an "X" or check mark at some point on

each line. The various points could be given values that would enable us to calculate total or averI find the subject of (fill in) 

a. very interesting 

b. somewhat interesting 

c. somewhat uninteresting 

d. very uninteresting 
144 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

age scale scores permitting pretest-posttest comparisons. Note that the values of the qualities are

purposely mixed with positive and negative terms on both sides, forcing the student to think about

the responses. 

NOTE: The bipolar scale is an excellent device to use when your lesson involves a concept or concepts

as described in Chapter 8. 

10.14. Measuring Attitude Changes Following the Experience. Sometimes it is impossible to give an

attitude test during both a pre- and posttest. In certain situations there is only one chance to measure student attitudes. The bipolar scale just discussed can be used as a one-time measure. Another example

would be an end-of-course critique. On such critiques, students indicate how they feel about various

aspects of the experience. For example, we might give the students a set of instructions and a scale and

ask them to rate a series of curriculum topics such as methodology, communication skills, or evaluation

(Figure 10.10.). 

Figure 10.10. End-of-Course Critique—General. 

10.14.1. Rating Statements Format. We could further break down the major areas into topics to get

more specific feedback. For example, under the major curriculum area of communication skills we

might ask students to rate statements in the following two examples using the same five-point scale

(A, B, C, D, E) (Figure 10.11.). 

I believe that the performance of this school in the tasks described 

below has been: 

A. Outstanding 

B. Excellent 

C. Good 

D. Fair 

E. Unsatisfactory 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 145

Figure 10.11. End-of-Course Critique—Specific. 

10.14.1.1. Most end-of-course critiques obtain responses to questions like those listed in Figure

10.10. and Figure 10.11., but do not use results to determine whether an attitude objective has

been reached. We could also write a school criterion objective that would set a goal for how well

we are meeting student needs (Figure 10.12.). 

Figure 10.12. Sample School Criterion Objective. 

10.14.1.2. In this instance, we have decided that if the students at our school rate 80 percent of the

areas we ask about as average or higher, we are satisfied our students have positive feelings about

our school. 

The degree to which the curriculum: 

Prepared me to organize and prepare lessons that will ensure clarity and effectiveness in 

communication. 

A. Outstanding 

B. Excellent 

C. Good 

D. Fair 

E. Unsatisfactory 

Prepared me to listen more effectively to others. 

A. Outstanding 

B. Excellent 

C. Good 

D. Fair 

E. Unsatisfactory 

Given a series of curriculum topics and a related rating scale, students will rate at least 80 percent 

of the topic areas as average or higher. 
146 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

10.14.2. Likert-Type Scale. Another approach to posttest only or pre-post evaluation is the Likert-type scale. Students respond to clearly favorable or unfavorable statements by selecting one of the

following responses: Strongly agree, agree, no opinion, disagree, or strongly disagree. This approach

is useful for measuring attitudes toward concepts or principles as described in Chapter 8. The Likert-type scale is relatively easy to quantify by assigning numeric values to each point on the scale. For

example, we might assign a 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 respectively from the strongly agree to strongly disagree

end of the scale. 

10.14.3. Either-Or Format. This simple format gives the student a choice of expressing an attitude

by selecting one alternative over another (Figure 10.13.). 

Figure 10.13. Either-Or Format. 

10.14.4. Open-Ended Question Format. Sometimes we have to permit our respondents to express

themselves in a somewhat less structured way than those already mentioned. The open-ended question

can help us in this regard. This format structures what is asked, but allows freedom of response (Figure 10.14.). The major drawback to this format is that the responses must be read and interpreted,

making it very difficult to code and quantify data. 

Figure 10.14. Open-Ended Question Format. 

10.15. Dealing With the Higher Affective Levels. Written scales and tests like these are useful when

measuring the lower affective levels, especially in changes in attitudes over short periods of time. Short

courses and brief exposure to material can be expected to change attitudes very little and only at the lower

affective levels (receiving, responding, and [possibly] valuing). 

10.15.1. Changes at the higher affective levels (valuing, organization, and characterization) require

much longer exposures, a block of instruction or an entire course rather than a lesson, and are more

difficult to measure. We cannot be sure a particular attitude characterizes a person when our only measure or index is a paper-and-pencil test or scale. It is very difficult to measure the higher affective levels at all, much less with paper-and-pencil tests. 

10.15.2. The methods for measuring higher affective levels are not objective or precise, but it is possible to measure the higher levels. The best way to get evidence of this level of attitude is to place students in specific situations for a long period of time and then observe their behavior for indicators of

If I had it to do all over again, I (would) 

(would not) have taken this course. 

If I were teaching this class, I would.... 

If I caught a student cheating, I would.... 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 147

attitude. For example, if we are interested in determining if some value or attitude "characterizes" our

students, we might have them role-play in a realistic situation. Observing their role-playing can tell

something about student attitudes. 

10.15.3. Similar situations might include case studies, games, simulations, and class projects. Each of

these situations provides an opportunity to observe a student under realistic conditions. Short experiences that do not get students to act out or somehow show their real attitude are of no particular value

at the higher attitude levels. 

10.16. Which Affective Measure Should Be Used? We may wonder which techniques for measuring

attitude change should be used in our own teaching. Unfortunately, there is no easy answer to the question, just as there is no easy answer to which measurement techniques we should use to measure knowledge or skills. Many methods and techniques adequately measure attitude, just as many methods and

techniques measure other learning. Who decides whether to use true-false, matching, multiple-choice, or

essay items at a particular school? The faculty members, curriculum advisor, or commandant? The same

person might also make similar decisions with regard to attitude measures. Someone must decide which

techniques would be most appropriate and practical for the particular situation. 

10.17. Summary. Writing and measuring affective objectives is an important but difficult task. In many

ways, we have more difficulty specifying and measuring attitudes than we do for any other type of learning. We are forced to accept indicators of behavior, which is second-hand evidence of student attitudes.

Our measurement devices are often inconsistent and occasionally marred by error. But we do have attitudinal objectives, and our difficulties in writing and measuring them should not keep us from making attitude development a critical part of our courses. 
148 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 11 

USING QUESTIONS FOR LEARNING 

11.1. Introduction. Questions are so much a part of teaching that they are often taken for granted. Many

professionals, such as lawyers and doctors, are taught how to ask questions, but few instructors receive

formal training in questioning skills. This lack of training, coupled with the average instructor's lack of

planning for questions, often results in ineffective or inefficient use of questions. But it doesn't have to be

that way. 

11.1.1. Why should we care about questions? Because the effective use of questions may result in

more student learning than any other single technique used by instructors. A considerable amount of

classroom communication is in the form of questions; they play a key role in most teaching methods.

Thus, it is important for us to learn to use questions correctly. 

11.1.2. In this chapter we will begin by comparing questions at the knowledge and comprehension

levels to show that the level of learning is always the starting point in formulating questions. Having

determined the level of learning and organizational pattern, we will see that questions are categorized

by purpose depending on our objective. We also see that questions are categorized by direction to

ensure all students are involved in the process and reach the appropriate level of learning. Finally, we

will discuss some common problems associated with the use of questions and some techniques that

can be effectively used to overcome these problems. 

11.2. The Starting Point. In order to understand that the level of learning expressed in the lesson objective is the starting point in designing questions, let us compare the first two levels of learning in Bloom's

taxonomy. At the knowledge level, the goal for our students is to recall specific information. The process

of critical thinking begins with data or facts; therefore, recall questions are a necessary beginning. Recall

questions help guide the students to the higher intellectual processes of thinking. 

11.2.1. During the lesson, we want our students to remember factual information and to repeat what

they have learned. What kinds of questions should we ask during the class session to produce this

behavior? Knowledge-level questions are usually characterized by such words as who, what, when,

where, and which. For example, "Which presidents of the US had military service before their election?" Students either know the answer to this question or they don't. 

11.2.2. There are many legitimate reasons for asking knowledge-level questions. In a demonstration-performance lesson you may want to determine if the students have been able to keep up with

your explanation. In an informal lecture you may want to determine if the students have the background information necessary for the class to proceed. Perhaps you want to determine if the students

can recall basic principles and generalizations before you begin more indepth instruction. 

11.2.3. There is a danger in asking only these kinds of low-level questions. Simply because your students can parrot back what you said in class or what they have read does not necessarily mean they

understand the material. If we ask solely knowledge-level questions, we run the risk of slighting other

intellectual processes of our students. If we want our students to engage in more than just memory

work, then more work in formulating questions is required. 

11.2.4. At the comprehension level of learning, the emphasis is on understanding rather than mere

recall. We want our students to grasp concepts, to explain similarities and differences, and to infer
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 149

cause-and-effect relationships. To achieve these results we should ask open-ended questions that are

thought provoking and require more mental activity than simply remembering facts. For instance,

questions containing the word "how" allow the students to compare and contrast; "why" questions

encourage the students to question the causes of events or actions; "what if..." questions prompt the

students to predict. For example, "With all the emphasis put on safety in the Air Force, why do accidents continue to be such a problem?" Notice that students must expend greater effort to answer this

question than they did to answer the simple recall question about which presidents had military service. 

11.2.5. In many Air Force classes, instructors must bring their students beyond the comprehension

level to a position where they can use what they have learned to solve Air Force problems. Most of

what we say about questioning at the comprehension level also holds true for the higher levels of

learning. Even though the remainder of this chapter addresses the comprehension level, it also applies

to the higher levels. 

11.3. Determine Purpose. Questions serve a variety of purposes. A good question posed by the instructor can command the students' immediate attention. Properly planned and asked questions will stimulate

student thinking. Questions help instructors see how effective their teaching has been. 

11.3.1. One of the most important purposes of questioning is to develop the subject of the lesson. As

an example, in a guided discussion or case study, the subject would be developed through questions

that foster student participation. In a teaching interview, development would occur through questions

directed toward the expert guest. 

11.3.2. Regardless of the method, if your purpose is to start participants communicating, plan a leadoff question that will generate discussion. Your leadoff question should stimulate thinking and be

phrased so that participants are aware of the main point. For instance, a guided discussion on the topic

of time management might have as a main point, "Effective management begins with proper time

management." The discussion might be initiated with a leadoff question such as, "Why is there a need

for all of us to manage our time properly?" 

11.3.3. After you have initiated the lesson with a leadoff question, your purpose is to guide the direction of the discussion. Plan followup questions that are designed to guide the lesson progression by

supplying subideas. Your followup questions should promote reasoning. In the same discussion on

time management, an appropriate followup question might be, "How do we mismanage our time?"

Notice how the instructor's question has provided a subidea—mismanagement of time. The students

will now consider this aspect of the issue and relate it to the main point. 

11.3.4. Once your lesson is in progress, you may notice that one of the students is starting to get sidetracked. Ask a spontaneous question to lead the straying student back to the main point. A spontaneous question can control the content of the lesson by ensuring that responses are pertinent. A

spontaneous question can be used to seek clarification. For instance, in a teaching interview, if the

guest gives an unclear response, prompt the guest by asking for an explanation or an expansion

through such questions as, "Would you restate your answer in another way?" or "What else can you

add?" or "Are there other reasons?" 

11.3.5. Spontaneous questions are also used to seek support when a statement is made that appears to

be shallow, lacks focus, or merely parrots information from a text or previous lecture. You need examples or statistics as support for the assertions just made in order to promote understanding. Hinting or
150 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

further prompting, from the instructor, may be necessary before the lesson can continue. For example,

in an informal lecture on the strategy of deterrence, you might ask, "How would a countervalue strategy affect the free world order of battle?" If the students cannot reply, ask for a definition of countervalue at the knowledge level. With that answer in mind, you could then provide a hint such as,

"Opposed to a countervalue strategy is a counterforce strategy. How would the targets differ?" 

11.4. Questions Categorized By Direction. After you have determined the purpose of a particular question, you are ready to ask the question. Your first decision should be your target—who do you want to

respond? 

11.4.1. Directed to Entire Group. A question projected overhead is directed to the entire group

rather than to a specific individual and is one to which you expect an answer. Overhead questions

work well in stimulating thinking and getting participation started. Leadoff questions are often projected overhead since they are usually addressed to the class rather than one person. Questions of this

kind alert all members of the class and keep them following the discussion. 

11.4.1.1. Instructors frequently ask questions for which no answer is expected. These are rhetorical questions because they are either answered by the instructor or are left unanswered. Why

would an instructor ask questions for which no answer is expected? Such questions can be found

throughout a lesson, from the attention step to the conclusion. "Have you ever wondered why...?"

can be an arresting opening. "What could Captain Jones have done to prevent...?" could motivate

students by putting them mentally into a specific situation. "What do you think the Inspector General's recommendation might have been?" could lead into an overview of the lesson. 

11.4.1.2. As the instructor nears the end of a lesson, there are also many ways rhetorical questions

can be useful. The summary often begins with something like "Well, what have we learned about

NCO responsibilities today?" In an interim summary it is very natural to say "What have we

learned so far?" As we remotivate students we might say, "If you faced the same situation as Captain Jones, do you see where this approach would have worked?" Even in the concluding statement we might find such questions as, "What will you do the next time a traffic fatality is reported

in your squadron?" or "Based on what we have observed today, what would you recommend to the

new wing commander?" 

11.4.2. Directed to Individuals. Many times during a class session, the instructor will find it necessary to direct a question to a specific individual. A direct question is addressed to a particular person

to elicit involvement, seek an opinion, or draw out support. For example, "Sergeant Lopez, you've

taught for a while. How have you handled individual differences in your classroom?" 

11.4.2.1. When a student asks you a question, you may prefer not to answer it because you want

the other students to continue to think and discuss. Or you might ask a reverse question, one that

directs the question back to the student who asked it. Lieutenant Michaels might say to you, "I

really can't see your point. Why is it necessary to have authoritarian leaders?" You could reverse

the question to him or her by saying, "Think about it for a minute, Lieutenant Michaels. Why do

you think it would be necessary to have an authoritarian leader, say, in a combat situation?" 

11.4.2.2. Similarly, if a student asks you a question and if, again, you prefer not to answer it, you

may choose to redirect the question to another student. This relay question will help keep the discussion among the students. Ms Cannon might ask, "But how does an authoritarian leader fit into

the modern Air Force?" Your reply could be, "Your question is one we ought to consider. Airman
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 151

Cook, how would an authoritarian leader fit into today's Air Force?" A relay question, then, is one

in which student A asks a question of the instructor and the instructor passes it on to student B. 

11.5. Effective Questioning Techniques. Now that we have discussed the factors involved in planning

and selecting comprehension-level questions, the real challenge is in asking the questions. Even the right

type of question can be carelessly asked. Let's assume you have one overall problem at this time in your

class—no one is saying anything, or they are saying the wrong thing! What are some of the things you can

do to avoid this situation? 

11.5.1. Avoid Do-Nothing Questions. Your first course of action can be to avoid questions that do

nothing to promote thought and discussion. If not carefully planned, questions can be too simple or

too complex. We should avoid the kinds of questions that actually limit the discussion. Types of

do-nothing questions are: 

11.5.1.1. Dead-End Questions. A question that requires no more than a yes-or-no response is

really a dead-end question. If you asked your students, "Is Colonel Doaks an example of a democratic leader?" as a leadoff question, what would they discuss? This kind of question does not promote discussion; it encourages guessing and can be a waste of time. If you find that you must ask

a yes-or-no question, be sure to follow it up by asking how or why to get the students to explain

their answers and have something to discuss. 

11.5.1.2. Foggy Questions. As the name implies, foggy questions are unclear or nebulous, usually because the instructor has not thought about the desired answer. Foggy questions are often

ambiguous, such as "What happened in Cleveland in 1873?" Students will not understand what is

wanted or what the teacher is suggesting. Indefinite questions are also unclear because they are not

limited. "How does a manager and a staff member differ?" is a foggy question because the students have not been provided any focus. 

11.5.1.3. Multiple Questions. Students become confused when you ask double- and triple-barreled questions, such as "What are some of the Federal laws passed by Congress in support of education, and what have they accomplished, if anything?" This double-barreled question is

confusing because the students will not know which part the teacher wants answered first. As a

result, they just sit there with puzzled looks on their faces. 

11.5.1.4. Catch Questions. Catch questions are where you already know the answer and imply it

in the question. Some kinds of leading questions fall in this category, such as "Now, this is the first

step, isn't it?" Because the question implies the expected answer, it prevents the students from

reaching their own conclusions. Often, they elicit no more than a yes-or-no answer or a nod of the

head, and therefore generate very little discussion. 

11.5.1.5. Loaded Questions. "Have you quit pressuring your subordinates?" is a loaded question

because no matter what the student says, it could be wrong. Loaded questions should be avoided

because they reflect the bias of the teacher. 

11.5.2. Avoid Stifling the Discussion. If you find that despite the nature of your questions the students still are not talking, perhaps you are somehow hampering the flow of discussion. You can avoid

stifling the discussion by allowing enough time for students to think and respond. Waiting for an

answer is perhaps the most difficult task for an inexperienced instructor who is intimidated or threatened by moments of silence. Too many rapid-fire questions will not allow for thought. You may be

encouraging short responses and, therefore, little discussion. Patience is necessary. 
152 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

11.5.2.1. Allowing enough time is especially critical after the leadoff question. You might indicate

to your students that you do not want an immediate answer by saying something like "I want you

to think about this for a minute before answering," and then ask the question. This tactic tends to

discourage aggressive, hand-waving students and gives the quieter ones a chance to think and then

respond. 

11.5.2.2. To compensate for students who may not be responding, impatient instructors sometimes feel tempted to provide the information themselves. Avoid this habit—don't answer your

own questions. This habit can be very annoying because it increases the amount of teacher talk

and minimizes student participation time. Students will learn quickly that it is not necessary for

them to prepare for class, because "the teacher answers all the questions anyway." Also, try to

allow more than one student response per question. Don't rush the responses; give the students a

chance to explain. Rushing responses inhibits students and tends to stifle the discussion. 

11.5.3. Be Clear and Concise. Energy can be wasted when we persist in trying to answer vague and

meaningless questions. How often have you sat in class and listened to the instructor ask a question

for which your response was "Huh?" The wording of your questions is very important, especially to

avoid smart-aleck remarks. As an example, to the question, "When do you use Boyle's law?" the

answer might be, "Never. I don't even know the man." Also, if you rephrase or ask questions several

times, the students may become confused and unable to discuss your material. 

11.5.4. Show Concern for Individual Differences. The last technique for asking effective questions

pertains more to your presence in the classroom and your acceptance of the students. If there is little

discussion, perhaps it is because you are not showing concern for your students. Rather than allowing

one student to dominate the conversation, encourage all students to participate. If you make it a practice to call on nonvolunteers, everyone soon gets the idea they are responsible for participating. If you

encounter students who are quiet and do not say much, be tactful in drawing them out. Probably the

least effective approach is surprising the student with, "What do you think about this point, John?" 

11.5.4.1. Often, simple eye contact will encourage a response, rather than using direct by-name

confrontation. The reasons students are quiet and do not say much vary; the student may not be

prepared, may feel ill at ease in the group, or may simply be thoughtful or thoughtless. If a topic is

new, challenging, or complex, some students may need more time than others to get into it. 

11.5.4.2. When considering individual differences, be sure you don't embarrass your students. If

someone has been inattentive, alert that person by calling his or her name and choose a question

you think that person can answer, or start with a recall question. Do not embarrass an inattentive

student by asking a difficult question. Make all the students feel they have a share in the class. 

11.5.4.3. Be accepting of your students and their responses. Student answers should be genuinely

sought. Your body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice all play a part in encouraging or

discouraging students to participate. Be aware that mannerisms as well as words can deter participation. Also, be careful not to cut someone off too quickly. Even though an answer may sound

inappropriate, if the student is given a chance to explain, part of the answer may be correct. Even

if the answers are not correct, they may provide valuable clues to student difficulties and provide

a basis for reteaching. Criticism from you at this point might cause withdrawal from participation.

When students ask questions that are not pertinent, tactfully defer the answer until later in the lesson or arrange to discuss the issue later. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 153

11.5.4.4. If you adopt these suggestions, your students are likely to realize you are concerned

about them and will be more willing and able to discuss the material. 

11.6. Summary. Questioning is an important means of producing mental activity in students. It is possible to reach a specific level of learning by designing questions to elicit the responses necessary for support. Learning at the comprehension level and beyond will require more than responses to who, what,

where, which, and when questions. Determining the purpose of a question will also help to reach a given

level of learning. 

11.6.1. The leadoff question initiates the discussion, the followup question guides discussion and the

spontaneous question controls and supports the discussion. Questions can be directed to the entire

group or to specific individuals, depending on whether you are trying to motivate the students, get

them involved, or keep the discussion going. Planning questions to include everyone will help ensure

that all students reach the objective. Promote a lively discussion by avoiding questions that do not

stimulate thought. Word the questions so students understand what is being asked, and be considerate

of the individuals in the group. 

11.6.2. Questions are used for many purposes, but they should always develop the lesson's central

theme or thought. If the objectives of the lesson are clearly determined in advance, instructors will

find it much easier to handle questions and keep the discussion moving in the planned direction. 
154 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 12 

SURVEY OF TEACHING METHODS 

12.1. Introduction. Which is more important—what you teach or the way you teach? This is like asking

which is more important--the payload or the delivery vehicle? Obviously, both are critical. Good objectives are wasted on poor teaching methods. Good teaching methods aid learning, but have little value if

course objectives are poor. Most of the previous chapters have been concerned with design. This chapter,

and several that follow, discusses the many ways to deliver instruction—the teaching methods. 

12.1.1. After determining the lesson objective, the instructor should choose a method of instruction,

not in terms of instructor activities, but in terms of the students' activities as a learner. In making this

decision, the instructor considers the ways people learn—by doing, discussing, listening, observing,

and participating. The instructor's role is to select an organized set of activities that will result in

meaningful, learning experiences for the students. 

12.1.2. This chapter is a survey of many popular teaching methods. Although the descriptions are

short, there should be enough detail to identify those methods that deserve further study. Six methods

of teaching are described in considerable detail in subsequent chapters. These are lecture, guided discussion, teaching interview, case study, demonstration-performance, and experiential methods. They

have been selected for expanded treatment because of their applicability to Air Force classroom

instruction. 

12.1.3. For the sake of clarity, the individual methods described in this chapter have been grouped

into broad major categories—presentational methods, student verbal interaction methods, and application methods. Because no one particular method is suitable for all teaching situations, examples of

each category are included. If, for example, students are to gain skill in performing a certain task, one

of their activities should be to practice performing the task. If the desired outcome is knowledge, students should probably observe and listen so they can relate what is seen and heard to their own experiences. If students must learn to apply a principle, the instructor might ask them to solve a problem or

perform some task requiring an application of that principle. 

12.2. Presentational Methods. Presentational methods provide situations in which the skill or material

to be learned is in some way presented to or demonstrated for the learner. In some presentational methods

there is little, if any, activity or interaction required of students other than their attention and desire to

learn. In other instances, there is considerable student activity involved. What distinguishes these methods

from the other categories is that students begin the learning experience with little or no previous exposure

to the material or skills to be learned. 

12.2.1. Lecture Method. The teaching lecture is a formal or informal presentation of information,

concepts, or principles by a single individual. 

12.2.1.1. The formal lecture is usually given to large groups of people (more than 100) with no

active participation by the students. The learning experience is essentially passive. 

12.2.1.2. In the informal lecture, the size of the group is usually smaller than the formal lecture

and student participation develops when the instructor questions the students or they question the

instructor on points presented. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 155

12.2.1.3. A briefing is a formal or informal presentation in which a variety of significant facts are

presented as concisely as possible. The briefing is rarely concerned with material beyond the

knowledge level and is almost always accompanied by visual representation of the material in the

form of charts, graphs, slides, and other aids. Strictly speaking, the briefing is not a teaching

method, but is sometimes used in school situations. 

12.2.1.4. A guest lecture is a presentation by a person other than the instructor who is usually an

expert. It is used to give variety to the class period or to supply information in an area where the

instructor is not an expert. 

12.2.2. Indirect Methods of Discourse. Indirect discourse involves verbal interaction among two or

more persons, which is seen and heard by students. Some examples include: 

12.2.2.1. Dialogue. A dialogue is the interaction between two or more persons, one of whom may

be the instructor, generally to present sharply opposing points of view for students. The dialogue

is often highly structured toward preplanned goals and may take the form of questions and

answers between the participants. 

12.2.2.2. Teaching Interview. In a teaching interview, the instructor questions a visiting expert

and follows a highly structured plan that leads to educational objectives. The advantage of the

teaching interview over the guest lecture is that the instructor controls the expert's presentation.

The expert normally requires little or no advance preparation, but responds extemporaneously

from general experience. When a question-and-answer period follows the interview, students can

interact with the expert. 

12.2.2.3. Panel. A panel is a structured or unstructured discussion between two or more experts

(generally excluding the regular instructor) presented in a variety of ways, such as constructive

arguments followed by debate, response to questions from the instructor or the students, a preplanned agenda, a fixed or a random order of speakers, or free discussion. 

12.2.2.4. Skits, Mini-Plays, and Other Dramatizations. These are often effective means of

introducing variety into instruction and/or reaching objectives directly or indirectly. A subdivision

of dramatization is role-playing by an instructor to point out good or bad examples. Role-playing

by the instructor differs from role-playing by students—a simulation method. 

12.2.3. Demonstration-Performance Method. The demonstration-performance is the presentation

or portrayal of a sequence of events to show a procedure, technique, or operation, frequently combining oral explanation with the operation or handling of systems, equipment, or material. This method is

the most commonly used small group learning experience in a classroom or laboratory (which

requires significant instructor intervention) to develop learner skills in the operation of equipment or

the acquisition of mental skills. 

12.2.3.1. Coaching is an intensive learning experience for an individual or for small groups, characterized by significant student involvement and immediate instructor feedback. A videotape of

student performance is an excellent teaching aid when supplemented by an instructor's analysis

and critique. This technique is particularly effective in instructor training. 

12.2.3.2. Tutoring is an informal, student-centered activity generally involving instructor and

learner in a one-to-one relationship. It is often used for remedial reasons, for test taking, for students to get ahead, or for learners with special needs. 
156 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

12.2.4. Reading. Reading is the assignment to a student of printed text, which includes books, periodicals, microforms, manuals, instructions, and handouts (instructor-produced). 

12.2.5. Self-Paced Methods. Self-paced instruction is a learning program organized so students are

allowed to move through it at their own pace under the guidance of an instructor. Some typical applications are: 

12.2.5.1. Programmed Instruction. This method of instruction usually includes a carefully

planned sequence of small units of instruction that require the learner to respond to cues and

receive immediate feedback. Various media (books, teaching machines, and computers) are used

to deliver the programmed instruction to the learner. 

12.2.5.2. Modular Instruction. Modular instruction are prepackaged units of instruction that

typically contain a clear statement of objectives and all necessary learning resources to permit the

learner to achieve these objectives. A module can be a complete unit or part of a course. 

12.2.5.3. Computer-Assisted Instruction. This learning experience uses a computer as the vehicle for interaction between the learner and the planned course of instruction. 

12.2.5.4. Mediated Instruction. This type of instruction uses such devices as slides, films, tapes,

and cassettes to present the planned course of instruction to the learner. 

12.3. Student Verbal Interaction Methods. As the designation implies, verbal interaction methods

present situations in which students interact verbally with an instructor, group leader, or with each other.

Learning is enhanced as students deal with the material as a group. These methods presuppose a certain

amount of previous preparation by the students. 

12.3.1. Questioning Method. Questioning as a method is used to emphasize a point, stimulate thinking, keep students alert, check understanding, review material, and seek clarification (see Chapter

11). Examples of this method are: 

12.3.1.1. Socratic Method. While rarely seen in its pure form, instruction by asking students

questions is a method as old as ancient Greece and as modern as a great book's course. The method

may resemble a guided discussion, but the goal is often to obtain specific answers to specific questions (reiteration) and not to stimulate discussion. An instructor may use the method for "trapping"

students into inconsistencies in logic which sharpen their thinking skills. Law professors often use

the method for "interrogating" specific students using a series of questions as they might be used

in a court of law. 

12.3.1.2. Student Query. "Students asking questions" is often used in combination with other

methods such as the lecture, panel discussion, or teaching interview. It could also be used by itself,

either on a one-to-one basis in tutoring or coaching or as part of small or large groups. The method

is student controlled, although the responder can also control the session to a certain extent if he or

she is skillful enough. Students' questions may often be a measure of how well they understand a

particular matter; that is, they know enough to ask the right questions. 

12.3.2. Nondirected Discussion Method. Nondirected discussion is a group interactive process in

which task or objective-related information and experiences are evoked from the student. The instructor normally plays a very limited or passive role. Some examples are: 

12.3.2.1. In its original form, the peer-controlled seminar is a group of highly qualified peers

(such as a doctoral-level faculty) who meet periodically for the exchange of ideas, usually in the
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 157

form of prepared papers with discussion or questions following. The research seminar resembles a

peer-controlled seminar when the instructor allows qualified students to lead the discussion with

the instructor providing proper supervision. In professional military education, a peer often acts as

a facilitator to lead discussions or conduct workshops. When this process is used, the instructor

should provide a statement of the educational objectives and a suggested discussion guide. It

should also require some tangible evidence of the discussion results. 

12.3.2.2. Akin to the "bull session" or "war story" hour, free discussion can be a valuable adjunct

to participatory management or brainstorming. But, by its very nature, it seldom supports measurable objectives. 

12.3.3. Guided Discussion Method. The guided discussion is an instructor-controlled, interactive

process of sharing information and experiences related to achieving an educational objective. The difference between nondirected and guided discussion is the instructor's active involvement in asking

questions and summarizing the concepts and principles learned. The instructor interacts with the

group as a whole through questions, but tries not to dominate the discussion. Students are encouraged

to learn about a subject by actively sharing ideas, knowledge, and opinions. The flow of communication is a transaction among all the students rather than question and response between individual students and the instructor. The method employs the general-to-specific presentation to help students

form generalizations. 

12.4. Application Methods. Application methods provide learners with opportunities to apply previously learned material in situations calling for the practical use of the material. Some application methods

require students to relate material already learned to new experiences and mentally recognize how the

material applies; that is, to transfer concepts to new situations. Other application methods require students

to apply previously learned materials to new situations for the purpose of making decisions or solving

problems. 

12.4.1. Individual Projects. In all practical exercises, students interact with things, data, or persons,

as necessary, to attain training objectives. Student projects usually take place outside the classroom

setting, but not necessarily. An important aspect is instructor feedback, which is given periodically as

needed. Some examples of the uses of this method are research papers, staff instruments, theses, dissertations, construction or assembly of equipment or models, creative writing, and making of graphics, pictures, or displays. 

12.4.2. Field Trips. A field trip is an out-of-classroom experience where students interact with persons, locations, and materials or equipment to attain instructional objectives. An important aspect of

the field trip is the student's encounter with real settings. 

12.4.3. Case Studies. The case study is a learning experience in which students encounter a real-life

situation in order to achieve some educational objective. By studying realistic cases in the classroom,

students develop new insights into the solution of specific on-the-job problems and also acquire

knowledge of the latest concepts and principles used in problem solving. Case studies designed to

reach the application, analysis, synthesis, and/or evaluation levels are within the scope of the term

Application Method. However, case studies designed to reach only the comprehension level may be

defined better as a Student Verbal Interactive Method. The complexity of the case, the level of the

objective, and how the case is conducted will have a major impact on whether it is one or the other. 
158 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

12.4.4. Experiential Learning. The experiential method of learning focuses on the students participating in structured learning activities that focus on a specific learning objective. Ideally, the activity

has a direct real-world relevancy. The following are some of the types of activities considered experiential learning: 

12.4.4.1. Simulations. Simulations are low-risk, educational experiences that substitute for a

real-life situation. Simulations may involve individuals, groups, or whole units. They may preempt normal classroom time and they are especially effective as capstone methods following a

block or several blocks of instruction. Elaborate versions may require special equipment, simulation areas of various sizes and configurations, and specially trained staff. 

12.4.4.2. Role Playing. In this activity, students project themselves into simulated interpersonal

situations and act out the parts of the persons and situations assigned by the instructor. Role playing is generally limited to practicing the skills involved in interpersonal relations, such as counseling, interviewing, and conference leadership. 

12.4.4.3. In-Basket Exercises. These exercises are used in random order to simulate a series of

matters or decisions a leader might actually encounter. Students are confronted with a rush situation, limited information, and a list of action-demanding items that actually might be found in an

in-basket. After sorting out priorities, students dispose of matters by delegating, replying by mail,

setting up meetings, delaying action, and deciding who should do some of the urgent actions. 

12.4.4.4. Organizational or Management Games. Students manipulate an organization or some

component part to produce certain outcomes in these games. Various degrees of competition

between teams of students may be built into these exercises. If they entail any degree of complexity, organizational games almost always employ a computer to carry out the simulation. 

12.4.4.5. Hardware Simulation. For hardware simulation, students use trainers that resemble, to

some degree, the equipment to be used on the job. (A flight simulator, for instance, has some characteristics of an airplane.) Such devices are substituted when using the actual equipment is too

costly or otherwise impractical. 

12.4.4.6. Frame Games. An educational game designed to incorporate elements of conflict along

with rules for the control of moves and game termination that uses changeable content to reach a

specific lesson objective is a frame game. These games allow the instructor to reach cognitive,

affective, and (at times) psychomotor objectives. Frame games provide the instructor an excellent

way to motivate students, get them to interact with each other, and to teach them at the same time.

They also provide a way for the instructor to test students in a nonthreatening manner. Frame

games can include established games such as monopoly, tic-tac-toe, Jeopardy, crossword puzzles,

word hides, and bingo, or they can use many new games available beyond the classic games. 

12.5. Summary. This chapter has provided a brief overview of several teaching methods grouped under

the broad categories of presentational, student verbal interaction, and application. Most familiar methods

have been identified with enough detail to determine whether further study might be worthwhile. Six individual methods will be dealt with in detail in the chapters that follow. A process for selecting teaching

methods appropriate to given situations from those described in this chapter is the subject of Chapter 19. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 159

Chapter 13 

THE TEACHING LECTURE METHOD 

13.1. Introduction. Traditionally, lecturing has been the most popular teaching method in the military.

We sometimes lecture to large groups of students in auditoriums for extended periods. Other times we

explain a subject or a process briefly and informally in small groups before proceeding with some other

activity or method—a kind of mini-lecture. 

13.2. Types of Lectures. A teaching lecture is a formal or informal presentation of information, concepts, or principles by a single individual. 

13.2.1. Formal Lecture. Normally, communication in a formal lecture is one-sided—from the

instructor with no verbal participation by students. Because it is impersonal, a formal lecture is usually

given to a large audience. Even though structured and often rehearsed, the formal lecture should have

a natural and conversational delivery style without overuse of notes. 

13.2.2. Informal Lecture. The audience for an informal lecture is usually smaller than for a formal

one. Considerable verbal interaction between instructor and student is often possible in the form of

both questions and discussion. The delivery style is even more conversational, with students often

addressed directly by name. 

13.3. Other Types of Oral Presentations. Two other speaking situations—briefing and speech—are

common in the Air Force yet differ from the teaching lecture. 

13.3.1. Briefing. The main purpose of the military briefing is to inform rather than to teach. The

briefing format or organization is often fixed, with different subjects arranged topically that may be in

the same order day after day. The briefing often forms the basis for decision-making or operations.

The formal briefer minimizes self, while effective lecturers often project more personality or humor.

The briefer is usually not concerned with such learning techniques as interim summaries, repetition,

and extended conclusions. If there is interchange between the briefer and the audience, questions are

usually restricted to the material being presented. As Air Force teachers, we may occasionally present

briefings. We should avoid the strict briefing style in the classroom. 

13.3.2. Speech. A speech generally has one of three basic purposes—to inform, persuade, or entertain. The informative speech is a narration concerning a specific topic, but does not involve a sustained effort to teach. Orientation talks or presentations at commander's call are examples of speeches

to inform. The persuasive speech is designed to move an audience to belief or action on some topic,

product, or other matter. Recruiting speeches to a high school graduating class, budget justifications,

and courts-martial summations are all primarily persuasive speeches. The entertaining speech gives

enjoyment to the audience. The speaker often relies on humor and vivid language as a primary means

of entertaining the listeners. A speech at a dining-in is frequently a speech to entertain. 

13.3.2.1. Instructors may, at times, want to accomplish all three basic purposes of speaking. We

often attempt to inform students on a given subject. When we try to influence students to modify

their behavior we become persuaders. Finally, it may be advantageous at times to gain attention by

entertaining. Still, our primary purpose is to facilitate student learning. 
160 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

13.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture Method. In many Air Force teaching situations

the method of instruction to be used is predetermined. As instructors, we may have a limited role in deciding how the material will be presented. In some cases, however, it may be our job to choose the method to

use for a lesson or a series of lessons. We should select the appropriate method only after we write the lesson objective and complete our initial research on the subject. The selection process will be more effective

if we are aware of the advantages and disadvantages of the lecture method. While these advantages and

disadvantages pertain especially to the formal teaching lecture, most also apply to the informal teaching

lecture. 

13.4.1. Advantages. The lecture is one of the most efficient teaching methods for presenting many

facts or ideas in a relatively short time. Material that has been logically organized can be presented

concisely in rapid sequence. Because of its advantages, a majority of Air Force instructors use the lecture method at least part of the time. 

13.4.1.1. The lecture is particularly suitable for introducing a subject. To ensure all students have

the necessary background to learn a subject, we can present basic information in a lecture. By

using the lecture in this manner, we can offer students with varied backgrounds a common understanding. A brief introductory lecture can give direction and purpose to a demonstration or prepare

students for a discussion. 

13.4.1.2. The lecture is a convenient method for instructing large groups. If necessary, we can use

a public address system to ensure all students can hear us. The lecture is sometimes the only efficient method to use if student-to-faculty ratio is high. 

13.4.1.3. The lecture is often used to supplement material from other sources or for information

difficult to obtain in other ways. If students do not have time for research or they do not have

access to reference material, the lecture can fill the bill. In subject areas where information is

available in widely scattered places (textbooks, journals, tapes), the lecture allows the instructor to

summarize and emphasize pertinent material. Reports, current research, and information that

changes frequently may not be easily available in written form. The lecture can give students the

most up-to-date information. 

13.4.1.4. The lecture allows a large number of students to receive information from real experts in

a particular subject. In general, a person who can speak from actual experience or a scholar who

has carefully analyzed the results of research will have great credibility with students. The lecture

is often the most effective way of communicating the energy and enthusiasm of a person who has

actual experience in a field, thus motivating students. 

13.4.2. Disadvantages. Although the lecture method can be an effective and efficient teaching

method, it has a number of disadvantages as follows: 

13.4.2.1. The lecture does not lead to maximum achievement in certain types of learning. Speech

skills, cooperative group thinking, and motor skills, for example, are difficult to teach with the lecture method. Students can develop such skills well only through practice. Moreover, the formal

lecture alone is generally not appropriate for presenting material above the comprehension level of

the cognitive domain. Because it allows for little or no student verbal participation, the formal lecture may also be inefficient for comprehension-level lessons in which concepts and principles are

developed. 

13.4.2.2. The lecture does not provide teachers with an opportunity to estimate student progress

before an examination. Within a single lecture period, we may unwittingly present more informa-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 161

tion than our students can absorb, and we have little accurate means during the lecture to determine what they have learned. 

13.4.2.3. Too often, the lecture makes no provision for student participation. As a result, many

students willingly allow the instructor to do all the work. Learning is an active process—the lecture method, however, tends to foster passiveness and dependence on the instructor. 

13.4.2.4. Instructors may have to spend much time preparing for the lectures. With the demonstration-performance method of instruction, students participate actively. With the case study and

guided discussion methods, students participate verbally. The teaching interview relies heavily on

the knowledge of an expert and provides for student involvement through a question-and-answer

period. But with lecture, a greater burden for the total lesson rests on the instructor. 

13.4.2.5. Finally, many instructors find it difficult to hold the attention of their students when they

lecture for an entire class period. To use the lecture method effectively, we obviously need considerable skill in speaking. 

13.4.2.6. The first two disadvantages of the lecture—difficulty in achieving certain types of learning and ineffectiveness of assessing student learning—are inherent to the method. The third—student passivity—while characteristic of the method, can be alleviated with an effective informal

lecture. The final two disadvantages—preparation time and speech skills necessary for an effective lecture—provide the focus for the remainder of this chapter. 

13.5. Preparing the Lecture. When faced with the responsibility for planning and preparing a lecture, a

primary requirement is to analyze the students. This requirement is especially critical because students

tend to be passive when hearing a lecture. Your analysis of the students will greatly influence how you

plan your instruction. 

13.5.1. Student Analysis. There are two reliable methods for gaining student information. Used

together they can be extremely useful. The first is to organize information you already have about the

students. Knowing such variables as age, sex, grade, and experience can help you relate to your students. If one or more of these variables separates you from your students, you may want to give special attention to ways of emphasizing your similarities and reducing differences. The second method,

when you have not talked to the group before, is to check with someone who has. Perhaps a friend or

colleague has already lectured to the same group and can tell you what to expect. 

13.5.1.1. Especially important are the questions, "What do students already know about my

topic?" and "What do they need to know?" If some students are already experts, you will want to

reveal your credentials in a pleasing but informative manner. If they know much less about the

topic than you do, there may still be a problem. One of the greatest difficulties a lecturer faces is

not to talk up or down to students. Only by carefully analyzing the needs and characteristics of the

students can you be certain your comments are at the appropriate level. 

13.5.1.2. Assuming you have carefully assessed the students and written an appropriate student-centered objective, as discussed in Chapter 4, you are now ready to collect and arrange your

information. What you already know and what you learn from others or from books will probably

yield more information than you have time to present. Possession of extra and extended information is especially important in the informal lecture where students may ask questions, but it is also

important in the formal lecture. Students can rightfully expect the lecturer to know more about the

topic than is presented in the lecture. 
162 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

13.5.1.3. In preparing the formal teaching lecture, you should follow a lesson planning process

like the one discussed in Chapter 6 and illustrated in the sample lesson plan at Attachment 2.

Choosing an appropriate organizational pattern, effectively using support material, and having a

clear introduction and a complete conclusion (all discussed in Chapter 6) will facilitate student

understanding and retention. Although the major concerns of lesson planning are more or less

common with all methods, some are of special importance to the lecture. 

13.5.2. Lecture Development: 

13.5.2.1. Research indicates that clear attention, motivation, and overview steps in the introduction of the lesson significantly improve learning by appealing to students, giving them a reason to

listen, and providing a forecast of what will be taught. (See the introduction of the sample plan at

Attachment 2.) Strong organization and clear verbal and visual support in the body of the lesson

help students understand and retain the material. In the sample plan for the formal lecture, see how

organization is planned and verbal support (definition, example, comparison, statistics, and testimony) are all used. Also, visual support is planned. A complete conclusion to the lesson—final

summary, remotivation, and closure—reteaches, challenges, and leaves the students with a satisfying sense of completeness. 

13.5.2.2. With the teaching lecture, each of these concerns becomes especially critical since the

burden for presenting the lecture falls directly upon the instructor. In fact, every part of the lecture

must be designed to elicit attention and challenge students to listen. If you do any less, you will not

be totally effective. All verbal and visual support should be selected and used carefully. 

13.5.3. Audiovisual Support. Chapter 20 discusses visual aids available to the instructor. The sample lesson plans in the attachments may indicate that the instructor plans to use a video cassette

recorder, an overview on chart paper, a computer-generated presentation, and a student note-taking

handout. Careful planning can help you choose appropriate and timely aids. Although audiovisual

aids are both appropriate and useful with all teaching methods, they are especially important with the

lecture. The following guidelines should help you in planning the use of visual support, not only for

the lecture but for all methods: 

13.5.3.1. Use only relevant materials. Avoid using materials solely for aesthetic or interest value.

Visual materials should certainly be interesting, but the primary purpose of any visual aid is to

portray or support an idea graphically. Irrelevant materials distract from the idea you are presenting. 

13.5.3.2. Use visual materials large enough to be seen by all the students. Nothing is so disturbing

as to be seated in the back of the room unable to see the visuals. In preparing for your presentation,

display the visuals, then move yourself to the location of your most distant listener. If you can't

readily see the material, consider replacing it with something more appropriate. 

13.5.3.3. Use visual materials only at the proper time. Do not expose the visual material until the

proper point in the lecture. As illustrated in Part II of the sample plan, cues for audiovisual aids are

clearly marked. Materials that are visible too soon, or those that remain in view after the point has

been made, distract from and interrupt the continuity of the lecture. You may want to use the

"striptease" or buildup method for revealing a series of points. Don't list 10 main points for the students and then discuss each one. Instead, uncover the points one at a time to keep student attention

focused. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 163

13.5.3.4. Keep visual materials as simple and clear as possible. Emphasize only the most important information. Omit unnecessary details. A series of simple charts is preferable to a single, complicated one. 

13.5.3.5. Talk to the student, not to the visual aid. If you are explaining a chart, look at your students as much as possible. By the time you make your presentation, you should be so familiar with

your visual aids that it will not be necessary for you to look at them closely. When possible, paraphrase the visual instead of simply reading it. 

13.5.3.6. Place visuals away from obstructions. Don't allow other objects or persons—including

yourself—to obstruct the view of your students. You decided to use visual materials to support and

clarify your lecture; don't hinder their effectiveness by obstructing the student's view. 

13.5.4. Humor. Appropriate humor (that which supports the subject and/or lesson) is useful in a lecture. Humor relaxes both teachers and students. Humor serves this role especially well at the beginning of a lecture because it places the teacher directly in communication with the students. There are

two reasons to use humor in the body of the lecture. One is to bring back the attention of the students;

humor regains attention. The second reason is to emphasize an important point. Although a humorous

story or anecdote is seldom real proof, it may be the most powerful memory or clarification device a

speaker can use. Notice how the sample lesson plan (Attachment 2) for the lecture incorporates

humor into the planning. 

13.5.4.1. Humor must be used properly to be effective. There are five essentials to using humor. 

13.5.4.1.1. Know the Item Thoroughly. If you know the story and have told it before, you

will be able to tell it again and know the kind of response to expect. Generally a good rule to

follow is not to use a story or humorous item unless you have told it several times in informal

situations so you can both practice and gauge the reactions of others. 

13.5.4.1.2. Don't Use Off-Color Stories to Get a Cheap Laugh. Even people who laugh at

such stories in private often lose respect for the teacher who uses them in public. 

13.5.4.1.3. Vitalize Humor. Stories should be personalized so they are believable and sound

as if they really happened. Rather than talk about "this guy I heard about" or "this truck

driver," give names to the characters in the stories. Successful comedians and speakers nearly

always vitalize their humor. 

13.5.4.1.4. Don't Laugh Before the Audience Laughs. If you fail to get the story across,

laughing alone on a platform is disaster. If the joke fails, leave it and go on. 

13.5.4.1.5. Capitalize on the Unexpected. One of the primary elements of humor is that people laugh when they are surprised. A few years ago, streaking was a fad on college campuses.

Most firsthand observers laughed when confronted by a streaker. Some of the laughter was no

doubt due to embarrassment, but much of it was due to the element of surprise. Types of

humor that depend on the unexpected are: quips (of course men aren't what they used to be—

they used to be boys); puns (try our bread, we knead the dough); exaggeration (the heat was so

terrific last week that I saw a hound dog chasing a rabbit; they were both walking); and understatement (if at first you don't succeed...well, so much for skydiving). 

13.5.5. Transitions. Transitions are statements used by the instructor to move from the introduction

to the body of the lecture, between main points, between subpoints within each main point, and from

the body to the conclusion of the lecture. Transitions signal to the students that we are progressing to
164 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

a new point, but they are also important in maintaining the continuity of the information given. Consider this sample transition: "We have discussed the precedents for a mandatory physical fitness program in the military. Next we will consider the benefits of such a program." NOTE: This transition

indicates a change in direction, but does not indicate the reason for or importance of the change. 

13.5.5.1. For transitions to be effective, they should (1) mention the point just discussed, (2) relate

that point to the objective, and (3) introduce the next point. Suppose the objective is for students to

know the need for a mandatory physical fitness program. Notice how all three steps are incorporated in the following transition: "(1) We have discussed the precedents for a mandatory physical

fitness program in the military, (2) but these precedents alone will not prove a need for such a program. To understand that need more fully, (3) we must next examine, in several practical situations, the benefits of mandatory physical fitness." 

13.5.5.2. When planned and used correctly, transitions contribute substantially to the continuity of

the total lecture. The lesson plan shows how the lecturer plans to use transitions. 

13.5.6. Summaries. Summaries are useful tools for maintaining continuity within a lecture and for

highlighting areas of particular importance. Summaries prepared for use between main points are not

always necessary in the lecture. In fact, if the point is very clear, a summary may be redundant and

boring. You should use them, however, when main points are unusually long or contain complex or

unfamiliar information. 

13.5.6.1. With summaries, we repeat information concisely to reinforce student understanding

before new information is presented. Summaries should not take the place of transitions. They

should provide a means for us to progress logically from one main point through the transition and

into the next point. 

13.5.6.2. The summary given in the conclusion of the lecture should be designed so that it reviews

for the students those facts or aspects of a concept or principle you consider particularly important.

It may be helpful to think of this summary as a "capsulated" version of the lecture itself, in which

key ideas are related both to each other and to the lesson objective. It is your final opportunity to

reinforce critical aspects of the lesson. 

13.5.7. Questions. In both the formal and informal lecture, questions may be used to add continuity

to the lesson. The instructor may plan rhetorical questions to use within a main point or in the conclusion of the formal lecture. Questions encourage students to review in their own minds the information

presented. They also indicate areas of special importance and should be phrased to allow students to

see the relationship of these areas to the lesson objective. Chapter 11 discusses the use of questions in

more detail. 

13.6. Presenting the Lecture. Although preparing a lecture can be laborious, for many instructors the

hardest part is actually presenting the lecture. Questions instructors most often ask are: How many notes

should I use? How can I overcome nervousness? What kind of physical behavior is appropriate for me to

use when I speak? What if my voice isn't suited to speaking before a group? How can I project sincerity

and enthusiasm? 

13.6.1. Methods of Presentation. Instructors, like all other speakers, use one of four common methods of presentation: (1) speaking from memory, (2) reading from manuscript, (3) speaking impromptu

with no specific preparation, and (4) speaking extemporaneously with, ideally, a great deal of prepara-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 165

tion and a limited number of notes. The fourth method usually allows us the most freedom in adjusting

to an audience as we speak and is best suited for almost all instructing in the Air Force. 

13.6.1.1. Memorizing. Speaking, based on memorization, is the poorest method of delivering

lectures and should be used very sparingly or not at all. While this method may seem to be helpful

for persons who cannot think on their feet, the memorized lecture is a straitjacket. Such a lecture

cannot be adapted to the immediate situation or to student reactions. It does not allow the teacher

to adjust to the particular situation. Moreover, the method is almost sure to destroy spontaneity

and a sense of communication. The method also requires an inordinate amount of preparation, and

the danger of forgetting is ever present. 

13.6.1.2. Manuscript Reading. Reading a lecture from a manuscript allows for planning the

exact words and phrases to use. The disadvantages of this presentation method far outweigh the

advantages. Many instructors use the manuscript as a crutch instead of fully thinking through the

ideas in the lecture. All too often the written lecture is regarded simply as an essay to be read

aloud. Therefore, the lecture is too broad and has language too abstract to be understood when presented orally. Also, very few people can read from a manuscript with the same emphasis and spontaneity used with extemporaneous delivery. If you must adhere closely to a manuscript, consider

the guidelines in Figure 13.1.

Figure 13.1. Guidelines for Manuscript Lessons. 

13.6.1.3. Impromptu. Impromptu speaking requires a tremendous amount of skill and knowledge. It may be necessary at times to lecture on the spur of the moment without any preparation.

This method should only be used by experienced instructors who are very knowledgeable of their

- Keep spoken words simpler, clearer, and more vivid than in writing. 

- Make sentences shorter and ideas less complex than in writing. 

- Clarify the transitions between thoughts and ideas. Provide punctuation with vocal inflection, 

 variety, and pauses. 

- Use repetition to emphasize main ideas and key points. 

- Use direct address when speaking about people. Personal pronouns such as I, we, our, us, and you are 

 better than they, people, a person, the reader, the listener. 

- Use concrete language where possible. Follow abstract or complicated reasoning with specific 

 examples, comparisons, and definitions. 

- Prepare your manuscript to facilitate reading. Double or triple spacing, marking the manuscript, using 

 only one side of the paper, and using shorter paragraphs may be helpful. 

- Practice the lecture aloud several times to see how it sounds. Recording yourself on a video cassette 

 recorder and watching it will help you to discover places where you may not be communicating 

 effectively. 

- Try to make your lecture sound like conversation, as if you were thinking the words for the first time 

 as you read them. 

- Practice looking at your audience most of the time as the manuscript becomes more familiar to you. 
166 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

subjects and have the ability to organize their thoughts for learning as they speak. Even these

experienced instructors fall back upon thoughts and phrases they have used before. They have

spent years, so to speak, in preparing to give an unprepared lesson. 

13.6.1.4. Extemporaneous: 

13.6.1.4.1. This technique is used most widely by effective speakers. It produces the most

fruitful results when based upon full preparation and adequate practice. The lesson is carefully

planned and outlined in detail. The instructor's only guide is a well-constructed outline like

that given in Part II of the model (Attachment 2). It is a lesson planned idea by idea, rather

than word by word. 

13.6.1.4.2. The advantages of teaching from a well-planned outline are many. The method

compels instructors to organize ideas and puts pressure on them to weigh materials in advance.

It gives freedom to adapt a lesson to the occasion and to adjust to student reactions. It enables

instructors to change what they plan to say right up to the moment of utterance. In short, the

extemporaneous method permits the instructor to adhere to the two vital needs of effective

teaching—adequate preparation and a lively sense of communication. 

13.6.2. Nervousness. If a teacher suffers from stage fright, nervousness, or fear of speaking, students

may also become uneasy or anxious. Yet some nervousness is both natural and desirable. Even skilled

instructors often experience the queasy feeling of "butterflies in the stomach" as they prepare to speak.

The secret is to get the butterflies "flying in formation" through practice. A visiting athletic team will

practice on the home field before game time to accustom themselves to differences in terrain and environment. Similarly, the speaker may need to practice a new lecture several times, preferably in the

room where the lecture will be given, before actually presenting it. Practice reminds us to concentrate

on the pronunciation of a new word or to check an additional piece of information on an important

point. Consider the following suggestions for overcoming nervousness: 

13.6.2.1. Be enthusiastic. At times we may lecture on subjects we find dull, but as we get more

involved, the subject becomes more interesting. There is no such thing as a dull subject—only dull

teachers. Be enthusiastic about a subject; enthusiasm can replace fear. The more enthusiastic you

are about the subject, the more the students will be involved with both you and what you are saying. 

13.6.2.2. Hold good thoughts toward your students. The students in the audience are the same

ones you enjoy speaking with in a less structured environment. Most classes are made up of warm

human beings with an interest in what you have to say. Students rarely "boo" the teacher or throw

vegetables. Most students have great empathy for teachers and want them to do a good job. 

13.6.2.3. Do not rush as you begin to speak. Many teachers are so anxious to get started they

begin before they are really ready. The little extra time taken to arrange your notes will generally

pay big dividends. When you are ready to begin, look at the various parts of the class, take a deep

breath, and begin to speak. 

13.6.3. Physical Behavior. Communication experts tell us that over half of our meanings may be

communicated nonverbally. Although some nonverbal meaning is communicated through vocal cues,

eye contact, body movement, and gestures carry much meaning. As teachers, we need to know how

physical behavior can improve our lecturing skill and thus enhance learning. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 167

13.6.3.1. Eye Contact. Eye contact is one of the most important factors of nonverbal communication. Nothing will enhance your delivery more than effective eye contact with your students.

Eye contact is important for three reasons. First, it lets the students know you are interested in

them. Most people like others to look at them when talking. Second, effective eye contact allows

you to receive nonverbal feedback from your students. With good eye contact, you can gauge the

effect of your remarks. You can determine if you are being understood and which points are making an impact and which are not. You will be able to detect signs of poor understanding as well as

signs that the students are learning. You can then adjust your rate of delivery or emphasis, rephrase

or summarize certain points, or add more supporting data. Third, effective eye contact enhances

your credibility. Students judge teachers with greater eye contact as being more competent. 

13.6.3.1.1. To achieve genuine eye contact, you must do more than merely look in the direction of your listeners. You must have an earnest desire to communicate with them. The old

advice of looking over the tops of your listeners' heads or attempting to look at all parts of the

class systematically simply does not describe effective eye contact. Furthermore, looking at

only one part of the audience or directing attention only to those students who seem to give

you positive feedback may cause you to ignore large parts of the audience. Make it evident to

each person in a small class, and each part of the audience in larger auditoriums, that you are

interested in them as individuals and eager to have them understand the ideas you are presenting. In this way you will establish mental as well as sensory contact with your listeners. 

13.6.3.1.2. Effective eye contact can be described as direct and impartial. Look directly into

the eyes of your listeners and look impartially at all parts of the audience, not just at a chosen

few. 

13.6.3.2. Body Movement. Body movement is one of the important factors of dynamic and

meaningful physical behavior. Good body movement is important because it catches the eye of the

listener. It helps hold the attention needed for learning to occur. Movement also represents a

marked departure or change in your delivery pattern; it is a convenient way of punctuating and

paragraphing your message. Listeners will know you are done with one idea or line of thought and

ready to transition to the next. Finally, aside from its effects on the listeners, it helps you as a lecturer. Movement helps you work off excess energy that can promote nervousness. Movement puts

you at ease. 

13.6.3.2.1. How much movement is desirable? Unless the formality of the situation or the

need to use a fixed microphone keeps you in one position, you should probably move frequently when presenting a teaching lecture. Movement from behind the lectern can reduce the

psychological distance between you and the students and place them more at ease. Some

instructors feel they need the lectern to hold their notes. However, instruction is actually more

effective if you carry your notes with you instead of looking down at the lectern to see them.

When you look at your notes, remember to direct your eyes—not your head—to the paper. 

13.6.3.2.2. Some instructors, however, move too much. Perhaps out of nervousness they pace

back and forth in front of the class. Still others have awkward movements that do not aid communication. Some leave their notes on the lectern, then move in and out from behind it like a

hula dancer. Others plant their feet firmly in one place, then rock from one side to the other in

regular cadence. 
168 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

13.6.3.2.3. Effective body movement can be described as free and purposeful. You should be

free to move around the class. You should not feel restrained to stay behind the lectern, but

should move with reason and purpose. Use your movement to punctuate, direct attention, and

otherwise aid learning. 

13.6.3.3. Gestures. Gestures may be used to clarify or emphasize ideas in the lecture. By gestures

we mean the purposeful use of the hands, arms, shoulders, and head to reinforce what is being

said. Fidgeting with a paper clip, rearranging and shuffling papers, and scratching your ear are not

gestures. They are not purposeful and they distract from the verbal message. Placing both hands in

your pockets, behind your back, or in front of you in the fig-leaf position severely limits their use

for gesturing. Holding your shoulders and head in one position during the lecture will also rob you

of an effective means of strengthening your communication. 

13.6.3.3.1. Gestures will be most effective if you make a conscious effort to relax your muscles before you speak, perhaps by taking a few short steps or unobtrusively arranging your

notes. Effective gestures are complete and vigorous. Many speakers begin to gesture, but perhaps out of fear, they do not carry through and their gestures abort. 

13.6.3.3.2. Comedians get laughs from the audience by timing gestures improperly. A gesture

that comes after the word or phrase is spoken appears ludicrous. Good gestures should come at

exactly the time or slightly before the point is made verbally. Poor timing results from attempting to "can" or preplan gestures. 

13.6.3.3.3. Finally, good gestures are versatile. A stereotyped gesture will not fit all subjects

and situations. Furthermore, the larger the audience, the more pronounced the gestures will

need to be. As with all aspects of communication, gestures must fit the transaction. 

13.6.3.3.4. We are not advising that you adopt a dynamic forceful mode of delivery if by

nature you are quiet and reserved. As with movement, gestures should spring from within.

Effective gestures are both natural and spontaneous. Observe persons talking with each other

in a small group; we should try to approximate the same naturalness and spontaneity of gestures when we are lecturing. 

13.6.4. Use of the Voice. A good lecturing voice has three important characteristics: it is reasonably

pleasant, it is easily understood, and it expresses differences in meaning. Technically we might label

these three properties as quality, intelligibility, and variety. 

13.6.4.1. Quality refers to the overall impression a voice makes on others. Most people have reasonably pleasant voices suitable for lecturing. Certainly a pleasing quality or tone is a basic component of a good speaking voice. Some persons have a full rich quality, others are shrilly and

nasally, still others may have a breathy and muffled tone or quality. While basic aspects of quality

may be difficult to change, your voice may become more breathy when you are excited, tense

when suspense is involved, or resonant when reading solemn language. Students can often tell

from the voice if the teacher is happy, angry, sad, fearful, or confident. Similarly, vocal quality can

convey sincerity and enthusiasm. Some teachers are overconcerned about the basic quality of their

voices; at the same time, they pay too little attention to the effect of attitude and emotion on the

voice. 

13.6.4.2. Intelligibility of your speech depends on several factors. Attention to articulation, pronunciation, and volume, as well as avoiding vocalized pauses, stock expressions, and substandard

grammar can make your voice more intelligible. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 169

13.6.4.2.1. Articulation, or enunciation, refers to the precision and clarity of speech. Good

articulation is chiefly the job of the jaw, tongue, and lips. Most articulation problems result

from laziness of the tongue and lips or failing to open the mouth wide enough. You should

overarticulate rather than underarticulate speech sounds. What sounds like overarticulation to

you will come out as crisp, understandable words and phrases to your students. 

13.6.4.2.2. Pronunciation refers to the traditional or customary way words sound. Standards of

pronunciation differ, making it difficult at times to know what is acceptable. Dictionaries are

useful, but as they become outdated, they should not be adhered to excessively. Generally,

educated people in your community, as well as national radio and television announcers, provide a good standard for pronunciation. Common faults of pronunciation are to misplace the

accent saying "device" instead of de-vice, to omit sounds by saying "guh'mnt" for government,

to add sounds by saying "ath-a-lete" for ath-lete, to sound out silent letters by saying

"mort-gage" instead of mor-gage or "of-ten" instead of of-en. Do not overcompensate to the

point that you call attention to your speech. Remember, though, that pronunciation acceptable

in informal conversation may be substandard when presenting a formal lecture. 

13.6.4.2.3. Vocalized pause is the name we give to syllables "a," "uh," "um," and "ah," often

used at the beginning of a sentence. While a few vocalized pauses are natural and do not distract, too many impede the communication and learning processes. 

13.6.4.2.4. Avoid overusing stock expressions, such as "OK," "like," and "you know." These

expressions serve no positive role in communication and only convey a lack of originality by

the speaker. 

13.6.4.2.5. Substandard grammar has no place in the teaching lecture. It only serves to reduce

teacher credibility with students. Research shows that even persons who have been using substandard grammar all of their lives can, with diligent practice, make significant gains in this

area in a relatively short time. 

13.6.4.3. Variety is the spice of speaking. Students rapidly tire from listening to a teacher who

doesn't vary delivery style or has a monotonous voice. A teacher's voice that is intelligible and of

good quality still may not appeal to students. You may vary your voice and, at the same time,

improve your communication by considering the vocal fundamentals of rate, volume, force, pitch,

and emphasis. 

13.6.4.3.1. Most teachers speak at a rate of from 120 to 180 words a minute when presenting

a lecture. In normal speech, however, we vary the rate often so that even within the 120 to 180

word-per-minute constraints there is much change. The temperamentally excitable person may

speak at a rapid rate all the time, and the stolid person generally talks in a slow drawl. The

enthusiastic but confident individual, though, will vary the rate of delivery to emphasize ideas

and feelings. A slower rate may be appropriate for presenting main points, while a more rapid

rate may lend itself to support material. The experienced lecturer also knows that an occasional pause punctuates thought and emphasizes ideas. A dramatic pause at the proper time

may express feelings and ideas even more effectively than words. 

13.6.4.3.2. Volume is important to the lecturer. Always be certain all students can hear you.

Nothing hinders the effect of a lecture more than to have some students unable to hear. On the

other hand, the lecture should not be too loud for a small room. A bombastic or overly loud

speaker tires out listeners very quickly. 
170 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

13.6.4.3.3. Force or vocal energy is needed at times to emphasize and dramatize ideas. A

drowsy audience will quickly come to attention if the teacher uses force effectively. A sudden

reduction in force at times may be as effective as a rapid increase. By learning to control the

force of your voice, you can help to add emphasis and improve communication. 

13.6.4.3.4. Pitch is the highness or lowness of the voice. All things being equal, a

higher-pitched voice carries better than a low-pitched one. On the other hand, students will

tend to tire faster when listening to the higher-pitched voice. If your voice is within normal

limits—neither too high or too low—work for variety as you speak. Try not to become firmly

entrenched in your habitual pitch level. 

13.6.4.3.5. Emphasis obviously stems from all forms of vocal variety, and any change in rate,

volume, force, or pitch will influence the emphasis. The greater or more sudden the change,

the greater the emphasis will be. As a lecturer you will want to use emphasis wisely. However,

avoid overemphasis and continual emphasis. Be judicious. Emphasizing a point beyond its

real value may cause you to lose credibility with your students. 

13.6.5. Sincerity: 

13.6.5.1. A lecturer certainly needs to prepare well and possess strong delivery skills to do an

effective job in the classroom, but something more is needed to be really effective—a teacher must

be sincere. Students will be amazingly tolerant of weakness in both preparation and delivery, but

give them a chance to suspect your sincerity and you lose effectiveness. And, once lost, effectiveness is nearly impossible to regain. What is sincerity? It may be defined as the state of appearing

to be without deceit, pretense, or hypocrisy—a state of honesty, truthfulness, and faithfulness. 

13.6.5.2. Sincerity toward students is reflected in your eye contact, enthusiasm, and concern

about students, both as individuals and as learners. Sincerity toward the subject is judged by

whether or not you seem involved and interested in the subject or topic of the lecture. Sincerity

toward self is displayed in the confidence and concern you have that you are doing the best job

possible in the classroom. Lack of sincerity in any of these areas will almost certainly hinder

learning. 

13.6.6. Verbal Interaction. Verbal interaction in the informal lecture takes place in two ways. First,

students should ask questions to clarify confusing points or to ensure their understanding of the information. Second, the instructor should also question the students during an informal lecture. By asking

both planned and spontaneous questions, the instructor can stimulate participation, emphasize important points and, most importantly, judge whether or not students understand the material. (See the

informal lecture sample lesson plan at Attachment 3.) 

13.6.6.1. To be most effective, verbal interaction should occur consistently throughout an informal lecture. The instructor must allow ample time for questions and answers when planning and

practicing the lesson. During the introduction, he or she should encourage questions. By comparing the sample lesson plans at the attachments, we can see the substantial differences between

planning for the informal and formal lecture. Students will be more likely to participate if the

instructor indicates through direct eye contact, frequent pauses, and a relaxed delivery that he or

she is sincerely interested in student participation. Instructor questions are especially effective

when they require students to summarize important information or to provide additional support in

the form of personal examples. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 171

13.6.6.2. Although frequent verbal interaction is a goal of the informal lecture, it should not take

priority over achieving the lesson objectives. If a portion of the material is complex, unfamiliar to

the students, or follows a necessary sequence, the questions may be distracting or cause confusion.

In this case the instructor should ask students to hold their comments until after that material has

been presented. This additional structure may also be necessary when time constraints do not

allow student participation toward the end of a lecture. Careful planning is needed to ensure a

comfortable balance between the material to be presented and the questions to be shared. 

13.7. Summary: 

13.7.1. Formal and informal lectures are popular teaching methods in the military. Advantages of the

lecture method are (1) presentation of many ideas in a short time, (2) suitability for introducing a subject, (3) convenience for instructing large groups, (4) value for supplementing material from other

sources, and (5) allowance for a large number of students to hear an expert. Disadvantages of the formal and informal lecture methods are that they are (1) not appropriate for certain types of learning, (2)

require too much preparation, and (3) depend on speaking skill. In addition, the formal lecture also has

no provision for the teacher to estimate student progress and no active participation by students. 

13.7.2. To prepare for a lecture we must analyze our student audience, carefully plan the beginning

and ending of the lecture, and organize and choose verbal supporting materials to help students listen

and understand. In addition, we should consider using humor when appropriate, choose visual aids

wisely, and plan transitions and interim summaries when needed. When presenting the lecture, we

need to select the method for presentation; overcome nervousness; attend to the physical factors of eye

contact, movement, and gestures; and strive for a pleasant, communicative, and expressive voice.

Above all, we need to show sincerity toward our students, our subject, and ourselves. 
172 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 14 

THE GUIDED DISCUSSION METHOD 

14.1. Introduction. Discussion is one of the most used teaching methods in civilian and military educational institutions. One type, the guided discussion, is an instructor-controlled group process in which students share information and experiences to achieve a learning objective. A guided discussion is different

from free discussion and a peer-controlled seminar. Like the "bull session," free discussion can be valuable for brainstorming or as a management aid, but it seldom supports measurable objectives. The

peer-controlled seminar relies on qualified students to lead discussion among peers, which may significantly reduce the likelihood of reaching the learning outcomes. Attachment 4 provides an example lesson plan for the guided discussion method. 

14.1.1. In a guided discussion, the instructor carefully plans the lesson to reach desired learning outcomes. The group interacts in response to questions; the instructor refrains from entering the discussion as an active participant. Students are encouraged to learn about the subject by actively sharing

information, experiences, and opinions. The flow of communication is a transaction among all the students rather than between individual students and the instructor. Questioning and summarizing skills

become critical as the instructor guides the students to the lesson objective. 

14.1.2. In this chapter we will treat the guided discussion in terms of a teaching method with a set of

teaching skills that differentiate it from other teaching methods. 

14.2. Selection and Planning Factors. Proper consideration of selection and planning factors contributes to the success of guided discussions. Some of the most important factors follow: 

14.2.1. Lesson Objectives. The discussion method is a superior method for teaching more complex

cognitive and affective objectives. Thus, the method is appropriate for promoting the understanding of

concepts and principles and for the development of problem-solving skills. It is inappropriate for

transmitting knowledge-level material where lectures or readings are more efficient. 

14.2.1.1. The degree of consensus in a subject area is also an important consideration. In some

subjects there is a high degree of consensus among authorities in the field because of established

concepts, principles, laws, and factual information. In such subjects the objective is to communicate these facts, concepts, and principles to students. Thus, Air Force instructors in civil engineering, nuclear physics, mathematics, and highly technical subjects might find forms of one-way

verbal communication, such as the lecture method, more appropriate. They might also use individualized instruction or the demonstration-performance method in achieving lesson objectives. 

14.2.1.2. If authorities in a field have a low degree of consensus, or if there are two or more

widely held schools of thought, the guided discussion method is a very appropriate way to achieve

lesson objectives. In such subjects the experts do not always agree. Concepts and principles differ

considerably from one school of thought to another and controversy often exists. Air Force

instructors who give instruction in history, management, leadership, financial management, logistics, and Air Force organization, for instance, will find many objectives that lend themselves to

guided discussion. Through discussion students begin to understand the controversy and differing

points of view. They have the opportunity to develop and defend a logical position of their own. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 173

14.2.1.3. Another consideration is the needs of particular students. If your students need to

develop the ability to think critically in appraising the ideas of others, the guided discussion

method works well. Students also get the opportunity to reason together and to develop group

decision-making skills. In the discussion, they learn to evaluate ideas while listening to others, to

formulate their own ideas, and to present and defend these ideas in the process of achieving an

instructor's planned learning outcomes. 

14.2.1.4. The guided discussion may also be effective in changing student attitudes and their

behavior. Research in social psychology supports the position that discussion is more effective

than the lecture for achieving such objectives. When students make a public commitment in a discussion, they are more apt to follow through with a change in behavior. Instructors in fields such

as religious education, social actions, and safety will find the guided discussion method serves as

an effective tool for modifying attitudes and behavior of Air Force personnel. 

14.2.2. Group Size. If the instructional objective lends itself to the guided discussion, the next consideration is group size. With one student, individualized instruction is appropriate. When the students

number 2 to 20, the guided discussion method is frequently used. In smaller groups, there is more

opportunity for each student to participate. Reticent students may not participate at all when the group

becomes too large. Five to seven students would seem to be the ideal size, but few instructors will

have such a low instructor-to-student ratio in their classes. When the number is 20 to 40, instructors

may find that a combination of methods works best. For instance, a combination lecture-discussion is

often used. With over 40, the lecture method is typically used. 

14.2.3. Time Available. Instructors should keep in mind the relationship between group size and

time. As group size increases, so should the available discussion time. Ideally, enough time should be

scheduled for the contributions of all members to be heard and discussed, but this goal may not be

achieved even with groups of five to seven students. When costs are a significant factor and a given

amount of material must be covered in a short time, the teaching lecture may be more efficient than

the discussion. 

14.2.4. Instructor Personality: 

14.2.4.1. Some instructors have personalities better suited to the guided discussion than others.

When this method is used, instructors must be willing to relinquish some of their authority over

the lesson. A key to success for this method (like any other method) is that the instructor needs to

be flexible enough to adjust his or her teaching style to achieve the lesson objective. The guided

discussion method requires a little more give-and-take between the instructor and students. Instead

of presenting material directly to students, they must be confident in their ability to use questions

and other control devices skillfully and to develop the concepts and principles based upon student

input. 

14.2.4.2. If your lessons must be highly organized, tightly controlled, and instructor centered,

then you will have difficulty using the guided discussion. Similarly, if you have difficulty following the twists and turns of a discussion without losing track of the argument, losing patience with

its complexity, or in pulling scattered points together in summaries to reach conclusions, the discussion method may be difficult for you to use successfully. 

14.2.5. Establishing a Common Base for the Discussion-Prerequisite Knowledge. If you decide

to use a guided discussion after considering these factors, your next planning consideration is to establish a common ground for the discussion. Students should be at least at the knowledge level on a dis-
174 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

cussion topic when asked to engage in a guided discussion. Lectures, programmed texts, reading

assignments, films, and field trips can provide basic knowledge. Guided discussions conducted near

the end of a block of instruction should be based on a consideration of the common ground established

prior to the discussion. 

14.2.6. Use of a Problem. One way to make sure students in a discussion group are able to sustain a

worthwhile discussion is to give them a problem or short case to read or view in advance. This problem, along with the knowledge students already have, should keep the discussion on track and productive. The problem is usually a printed paragraph or two that illustrates the concept or principle under

discussion. Unlike a higher-level case study, we are not yet attempting to apply specific principles to

solve complex problems. Guided discussions centered around a problem are designed to develop a

comprehension of concepts and principles, with the problem providing the discussion vehicle. The

techniques for leading this type of discussion are essentially the same as those described throughout

this chapter. 

14.2.7. Planning the Room Arrangement: 

14.2.7.1. Because of its effect on group dynamics, room arrangement is an important factor in a

successful guided discussion. (An understanding of group dynamics is also a prerequisite for maximizing learning in a guided discussion; see Chapter 29.) Research shows that eye contact is one

of the most important variables in conducting a successful guided discussion because direct visual

contact between members of a group increases communication. 

14.2.7.2. Therefore, a circular arrangement is recommended in which no one is placed in a position of dominance, and each member can establish direct eye contact with each of the other members. With tables, an arrangement involving a pentagon, hexagon, or octagon also works well.

Avoid rectangles that tend to put those at each end in a position of authority. To foster group discussion, instructors should avoid placing themselves in a position of authority where student eye

contact (and most student comment) is directed toward the instructor. Instead, the instructor

should become a group member without relinquishing control. 

14.3. Organizing the Guided Discussion. Once you have considered the planning factors and have

decided to use a guided discussion, you are ready to develop the lesson plan. Note the sample lesson plan

in Attachment 4. Part I of the sample lists such things as lesson title, references, statement of the lesson

objective, samples of behavior, and the lesson outline. Assistance in developing this part of the lesson

plan is provided in the lesson planning chapters (Chapter 3, Chapter 4, Chapter 6, Chapter 8, Chapter

9, Chapter 10, and Chapter 11). This chapter is directed toward preparing Part II—the actual teaching

plan. 

14.3.1. Introduction. A guided discussion is introduced in a way similar to other teaching methods

with attention, motivation, and overview steps; see Chapter 6. However, the overview is especially

important to the success of a guided discussion and deserves further comment. 

14.3.1.1. A good overview pinpoints the topic for discussion and the key areas to be developed. If

the topic is motivation, the two key areas for discussion might be extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. You should tell the students what will be discussed; visually show the overview on a chart,

chalkboard, or handout. The overview visual should be available throughout the lesson to aid students in following the lesson organization and to assist the instructor in summarizing and transitioning between main ideas. A lesson overview also provides the instructor with an opportunity to
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 175

review with students pertinent information already known or understood about a subject. Define

or clarify terms or concepts to prevent confusion. Also, you should make students feel that their

ideas and active participation are wanted and needed. 

14.3.2. Development. When developing concepts, principles, generalizations, or other ideas, it is

important to anticipate any potential questions your students might ask. 

14.3.2.1. Leadoff Questions (LOQ). The first item listed on the plan under development is the

concept or principle you are teaching. How can you best lead your students to an understanding of

this concept or principle? The logical reasoning process starts with the LOQ. 

14.3.2.1.1. To develop a concept, you might start the discussion with an LOQ that calls for a

definition of the concept, such as "How would you define prejudice?" If you have already provided the students with a definition in your introduction, your LOQ might focus on the

attributes (characteristics) of the concept, such as "What behaviors might we expect from a

person who is prejudiced?" Followup and spontaneous questions will be used to further

develop the concept. 

14.3.2.1.2. To develop a principle, you might rephrase the principle as a how or why LOQ.

For instance, if your main point was "An authoritarian leadership style is appropriate in crisis

situations," your LOQ might be "Why is the authoritarian leadership style appropriate in crisis

situations?" This question will identify supporting points for development through spontaneous and followup questions. 

14.3.2.1.3. Another acceptable approach for developing a principle is to ask an LOQ based

upon a key supporting point. If this approach were used with the principle just cited, you might

ask "How would you describe the authoritarian leadership style?" Additional supporting

points would be developed which contribute to development of the principle. 

14.3.2.2. Followup Questions (FUQ). Once your LOQ is identified, you must develop appropriate FUQs. If a concept is being developed, FUQs will ensure that characteristics, examples, and

nonexamples of the concept are developed. When principles are taught, FUQs will be planned for

key supporting points important in the logical development of the principle. Since guided discussions are normally conducted at the comprehension level, devote little time to FUQs written at the

knowledge level unless they are necessary for establishing a base for the discussion. Instead, use

questions dealing with "how," "why," and "what effect." Knowledge-level facts can often be given

in the introduction or in a handout. 

14.3.2.3. Anticipated Responses (AR). Notice the right column on the sample plan (Attachment 4). By listing anticipated responses, the instructor is forced to think about possible answers

students might give. Leave space in the right column after the ARs of each subpoint so you can

write in additional responses of students for use in your summaries. As an alternate recording

method, you may wish to list the student responses on an overhead transparency or a sheet of

paper for use in summarizing. If you intend to use the lesson plan again, you can add the best student responses later under ARs. 

14.3.2.4. Transitions. Since the instructor is working toward desired learning outcomes in the

discussion, major transitions can be planned in advance of the discussion. A good transition

reviews the key point just made, reminds the students of the central idea (lesson objective), and

introduces the next point. (Note the transitions on the sample lesson plan at Attachment 4.) Transitions written on the lesson plan serve as a good memory jogger each time the lesson is taught. 
176 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

14.3.2.5. Planned Summaries. If the guided discussion has a single conclusion you are working

toward (single objective), then comprehension-level summaries will occur after main points in the

discussion. If the lesson has more than one objective (multiobjective), then comprehension-level

summaries will occur after each main point and objective. These comprehension-level summaries

are not tightly planned but develop primarily from student contributions. However, you can mention planned ARs that were not discussed. Also, you may add additional support material in the

summaries in the form of examples, statistics, and expert testimony to aid students in achieving

lesson objectives. 

14.3.2.6. Conclusion. The conclusion to a guided discussion has three parts as discussed in

Chapter 6. Remotivation and closure are planned, as are certain aspects of the summary. When a

single objective is taught, a comprehension-level summary is required in the conclusion. Additional support material can be introduced from the lesson plan to ensure achievement of the lesson

objective. Once the lesson is planned and organized, the instructor is ready to conduct the lesson. 

14.4. Conducting a Guided Discussion. A number of skills are involved in conducting a guided discussion. The most important ones follow: 

14.4.1. Controlling. How active should your role be in the discussion? You can do most of the talking (which results in overcontrol), you can remain almost silent (which usually results in undercontrol), or you can find an active intermediate role. As the instructor, you define your role. However, the

more you talk the less students can talk, which lessens the benefit of using the guided discussion

method. Thus, it is wise to limit your role to that of questioning, clarifying, probing, and summarizing. 

14.4.1.1. As discussions with new groups begin, students will look to you for a definition of your

role. While you may tell them what your role will be, your actions will be closely observed. Eye

contact of group members will give you good feedback on your control. If all eyes turn to you (as

the instructor) when silence occurs, perhaps you are exercising too much authority in the discussion. Analyzing the lines of communication (sociogram) will also provide valuable feedback.

Have a student plot the lines of communication on a piece of paper. If the lines of communication

usually flow back and forth between you and the students rather than among the students then you

are probably overcontrolling the discussion. 

14.4.1.2. If you undercontrol the guided discussion, you may never reach your desired learning

outcomes. Minimal instructor participation may result in excessive disorganization or aimlessness. Aimless discussion can quickly lose the respect of students and have a negative effect on

their motivation to learn. To prevent this deterioration in the discussion, the instructor must judge

quickly and accurately when intervention is necessary. 

14.4.1.3. As a guideline, remember the desired learning outcomes to be achieved in a designated

period of time. Proper control will ensure maximum student participation in achieving each of

these desired learning outcomes in the time allotted. 

14.4.2. Questioning. To be successful in conducting a guided discussion in which desired learning

outcomes are achieved, an instructor must have an understanding of questions and the role they play

in this method. (See Chapter 11 for detailed coverage of questions and their uses.) 

14.4.2.1. Leadoff Questions. The instructor opens the discussion by asking a prepared LOQ and

then waits for responses. The students must be given a chance to react. The instructor has the

answers in mind before asking the question, but a student must think about the question before
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 177

answering. Avoid asking two questions at once, questions requiring a yes or no response, and

complex questions that leave students confused. 

14.4.2.1.1. The discussion begins with the first student response to the LOQ. The instructor

should listen attentively to the ideas, experiences, and examples contributed by the students.

As the discussion proceeds, the instructor guides the direction of the discussion, stimulates the

students to explore the subject in depth, and encourages them to discuss the topic in detail by

using both planned and unplanned (spontaneous) FUQs. 

14.4.2.2. Spontaneous Questions. As the name implies, these questions cannot be planned, but

they serve a very useful purpose. When an LOQ or FUQ is asked, the instructor can never be sure

of the response students will give. The discussion may start to wander in ways the instructor had

not anticipated and the spontaneous question can get the discussion back on track. While the

instructor hopes that indepth comprehension-level support material will develop, the opposite may

be true. Consequently, to develop the topic properly, the instructor uses spontaneous questions.

Direct questions, which bring reticent students into the discussion, may be spontaneous and are

based upon an observed need. Spontaneous questions also work well when the instructor wishes to

probe for more information or to seek clarification on a point. 

14.4.3. Summarizing. One of the key skills involved in conducting a discussion is summarizing. You

should plan for summaries to occur after discussing main points and objectives. Unplanned summaries occur because of need and may be used periodically to designate relationships, get students back

on track when the discussion wanders, or to transition between subpoints. No matter when you summarize, use ideas developed by the group that support achievement of your objectives. Try to use the

students' words and show how their ideas developed the learning outcomes. 

14.4.3.1. Not all student contributions will support a lesson objective, nor will you have time to

cover each student response. Therefore, avoid crediting students by name for their contributions or

making quality judgments about the various responses. Such comments may cause certain students to wonder why their contributions were ignored or treated differently. Consequently, they

may participate less and open discussion is stifled. 

14.4.3.2. After summarizing student contributions, you may need additional support for a main

point or objective. At this point you should introduce new support material to aid in achieving the

learning outcome intended. 

14.4.4. Knowing When to Intervene. As you develop your skill as a guided discussion leader, you

will become more skillful in knowing when to intervene in your role as questioner, clarifier, prober,

and summarizer. These following guidelines might prove helpful: 

14.4.4.1. If several contributions in a row indicate a drift away from the main point or subpoints,

then a brief interim summary followed by a spontaneous or followup question may be appropriate

for getting back on target. 

14.4.4.2. If pauses between contributions become too long, there are three possible causes: the

participants may be confused, your question was not clear in starting the discussion, or perhaps the

students have no additional contributions in the area. At this point you may want to find out the

reason for the pauses by asking a spontaneous question. 
178 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

14.4.4.3. A student who mistakenly states something as a fact may have a negative effect on the

discussion. If other students do not correct this error, you should intervene. A probing question or

asking a student to clarify what was said may suffice, but the error should not be allowed to stand. 

14.4.4.4. Watch to see if serious fallacies in reasoning are going undetected. If so, the fallacies

should be pointed out before they have a chance to damage the validity of the discussion. For

instance, the students may be divided along two extremes on an issue and be unable to see that a

reasonable course of action exists between the extremes. Or students may omit important facts or

distort and arrange evidence in a special way to make a point (stacking the evidence). While analogies might be helpful in suggesting new ideas or in illustrating a point, students should not use

them to prove a point (misuse of analogy). Generalizations may be reached based upon insufficient evidence or instances supporting an opposing point of view may be ignored (hasty generalization). 

14.4.5. Dealing with Nonparticipation. What happens if you ask your LOQ and nothing happens?

Several possibilities exist. Perhaps you have not clearly established a context for the question in your

introduction. The question may be double-barreled, too long, or confusing. Students may not understand their role in the discussion or they may be afraid to say anything because of an authoritarian role

you played in a previous discussion. The question may simply be one that requires some thought

before giving a reply. Try waiting out the silence for several seconds. At that point, you may need to

ask the group what the silence means, rephrase the question, or make a few content comments about

the subject and follow up with a new question. If the question does not work successfully, be sure to

change it on the plan before conducting the discussion again with another class. 

14.4.5.1. Another problem is uneven distribution of responses. Certain students may refrain from

discussing a particular topic or any topic presented for discussion. Other students may tend to

monopolize the discussions. Through awareness, the instructor can take certain actions to gain

more participation of nonparticipants. The direct question and relay questions to nonparticipants

can be used to draw them into the discussion. By avoiding eye contact with the active participants

when a question is asked and focusing on others, the quieter members can be encouraged to reply. 

14.4.5.2. Nonparticipants can often be encouraged to participate when you give them positive

reinforcement for contributions (when such recognition is appropriate). Tying the quiet student's

ideas to other ideas and referring to these ideas often is a kind of positive reinforcement repeatedly

found to promote achievement and favorable attitudes. Head nods and positive remarks such as

"Good point" and "That's interesting!" reinforce a person's contributions, while frowns and withholding reinforcement suppress the responses of group members. 

14.4.6. Dealing with Hurt Feelings. As you gain more experience with the guided discussion, you

will become increasingly aware of student feelings in a discussion. Instructors should ensure that student feelings are not hurt unnecessarily. Sarcasm and ridicule have no place in a guided discussion,

whether from the instructor or other students. By example and guidelines (if necessary), the instructor

should rule personal attacks out of order. On the other hand, group members should be encouraged to

accept criticism or correction without taking it personally. Mature students should be able to learn to

accept valid criticisms of their ideas without being irrationally defensive about the ideas or themselves. Instructors can help by acting in a rational and nonemotional way to criticisms of their own

ideas. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 179

14.4.7. Avoid Biasing the Discussion. Instructors must be constantly reminded of the power they

have in the classroom. Casual mention of their own opinions, attitudes, and beliefs will influence

some class members. Over a period of time, students have honed their senses to be able to detect what

the instructor wants. The instructor must be careful that opinions expressed do not close discussion or

force student conformity. 

14.4.8. Avoid Encouragement of Yielding. Groups exert enormous pressure on members to conform. The instructor and one group of students may agree on something and, through group pressures,

try to get the other students to conform. Guided discussion leaders should encourage the expression of

minority points of view. If the instructor insists on unanimity of opinion, then minority views will be

stifled and the discussion will suffer. 

14.4.9. Avoid Withholding Crucial Information. The discussion may suffer at times from the lack

of a fact, definition, concept, or principle. It is not wrong to share your expertise with the group when

the discussion would profit by it. However, you should not use the expertise if your only goal is to

enhance your own image of competence in the eyes of students. 

14.4.10. Avoid Sticking to a Dead Topic. When students have exhausted a topic, the instructor

should be prepared to move on with a short interim summary or a new question. A dead topic is one

that no longer helps achieve your objective. Signs of a dead topic include periods of silence, repetition

of points already made, boredom, or inattention. Normally, you should not let a discussion get to this

point before you intervene. 

14.5. Post-Discussion Actions. After the lesson is complete, you should go back to your lesson plan to

make notes and then evaluate the discussion. 

14.5.1. Annotating the Lesson Plan. Annotate your lesson plan while the material is still fresh in

your mind. If unanticipated material entered the discussion, make note of it on the plan. If certain

questions did not work well, rewrite or eliminate them. Perhaps you became aware of points or definitions that would have aided the discussion if they had been covered or clarified in the introduction.

Now is the time to make such annotations or corrections on your lesson plan. It is important to establish records on the plan that allows you to improve your instruction. 

14.5.2. Evaluating the Discussion: 

14.5.2.1. After the discussion has been completed, you should take time to evaluate its effectiveness in achieving your lesson objective. Did students have the required knowledge to discuss the

topic adequately? Should the reading assignment be changed, or is there some better way to get

students to the knowledge level before the discussion? If you or another student maintained a diagram of the discussion, what do the lines of communication say? Such evaluation may be subjective but still valuable in improving instruction. 

14.5.2.2. More formal evaluation comes when tests are administered. When you develop test

questions, you will have direct evidence of how well the guided discussion achieved your lesson

objective. Such evidence will also allow you to make changes to the lesson plan to help you reach

your objective. 

14.6. Summary. The guided discussion is a teaching method in which students learn by sharing experiences and opinions with each other. The instructor carefully plans the lesson to reach desired learning outcomes and then guides the discussion through questioning and summarizing. 
180 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

14.6.1. Consider student needs when planning the guided discussion. The discussion method is effective in teaching cognitive and affective objectives. It helps students develop skill in group reasoning

and problem-solving and in facilitating changes in attitudes and behavior. Instructors should use the

guided discussion when group size is from 2 to 20 students and when there is sufficient time for all

students to participate. Arrange the classroom to allow maximum eye contact among students. Each

student should have a basic knowledge of the subject before the discussion begins. 

14.6.2. The guided discussion is organized to encourage maximum student participation. The instructor tells students what will be discussed in the overview, gives any necessary definitions or concepts,

and encourages participation. Carefully planned LOQs and FUQs then elicit this participation. The

instructor should also anticipate possible student responses and include these in the lesson plan.

Although remotivation and closure are planned, the final summary is developed using inputs from the

students. 

14.6.3. Certain specific skills are needed to conduct a successful guided discussion. The instructor

should control the group so that discussion flows among the students. LOQs and FUQs are asked as

planned, but spontaneous questions should also be used frequently to clarify student responses and

eliminate errors in fact and reasoning. The instructor should avoid biasing the discussion or withholding necessary information from the students. Encourage all students to participate and give positive

reinforcement to student inputs. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 181

Chapter 15 

THE CASE STUDY METHOD 

15.1. Introduction. The case study method presents students with real-life challenges. It helps bridge the

gap in the classroom between theory and practice by using a real world situation that focuses on previously learned concepts and principles in realistic situations. 

15.1.1. Some Air Force schools teach manual tasks—the practice of a job—such as missile operations or vehicle maintenance. Usually, the more specific the task to be learned, the more closely the

school tends to fit job requirements. Theory and practice come together. Engine mechanics, for

instance, are trained on actual engines or mock-ups in shops similar to those on the job. 

15.1.2. Other schools teach abstract or mental skills—the theory of a job—like strategies for limited

warfare or an aspect of professional military education. In schools where the subjects are abstract,

however, students tend to be less involved with the specific tasks they will encounter later on the job.

Theory and practice may be far apart. The curriculum of an NCO leadership school, for instance, does

not relate directly to NCO specialty codes. Thus, bridging the gap between school concepts and reality

is a challenge to many Air Force schools or curriculums. 

15.2. Using Case Studies. Using case studies is one approach in teaching to meet this challenge. In the

case study method (hereafter referred to as the case method), students meet a simulated, real-life situation

in the classroom in order to achieve an educational objective. The case study, typically written, is an

account provided to students, usually as a homework assignment, that serves as a basis for class discussion. Usually, a case will describe a problem already faced by others in a given field. The greatest value of

the case study is that it challenges students to apply what they know and comprehend to a realistic situation. The case method takes students out of the role of passive listeners and makes them partners with the

instructor in applying the concepts and principles under study. The method enables students to think, reason, and employ data in a logical fashion, just as they will in a real job. 

15.2.1. The case method is a flexible teaching approach. It can be the basis of an entire curriculum, a

course, or simply an individual lesson. While the case method is versatile, there are times when other

teaching methods are suggested. The case method may not work with immature students or with large

classes. It is not applicable where students are learning a procedure or a single solution that has been

accepted as "correct." Case studies do not lend themselves to developing objectives at the knowledge

level, where the lecture and reading are usually more efficient. Once the knowledge level of learning

has been achieved, the case study is an excellent way for students to progress to the higher levels. 

15.2.2. Variations of the case method were first used in teaching medicine and law, but over the years,

the case method has been widely used in the study of business, management, and education. It can be

used in almost any learning area that can draw cases from real situations for study and discussion. 

15.3. Teaching Value and Limitations: 

15.3.1. A principle advantage of the case method is to provide students experience in solving problems. Many students can repeat isolated facts or principles, but they have difficulty relating these facts

and principles to other situations. The case method provides an opportunity for them to gain experience in making decisions and in working with other people. It exposes them to a number of ways to
182 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

solve problems. As they learn various problem-solving techniques, they make their mistakes in the

classroom and not on the job where an error is much more costly. 

15.3.2. Students learn by encountering situations from real life instead of listening to lectures or reading theoretical descriptions of the solution to problems. By interacting with others, they learn to

respect the opinions of others. Because the case may not list all pertinent facts, the students also learn

how to cope with ambiguity and uncertainty. As with real life, we sometimes ask questions and get

answers; other times, we can only ask questions. 

15.4. Typical Case Applications. Because of its versatility, the case lends itself to a wide variety of

teaching conditions. 

15.4.1. Case Courses. Some schools use the case method exclusively, especially graduate schools of

business. The assumption is that the best way to prepare for a business career is to have experience in

analyzing data and making decisions. Students in these courses are given complex cases to analyze

and solve. The quality of the analysis and the reasoning behind the suggested decisions are often more

important than arriving at a single solution. In the classroom, students participate in collective analysis and decision-making. As more and more cases are analyzed, students begin to form generalizations

they can apply to new situations. Thus, case studies substitute for a period of on-the-job training. 

15.4.1.1. Normally in the case study course, concepts and principles are not taught directly.

Instead, they emerge gradually as students are forced to formulate theories to support their case

decisions. Because these theories arise from practical work with problems, students remember

them better and are able to recall them for similar solutions. 

15.4.1.2. The case study course is usually conducted using group problem-solving techniques in

open-class sessions. But the case may serve as an out-of-class written assignment, with students

asked to bring solutions to class along with a rationale for their decisions. These solutions may

form the basis for class discussion, and may also be turned in for the instructor to grade. A variation like this may overcome the need for relatively small classes in the pure case method. 

15.4.2. Capstone Method. A case or a series of cases is often used at the end of a body of instruction

to help show the application of the course content. Often a course will proceed by lectures, discussions, and other more-used methods. Toward the end of the instruction, students will apply what they

have learned to a series of cases specifically designed to support the course objectives. This capstone

method is particularly appropriate when students start at lower levels of learning (such as the knowledge level) and are brought gradually to the higher levels (such as the application level). The capstone

method is particularly appropriate in Air Force leadership schools where readings and lectures can

supply the basic material and case studies can allow an opportunity to practice the theory as a capstone

experience. 

15.4.3. The Short Case or "Problem." The case also has applications at lower levels of learning.

This technique is called "use of the problem in teaching." A realistic problem situation, often a page or

less in length, is used as a discussion vehicle. The instructor plans the lesson much like a guided discussion. For example, the objective of the lesson may be to have students comprehend a principle of

management called span of control. The instructor might introduce a situation in which a supervisor

failed to take this principle into account. A serious accident or a dramatic event might then result. 

15.4.3.1. The primary object is not to find a "correct" solution to the problem posed, but to understand the principles involved. The problem posed should be sufficiently interesting and difficult to
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 183

involve all the class members for the time allotted. Because the written problem provides the discussion vehicle, the class can also be broken up into smaller discussion groups. 

15.4.3.2. A variant of the short case can also be used in group dynamics exercises where the

emphasis is not on solving the problem, but on the interaction of group process. Similarly, the

short case can be used to demonstrate a decisionmaking process where the process is more important than the solution arrived at. A series of short cases or scenarios often works for reinforcing

affective objectives; for instance, in human relations or equal opportunity exercises. 

15.5. Types of Cases. Teaching cases are situations from real life. There is no single format for cases—

in fact, there can be great variation in the types of cases. They may vary in length from a paragraph or two

to many pages. For convenience sake, types of cases will be discussed in two categories—mode of presentation and case format. 

15.5.1. Full Text. A full text case contains all the information the student will need to deal with the

situation and requires access to no other source. Business school cases, for instance, often illustrate a

real situation faced by managers in the past. They contain the problem to be addressed, how the problem arose, the organization's structure, and the employees involved in the situation, as well as their

perceptions at the time of the original incident. Cases of this type are usually of 8 to 15 pages in

length, take considerable time to analyze, and are usually the basis of a case course. Students are

required to read the case, perform an analysis, make a decision, and support that decision before their

peers. The instructor is particularly interested in the student's ability to perform an analysis and make

a decision. 

15.5.1.1. Another full text case is the abbreviated case, which is much shorter—from one paragraph to several pages in length. An obvious consequence of the length is the diminished content.

Since it is shorter, the focus is usually built in and the solution or solutions may be more limited.

The abbreviated case may deal with one "problem," or it may define a scenario with a series of

limited choices. The abbreviated case may lend itself to lower levels of learning. 

15.5.1.2. A third variation of the full text case is the unsifted case. Although all the data required

by students is presented at one time, it is given in an unorganized form (simulating an in-basket

exercise). Extraneous information may be included. The student's task is to select and arrange the

information into some meaningful pattern for action. 

15.5.2. Partial Text. With partial text cases, students are given only limited information about the situation under study, and part of their job is to find or ask for the additional information they need for

solution. 

15.5.2.1. In the incident-process case, the instructor presents a brief incident and the students are

required to take some action, make a decision, or suggest recommendations. The instructor usually

provides additional information only when the students request it. Partial text cases are designed to

teach students analysis and problem solving and also how to ask the right kinds of questions. The

situation parallels real events because we often make decisions based on partial information. The

incident-process case prepares students for this contingency. 

15.5.2.2. In an interactive case, students also receive limited information. Then they interact with

other sources for additional data, return to class and ask for additional information, or receive

another segment of the case from the instructor, return to interaction, and so on. Other sources

include additional readings, interviews, and library and/or internet research. This process is simi-
184 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

lar to doing a research project. It is an artful blend of dealing with reality while acquiring additional knowledge and skill at the same time. 

15.5.2.3. Like other partial text cases, the sequential case begins with limited information. The

situation unfolds in succeeding installments of information to the students, much like a command

post exercise. At the end of each installment, students decide if intervention in the situation at that

point is called for or not. Some incidents resolve themselves and intervention will only aggravate

the situation. Other incidents continue to deteriorate and might even become unresolvable if intervention comes at an inappropriate time, or even too late. The sequential case is particularly suited

for personnel management training. 

15.6. Mode of Presentation: 

15.6.1. Thus far, we have assumed that all cases are written. While the majority of cases do come in

this format, other modes of presentation add variety, drama, and realism to the case class. Movies and

visual aids can offer the participants the incident and the emotions of the case in a dramatic and

life-like way. Typically the film will unfold the situation to a decision point, then the students take

over. After some individual or corporate decision has been made, the presentation can be continued by

presenting more information by using the outcome as an illustration and as a basis for further discussion. Or, the case can be closed, whichever suits the student and instructor needs. 

15.6.2. Videotape cases have the potential of increasing realism by having the original case participants give their perceptions in their own words. How the original participants saw the case is often

more critical and important to the student than the interpretations of these perceptions by a case writer.

Another step toward case realism is to have a live presentation where the participants come in person

before the class to recreate the case experiences and respond to questions. A variation is to have students meet with the case participant, perhaps in the actual case environment. 

15.7. Case Methodology. More is required in teaching with the case method than simply reading the

case and asking a few questions in class. Proper use of the case method requires conscientious preparation, presentation, and followup. 

15.7.1. Preparation. While there is no "best" way to approach case preparation, some generalizations can be made. The instructor should identify the specific learning objective for the class. Here

also, some appraisal of the relationship between the lesson and the rest of the curriculum is appropriate. Consider the instructor who has taught the principles of management to students during a 2-week

period. The objective now is to see if the students can apply these principles to a given situation.

Using the case in this way makes it a "capstone method" because the case reinforces and extends the

teaching that has gone before. Most Air Force case teaching uses this approach. 

15.7.1.1. Sources of Cases. Once instructors decide to use the case method, where can they find

cases? They can either use prepared cases or write original ones. 

15.7.1.1.1. Prepared Cases. Because of its long involvement with the case method, the Harvard Business School, through the Intercollegiate Case Clearing House, offers the most centralized source of prepared cases. Cases can be ordered from the published catalogue for a

nominal fee. The Air University Library also has an extensive collection of cases that have

been used in AFIT and in professional military schools. However, some of these cases cannot
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 185

be released for general use. The base or community libraries as well as the internet are also

sources of cases. 

15.7.1.1.2. Case Writing. Quite often the instructor is unable to find the exact kind of case to

achieve a specific objective. The solution may be to write a case to fit the specific school need.

The idea for a case may come in some current event, an article, periodical, or personal experience. 

15.7.1.2. Case Selection. In evaluating a case for use, regardless of the source, we should ask

ourselves five questions: 

15.7.1.2.1. Is it realistic? A case is realistic if it describes an actual problem or situation, even

if the organization or participants are disguised. Obviously fabricated or fantasy cases are

unlikely to have credibility. If the case is not realistic, it is hard to make the students' solution,

decision, or action seem real. While it is theoretically possible to "invent" a case or use a composite of several situations, in practice such an approach is rarely as successful as dealing with

an actual real-life case. 

15.7.1.2.2. Is it meaningful? The case should be meaningful to students so they can identify

with it in some way. They must be generally familiar with the problem either through their past

experience or in the experiences they expect to face in the future. A case on a moonwalk, for

instance, may not work for students who are not involved with space travel or who do not have

the necessary technical background. 

15.7.1.2.3. Is it challenging? The case should contain actual or potential controversy. If the

case is one in which the solution is obvious, it should be rejected. 

15.7.1.2.4. Is it complete? Usually a case is complete within itself. It presents enough information so students can deal with the problems without reference to outside sources or the

instructor. 

15.7.1.2.5. Does it provide for a logical difference of opinion? A case study that prompts a

single line of analysis may not result in productive discussion. An acceptable case should provide an opportunity for reasonable people to differ rationally. 

15.7.1.3. Writing the Teaching Note. A good case allows both the instructor and student to

achieve educational objectives—the instructor to reinforce general principles with specific examples and the student to gain experience from the past in a close-to-real-life role. The instructor who

analyzed the case meets these objectives beforehand in what is called a teaching note. This may

include essential details in the case, major issues, analysis of these issues, evaluation of the case

characters (their relationships, goals, values), prior knowledge students need to work the case, and

questions to be included in the lesson plan to guide the discussion. (See the teaching note in the

sample lesson plan at Attachment 7.) 

15.7.1.3.1. The teaching note is not the solution to the case, but it should detail typical student

activities the case will stimulate and define the specific student outcomes the instructor

expects. It should also define the student level for which the case is written and relate the case

to readings and preceding or subsequent classes. The note should include at least an outline of

the instructor's analysis of the case to show it is internally consistent and able to hold up under

analysis. After writing the teaching note, instructors will often find that the case contains

insufficient or misleading information; therefore, they may want to revise or amend it before
186 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

giving the case to students. For certain groups, the case may assume knowledge of a process or

background material that may need to be summarized in an attachment. A case on discrimination in promotion, for instance, may depend on a detailed knowledge of the promotion system

and its appeals, which the average social actions specialist may not have. 

15.7.1.3.2. The instructor's preparation should then extend beyond the limits of the case to

include political, economic, or social factors; policies and procedures in effect at the time of

the case; and concepts and principles alluded to but not explained in the case. The more expert

the instructors are about a case, the greater the chance of teaching it successfully, especially if

the subject area is unfamiliar or the details skimpy. 

15.7.1.4. Lesson Format. Before the actual lesson planning begins, the instructor must select

some logical sequence for analyzing the case. An analytic format will often be inherent in the concept, principle, or objective the case is to reach. If so, the concept, principle, or approach may

serve as the lesson objective and its format as main points in the lesson plan. These main points

also become the procedures the students will use to develop the lesson during the class period.

They also might be used as broad categories to be outlined on the chalkboard during class to help

with lesson development. Figure 15.1. is an example of this process. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 187

Figure 15.1. Lesson Plan Process. 

15.7.1.4.1. Other examples of case lesson objectives, main points, and associated board

arrangements are in Attachment 5. These examples are merely illustrations of possible

approaches. Two different instructors teaching identical objectives and using the same case

might use completely different main points and analysis procedures with equal efficiency and

effectiveness. 

15.7.1.4.2. The instructor is now prepared to develop the lesson objective and the lesson's

main points. The objective is often stated at the application level, although many cases lend

themselves better to the comprehension level. Examples of acceptable objectives are illustrated on Parts I of the lesson plans in Attachment 6 and Attachment 7. 

15.7.1.4.3. With a specific well-defined objective and logical main points, we are ready to

develop the lesson plan. 

Lesson Objective: "...for the students to highlight Gelatt's decision-making model in given situations." 

Main Points:

1. Analysis procedure to identify the problem. 

2. Research resources to collect data. 

3. Creativity in determining alternatives. 

4. Assessment of possible outcomes of each alternative. 

5. Assessment of probable outcomes of each alternative. 

6. Individual choice of acceptable solutions. 

BOARD ARRANGEMENT

Identify Possible Probable 

Problem Data Alternatives Outcomes Outcomes Choice

At times, the case under consideration has no obvious format for main points or analysis, but an approach 

will emerge from the instructor's own study of the case. For example: 

Lesson Objective: "...for the students to highlight the principle of delegation of authority in management 

situations." 

Main Points: 

1. Past management training and experience to separate the facts and the assumptions. 

2. Group problem-solving techniques to clearly define the problems. 

3. Individual creativity to reach the best possible group solution to the problems. 

BOARD ARRANGEMENT

Facts Assumptions Problems Solutions
188 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

15.7.1.4.4. The introduction of the case lesson plan development differs only slightly from the

other teaching methodologies. The attention and motivation steps are the same, with the major

difference occurring in the overview. Here the students are given an opportunity to read the

case if it is short or if they have not read it before coming to class. Students are told how the

lesson will proceed and the point of view they should adopt. They may or may not role play. 

15.7.1.4.5. The development phase elaborates on each main point in the lesson plan through

the use of well-formed preplanned questions. "What are the facts in this case?" "Who is causing the biggest problem?" "Which of these violations has the most serious consequences?"

Instructors who have prepared thoroughly will be able to transition from one main point to

another and from issue to issue within main points, to guide the class into critical areas for discussion, and ultimately to lead them to the overall lesson objective. 

15.7.1.4.6. The conclusion summarizes the case, adds additional information, and relates it to

the concept or principle to be illustrated. It then proceeds to show how this same concept or

principle can be used to deal with other similar situations. The remotivation and closure steps

are similar to those in other methodologies. 

15.7.2. Presentation: 

15.7.2.1. Guidelines. As with other aspects of the case method, there is no set procedure for conducting the class, but a number of general guidelines have worked well in past case sessions. 

15.7.2.1.1. Refraining From Lecturing. The case method is inherently a student-centered

approach. Keep instructor comments to a minimum and let the students do the talking. 

15.7.2.1.2. Starting the Discussion. Some case leaders begin with the question, "What is the

issue here?" then go on to, "What are the pertinent facts?" Others begin with the more general

question, "What action should be taken?" The approach depends on the intellectual maturity of

the students and with the subject matter. 

15.7.2.1.3. Controlling Participation. The case discussion is controlled much like the

guided discussion except that in the case, the instructor may feel freer to enter the discussion.

The case instructor often keeps track of the discussion at the board so the entire class has a

visual record of where the discussion has been and where it is going. The questioning techniques used in the case method are the same as for the guided discussion. 

15.7.2.1.4. Being Nondirective. No single right answer often exists in case studies. It is more

important to lead students toward sound application of principles than to persist in an endless

search for one right answer. In the body of the lesson, the instructor should, of course, "guide"

the discussion. But imposing the instructor's views on the students, passing judgments on contributions, and arguing do little toward encouraging independent thinking or achieving the lesson objective. Attempts to force a conclusion on the group often fail. Save instructor

comments for the conclusion. 

15.7.2.2. Case Roles. In the process of presenting a case, the instructor and students have roles

they are responsible for. Fulfilling these roles increases the probability of a successful lesson. 

15.7.2.2.1. The Instructor's Role. As case leaders, how should we behave? We can dominate, control, and structure the discussion of a case and emerge from the discussion with our

own solution. On the other hand, we can demonstrate a high degree of leadership skill in guid-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 189

ing and involving students in the discussion and solution of the case. In either instance, we

serve in the role of recorder, questioner, and occasionally as clarifier or expert. 

15.7.2.2.1.1. In our role of recorder, we provide direction and organization to the discussion of a case by writing ideas on a board as the students submit them. We also record

problem areas and items for further analysis and solutions by the discussion group. To

avoid confusion or distraction, we might list the major elements of the selected decision or

analysis process on the board. Under each category, we might list specific student contributions. This task requires disciplined listening and undivided attention to every statement

made during the discussion period. 

15.7.2.2.1.2. One of the most important requirements of the case study method is the

instructor's ability to ask good questions. Questions are the principal device for clarifying

contributions to the discussion and for relating ideas to the problem under discussion.

Another questioning technique in the transfer of ideas is to review past experiences as they

relate to a new problem. Frequently, to avoid student superficiality, a simple "why" question is used to confront a student's assertion and stimulate an orderly problem analysis. The

instructor also has a responsibility to assure that the discussion is meaningful. We are the

experts in teaching the subject and also in helping students express themselves. We should

see that every student has an opportunity to participate. It is also our responsibility to

establish rapport and maintain student interest in the case under discussion. 

15.7.2.2.2. The Student's Role: 

15.7.2.2.2.1. The case method of instruction may require more student preparation than

any other teaching method. If students do not prepare for class participation, they do themselves an injustice and deprive other students of possible discussion. As minimum preparation, they must read and study the case thoroughly. If there is time, they might also refer

to as many related references as possible. 

15.7.2.2.2.2. During class discussion of the case, students should think reflectively and

strive for cooperation rather than competition. They should share responsibility to contribute briefly and directly to the discussion and to assist in developing group concepts based

on specific items of information. Thus, self-motivation is a significant element of the case

study method. This motivation obviously enhances the learning process. 

15.7.3. Followup. What we do after the class session is over is often as important as what preceded

the period. If student participation is part of the course grade, we should establish the criteria for grading beforehand, make it known to the students, and take notes while the impressions are still fresh in

our minds. Even more important for future use of the case, we should review the lesson plan and note

corrections needed in the case, possible changes in questions, and new lines of thought or different

methods of analysis brought out by the students. This keeps the case fresh and makes it a more refined

tool for use with subsequent classes. 

15.8. Summary. The case, properly used, initiates students into the ways of independent thought and

responsible judgment. It faces them with real situations (not hypothetical); it places them in the active

role, open to criticism from all sides; it puts the burden of understanding and judgment upon them; and it

gives them the stimulating opportunity to make contributions to learning. 
190 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

15.8.1. In the problem-solving environment of the classroom, the students develop skills in communicating their ideas to others. At times, they may add to the ideas contributed by other members of the

group, and, at other times, they may take exception to their peers' ideas. Both actions require effective

communication techniques, and both involve a type of interaction that leads to consensus and understanding. 

15.8.2. The case study method increases the student's ability to appreciate other points of view, to

explore and discuss differences of opinion, and, eventually, to reach an agreement. It forces students

to think analytically, constructively, and creatively, and gives them the satisfaction of participating in

an orderly social relationship with others. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 191

Chapter 16 

THE TEACHING INTERVIEW METHOD 

16.1. Introduction. As part of our daily lives, conversation occurs when two or more people exchange

information or viewpoints. An interview is a special type of controlled conversation aimed at specific

objectives. Interviews vary broadly in content according to their purpose or the situation in which they are

conducted. For example, we use personal interviews when we evaluate performance and when we reassign, retain, or separate. Managers use interviews for giving orders and handling complaints or reprimands. Interviews are also used in sales, counseling, and information gathering, including polls and

surveys, and for such specialized purposes as medical diagnosis, criminal investigation, and legal inquiry.

The teaching interview is another type of interview: its main use is to promote learning. 

16.2. Background: 

16.2.1. Much like the guided discussion, the interview as an educational technique started when the

first student asked the first question and the first teacher replied. Tradition credits the Greek philosopher Socrates with a pupil-teacher dialogue that replaced the one-sided lecturing of the Sophists, a

class of professional teachers in ancient Greece. Still in use today, Socratic dialogue relies on the

assumption that each person has a storehouse of knowledge and understanding that can be discovered

through questioning techniques. Students who participate in this exchange of ideas and opinions learn

by relating what they know to what they don't know. The dialogue is the basis of most discussion

methods of learning. 

16.2.2. The teaching interview is a dialogue in a classroom situation that pairs a skilled instructor

with a recognized expert. The expert has specialized knowledge or a broad understanding of a subject;

the instructor draws out that knowledge and understanding by means of questions. The students learn

by observing the interview and asking questions. 

16.3. Uses of the Teaching Interview. The teaching interview can be used as a primary method for

achieving planned learning objectives. The instructor's job is to elicit espouses from the guest expert that

allows the students to reach these desired learning outcomes. Many schools already have a guest speaker

program. Because guests may depart from the planned topic or lesson outline, they often do not help to

achieve planned lesson objectives. Reasonable control over the actions of a guest speaker is the primary

advantage of the teaching interview. 

16.3.1. The teaching interview may also be used to supplement the instructor's knowledge of a specific subject area. In the Department of Defense, we often are asked to teach subjects in which we are

not completely expert. When the subject matter is very broad, an outsider may help cover our knowledge gap. For example, management courses could easily profit from the interview of an expert who

has had experience in conference leadership. In educational fields, experts who have worked with

motivating adults could contribute significantly to an understanding of the learning process. Professional Military Education schools frequently benefit by bringing management experts to the classroom and interviewing them for the students. 

16.3.2. Another use of the teaching interview is curriculum enrichment. The appearance of an expert

or authority enhances the credibility of a classroom difficult to duplicate by the average teacher. The

teaching interview lesson may also be used to add variety to the curriculum. For example, if the
192 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

instructor usually lectures, a teaching interview can be an exciting change of pace to the regular routine. 

16.3.3. The teaching interview can also be a motivational device. It can be used to introduce a block

of instruction and gain the students' interest. For example, a physician might introduce a series of lessons on first aid, or a former prisoner of war could stimulate interest in the Code of Conduct. 

16.3.4. The teaching interview can also be used as a problem-solving activity. The instructor can

interview an expert in a particular area, presenting a problem to the expert for solution. During the

course of the interview, the expert can present the solution to the problem. 

16.4. Initial Planning Factors. The instructor must examine the curriculum closely to determine the

need for interview lessons. The interview lesson is best suited for exploring attitudes, experiences, and

opinions. Generally speaking, teaching interview lessons should be planned at the comprehension level

within the cognitive domain and at the lower levels of the affective domain. The instructor should also

make a value judgment about the expert's ability to contribute to the overall learning experience. 

16.4.1. An interview can examine an expert's reasoning process and the rationale used for arriving at

conclusions. The interview probes the "whys" and "hows" of a thinking mind. The interview lesson

discusses "the importance of...," "the reasons for...," and "the value of..." particular events or actions

rather than the events or actions themselves. These valuable additions to the learning process influence the focus of the lesson objective. The teaching interview lends itself to teaching both concepts

and principles. 

16.4.2. After stating the lesson objective and selecting the teaching interview as the method, we must

select the expert to be interviewed. The first step in any sort of research is to explore our own

resources. So, the first step in selecting an expert is to examine our own faculty or colleagues. The best

available resource may be in the next office. Military bases, local communities, and nearby colleges

often provide experts for interview lessons. 

16.4.3. Select a recognized expert if one is available. Students respond to people they acknowledge as

experts and generally accept their remarks readily. Since students frequently accept the expert's testimony at face value, you can save time by not having to develop support material to substantiate his or

her ideas. 

16.4.4. When selecting a prospective expert, find out all relevant information about the person. Make

sure the expert can set forth views with candor and frankness and clearly explain the basis for opinions. If you discover the person generally thought to be an expert really is not or that his or her personality or style of presentation might be a serious barrier to learning, find someone else. 

16.4.5. Spend time researching the subject that the interview lesson will cover. If the expert has published works or made public statements, examine them to gain insight into the views expressed. If you

have a thorough grasp of the expert's opinions and viewpoints, you can choose the ideas with the

greatest value to the students. 

16.4.6. You are now ready to narrow your research to the subject of the interview itself. What specific

topics will be covered? What sorts of questions will prompt the best answers? How should you react

to the responses of the expert? Obviously, you do not need to know the subject matter of the interview

as well as the expert. Perhaps a method other than the teaching interview should be used if you have

as much expertise as your guest expert. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 193

16.4.7. The last step in the preliminary planning of the teaching interview is to prepare a logically

organized outline of the lesson. (See Part I in Attachment 8.) Consider how the expert's knowledge

can best be used to satisfy the overall lesson objective. As you prepare this outline, you will probably

discover that some limitation of the subject, as well as the lesson objective, is necessary. When you

consider the time allotted for the lesson, the depth of detail, and the degree of understanding desired,

you will probably find that you should limit the scope of the interview. 

16.4.8. The outline will also suggest question areas. Place yourself in the position of the students and

decide what they need to know in order to increase their understanding of the expert's attitude or experience. You need not write out specific questions for the interview at this point; instead, establish in

your own mind the general areas of questions to be covered. 

16.5. Coordination. Three major coordinating steps precede the actual teaching interview lesson. Two of

these steps involve meetings between instructor and expert, while the other deals with the students themselves. 

16.5.1. Preview the Subject With the Expert. The first coordinating step involves interaction

between the instructor and the expert. The aim of the initial contact should be the previewing of the

subject of the interview, where the essential facts and specific topics or subject areas to be covered are

discussed. However, you may not want to give the expert the actual questions you will ask since you

want the interview to be spontaneous. A common outline of the lesson may be prepared with the

expert. This can serve as a tentative guide for the interview itself. Decide upon any visual aids you

will prepare or provide and whether they are for your own requirements or for the guest to use. 

16.5.1.1. One of the most important considerations in the preview is to help the expert gain an

appreciation for which areas of subject content will be covered. You should add or delete items

that either the expert does not feel qualified to discuss or may wish to avoid in public discussion.

This will help to eliminate any potentially embarrassing situations that might inhibit a feeling of

mutual trust. Remember that an interview lesson is not an interrogation in which the expert is badgered into an admission of guilt or error, nor is the interview lesson an opportunity to make the

expert appear foolish, ignorant, or upset. 

16.5.1.2. Mutual considerations during coordination will lead to good rapport, which is essential

to the successful outcome of the interview lesson. If you cannot arrange a face-to-face meeting,

arrange the topics for the interview by correspondence or by telephone. Building rapport and

establishing a good working relationship will have to wait until shortly before the lesson begins. 

16.5.2. Announce the Visitor's Appearance to the Class. The second coordinating step involves

the students themselves. The interview should not be a surprise. Motivate your students by announcing that a guest will be visiting the class. You may provide the students a short biographical sketch of

the expert or a brief outline of the lesson to be presented. This material will help arouse student interest and curiosity and may be highly motivational as well. Students may become more involved if you

ask them for questions to be used during the interview. When the students know who is coming, what

the expert's qualifications are, and what the subject is, the interview has a better chance for success. 

16.5.3. Meet With the Expert. The final coordinating step is a brief meeting between the expert and

instructor shortly before the actual interview presentation. This final meeting gives the expert a

chance to become physically adjusted to the interview situation and to see the classroom and its equipment. It also helps develop informality and cordiality that are particularly important, especially if the
194 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

expert is meeting the instructor in person for the first time. The instructor should put the expert at ease

and establish a relaxed and permissive atmosphere for the interview lesson. In addition, it allows for

any last-minute changes in the interview outline. 

16.6. The Interview Lesson: 

16.6.1. The interview lesson is not a series of short speeches, nor is it solely a question-and-answer

period. (See the sample interview lesson plan at Attachment 8.) We only need to recall the informality and spontaneity of the popular TV talk shows to understand the atmosphere sought in a teaching

interview. 

16.6.2. The classroom arrangement is as important as in other methods. You and the expert should

have enough desk or table space. Students should be able to see and hear both of you without effort.

You may choose to be seated to start the lesson or you may remain standing depending on which is

more comfortable and appropriate. Normally, you should sit after the questioning begins. If possible,

arrange a "warm-up" session in private with the expert just before the interview lesson. If this is not

possible, begin the interview with easily answered questions geared toward opening up the subject

and the person, such as "When did you first become interested in ecology?" or "What led to your interest in military history?" A preliminary conversation is a smooth way to ease the expert into the main

thrust of the lesson, while avoiding mere social pleasantries. 

16.7. Introducing the Interview Lesson. Like any other well-organized lesson, the introduction of an

interview lesson focuses attention on the subject, prepares students to recognize the value of listening, and

provides them with a good idea of how the interview will proceed. Introduce the guest yourself so you can

stress the pertinent qualifications, but keep the introduction simple and take care not to embarrass the

guest by overstatement. Make sure you have accurate details. 

16.7.1. In the introduction, announce that you will have a question-and-answer period at some point

during or following the lesson. It is also critical that you present a thorough overview. Do not forget

that this overview is for the students and the expert. The overview gives the students a "road map" for

the lesson and serves to remind your expert of exactly what is to be addressed. 

16.7.2. Students normally know you have invited a guest to class, and they will be anxious to meet

and hear from the expert. Therefore, you should try to involve the expert in the lesson as early as possible. Be brief in your attention and motivation steps, while not slighting their importance and effect.

Introduce the class to the expert if you feel it will enhance the setting. This is an optional procedure,

but it often helps in channeling the expert's comments toward student needs. The expert's involvement

in the lesson should start as an integral part of the introduction. 

16.8. Conducting the Interview. The development section of the interview lesson centers on the conversation between the instructor and the expert. The instructor's task is to serve as a stimulus to conversation

by asking questions that bring out ideas from the expert in support of the lesson objective. As in the

guided discussion, you should plan the lesson so that it will develop along certain lines to satisfy the specific learning objective. For this reason, carefully plan the leadoff question for each main point. When you

ask the leadoff questions, ask them as planned. This will ensure you are headed in the right direction. 

16.8.1. Even though your lesson is somewhat structured, be careful not to become so directive that

conversation is stifled. However, the interview is controlled at all times, even to the extent of tactfully

interrupting the expert if necessary. By remaining natural, friendly, permissive, and conversational,
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 195

you can show genuine interest in both the guest and the subject. Listen to what is being said and be

prepared to ask for further clarification, examples, details, and other support material if required, or to

pursue new lines of discussion when necessary. Notes taken during the lesson will be helpful when the

time comes to summarize. 

16.8.2. Your job as instructor, then, is to bridge the gap between the expert and the students. You

interpret what the expert says and provide clarification when needed for the students. However, avoid

using such phrases as "What you're saying is..." or "Let me clear up what you've just said... ." You

can ask the expert to clarify points without implying poor communication. You are the best judge of

students' needs and also of how well the information given in the interview is satisfying those needs.

Divide your attention, between looking at the expert and monitoring the students for any cues that

would prompt you to seek further clarification from the expert. Carefully positioning the chairs will

eliminate any awkwardness in directing eye contact to both the expert and the students. 

16.8.3. Your questions are the vehicles for achieving the learning objective of the lesson and satisfying students' needs. The successful instructor organizes questions in a definite sequence relating to the

subject's central theme and the lesson objective. Questioning sequences may follow any acceptable

organizational pattern (chronological, spatial, topical, and so forth) provided that pattern is appropriate to the lesson. 

16.8.4. Each question should be clear and definite for both the expert and the students. The expert

should not have to guess what the question means, what it implies, or what kind of answer to give. If

the expert seems to be having difficulty with a question, you can restate or rephrase it. Lengthy,

involved, and ambiguous questions hardly ever produce the best possible response. Simple, precise,

and direct questions are better for communicating with the expert. Avoid questions that contain unfamiliar or technical vocabulary because they may be misunderstood by the students or, for that matter,

by the expert. In addition to your planned questions, don't hesitate to use spontaneous questions to get

the lesson back on track and to explore new ideas and points. You should have an interim summary

before going on to another main point, but you may also wish to use interim summaries to curtail and

redirect discussion if the expert gets off track. 

16.8.5. Remember to ask questions that direct attention to ideas, elicit comments, and seek explanations to clarify ideas in depth. Some questions perform these tasks better than others. Thought-provoking questions require the expert to explain the responses and are better for promoting discussion.

With an outgoing, talkative expert, you may not have a problem keeping the conversation moving.

However, with a quiet, reserved expert, you must ensure the questions prompt more elaborate

responses than simple agreement or disagreement. Questions phrased using "how" or "why" tend to

promote more thought and discussion. They will more readily seek out the expert's special knowledge

or opinions on the subject. Additional examples of questions to open up conversation include: What

are your ideas concerning...? What is your opinion of...? Why do you feel...? How do you view...? 

16.8.6. The instructor must also continually remember that the purpose of the interview is to aid student learning. Therefore, assess the expert's responses on the basis of student understanding and follow up as necessary when the replies are vague, confusing, or incomplete. Carefully plan your

followup questions, but be prepared to bypass some of them if the guest has already covered the point

involved. If appropriate, ask the questions verbatim from the lesson plan. However, be ready to modify a followup question based on the expert's comments that preceded it. Be sure to plan a sufficient

number of questions to keep the interview lively. Followup questions useful for clarification include:
196 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

What are some other examples? Under what circumstances would that apply? What is the basis for

your opinion? 

16.8.7. The instructor may also guide the conversation by repeating phrases the expert has already

used. This technique invariably causes the expert to expand ideas further. Nodding to answers is reassuring and encourages the expert to continue. Certain neutral questions may also be used to obtain a

more complete, clearer response. Examples of neutral questions include: What do you have in mind?

Why do you feel that way? Why do you think so? 

16.8.8. Allow the expert adequate time to reflect on questions, decide on answers, and to word

replies. The short gaps in the conversation these pauses will create are not harmful to the expert or the

students. Actually, they will give the expert a chance to gather thoughts and give a more complete

response than if a followup question is asked too quickly. In addition, the students will have a chance

to finish notes and do reflective thinking. 

16.9. Ending the Interview. The instructor's role in concluding the teaching interview is important.

Schedule a question-and-answer session before the final summary because you will want that summary to

include any pertinent comments made in response to the students' questions. A brief interim summary

may follow the last main point, then the question-and-answer period may begin. You may choose to stand

up or remain seated for the conclusion, depending on your personal teaching technique. Summarize the

ideas presented by the expert and show how they support your conclusion and the lesson objectives.

Remotivate the students to retain and build upon the insights gained during the lesson. This remotivation

can occur as a separate step or as part of the summary. Finally, close the lesson by thanking the expert. Do

not thank your guest until you are ready to dismiss the class; once you do, the lesson is over as far as the

students and the expert are concerned. 

16.10. Sample Lesson Plan for a Teaching Interview. The sample teaching interview lesson plan is at

Attachment 8. Pay particular attention to how the questions are phrased and how the summary is developed. Note the wording of the objective, the fact that the samples of behavior provide evidence of comprehending the overall objective, and that the main points add up to the conclusion stated in the objective.

Also, notice the similarities between this plan and that for a guided discussion found at Attachment 4. 

16.11. Summary. The teaching interview is essentially a method of instruction through which expert

resource persons can be used efficiently in the classroom. This method gives the instructor an opportunity

to be more flexible and vary presentation modes of teaching, while at the same time satisfying planned

learning objectives. The degree of success in the use of the teaching interview depends on a good lesson

plan and questions that will guide the expert's responses. If you understand the strengths of this method

and when to use it, you will improve your use of guest experts. The teaching interview requires little preparation on the part of the expert compared to preparing for a lecture. As such, you will most likely find

many individuals enthusiastic and willing to help you present a dynamic teaching interview lesson. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 197

Chapter 17 

THE DEMONSTRATION-PERFORMANCE METHOD 

17.1. Introduction: 

17.1.1. The demonstration-performance (D-P) method is a proven method for teaching mental or

physical skills that require student practice for skill mastery. This method is based on the principle that

students learn best by doing. A person learns to swim by swimming, drive by driving, and teach by

teaching. Skills requiring the use of tools, machines, and equipment are suited to this instructional

method. Equally well suited are skills that require mathematical computations and those that are a

combination of mental know-how and physical dexterity, such as taking fingerprints and fitting earplugs. 

17.1.2. The science teacher uses the D-P method to teach laboratory procedures. The shop foreman

teaches the apprentice almost entirely by some version of this method. The instructor pilot uses it to

teach flying skills. The professor of medicine uses it to teach surgical skills. In each case, the instructor demonstrates the particular procedure to the students and then acts as a supervisor while they practice the skill. During the practice period, the instructor points out errors and helps students eliminate

rough spots and/or errors in their performances. In the D-P method, the instructor tells and shows students how to do the skill, they practice under the instructor's supervision, and they are evaluated on

their performances against predetermined criteria. 

17.2. Planning and Developing a D-P Lesson. The D-P lesson or block of lessons consists of explanation, demonstration, performance-supervision, and evaluation phases. If all these phases are included in

one continuous block or period of instruction, they are preceded by an introduction and followed by a conclusion. 

17.2.1. The Introduction. The introduction to a D-P lesson generally consists of the three elements

recommended for all lessons—attention step, motivation step, and overview. The attention and motivation steps are the same as those discussed in Chapter 6; however, the overview is somewhat different. In a D-P lesson, students need to know not only what they will learn but how they will learn it;

that is, how the lesson will proceed and how they will be evaluated. Where there is potential for physical harm to students, the overview must include safety procedures. Since beginning students often

run the risk of injury while working with unfamiliar tools and equipment, instructors should continually stress safety throughout a lesson, even if only slight hazards are involved. 

17.2.2. The Body: Explanation Phase. The instructor tells the students how to perform the skill in

this phase. This explanation should be planned as a short lecture with the nature of the task determining the appropriate organizational pattern. Most skills lend themselves to a sequential pattern where

the skill is explained in the same step-by-step order normally used to perform it. When the skill being

taught is related to previously taught or already known material, the instructor may use the known to

unknown strategy. When teaching more than one skill in the same lesson, the simple to complex strategy works well. By starting with the simplest skill, students build confidence and are less likely to

become frustrated when building to more complex skills. 

17.2.2.1. Another important consideration in the explanation phase is the language used. Instructors should attempt to speak at the learner level and avoid unnecessary jargon and technical terms

the students may not understand. Clear communication is the key. Take care to clearly describe the
198 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

actions students are expected to perform. It is neither appropriate nor effective for instructors to

try to impress the students with their expertise by using unnecessarily complicated language. 

17.2.2.2. Instructional aids are particularly important in a D-P lesson. The best instructional aid is

the actual equipment to be used. Other useful aids are charts, mock-ups, and models. When using

aids, be sure they are readable, accurate, and that all students can see them. 

17.2.3. The Body: Demonstration Phase. In the demonstration phase (which may be combined

with the explanation phase) the instructor shows the students how to do the skill. At times, an explanation alone is too abstract and may need a simultaneous demonstration to aid in understanding. However, with a complicated or dangerous skill, the two phases are often better separated. For example,

students will probably understand a combined explanation or demonstration of flag folding, but they

would probably need separate steps to construct visual aids. 

17.2.3.1. The instructor must demonstrate the skill correctly and safely the first time it is demonstrated. When the skill is demonstrated incorrectly, the instructor may lose credibility, and students

will have to unlearn the incorrectly presented material before they can learn it correctly. 

17.2.3.2. The skill should be demonstrated in the same sequence in which it was explained, thus

avoiding confusion among the students and reinforcing the steps. Since the students generally imitate the instructor's performance, the instructor must demonstrate the skill exactly the way the students are expected to practice it, including all safety procedures the students must follow. 

17.2.4. The Body: Performance-Supervision Phase. Before the students actually begin to practice

the skill, the instructor must decide how much control to use. In the independent approach, the students practice the entire skill after seeing the demonstration, going from step to step at their own individual rates. In the controlled approach ("by the numbers"), students practice each task step (or small

group of task steps) after seeing them demonstrated. With dangerous or difficult skills, the controlled

approach is recommended for the first practice as a minimum. In each case, the students should practice the entire skill independently as many times as practical to achieve mastery before they are evaluated. In many cases, over-learning to ensure proficiency may be desirable. Allow students to practice

at least once under evaluation conditions. 

17.2.4.1. Each student's work must be supervised to ensure safe, correct performance. If any common error or safety hazards develop, the instructor should stop the group and reteach the area of

difficulty. Students should be permitted to work on their own as much as possible without unnecessary interruption or too much assistance. The instructor should avoid distracting or nonpurposeful talking or wandering. However, the instructor should not hesitate to interrupt if a student has

made a mistake or is about to make a mistake. 

17.2.4.2. The time to identify errors is during the learning activity rather than the evaluation

phase. The stronger, more proficient students may assist the less proficient ones. The stronger students may also be able to make some comments or suggest techniques all the students can use.

Weaker students often make comments concerning their areas of difficulty. These comments provide excellent sources of information for improving subsequent instruction. In a self-paced environment, proficient students should not be held back when they are able to perform better and

more quickly than their peers. 

17.2.5. The Body: Evaluation Phase. The most important consideration in the evaluation phase is to

develop an appropriate rating instrument or written test (see Chapter 22 and Chapter 24). To be

valid, the rating device must accurately measure achievement of the criterion objective. For example,
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if the conditions of the objective state that the skill will be accomplished without assistance, then the

instructor must cover or remove all instructional aids, erase the board, put away work sheets, and

ensure that the students actually do the skill without references. 

17.2.5.1. When beginning the evaluation phase, instructors should give clear, complete instructions to the students. They should review the task steps, if necessary, and emphasize acceptable

standards (time, accuracy, quality, etc.). They must allow for enough time, equipment, and supplies to evaluate all students on all standards. 

17.2.5.2. At the conclusion of the evaluation phase, instructors should record student performance

on a suitable form and reveal the results privately to each student if possible. Students will naturally be interested in their individual performances; however, the instructor must withhold comments that may influence other students until all have completed the evaluation. 

17.2.5.3. Regardless of how well a skill is taught, there may still be failures. The rule is that "success motivates," so instructors should always be positive in revealing results. When pointing out

areas that need improvement, instructors should offer concrete suggestions that will help. If possible, they should avoid ending the evaluation on a negative note or criticizing a student in front of

other students. Afterwards they should evaluate overall student achievement of the lesson objective and revise the instruction as necessary for future classes. 

17.2.6. The Conclusion. The conclusion to a D-P lesson consists of the three elements recommended

for all lessons—summary, remotivation, and closure. The remotivation and closure are generally the

same as discussed in Chapter 6. In the summary, instructors should review the task steps with emphasis on any areas of difficulty experienced by a majority of the students. Areas of difficulty experienced

by only one or two students may be better addressed on an individual basis. 

17.3. Factors to Consider When Using the D-P Method: 

17.3.1. Lesson Content. A D-P method is best used for teaching mental or physical skills that require

student practice for mastery. It is not recommended for cognitive or affective lessons in which student

practice is not required. 

17.3.2. Evaluation. One advantage of the D-P method is that evaluation is a part of the lesson format.

The criterion objective dictates the evaluation procedures. If the criterion objective is complete, clear,

and concise, there should be no surprises for the student during the evaluation. 

17.3.3. Student-Instructor Relationship. When using the D-P method, the instructor must be aware

of individual differences among students and be willing and able to give as much or as little assistance

as required by each student. Students may work independently or the instructor can provide close,

individual attention. 

17.3.4. Time. The majority of time in a D-P lesson should be devoted to supervised practice. There is

no alternative to providing sufficient time for student practice. If the students do not require practice

to learn the skill, then another method is probably more appropriate. 

17.3.5. Equipment and Materials. The instructor should have all handouts, equipment, and materials ready before the lesson begins. Arrange the room or work area to facilitate safety, close supervision, and maximum use of space. 

17.3.6. Student Role. Many skills cannot be performed on an individual basis; therefore, teams or

partners must be assigned. Only through intensive practice can groups know exactly what to do and
200 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

how to do it. If the activity is normally accomplished as a team effort, it should be practiced and evaluated as a team effort. 

17.3.7. Group Size. In many skills, the size of the class or the number of workstations is critical. All

students must be able to see the demonstration, and the group must be small enough so the instructor

can effectively supervise all students during the practice session. All students must have sufficient

access to needed equipment, supplies, and materials. 

17.4. The Sample D-P Lesson Plan: 

17.4.1. The lesson plan at Attachment 9 illustrates a format for D-P lessons from among many

acceptable ones. The objective, task steps, and actual teaching plan arrangement may be varied to

meet the administrative requirements of different schools or situations. At Attachment 9, the criterion

objective is broken down into three elements—performance, conditions, and standards—rather than

written in narrative form. This separation of the elements clearly specifies the instructional intent and

may be easier to write than a narrative format. 

17.4.2. The process/product evaluation sheet shown as Part III of the sample lesson plan in Attachment 9 is one of many possible formats for recording student evaluation results. The important thing

to remember when designing formats for lesson plans and evaluation sheets is to use those that will

work for the particular situation within the administrative constraints of the individual school. 

17.5. Summary. The D-P method provides students with the opportunity to perform skills or processes

that have been explained and demonstrated under controlled conditions and close supervision. Through

this supervised performance, the student gains necessary skills to apply on the job or in subsequent lessons. 

17.5.1. When using the D-P lesson, the instructor must carefully consider the following factors: lesson content, evaluation, student-instructor relationships, time, equipment and materials, instructor

preparation, student roles, and class size. 

17.5.2. A successful D-P lesson requires a thorough explanation, a proper demonstration, student

practice with close instructor supervision to eliminate student mistakes, and a valid evaluation of student performance. If these four primary phases are effectively planned for and carefully implemented,

students will have the maximum opportunity to master the skill taught. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 201

Chapter 18 

USING GAMES FOR LEARNING 

18.1. Introduction. Games in the classroom? You must be kidding! This is the reaction you may get

from educators who have never experienced the benefits of using games in the classroom to facilitate the

learning process. However, adults, like children, enjoy the interaction and challenge games provide.

Games have been used for years by parents and school teachers to provide children an enjoyable way to

learn. Adults can benefit from this method as well, and you'll find (as an instructor) that games help provide variety to your standard lessons. Your students can benefit from games if the games are used to help

reach your lesson objectives. 

18.2. Benefits of Using Games. Using games in the classroom can be beneficial to your students in a

number of ways. One thing games will help you do is to gain your students' attention and increase their

motivation by providing a diversion from the normal lecture methods. Games also help students retain

information more readily and help to create a nonthreatening learning environment. Students are often

reluctant to take risks in the normal classroom setting. When involved in an experiential method of

instruction, students can make mistakes without feeling their reputation will be threatened. Games provide individuals with opportunities to participate in situations in a safe environment before facing the situation in real life. It's always better to try out new ideas or methods in a classroom environment before

using them in real-life situations. Another big plus is that an experiential method gets the students

involved in reaching the lesson objective, which decreases passive learning. Finally, the majority of

games help add that needed level of competition to the classroom by pitting teams against each other in a

friendly way. 

18.3. Classifying Games. Games are defined as "student interactive educational methods where students

participate in structured activities that focus on specified learning objectives." The key ingredient to

games is the aspect of student interactivity. Students must get actively involved in the learning process

and not be passive listeners. This activity engages students in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor

domains. While the number of games used for learning is almost limitless, games can be divided into two

major areas—climate setting and learner development games. Climate-setting games include openers or

icebreakers and pacers or energizers, while learner development games can be divided into cognitive

development games and skill practice games. 

18.3.1. Climate-Setting Games: 

18.3.1.1. Openers and Icebreakers. These types of games are designed to help individuals in an

unfamiliar setting get comfortable with each other, plus get comfortable with the instructor and the

learning environment. In other words, they help break the ice. 

18.3.1.2. Pacers and Energizers. At times, a class may need a boost in the middle to get the students' interest back. This is especially true after lunch or after several hours of sitting in class. Pacers and energizers help by getting the students actively involved in a learning activity so they are

energized enough to continue with the class. Climate-setting games for the most part are relatively

brief in duration. 

18.3.2. Learner-Development Games: 
202 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

18.3.2.1. Cognitive Development Games. These games involve students using previously

learned material to accomplish the game and reach the lesson objective, or they may be used to

introduce new concepts or principles to students. These types of games are very effective in reinforcing student learning by providing capstones to the lessons. 

18.3.2.2. Skill Practice Games. These types of games allow students to try out or improve their

abilities on a task or skill. Students can practice real-life situations in a safe environment. Such

games include role plays, simulation games, organizational and management games, and in-basket

exercises. These games are relatively longer in duration than cognitive development games. Some

skill practice games may last throughout the class duration. 

18.4. Various Games for Classroom Use. Some of the games you may want to use in your classroom

include: 

18.4.1. Frame Games. Frame games allow you to plug your content into an existing game to fit individual needs and objectives. For example, you may use the game of monopoly, tic-tac-toe, bingo,

jeopardy, or some other board game and develop questions, rules, etc., to fit your need. In other words,

use the frame (format) of an established game instead of reinventing the wheel. Frame games are

effective at the knowledge level of learning and may be taken to the comprehension level by having

students translate, interpret, or extrapolate. 

18.4.2. Matching Games. Matching games are great for helping students remember definitions,

sequences, steps, phases, etc. You provide the terms and definitions in random order and the student

must match the correct term with its corresponding definition. Matching games can even be placed on

room walls for students to solve at their leisure. Matching games are effective at the knowledge and

comprehension levels of learning. 

18.4.3. Word Hide. Also known as word search games, students enjoy the challenge of locating the

hidden word. This game can be used as a pacer or energizer during class. 

18.4.4. Crossword Puzzles. In crossword puzzles, students read a sentence or phrase, then must

determine what word corresponds to the sentence or phrase. Crossword puzzles can be used effectively at the knowledge or comprehension level of learning. To help ensure students become familiar

with the reading material, you can develop a crossword puzzle that can only be solved by reading the

chapters in their books. 

18.4.5. Role Play. Role plays require students to place themselves into a simulated interpersonal situation and act out various roles assigned them. The various role plays include single role plays, multiple role plays, and spontaneous role plays. Role plays are very effective in human relations and

communication scenarios. Role plays can work effectively at the higher levels of learning. 

18.4.6. In-Basket Exercises. These exercises simulate a series of situations or decisions a leader or

manager may encounter within his or her profession. They are effective in allowing students to practice skills such as decisionmaking, delegating, planning, and scheduling. So, in-basket exercises are

effective at the higher levels of learning. 

18.4.7. Simulation Games. Simulations are low-risk, educational experiences that substitute for

real-life situations. Simulations involve rules, competition, cooperation, and payoffs. They require

students to make various decisions and plan strategies in order to reach a goal or outcome. There are

numerous computer simulation games on the market today that can be adapted for use in the classroom. Simulation games are effective in helping students reach the higher levels of learning. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 203

18.4.8. Organizational or Management Games. Students are allowed to manipulate an organization or some component part to produce certain desired outcomes. Students are able to practice the

various roles of manager, employee, and customer to get a feel of what it is like to function in these

roles. Organizational or management games are effective at the higher cognitive levels of learning. 

18.5. Designing a Game. If you can't find a ready-made game to fit your need, design your own. An

example game lesson plan is at Attachment 10. As with other methods of instruction, the first step is to

identify the lesson objective. The objective helps you ensure the game is relevant to student learning—

otherwise, don't attempt it. 

18.5.1. Second, select or adapt a game to fit your needs. You may be able to find some preexisting

game that will fit your need; however, you may need to modify it so that the game rules fit your need.

If you are unable to modify a game, you can always develop your own. The choice is really up to you. 

18.5.2. Third, determine the process or sequence of events for the game. The process may be a given

with some preexisting games, but you can always modify the sequence of events. The key is to have

the game run smoothly. 

18.5.3. Fourth, determine the end of the game. You need to determine how you will identify the winner of the game—provided the game has a winner. 

18.5.4. Fifth, if you are developing a cognitive development game that lends itself to asking students

questions, collect the curriculum you will be teaching and write out your questions. Reading assignments, handouts, class discussions, etc., work well in helping you develop questions. 

18.5.5. Sixth, construct your game or find a preexisting board or computer game to use. If constructing your own game board, game pieces, game cards etc., ensure they are of good enough quality to last

and are easily duplicated. 

18.5.6. Finally, try out your game with your coworkers to see if it flows well. This will help iron out

any rough edges before introducing the game to your students. 

18.6. Writing Game Questions. Questions are important in a large portion of games. Steve Sugar, of

The Game Group, suggests the following tips on writing game questions: 

18.6.1. Write your questions in a conversational format. 

18.6.2. Questions and answers should be stated simply. 

18.6.3. Make your questions short in length. Since you usually read them aloud, a lengthy question

will slow the game down. 

18.6.4. Ensure your question focuses on one fact. Therefore, avoid multiple questions. 

18.6.5. Include the rationale or elaboration along with the answers. This will aid additional learning. 

18.6.6. Develop a difficulty mix among your questions. A recommended mix might be 20 percent

challenging, 60 percent moderate, and 20 percent easy. 

18.6.7. If using note cards for your questions, number your cards just in case you drop them. 

18.7. Writing a Game Lesson Plan. Where in your lesson or course do you want to place your game

method? You may decide to use the game for just a portion of your lesson (partial period game) or you
204 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

may want to design your entire class around a game (whole period game). If writing your own game lesson, you will need to: 

18.7.1. Identify your lesson objective, the timeframe your game will take up, and the number of players required to play the game (minimum and maximum). 

18.7.2. Identify all the supplies and materials required to play the game to include boards, game

pieces, pens, paper, chips, etc. 

18.7.3. Lay out the process of your game in a step-by-step sequence. This will help the game to run

smoothly and as planned. 

18.7.4. Include a debriefing section, if needed. Don't confuse debriefing with a briefing. They're not

the same. In a game debriefing you help the students reflect on the game experience. Providing a

debriefing will help increase student learning insights. You can also clear up any areas of student confusion in the debriefing. According to Dr. Sivasailam Thiagarajan, of Workshops by Thiagi, you

should prepare special questions for the debriefing, such as: How do you feel about what took place?

What happened during the exercise? What did you learn from this experience? How does this relate to

the real world? What if ... ? What is next? 

18.8. Administering the Game. The following tips should help your game run smoothly: 

18.8.1. Provide an introduction to your game as a lead-in. Be enthusiastic about the game, for enthusiasm is contagious. If you present a negative attitude about the game, your students will mirror that

negativism. 

18.8.2. Provide instructions to the game in your setup and distribute the game materials as required.

In order to get the game going, only explain the important rules and instructions in outline form to

keep it quick and simple; however, ensure all rules are covered. Provide clarification if the need arises

during the game. 

18.8.3. To make sure you reach your objective, ensure students remain on track as the game

progresses. Games are a lot of fun and can sometimes get out of hand if you're not careful. Some individuals may get very competitive during the game while others may not participate. As with any

instructional method, use your teacher skills to ensure everyone is given the opportunity to participate.

You will want to maintain an appropriate pace and level of competition during the game so you can

move smoothly from one stage of the game to the next. 

18.8.4. One important key to remember is to always be flexible. When conducting a game you must

always be ready for a new twist; being flexible will keep you from getting upset when things don't go

exactly as planned. 

18.8.5. Finally, debriefing students as necessary will help them reflect on the game, clear up any areas

of confusion, and close your game on a positive note. 

18.9. Cautions on Using Games. While games are a lot of fun to use in the classroom and relatively

easy to administer, there are a few precautions to keep in mind. 

18.9.1. Your attitude is paramount when conducting a game in the classroom. Ensure you have a

proper attitude before proceeding. Ensure you are using the game to help your students learn and not

just to have fun or kill time. While games are designed to be fun, you have a bigger picture to keep in

mind—student learning. Maintain a balance between having fun and seriousness. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 205

18.9.2. Make sure the game fits into the class context. If the game isn't relevant to the class, leave it

out. Maintain overall control of the game to ensure your objective is met. Watch out for those domineering students or those who don't want to participate. If you have a domineering student, direct participation to others in the class. If a student doesn't like talking, direct questions to him or her that can

be easily answered. Peer pressure will often take care of these situations; however, intervention may

be necessary from time to time. Remember that everyone should gain from the game experience. 

18.10. General Considerations When Using Games. There are several things you will need to consider

before using a game. 

18.10.1. Determine Your Lesson Objective. You need to determine if using a game will help your

students learn and help reach your lesson objective. Do you want your students to simply get to know

each other or is your objective to develop their cognitive, affective and/or psychomotor skills? 

18.10.2. Group Size (Number of Players). What is the minimum and maximum number of students

who can play your game? How much time do you have during your class or course for an experiential

method? Do you want to use the game during the introduction, body, conclusion, or as a complete

period of instruction? 

18.10.3. Supplies or Materials. What materials will your game require? Can you make your own

game pieces or will you need to purchase them? 

18.10.4. Physical Setting. Finally, do you have enough classroom space to conduct your game? Most

games will run very smoothly in your classroom; however, some games may require special equipment or locations. 

18.11. Dr. Sivasailam Thiagarajan's Considerations. To ensure your game will be effective, consider

Dr. Thiagarajan's (more simply known as Thiagi) checklist at Figure 18.1. for using experiential activities. He developed this checklist to give trainers and educators who use games a tool to ensure the validity

of their efforts. It is available on the worldwide web at http://www.thiagi.com. 
206 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 18.1. Dr. Thiagarajan's Experiential Checklist. 

18.12. Summary. Games will provide that extra something for you in the classroom if you plan and prepare well. As the instructor, you will enjoy watching your students learn while having fun. So experiment,

be creative, and enjoy the game. For further information on using games in the classroom or finding a

ready-made game for use, consult your local library and look under games, teambuilding, or classroom

activities. The internet also contains a wealth of resources in this area. 

1. Real-World Relevance. Does the training game help participants learn skills and concepts that are 

applicable to the workplace? Do the roles in the training game relate to easily recognizable real-world 

counterparts? 

2. Appropriate Frame. Is the basic structure of the training game appropriate for the instructional 

objectives, trainee characteristics, type of learning, and intended use? 

3. Flexible Format. Does the training game permit easy modifications to suit local resources and 

constraints in terms of schedule, number and type of participants, and physical facilities? 

4. Participant Involvement. Are all participants involved in the training game at all times? 

5. Effective Packaging. If the game uses different components (such as game boards, cards, and dice), 

are they conveniently packaged in a box? Are the materials produced in an attractive and durable form? 

6. Effective Instructions. Does the training game include clear and concise instructions? Do the rules 

avoid unnecessary and trivial items? 

7. Intellectual Stimulation. Are the participants engaged in challenging tasks instead of trivial rote 

memory activities? 

8. Criterion Reference. Does the scoring system reward achievement of the performance objectives 

rather than chance occurrences? Is the mastery of useful skills and knowledge obvious to the participants? 

9. User Friendliness. Can a typical trainer use the game without having to spend too much time preparing 

the materials or learning the rules? 

10. Cost-Effectiveness. Is the training game inexpensive? Can a cheaper alternative produce the same 

training outcomes? 

Copyright © 2000. Workshops by Thiagi, Inc. 

URL: http://www.thiagi.com/fac-028.html
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 207

Chapter 19 

SELECTING TEACHING METHODS 

19.1. Introduction. After deciding exactly what to teach in a lesson, the instructor must determine how

to teach it and what instructional method to use. Selecting an appropriate method is an integral part of lesson planning. Certain limiting factors may prevent an instructor from using certain instructional activities.

In addition to considering the lesson objective, the instructor must consider the background and abilities

of the adult learners, their motivation and learning styles, the number of learners, the time allotted to the

lesson, and available facilities. 

19.1.1. The final selection of an instructional method may be a compromise between the method most

suitable to the outcome (an ideal approach) and the method possible under the circumstances (a realistic approach). Many variations, combinations, and adaptations can be made of any method or methods of teaching; in fact, the number of possibilities is limited only by the instructor's imagination. For

this reason, the instructor should recognize the many available opportunities to help students accomplish desired outcomes—whether process or product. 

19.1.2. In previous chapters, we surveyed many methods in general and examined five methods in

detail. This chapter may help us determine which teaching method could and should be used under a

given set of circumstances. 

19.1.3. The decision about which teaching method to use comes in the design phase of the instructional systems development (ISD) process (see AFMAN 36-2234). In determining the means for

teaching the block or period of instruction, course planners need some systematic way to deal with the

available options. Table 19.1. may help you decide. The remainder of this chapter explains this table

and describes how to use it. 

19.1.4. The intersection of the factors listed in column A and the methods listed in columns B through

M provide the key. The explanation of the key is located below the table. Broad, general descriptions

are used in the key because a comment too specific could be misleading. 

19.1.5. We can use the grid both for evaluating current courses and planning new ones. The grid is a

synthesis of options proposed by several qualified educators and their estimates based on research,

logic, and practical experience. The recommendations are only guidelines. So, use the grid with caution because these generalizations may not be appropriate for a specific situation or for combinations

of methods. 

19.1.6. First, the instructor should consider the primary domain of learning involved—the cognitive,

psychomotor, or the affective. In the cognitive domain, the grid considers knowledge and comprehension levels separately and groups the remainder of the taxonomy levels together as higher levels. Generally, the same teaching methods work for application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Similarly,

the affective domain is divided roughly into lower levels (receiving and responding) and higher levels

(valuing, organization, and characterization). The psychomotor domain also has a taxonomy, but for

purposes of this grid, it is divided simply into motor and mental skills. 

19.1.7. All who plan instruction must deal with the realities of their situation—resources, space, class

size, etc. These items are grouped together as factors and constraints. Instructor expertise is always a

consideration, particularly when the instruction contains complex procedures or involves high levels

of cognitive and/or affective learning. Class size is another important factor; a very large class may
208 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

cause planners to select a less desirable method than they prefer. Evaluation becomes more difficult at

the higher levels of learning. But some methods provide ways for instructors to evaluate during the

learning process. Case studies and other simulations are good examples. Similarly, some instructional

methods permit instructors to respond to individual student needs better than others. The lecture, for

example, rates low in providing opportunities for instructors to modify their instruction in order to

help the fast or slow learner. On the other hand, small group methods lend themselves to more individualized student treatment. 

19.1.8. Many other critical factors and constraints affect the selection of teaching methods. These

additional considerations may be as significant as those just discussed, and often combine to create

even more difficult decisions on selecting appropriate teaching methods. Among the other significant

factors that affect the selection of teaching methods are: the need for a specially equipped facility,

amount of time needed to develop instruction, the cost to develop and maintain both the hardware and

software to support the method, and availability of support people to develop and maintain the hardware and software necessary to use the method effectively. 

19.2. Assumptions. The grid (Table 19.1.) can be of considerable value as a basis for evaluating instruction methods. To realize the most practical value from this grid, we should be aware of and understand

five assumptions (paragraphs 19.2.1. through 19.2.5.). While these assumptions may affect the interpretation of the grid, the grid's recommendations should be useful for all schools and courses under most normal situations. At the least, these recommendations will help identify periods or blocks of instruction that

may require further analysis. The assumptions are as follows: 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 209

Table 19.1. Teaching Methods Grid or Decision Table. 
210 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

NOTE: A school may find itself with an effective instruction system where the methods used are as good

as or better than those recommended. Carefully examine situations markedly different from these recommendations to ensure the methods chosen are not simply a result of an error in judgment or blind luck. 

19.2.1. The terms and categories follow the definitions and conditions found in the accompanying

chapter narrative. Terms used in a specific course or school may be defined differently. Most terms,

however, are consistent with AFMAN 36-2234 and the taxonomies of Bloom and Krathwohl. 

19.2.2. The periods or units of instruction being analyzed are assumed to be relatively short—from

one period to a short block of instruction. Extended periods of instruction present many considerations

beyond the scope of this grid. 

19.2.3. The methods are analyzed in their "pure" form; that is, not combined with other methods. The

greater the combination of methods, the more we must exercise caution in using this grid. For

instance, a method not recommended as an exclusive approach to instruction may be highly recommended in combination with another method. 

19.2.4. A reasonable quality of materials and adequate teaching skills must be available. Poorly prepared materials and weak instructor skills have a serious, negative effect on all recommendations.

Conversely, the "great teacher," the "master" of a particular method, or extremely well-prepared

instructional materials may create an impact well beyond those normally expected. 

19.2.5. The learners dealt with in this chapter are "adult" learners. Adult learners tend to be task oriented, highly motivated, possess necessary prerequisite skills for a given learning situation, and often

prefer interactive methodologies. 

19.3. Definition of Terms. Keep in mind the following term definitions as we discuss the methods and

their ratings: 

19.3.1. Cognitive Domain—Lower Levels: 

19.3.1.1. Knowledge. The recall of previously learned material (facts or theories) in essentially

the same form taught. 

19.3.1.2. Comprehension. Seeing relationships, concepts, principles, and abstractions beyond

simply remembering material. Typically involves translating, interpreting, and estimating future

trends. 

19.3.2. Cognitive Domain—Higher Levels: 

19.3.2.1. Application. The ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations, including the application of rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. 

19.3.2.2. Analysis. The ability to break down material into its component parts so that the organizational structure is understood, including identifying the parts, analyzing the relationships

between parts, and recognizing the organizational principles involved. 

19.3.2.3. Synthesis. The ability to put parts together to form new patterns or structures, such as a

unique communication (a theme or speech), a plan of operations (a research proposal), or a set of

abstract relations (schemes for classifying information). 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 211

19.3.2.4. Evaluation. The ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose. Learning in

this area is the highest in the cognitive hierarchy because it involves elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value judgments based on clearly defined criteria. 

19.3.3. Skill Development. Although skill development is not normally considered a domain of

learning, it is useful here to differentiate between those skills primarily motor in nature and those primarily mental. 

19.3.3.1. Motor Skills. Those skills associated with neuromuscular responses learned primarily

through physical repetition (such as typing, most athletic skills, shop work, etc.). 

19.3.3.2. Mental Skills. Those skills in which cognition is of primary emphasis (such as math

skills, computer operation, speaking, writing, etc.). 

19.3.4. Affective Domain—Lower Levels: 

19.3.4.1. Receiving. The getting, holding, and directing of the student's attention, from the simple

awareness that a thing exists to selective attention on the part of the learner. 

19.3.4.2. Responding. The student not only attends to a particular phenomenon but also reacts to

it in some way, such as acquiescence (reads assigned material), willingness to respond (voluntarily

reads beyond assignment), or satisfaction in responding (reads for pleasure or enjoyment).

Includes instructional objectives related to "interests" or "disinterest." 

19.3.5. Affective Domain—Higher Levels: 

19.3.5.1. Valuing. The worth or value a student attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or

behavior, ranging from acceptance of a value to commitment. Includes instructional objectives

related to "attitudes" and "appreciation." 

19.3.5.2. Organization. The bringing together of different values, resolving conflicts among

them, and building an internally consistent value system. Includes instructional objectives related

to an integrated, coherent "philosophy of life." 

19.3.5.3. Characterization By a Value Complex. Pervasive, consistent, and predictable behavior (life style) developing from a value system which controls behavior for a significant period of

time. Instructional objectives focusing on personal, social, and emotional adjustment are in this

category. 

19.3.6. Factors and Constraints: 

19.3.6.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise. The minimum level of proficiency in the

cognitive domain required to teach a particular method of instruction effectively. Unless an

instructor is just delivering a lesson planned by an expert designer, most methods require the

instructor to be at the application level or higher. In several instances throughout this chapter, the

"one level higher" rule is recommended. Roughly translated, this rule cautions that instructors

should be at least one cognitive level higher than the level of learning for the lesson being taught.

If knowledge-level material is being taught, instructors should be at least at the comprehension

level (or higher). If application-level objectives are being used for a lesson, instructors should be

at least at the analysis level of learning (or higher). 

19.3.6.2. Class Size. The optimum number of students for teaching a particular method of

instruction. Recommended numbers (where applicable) are given in the narrative for each method.
212 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

With advanced electronic media often used in today's classroom, class size is extremely difficult to

estimate. 

19.3.6.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method. An evaluation to determine if the method itself provides the basis for evaluating attainment of objectives, or if a followup evaluation device is

required. 

19.3.6.4. Responsiveness to Individual Needs. Determining if the method allows for active student participation and produces opportunities to express viewpoints. Also, determining if the

method allows for different levels of student achievement or allows students to work at their own

pace. 

19.4. Recommendations for Teaching Methods. The remainder of this chapter is a detailed narrative

describing the rationale for the ratings given in Table 19.1. for the various teaching methods based on the

definitions in paragraphs 19.3.1. through 19.3.6.4.

19.5. Lecture: 

19.5.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain: 

19.5.1.1. Knowledge (HR). Highly recommended when the basic purpose is to disseminate

information and the material is not available elsewhere. It works well for arousing interest in a

subject and in organizing content for presentation in a particular way for a specific group. It is

especially suitable for content that must be continually updated or revised by the expert. However,

the instructor should realize that material presented will be remembered for only a short time

unless it is reinforced through use of another teaching method or real-life experience. 

19.5.1.2. Comprehension (r). Probably the most efficient at the knowledge level, but it may also

be used at the comprehension level, particularly when the lecture is informal. Recommended if the

student-faculty ratio is too high for small group activities. A more formal approach is recommended for a very specialized subject area if faculty expertise is at too low a level to use small

group activities effectively. 

19.5.1.3. Higher Levels. Many adult learners can increase their level of cognitive learning even

at the higher levels. Learner motivation, need, and prerequisite skills are factors that must be considered. For all practical purposes, the expertise of the instructor (or at least of the resource person

who designed the lesson) must be at least one level higher than the educational outcome of the

period. 

19.5.2. Domains and Levels—Skill Development: 

19.5.2.1. Motor Skills. Limited use because the lecture is primarily a "saying" method which

makes it less appropriate for instruction in "doing." The explanation phase of a D-P lesson used in

teaching psychomotor skills might be presented as a formal or informal mini-lecture; the one level

higher rule applies. 

19.5.2.2. Mental Skills. Useful in the introductory phases of mental skills for such topics as rule

formation, formulas, and factual material associated with equipment use. Although such material

could also be taught through reading or programmed texts, the informal lecture with its inherent

use of questions might be more effective in dealing with differing student backgrounds and complex factual material. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 213

19.5.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain: 

19.5.3.1. Lower Levels (r). A lecturer may develop a rational argument aimed at producing

actual changes in overt student behavior. However, passive participation by the students is likely

to lead to little more than an awareness of the new material and perhaps some intellectual conviction about appropriateness of the new behavior. It may be used quite successfully for reaching

lower affective levels, such as an informal lecture near the end of a block of instruction. 

19.5.3.2. Higher Levels (nr). Adult learners may respond to higher level affective lessons. Their

affective orientation may be such that they are "looking for" more stimulation to increase their

already strong affective commitment. For example, a very spirited speaker could pull his students

to higher affective levels. Going from receiving to characterizing during a lecture or series of lectures is unlikely. However, over a period of time, it would be quite possible for an adult learner to

increase his or her affective commitment to a cause or a principle by using just the lecture method

as a tool. The instructor would probably have more success using other methods. 

19.5.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.5.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (h). The minimum level of instructor expertise is at least one level higher than the anticipated educational outcome. For example, if a lecture

is to the knowledge level, instructor expertise at the comprehension level is the minimum requirement. 

19.5.4.2. Class Size (lg). As long as the instructor can be seen and heard, the size of the class is

not important. Under certain circumstances, an informal lecture to a small group may be just as

defensible as a formal lecture to a larger one. In a very large hall, if students cannot be close

enough to make eye contact with the lecturer, communication may suffer. 

19.5.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (no). Very little opportunity to estimate how well the

students are learning the material exists, except in an informal lecture to a group of reasonable

size. 

19.5.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (no). Except in an informal lecture to a small group,

lecturing usually does not allow students to formulate questions and have the questions answered

before proceeding to the next area of instruction. 

19.6. Indirect Discourse: 

19.6.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain: 

19.6.1.1. Knowledge (r). While these methods are cautiously recommended to teach factual

information, many other methods are probably bettered suited at this cognitive level. 

19.6.1.2. Comprehension (HR). Especially suited for providing the bases for abstractions, airing

multiple points of view, and drawing together data to form generalizations for the student to arrive

at conclusions. These methods are suited to developing student comprehension. 

19.6.1.3. Higher Levels (nr). Since there is little requirement for the students to put any abstractions to use in new situations, these methods are not generally recommended for the higher cognitive levels. For adult learners, however, these methods may provide an excellent basis for use at

the higher levels, particularly in combination with other methods. 

19.6.2. Skill Development (nr). Generally not suitable for developing motor or mental skills. 
214 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

19.6.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain: 

19.6.3.1. Lower Levels (HR). A great strength of indirect discourse is the development of

lower-level affective outcomes. Activities such as panel discussions, teaching interviews, and dramatizations go a long way toward encouraging student reception and response. 

19.6.3.2. Higher Levels (nr). While it is possible to obtain valuing under certain circumstances,

the higher affective levels are often beyond the scope of methods of controlled conversation

because, with the exception of question-and-answer periods, active student involvement and

application are usually not possible. Such methods are generally not the first choice but may prove

to be effective at the higher affective levels with a group of adult learners in just the right situation. 

19.6.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.6.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (h). The methods of indirect discourse can

best be used to develop knowledge and comprehension-level understanding. Often, however, they

are suited to the higher levels of learning as long as the minimum level of instructor expertise follows the one-level-higher rule. 

19.6.4.2. Class Size (lg). While there is no optimum class size for these methods, an advantage of

indirect discourse is that it can be used for extremely large groups of students, as long as they can

see and hear. These methods have also been very successful with small groups of 8 to 12 students. 

19.6.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (no). Measuring or evaluating student learning is not

an inherent part of indirect discourse. The teacher has no way of knowing if, at the end of the lesson, the students learned. Some additional form of evaluation is necessary to determine if students

met the planned objectives. The only exception would be a question-and-answer period where the

nature and quality of student questions might be an indirect way of evaluating students. However,

not all students may get to ask questions, others may choose not to ask. 

19.6.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (no). If these methods do not include a question-and-answer period as is often the case, they are not very responsive to individual needs.

Issues or questions of interest will never surface unless students are allowed to pursue them in

some way. By themselves, the methods of indirect discourse do not permit students' needs to be

satisfied. 

19.7. Demonstration-Performance: 

19.7.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain (nr). Methods of teaching which rely heavily on

demonstration are often not efficient and effective ways of transmitting cognitive subject matter.

While factual information is often transmitted during the course of a lesson involving demonstration,

such methods are generally not recommended for achieving cognitive objectives other than mental

skills. For mental skills, the D-P method is often used at both the lower as well as the higher levels. 

19.7.2. Domains and Levels—Skill Development (HR). Particularly well-suited to the development of both physical and mental skills. Lessons that rely on teacher-demonstrated skills generally

lend themselves to precisely stated, easy-to-measure objectives. These lesson objectives require practice to acquire. Although the method is usually associated with psychomotor skills, it is also effective

with mental skills, such as computation, writing, and construction of graphs. Because students

actively participate in learning physical or mental skills, teachers have access to trial behavior to
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 215

which they can respond and provide precise feedback. Such feedback is essential in shaping student

behavior to achieve the skill level desired. 

19.7.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain (nr). Use caution with lessons designed primarily

to affect attitudes. Although a change in attitude may come about from any learning experience, other

methods may lead to attitude change more directly. One notable exception is technical training, which

often seeks to develop positive attitudes for factors like safety and accuracy during demonstration lessons. Participation in lessons such as these would make the use of the D-P method highly recommended. 

19.7.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.7.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (h). Considerable proficiency in the skill

being demonstrated is critical to the success of this method. As observation is usually an important

element in D-P, instructor error in the physical or mental skill can be particularly confusing to the

learner. In addition, the instructor must be able to anticipate learner error, analyze the causes, and

provide exact feedback that will allow the learner to perform satisfactorily. 

19.7.4.2. Class Size (sm). The size of the learner group is a particularly sensitive variable in a

D-P lesson with class size varying from individual instruction to small groups. Generally speaking, educational technology has had little effect on increasing group size in skill development lessons. To the contrary, most sophisticated applications of educational technology tend to make

demonstration-learning experiences more and more individualized while increasing the size of the

potential audience being served. 

19.7.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (yes). Easily accommodates evaluation. The instructor generally should not accept the practice of the skill as proof of skill attainment, and a separate

evaluation step should be incorporated into the lesson. 

19.7.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (yes). Because the D-P method relies so heavily on

student-teacher interaction, it readily accommodates individual needs. Instructors can readily tell

what students can and cannot do and prescribe appropriate learning experiences. 

19.8. Reading: 

19.8.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain: 

19.8.1.1. Knowledge (HR). For the majority of students, the most effective and time-efficient

means of presenting knowledge-level material. Students pace themselves and are free to adjust at

will to the learning experience. Their only limitations are reading speed and comprehension, both

of which may be improved through special courses. 

19.8.1.2. Comprehension (r). Although a student can reach the comprehension level through

carefully selected readings, other methods that ensure interaction with the instructor or other students may be preferable. When such interaction is not possible, reading assignments are acceptable alternatives, especially when combined with study or review questions or other activities that

require the student to manipulate the material. 

19.8.1.3. Higher Levels (nr). Use caution at the higher cognitive levels of developmental learning. Note, though, that it is quite possible for an adult learner to be taken through one or more of

the higher levels with an indepth, lengthy, carefully planned reading program. 
216 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

19.8.2. Skill Development (nr). Although students may read how to do a motor or mental skill, the

method by itself does not ensure they can actually perform the task. Formulas, procedures, and task

steps can be read, but to expedite skill development, a D-P is recommended if at all possible. Some

relatively simple motor or mental skills might be learned from reading if it is the only method available; however, some sort of programmed learning is probably preferable to straight reading. Given

certain prerequisite skills, reading is often quite effective for developing certain motor and mental

skills for adult learners. 

19.8.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain: 

19.8.3.1. Lower Levels (r). Whether attitudes can be influenced through reading depends on

such factors as the writer's skills and the learner's predisposition. Therefore, reading is recommended for teaching the lower level of the affective domain (receiving and responding) even

though there is no assurance any of the higher levels will be reached. 

19.8.3.2. Higher Levels (nr). Because of individual differences, it is difficult to be sure that reading materials will actually lead to the desired affective objective. But, we all can identify with the

adult learner who is deeply moved or profoundly affected by a written work. Reading, by itself,

will not provide evidence of change at the higher affective levels. It may, however, be the vehicle

for significant progression up the affective developmental ladder. Adult learners at the very highest levels can plan their own reading programs for learning. 

19.8.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.8.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (h). Because the instructor's only control in

this method is the selection of what students read or the direction of their research, the instructor's

expertise should be at the higher levels of the cognitive taxonomy. 

19.8.4.2. Class Size (Indiv). Class size is a factor only when all members of a class must have

access to a limited number of copies of a particular reading. With preplanning and modern methods of duplication, such problems are easy to avoid. Some techniques for making reading materials more available to students are textbook issue (especially a "walking library"), reserve book

rooms or shelves, classroom bookshelves, the reproduction of microforms into readable copy, and

multiple library copies. For an effective research program, specialized facilities such as libraries,

archives, and reference materials are essential. 

19.8.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (no). Evaluation is not built into the method so the

instructor must provide evaluation separately. 

19.8.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (no). — Although reading is highly responsive to the

needs and differences of individual students, the instructor must not neglect the factor of student

motivation. Many students do not like to read or have not developed disciplined study habits.

These factors may be more significant than the relatively few students who have problems with

comprehension or reading speed. Because the instructor is normally not present when the reading

takes place, controls and well-defined goals are even more important. 

19.9. Self-Paced Methods: 

19.9.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain (HR or r). The wide-ranging applications of the

various self-paced methodologies indicate potential for all of the cognitive levels. Great numbers of

learners have mastered basic factual information as well as advanced concepts and principles through
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 217

the use of programmed instruction and mediated objectives from simple knowledge to complex tasks

requiring application level and beyond. Materials and methods such as these are very tolerant of learners, permitting them to select their own pace of learning, review the material as they see fit, and redo

the lesson until the material has been mastered. These characteristics allow self-paced methods to

accommodate individual learning rates, styles, and methods for cognitive objectives. 

19.9.2. Domains and Levels—Skill Development: 

19.9.2.1. Motor Skills (r). Self-paced methods of instruction can be successfully employed in

motor skill development, but are particularly well suited for the development of mental skills. 

19.9.2.2. Mental Skills (HR). A combination of self-paced materials and instructor intervention

is strongly recommended as a highly efficient and effective approach to mental skill development.

The same characteristics of these methods that make them well suited for general cognitive development also make them appropriate for mental skill development. 

19.9.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain: 

19.9.3.1. Lower Levels (r). Most of the methods that have man-material or man-machine interaction rather than human interaction may be cautiously recommended for affective development.

Self-paced methods may enhance a student's attitude toward the subject matter, but they are

unlikely to affect change in value systems or to help reach higher affective levels. 

19.9.3.2. Higher Levels (nr). It is possible, though, to construct a self-paced methodology that

will enhance a learner's abilities to progress up the lower levels of the affective taxonomy. As

more and more progress is made in the use of computer learning applications, it is likely that the

higher levels of the affective taxonomy will be more easily reached through such applications. 

19.9.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.9.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise. Preparing materials for use in the self-paced

methods requires a very high level of instructor expertise in the subject matter, perhaps rivaled

only by simulation and case study methodology. Self-paced methods also require considerable

technical skill in their design. Programmed instruction and modules demand careful attention to a

fairly rigid set of rules as well as considerable development time and field-testing. This requirement for both subject matter and technical expertise puts the various self-paced methods among

the most difficult, time consuming, and costly to produce. The educational benefits realized from

the methods must be carefully weighed against these factors. 

19.9.4.2. Class Size. By the nature of their construction, self-paced exercises are directed toward

individualized learning. Because most of these exercises are capable of being mass-produced,

large audiences can be reached by these methods, although the mode of delivery is individualized. 

19.9.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method. A basic ingredient in all self-paced instruction is

ongoing evaluation of learner progress toward established learning objectives. Many forms of

self-paced instruction have carefully prepared systems for pre-, post-, and formative testing. The

evaluation step is often so intermingled in the instructional materials that the learner may not consider it to be a "test" in the usual sense. 

19.9.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs. This method is particularly responsive to student

needs and differences. Properly prepared, the method can incorporate such sound learning principles as positive reinforcement and immediate feedback. These principles allow students with var-
218 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ious needs and motivation levels to be successful. In addition, diverse technical treatment such as

branching programs (special tracks) provides additional capacity to deal with individual needs and

differences. 

19.10. Questioning: 

19.10.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive: 

19.10.1.1. Knowledge (nr). Although possible at the knowledge level, questioning is not generally recommended because most questioning results in too much recitation and response in an elementary, rote-learning classroom manner. Other methods may be more productive to present and

reinforce knowledge-level material. 

19.10.1.2. Comprehension (HR). This method lends itself best to material at this level because

the instructor can lead the student or class to form concepts, test them, and see their interrelationships through a series of skillfully chosen questions. 

19.10.1.3. Higher Levels (r). Although it is possible to question at the higher cognitive levels

(application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation), these levels lend themselves to more student

interaction than is common with one-on-one questioning. Questioning can be used to stimulate

thinking at the higher levels as a preliminary step for the student. 

19.10.2. Domains and Levels—Skill Development: 

19.10.2.1. Motor Skills (nr). Except at very low levels of physical skill development where an

instructor wants to check on simple knowledge of facts or procedures, questioning by itself does

not develop motor activity. 

19.10.2.2. Mental Skills (r). An effective technique for developing mental skills. Inductive questioning, deductive questioning, and the Socratic method are often chosen as the best ways to foster

mental skills development. 

19.10.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain: 

19.10.3.1. Lower Levels (r). Questioning often draws the learner's attention to a new topic or

area of study in a very effective fashion. The interaction of the question-and-answer routine tends

to focus the affective concern of the learner on the chosen topic. There are no guarantees, but the

interaction often causes (if that's possible) an adult learner to receive and respond to a new or different topic for discussion. 

19.10.3.2. Higher Levels (nr). Questioning is generally not recommended for the higher levels

(valuing, organization, and characterization) of the affective domain because it provides for too

narrow a range of student response and initiative. However, history tells us that questions in the

hands of a master teacher can accomplish almost any affective outcome—including the higher levels. 

19.10.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.10.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (h). To fully exploit the potential of the

questioning method, instructors should be at the evaluation level. They should be highly skilled

because the method requires immediate evaluation of student responses. It also requires expert

competence in the subject to see the logical consequences of a line of reasoning or to form new

problem-solving approaches. Instructors with especially analytical minds who enjoy the
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 219

give-and-take of lively interchange will find this method effective in achieving instructional

objectives. 

19.10.4.2. Class Size (sm). Although some law schools reportedly use the questioning method to

good purpose in very large lecture halls (100 and more students), the method seems to lend itself

best to one-on-one or small group (8 to 12) instruction. 

19.10.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (yes). The fact that instructors receive immediate

response to their questions and are in a position to evaluate these responses before proceeding to

the next question rates this aspect very high. 

19.10.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (yes). If the instructor is able to use a number of

spontaneous questions instead of relying on planned questions, the method can be very responsive

to student needs and differences. 

19.11. Nondirected Discussion: 

19.11.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain (nr). Although the peer-controlled seminar can

successfully discuss lower-level or even higher-level cognitive materials, there is also the danger that

the seminar will pool ignorance. Clearly defined objectives as required by ISD and a means of measuring their achievement can, however, provide the focus for learning at any cognitive level. Such

learning can be substantial for a group of adult learners. 

19.11.2. Domains and Levels—Skill Development (nr). This kind of discussion does not lend itself

to developing either motor or mental skills. 

19.11.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain: 

19.11.3.1. Lower Levels (r). A basic use for the peer-controlled seminar is receiving and

responding to affective material. It can be very difficult to write affective classroom objectives;

therefore, use caution. A possible use of professional military education might be for a seminar

discussion following a guest speaker (such as a war hero or a popular leader) whose primary reason for addressing the group was motivational. If properly motivated, the group members might

share and reinforce the affective experience among themselves. But without strong motivation and

interest, this limited objective might not be met and the session might just as easily deteriorate into

free discussion. 

19.11.3.2. Higher Levels (nr). Under the proper conditions and with a group of adult learners,

nondirected discussion can be used to further affective learning at the higher levels. Motivated

adults pursuing a common goal can share a powerful learning experience with or without an

instructor being present to direct the flow of an unstructured discussion. The obvious caution still

exists as with the lower affective level, but student-controlled discussion can be and is a powerful

tool for affective development. 

19.11.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.11.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (na). Not applicable because of the instructor's limited or passive role in a peer-controlled seminar. This is, of course, one of its weaknesses.

If qualified students are available and properly supervised, such seminars can still be highly successful. 
220 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

19.11.4.2. Class Size (sm). The small group (8 to 12 students) is probably the most common and

workable size for the peer-controlled seminar. Any larger class would probably become too

unwieldy. 

19.11.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (no). With the instructor playing a passive role, there

is little evaluation in the usual sense. However, it is possible to obtain evaluation information if an

individual or group product is required. 

19.11.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (yes). As the seminar is entirely run by the students,

it is obviously responsive to their individual interests, but not necessarily their educational needs.

Be aware that the natural leaders in the group may dominate the class and exclude the weaker students, which will be to their detriment. 

19.12. Guided Discussion: 

19.12.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain: 

19.12.1.1. Knowledge (nr). The guided discussion is not particularly recommended for simple

recall of factual information. Other methods, such as the lecture, reading, or self-directed instruction are more efficient for reaching this level. On the other hand, many learners like to participate

in guided discussions because they can interact with the content rather than passively taking lecture notes. 

19.12.1.2. Comprehension (HR). This method is designed primarily for the comprehension

level and is one of the most efficient ways of reaching it. It develops concepts and principles

through group process and the unobtrusive guidance of the instructor. Properly conducted, the

guided discussion also ensures each student learns at this level, as the instructor can draw out an

individual who may not be participating voluntarily. Unlike free discussion, which probably has

no objective and develops solely by the natural direction the group happens to take, the guided discussion is highly structured, with planned questions that lead the group to a specific, predetermined instructional objective. 

19.12.1.3. Higher Levels (nr). This method rarely reaches the higher levels of learning because

students are not required to put the concepts they have learned to use in new situations as in some

of the application methods. But, once again, caution must be exercised with a group of adult learners. It is not unusual for such a group to pursue problem solving (and its component skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) during a guided discussion. The goals of the group, their

motivation, prerequisite skills, etc., must be taken into account when looking to the guided discussion as a tool for developing the higher cognitive levels. 

19.12.2. Domains and Levels—Skill Development: 

19.12.2.1. Motor Skills (nr). As there is little student "doing" in the guided discussion—only

verbal interaction—this method is not generally recommended for teaching motor skills. 

19.12.2.2. Mental Skills (nr). Once the need to display physical (motor) skills is taken away, the

situation for using the guided discussions may change dramatically. As with any method of

instruction involving a large amount of verbal interaction, mental skills may be greatly affected.

The direction of the learned change may be small or quite significant, the speed of the change is

variable, and the function of prerequisite skills becomes unusually significant. While caution
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 221

should be exercised when using guided discussion with mental skills, to overlook it out of hand

would be a mistake. 

19.12.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain (HR or nr). By participating in a guided discussion, students are exposed to the opinions of others and are forced to defend their personal positions.

For this reason, the method is more generally suited to receiving, responding, and valuing than to

organization and characterization. The method can and often does work at the higher levels as well,

however, and should be considered when lesson planning for higher affective outcomes. 

19.12.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.12.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (h). Although it is possible for instructors

in guided discussions to be at the comprehension level, ideally they should be at the higher cognitive levels. One primary responsibility of instructors is to judge the worth of student responses,

since achieving the planned objective is totally dependent on the use of student responses to form

the generalization. Since instructors cannot possibly use all student responses, they must select

those most relevant to the concept or principle under discussion. This method is a new one for

most instructors, so a certain amount of training is necessary. Once an instructor has the basic idea,

there is no difficulty in applying the technique to different situations. 

19.12.4.2. Class Size (sm). Although 8 to 12 students might be considered an optimum size, the

method can be used very satisfactorily with a slightly larger or smaller group. If the size of the

group gets too large, it becomes somewhat harder to control the discussion, thus calling for more

instructor expertise to conduct discussions. 

19.12.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (no). Students are not normally asked to actually formulate and verbally express their own generalizations; therefore, some other type of follow-on

evaluation device is necessary. However, if time is available and students are asked to express

their own generalizations, then instructors might be able to evaluate achievement of the objective. 

19.12.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (yes). This method does an excellent job of meeting

individual needs. Each student is encouraged to express opinions on issues and to ask questions

about issues raised by others. The instructor is responsible for ensuring all students have the

opportunity to participate. 

19.13. Practical Exercises—Individual Projects: 

19.13.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain: 

19.13.1.1. Knowledge and Comprehension (r). Projects of this type can be used to teach at

these levels, but they do not encompass the method's full potential. Students usually need to

acquire mastery at these levels before the project starts through other means, such as reading. 

19.13.1.2. Higher Levels (HR). This method is one of the best for ensuring learning at the higher

levels of application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation—all of which are difficult to reach by

most other means. Properly directed, individual research gives the students maximum flexibility

to pursue interests at their own speeds, while at the same time allowing them to reach their capabilities and maximum insights. Individual projects combine well with other methods such as the

research seminar that allows students to work independently and also interact with peers and the

instructor. 

19.13.2. Domains and Levels—Skill Development: 
222 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

19.13.2.1. Motor Skills (nr). Generally, individual projects are not recommended to develop

motor skills as a standalone methodology. While students may sharpen such skills working on a

project, other instructional methods such as D-P may be more efficient and effective. 

19.13.2.2. Mental Skills (r). These projects may be useful in developing mental skills; the skills

could be integral parts of the desired objective. Individual projects are not as highly recommended

for mental skills as is the D-P method. The adult learner's level of expertise may be the deciding

factor. It may boil down to an issue of individual expertise—the more the expertise, the more

appropriate the individual project as a learning methodology. 

19.13.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain: 

19.13.3.1. Lower Levels (r). There could be an affective influence on the student during an individual project. This could result in paying attention (receive) and actually taking some action

(respond) toward the material. However, for the most part, receiving and responding skills are

assumed to be present before a student undertakes a project. 

19.13.3.2. Higher Levels (HR). This method is an excellent means to judge attainment of the

higher affective levels. Whether a student values certain materials, techniques, or ideas is often

easy to determine during a project. The same can be said of organization and characterization. Frequent contact between student and instructor are an important part of the method, and there is

opportunity for regular feedback and guidance. An aware instructor will find indicators of the

higher affective levels in this method. 

19.13.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.13.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (h). The higher cognitive levels are desired

in this method and students are required to sift through and evaluate data, equipment, or persons.

Therefore, the instructor must be operating at the higher levels of the cognitive taxonomy. 

19.13.4.2. Class Size (Indiv). The actual instruction and interaction between student and teacher

is usually on a one-to-one basis. There is a practical limit to the number of individual projects that

can be supervised at one time. This method is outstanding, but very time consuming. 

19.13.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (yes). Individual projects are superb because student

and teacher interact regularly. Finished portions of the project are evaluated and feedback given as

the endeavor proceeds, so it is clear that student progress is monitored constantly. Obviously,

knowledge of what students must be able to do and how they are doing it is readily available. 

19.13.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (yes). With the continual interchange between

instructor and student, instructors will find it easy to identify and deal with students' special weaknesses, interests, and needs. 

19.14. Practical Exercises—Field Trips: 

19.14.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain. With some exceptions, field trips are typically

used for affective purposes rather than to measure cognitive development. For this reason, it may be

difficult to visualize how comprehension, application, and the higher levels can be developed in the

student as the result of a field trip. Certainly some cognition may develop—in some cases a great deal

of cognition—but this method is not highly recommended for any higher than the knowledge level

because there may be other more appropriate methods (such as lecture, reading, etc.) available. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 223

19.14.2. Skill Development (nr). Typically, the field trip provides no opportunity for the development of either motor or mental skills. 

19.14.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain (HR). Highly recommended as a method to

influence all levels of student affect. The field trip experience may gain the attention of some students

(receiving) and evoke responses in others (responding). Value or worth may be seen in an object or

idea as the result of a field trip and, while it is difficult to attain, this method can be a strong factor in

achieving the highest affective levels. 

19.14.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.14.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (c). An instructor does not need to be at the

highest cognitive levels to participate in a useful field trip for students. However, the instructor

must be at least at the comprehension level to make proper use of the method. Selecting the field

trip location and activities, asking meaningful questions during the trip, and possibly discussing

the trip afterward all require comprehension on the part of the instructor. Because the field trip

may be used primarily for affective purposes, the instructor should be at the higher levels of the

affective taxonomy as well. 

19.14.4.2. Class Size (sm). Many variables determine optimum class size for a field trip. All students need to observe and experience the important elements of the field trip and be able to interact with either the instructor or an expert at the field trip site. Therefore, the number of students

per instructor should be small. 

19.14.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (no). As an experiential teaching method, formal

evaluation is generally not possible. Some additional form of evaluation would be necessary to

measure achievement of the instructional objective. 

19.14.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (no). Generally speaking, this method does not meet

an individual student's needs. The typical field trip is a highly structured and scheduled affair that

leaves little time for students to satisfy their needs with regard to the topic. Adding a question-and-answer period or having a post-field trip discussion will help the students. 

19.15. Practical Exercises—Experiential. (Experiential exercises are learner development games, such

as role plays, simulation games, organizational and management games, and in-basket exercises.) 

19.15.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive Domain: 

19.15.1.1. Knowledge (nr). Learner development games are not usually recommended for

imparting knowledge to students. As a matter of fact, knowledge is presumed to be a prerequisite

for this method in most cases. 

19.15.1.2. Comprehension (r). While learner development games can be the vehicles through

which comprehension occurs, most of the games assume a prerequisite of comprehension-level

functioning. 

19.15.1.3. Higher Levels (HR). A major strength of learner development games is that an opportunity exists for students to operate at the highest cognitive levels within a low-risk environment,

as in war games, role playing, and computer simulations. Most of these games require some sort

of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, while practically all of them require the application of concepts and principles in new situations. 
224 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

19.15.2. Domains and Levels—Skill Development (r). Hardware simulators (such as a cockpit or

missile trainer) are excellent adjuncts to both physical and mental skill developments (coordination in

flight, locations of instruments and controls, emergency procedures, etc.). 

19.15.3. Domains and Levels—Affective Domain (HR). Another strength is the direct relevance to

affective development. Learner development games can be instrumental in achieving all affective levels. For example, the purpose of observing or participating in one of these games may be to get students' attention and action (receiving and responding). Since these games deal with putting learned

material to use, the higher affective levels are also addressed. Students begin to see worth or value in

certain principles, ideas, equipment, etc.. This insight is the stepping stone to the higher affective levels. 

19.15.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.15.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (h). The instructor and/or instructional

designer in a learner development game must be at the highest cognitive level possible to use these

methods properly. Since students are often operating at the highest levels, the instructor must also

be with them at these levels. Though more passive in this method than in some others, the instructor must be ready to act and answer upon request or whenever the situation dictates. 

19.15.4.2. Class Size (sm). While there may be large numbers of students involved in any given

learner development game, there must be few students per instructor during the game itself. Otherwise, students will flounder and not get all they might or should from the game. 

19.15.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (yes). Most learner development games provide

immediate feedback to instructor and student alike. Unless one is interested in measuring knowledge or comprehension prerequisites or game outcomes, the proof of learning in a learner development game is the adequate handling of whatever task is involved. No other evaluative device is

usually required. 

19.15.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (yes). Because of the game/student and instructor/

student interaction and immediate feedback, these games provide for individual student needs.

Various learner development games (or portions of them) can be repeated until adequately dealt

with by the student (achievement of instructional objectives). Weaknesses and strengths can be

quickly identified and worked with as appropriate. 

19.16. Case Studies: 

19.16.1. Domains and Levels—Cognitive: 

19.16.1.1. Knowledge (nr). Case studies are not recommended for teaching at this level. Their

efficiency compared to other methods is poor. 

19.16.1.2. Comprehension (r). Although the case study can be used to teach to this level, other

methods such as the guided discussion or the controlled conversation methods are normally more

efficient. 

19.16.1.3. Higher Levels (HR). This method is one of the best for reaching the higher levels of

the cognitive domain. It is very effective for applying a single principle or concept and for evaluating a situation involving total analysis and synthesis. Its primary limitation is the absolute necessity for students to have a thorough comprehension of the concepts and principles involved before
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 225

the case study begins. For this reason, the method is often used as a "capstone" to other methods at

the end of a block of instruction. 

19.16.2. Domains and Levels—Skill Development: 

19.16.2.1. Motor Skills (nr). Not recommended in this area, as the D-P is far more efficient in

developing motor skills. Also, there is very little (if any) motor skill activity occurring in a case

study. 

19.16.2.2. Mental Skills (nr). Cases can be adapted to include skills that may have their roots in

other methods—guided discussion, simulation, D-P, etc. Such simple, logical adaptations,

designed to suit an audience of motivated adult learners, gives the creative teacher the opportunity

to gain the maximum effect for learning within the group. Statistical applications for a case study

on total quality management (TQM), application of ISD principles in an Air Force curriculum

development case, etc., are just a few examples of how mental skills development can be worked

into a case study situation. 

19.16.3. Domains and Levels—Affective: 

19.16.3.1. Lower Levels (r). Using the case study in this domain very closely parallels its use in

the cognitive domain. Although a good method for reaching lower-level objectives, other methods

such as the guided discussion and field trips may be more efficient if the affective objectives are

solely at the lower levels. 

19.16.3.2. Higher Levels (HR). Highly recommended for the higher levels as students are forced

to recognize the role of systematic planning and objective approaches to problem solving. They

are also forced to defend positions that in many cases are a synthesis of their own value systems. 

19.16.4. Factors and Constraints: 

19.16.4.1. Minimum Level of Instructor Expertise (h). Because of the high levels of student

participation associated with this method, the instructor should be at the higher levels to evaluate

student responses. The factor of instructor expertise is one of the primary limitations of the case

study method in schools with large faculties where all students are receiving the same high level

of instruction in seminars demanding more from all instructors than may be possible. 

19.16.4.2. Class Size (sm). Class size in the case study method is perhaps more a function of time

than any other one factor. All students must be prepared to present their thoughts on the subject

under consideration. The other students or the instructor must have sufficient time to critically

analyze the proposals presented by each student. Although some authors writing on the case study

recommended 8 to 12 students as an optimum number, a variation is used quite satisfactorily in

large classes where adequate time and facilities are available. The average seminar size in Air

Force professional military education schools is generally very well suited to the use of this

method. 

19.16.4.3. Evaluation Inherent in Method (yes). Students must give their own proposals or at

least critically analyze the proposals of others; therefore, the instructor has an excellent opportunity to evaluate student achievement of objectives on the spot. Under optimum conditions, no followup evaluation may be necessary. In a great number of instances, written or selection tests are

successfully used to measure achievement of learning outcomes. 
226 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

19.16.4.4. Responsive to Individual Needs (yes). Because students are free to develop their own

approaches to the situation, the method is easily accommodated to individual student needs, differences, and creativity. 

19.17. Summary. Using the teaching methods grid (Table 19.1.) can be of real value in determining the

appropriateness of proposed or existing methods of teaching. Used with some caution, the recommendations within the grid will be useful for most schools and courses. Such recommendations might form the

basis to identify periods or blocks of instruction that may require further analysis. 

19.17.1. A situation inconsistent with the recommendation of this grid is not necessarily a poor one.

The methods already being used may be as good as or better than those recommended. However, situations markedly different from these recommendations should be examined to ensure the methods

chosen are not a result of error or inertia but are the result of creative teaching and the presence of

adult learners. 

19.17.2. This grid is recommended for use in any educational setting. The impact of methodology

upon learning can be significant. Appropriate methodology should enhance the learning of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Using the teaching methods grid can be of value to maximize the achievement of objectives in the educational setting. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 227

Chapter 20 

INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 

20.1. Introduction. In the preceding chapters, we learned that selecting a method for a particular teaching situation is far from an accidental process. In order to reach our teaching objective most efficiently, we

must carefully consider the advantages and limitations of each method. The same care is needed to select

instructional aids that will support the lesson and make your teaching task easier. 

20.2. Instructional Aids: 

20.2.1. Besides giving support for our teaching, instructional aids have other roles. They can be used

to "teach" an entire lesson. This most often occurs with television or computer programs. Designers of

courses that rely heavily or primarily on audio and visual materials to deliver instruction must be particularly concerned about the validity of their courseware. But, in most Air Force instruction, instructional aids are used primarily to support classroom lessons. The material in this chapter should help

you select and use the various instructional aids available for today's classroom instructor. 

20.2.2. In a broad interpretation, instructional aids include anything that assists students in their learning, even instructors and textbooks. In this chapter, however, we will look at the more basic forms of

instructional aids (instructional media) that give audio or visual support in a classroom setting. While

detailed coverage of all aids is beyond the scope of this manual, we will describe the primary advantages and disadvantages of each. 

20.3. Selecting Instructional Aids. What are the factors an Air Force instructor must consider in selecting instructional aids? Ideally, the type of aid should be determined by the lesson objective. For example,

if a learning outcome requires students to identify or recognize an item or process, the instructor would

likely select a medium that visually displays the item or process. If the objective is for the student to recognize an alarm bell or a particular set of sounds, then, or course, an audio tape or some other audio

device is needed. 

20.3.1. Having made this decision, the next factor to determine is which form of visual aid is most

appropriate, by asking the following questions: Must the actual item or process be seen, or will a replica or simulation do as well? Is motion required? Is color required? Will a large number of students

view the aid at the same time and place, or will the number and the location vary? Have existing aids

been surveyed to determine whether the materials required are already available? Is the equipment or

other capability available to display or present the instructional aid? The answers to these questions

will help you select your aids. 

20.3.2. Our instructional aid options are as broad as the ocean is deep. Instructional aids are as simple

as writing on a chalkboard or as complicated as using a computer to create an electronic presentation.

However, with any form of instructional aid, there are rules of thumb that must be followed. These

rules—and common sense—will assist you in creating an effective instructional aid. 

20.3.3. An important point to remember when creating instructional aids is to constantly put yourself

in your students' positions. Walk through the classroom to view or listen to your aids from your students' perspective. Ask yourself the following questions: Is this instructional aid doing the job I want

it to do? Are the students able to read the information I'm trying to present? Can the students read my
228 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

writing? Give each of your instructional aids an honest evaluation before you present it. The answers

to these questions will help you select your aids. 

20.4. Types of Instructional Aids. The list of instructional aids you can use might be endless; however,

we will look at the ones most commonly used. One such aid in the classroom is the writing board. These

are chalkboards, dry erase boards, turn charts, and other similar items. Other aids you may use in the

classroom are overhead transparencies, posters, magnetic cards, video clips, and electronic presentations.

The rule of thumb for these different types of aids can overlap. One instructional aid to keep in mind is

simply writing. 

20.4.1. Handwritten Aids. Not everyone possesses the perfect penmanship we all want to display.

Great penmanship or freehand is a skill that comes from many hours of practice. It is important to

know your writing limitations. For the most part, slowing down and taking your time is the key ingredient required to having better penmanship. 

20.4.1.1. The rule of thumb for having a legible instructional aid is to always print versus using

the cursive style. There are devices you can use to assist you in achieving readable print. Stencils

or a system called the Leroy writing set can be found in your office supply store. Both systems are

time consuming, require patience, and can be restrictive as to size. Freehand is by far the easiest,

fastest, and the least restrictive. Remember, your penmanship skill will develop as you practice,

practice, practice. 

20.4.1.2. For spontaneous writing, as you might need in a case study, remember to slow down and

accurately develop each letter of the alphabet. You might want to read out loud what you have

written. This will ensure your students understand what you are writing for them to read. The size

of your printed information is very important. The rule of thumb is 1 inch high for every 10 feet of

classroom, up to 30 feet. If you are going to teach students who are sitting more than 30 feet away,

consider using a different type of instructional aid. An easy test is for you or a coworker to sit and

evaluate your visual aid from the distance of the farthest student. This will allow you to adjust

your instructional aid as required. 

20.4.2. Electronic Presentations. Electronic presentation is an option in wide use. Electronic presentations are put together with the use of a computer system. The computer gives us many options in

letter style (font), size, and colors. However, not all fonts, sizes, and colors are appropriate for an

effective visual presentation. 

20.4.2.1. Font Selection. There are a multitude of fonts (letter styles) to select from; however, the

ones that seem to work best are the block type fonts, such as Arial, Avant-Garde, and Times New

Roman. If a fancier font is desired, boldface or italicize fonts. Remember, simple fonts allow your

students to read the information comfortably. 

20.4.2.2. Font Size. When choosing a font size, use 32- to 40-point size for the titles and between

20 to 24 points for your main and subpoints. Any smaller, and your information will become difficult for students to read. 

20.4.2.3. Color Selection. Color has a significant role in creating effective instructional aids.

Always use contrasting colors. If you choose a dark font, use a light background, and if you select

a light font then select a dark background. Never choose a font color similar to your background

color. This makes reading the information difficult because your words blend into the background. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 229

20.4.2.4. Presentation Design. When creating your presentation, be consistent in design. If you

decide to use yellow print on a blue background with your unit logo on the lower-right side, continue to use this same design throughout the entire presentation. Changing the design of each slide

can become a distraction for your students. Also, using a different background color on each slide

may cause your students to wonder why you are presenting information this way. They will question the meaning of the slides, such as, "Is the red slide more important than the blue slide or is the

yellow slide the one I need to remember?" Staying consistent helps eliminate confusion—it's

important in all aspects of your aid. 

20.4.2.5. Emphasizing Key Points. The way you emphasize key words or ideas can also become

a distraction for some students. The computer system has given us many options in this area as

well. You might emphasize key words or ideas by boldfacing, underlining, italicizing, and increasing the font size. Again the key to success is consistency. Choose one of the options and stick with

it throughout your presentation. This will do away with any and all distractions related to what is

important. 

20.4.2.6. Using Clipart. The computer has made everyone an artist. You can now easily dress up

your slide with the click of a button. Only use images that relate to the information presented on

the instructional aid. Don't just use a piece of clipart for the sake of having something on the aid.

If the clipart doesn't enhance your instructional aid information, then don't use it. 

20.4.3. Transparencies. Overhead transparencies are an old technology surviving the test of time.

Transparencies can be created in different ways. You can create them with the assistance of the computer or they can be handwritten. Either way provides an easy, effective instructional aid. Computer-generated transparencies can be developed by using electronic presentation software and printed

out on transparency, or they can be printed on paper and copied onto the transparency. The same rules

of thumb for electronic presentations also apply to computer-developed transparencies as well. For

handwritten transparencies, use pens designed for writing on transparencies. They're available at any

office supply store. Always evaluate your transparencies by putting yourself in the students' positions. 

20.4.4. Video Footage. Video clips are being used more and more within the classroom. They are the

perfect aid to give your students a moving example of a subject. The video clip is a tool to support you

in helping your students gain a better understanding of the material. A video clip should only be a few

minutes in length, and should not extend through your entire presentation time. To be effective, the

selected clip should be in good taste and recorded in good quality. Follow the copyright guidelines

provided in Title 17, United States Code, Copyrights. 

20.4.5. 35 mm Slide Projector. 35 mm slides are a good instructional aid racing toward extinction.

Many auditoriums are converting to electronic presentation systems and doing away with the 35 mm

slide projector. However, there is good news for those who still have their favorite presentations in the

35 mm slide format. Slides can be scanned into the computer and transformed into an electronic presentation. 

20.4.6. Handouts. Handouts are effective and very reliable. A handout can be created by printing out

an electronic presentation on paper or just handwriting your main points on a sheet of paper. A handout should give the student something to refer to at a later time. It can be the key to a successful presentation if the electronic options are not possible. 
230 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

20.5. Proofreading. Be on a constant lookout for misspelled words or grammatical errors in all visual

aids. Computers have software installed to check for these things, but the human eye is the best line of

defense when it comes to checking your instructional aids. Have a coworker look over your work with a

careful eye. By doing this you are almost certain to have an error-free instructional aid ready to support

your lesson objective. 

20.6. Distance Learning. Everything discussed in this chapter is steered toward the traditional classroom setting where the instructor and the students are physically in the classroom. However, distance

learning is another classroom presentation medium increasing its popularity in the Air Force. Distance

learning is defined as a structured learning that takes place without the physical presence of an instructor.

This definition covers various formats. 

20.6.1. The live broadcast, video production, or other similar formats for instructing creates different

design rules for constructing instructional aid support. The instructional aids used in a traditional

classroom setting may not be effective in a distance learning setting. The use of color, size, and creativity are definite areas of interest. The rules for building instructional aids for distance learning are

just as broad as those for traditional classroom instructional aids. A couple of rules to keep in mind

are: (1) KISS--Keep It Short and Simple; and (2) KILL--Keep It Large and Legible. Remember, the

instructional aid must be seen on a television or a projection screen. 

20.6.2. If you are faced with the possibility of teaching in this environment, realize you are going to

encounter different rules of engagement. Preparation, coordination, and being open-minded are key to

a successful presentation. Meet with the experts in this unique area; they will help you present yourself and your lesson in a professional manner. 

20.6.3. Frequently, a trade-off will be necessary. For example, the cost of producing a color film may

be prohibitive or a closed circuit television system may not be available. Because the availability of

equipment and material may impact the teaching method we select, it is important to combine the

method and instructional aid selection process. When a long lead-time or budget limitation is

involved, the aid selection process may have to occur early in the instructional system development

process. 

20.7. Summary. It doesn't take an enormous amount of work to create an effective instructional aid. Simple rules of thumb and common sense are good tools to have in your academic toolbox to create the aid

needed to support your valuable information. Constantly put yourself in the students' positions and evaluate your instructional aids. Always proof, reproof, and final proof your instructional aids for effectiveness

and accuracy. The result will be a powerful tool to bring your students to a higher level of learning. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 231

Chapter 21 

INTRODUCTION TO EVALUATION 

21.1. Introduction. Instructors continually evaluate their students in one way or another. This practice

provides the instructor with the necessary feedback to judge whether the teaching is effective or not. The

evaluation may be part of a formal testing program or it may be quite informal. It may be as elaborate as

a simulation of a real-life problem or situation or as simple as questioning a single student. Teachers may

evaluate just to see how students are progressing or they may need to give grades and make pass or fail

decisions. So, in this sense, every instructor must be an evaluator. 

21.1.1. Not all instructors, however, are involved in actually writing and preparing tests. However,

they usually give tests or at least make informal evaluations of students in and outside of class. Therefore, all instructors should be thoroughly familiar with evaluation procedures and principles that govern the creation of test items to determine whether students are successfully learning the material

presented. 

21.1.2. We will now propose a process for writing test items and testing instruments that is informative and relevant—criteria for telling us what the student has learned. Chapter 3 provided a process

for writing student-centered objectives and tests. This chapter on evaluation and Chapter 22, Chapter 23, Chapter 24, and Chapter 25 require our understanding of material presented in earlier chapters, specifically Chapter 3, Chapter 4, Chapter 5, Chapter 7, Chapter 8, Chapter 9, and Chapter

10. 

21.1.3. The process includes all the steps necessary to plan and prepare student-centered objectives

and tests; each step affects the others. Level-of-learning objectives (Step 1) are of little value in planning if we can't write them as behavioral outcomes (Step 2) because the behavioral outcomes are the

visible representations of the objectives. Test items (Step 3) flow naturally from the samples of behavior. A change in any of these steps has a ripple effect on the other steps. All of the steps in this process

are interdependent; therefore, a general or specific objective is not complete until we write test items

to measure it. 

21.1.4. We need to master skills of constructing and analyzing tests and other measurement tools.

While all instructors may not require the same depth of understanding as the evaluation specialists,

they all need basic evaluation skills to help them do their best in the classroom. We teach more efficiently when we understand the way our students will be evaluated. We tend to teach the learning outcomes more directly when we understand the way the outcomes will be measured. 

21.1.5. Whether or not we have the opportunity to write test items, we must understand evaluation

terms, principles, and practices. Our students expect us to prepare them for evaluation. Therefore, it is

our obligation to know as much about their evaluation system as possible so we can teach better, counsel more effectively, and be more responsive as Air Force instructors. Even if we do not construct our

own tests, with a knowledge of these principles we are better able to provide feedback to evaluation

specialists on behalf of our students. 

21.2. Nature of Evaluation. Evaluation is an important part of the learning process. In educational evaluation we define, observe, measure, or judge learned behavior. Once instruction begins, we need to evaluate constantly to determine what and how well students learn. Only with this information can we

intelligently plan or modify our instruction. 
232 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

21.2.1. Educational evaluation is a systematic process of judging how well individuals, procedures, or

programs have met educational objectives. However, we can evaluate only learned behavior we can

see, hear, or in any other way sense. Moreover, through such observations, we can include only samples of student behavior as a basis for judgment. To be reliable and effective, then, the samples we

evaluate must be representative of the student's overall ability in the measured area. 

21.2.2. Furthermore, that evaluation must be a fair one. Instructors see students differently because of

differences in expectations, intelligence, learning ability, aptitudes, attitudes, job knowledge, and ability to verbalize. We must try to control the effects these differences might have when we establish and

operate an evaluation program. Not recognizing our differences and their effects on our judgment can

result in unfair and inaccurate requirements for measuring student achievement. 

21.2.3. Besides the issue of fairness, we need to ensure our observations are objective. We can often

observe the students' progress toward course objectives in class discussions, interviews, term papers,

laboratory exercises, special projects, and tests. But this is where care is needed. We must weigh all

such observations dispassionately in our overall evaluation program. Only by taking this precaution

can we minimize the effects of our subjective judgments that often influence informal day-to-day

evaluations and make them invalid. Otherwise, we may tend to remember only favorable student

responses that indicate progress toward learning goals and overlook unfavorable responses. Or we

may remember an unpleasant situation with another student that overrides our judgment of a current

brilliant essay response. 

21.2.4. To avoid the pitfall of subjectivity in the classroom, we need to follow a systematic approach

in evaluating student achievement. An evaluation program planned in advance is less subjective to the

personal bias of individual instructors. A planned system of evaluation will measure what was taught

rather than what might or might not have been taught at the whim of the instructor. 

21.3. How We Evaluate. We use data from evaluation programs in two ways: to compare students to

stated objectives and to compare students to each other. If our goal is to compare the achievement of our

students to specific objectives, we should use criterion-referenced or objective-referenced testing and

analysis programs. ISD encourages criterion-referenced testing and analysis. 

21.3.1. In contrast to this type of evaluation, there are norm-referenced programs for comparing the

performance of individual students to the group. These programs usually result in rank ordering students, typically represented by letter grading. We must understand the characteristics of each method

to determine which to adopt. 

21.3.2. Chapter 22 and Chapter 24 describe proper techniques for constructing paper-and-pencil

tests and performance rating instruments. Although we use similar construction principles for

norm-referenced and criterion-referenced evaluation programs, the analysis techniques are quite different. Chapter 25 addresses criterion-referenced test analysis procedures and Chapter 26 covers

norm-referenced procedures. Measurement instruments constructed for use in one system may be

used in the other, but normally we do not use a single set of instruments for both criterion- and

norm-referenced analyses. 

21.4. Characteristics of Evaluation. The instruments we use to measure achievement must be reliable,

valid, objective, comprehensive, and capable of differentiating. Any given test or rating scale may possess

each of the characteristics in varying degrees. However, few Air Force tests are completely valid or

invalid or completely reliable or unreliable. Our role as evaluators is to select those instruments with the
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 233

highest levels of the characteristics that give us the most useful evaluative information in a given setting.

What follows is a detailed explanation of each characteristic: 

21.4.1. Reliability. A reliable measuring instrument is one that yields consistent results. If a tape

measure provides identical measurements each time we use it to measure a certain length, we consider

it a reliable measuring instrument. An unreliable instrument will not yield consistent results. For

example, an altimeter that isn't set to the local barometric pressure, a steel tape that expands and contracts with temperature changes, or cloth tapes affected by humidity will not yield reliable measurements. 

21.4.1.1. No instrument is completely reliable, but some instruments are more reliable than others. We can sometimes determine the relative reliability of certain instruments, however, to aid our

selection of testing media. For example, we can determine, to some extent, the reliability of a thermometer by using it to take several readings of the temperature of a fluid maintained at a constant

temperature. Discounting our own reading errors, we should question the thermometer's reliability

if we don't get consistent readings. 

21.4.1.2. Reliability means the same whether we apply the term to balances, thermometers and

altimeters, or educational tests and ratings. It refers only to the consistency of results obtained

from a given instrument. However, measuring the reliability of a rating scale or examination is

more complex than measuring the reliability of a mechanical device. If we use the same calipers at

different times to measure the bore of the same cylinder, our results should be almost identical

each time because the size of the cylinder does not change appreciably between measurements.

However, change occurs often during educational evaluation wherein knowledge, understanding,

and skills do not remain constant. For example, in educational settings, students change between

two attempts on the same test because they gain new knowledge and understanding. Therefore,

applying the reliability test too strictly might lead us to the wrong conclusions. Where repeated

testing might reflect growth in knowledge, we might incorrectly judge that the differences point to

the unreliability of the test. 

21.4.1.3. The reliability of a measuring instrument is equally important in criterion-referenced

and norm-referenced testing. The results must be consistent whether students are judged against

an absolute standard or compared with one another. 

21.4.2. Validity. A measuring instrument is valid when it measures exactly what it was designed to

measure. Mechanics who use a micrometer to measure the diameter of a bearing must be sure that the

contacting surfaces of the bearing and the micrometer are free from grease and dirt; otherwise, they

will measure the coating in addition to the diameter of the bearing, and the measurements will be

invalid. 

21.4.2.1. Although a measuring instrument may be highly reliable, it does not necessarily follow

that it is valid. In other words, an instrument may simultaneously have a high reliability and a low

validity. The instrument with maximum consistency (high reliability) may not measure what we

intend it to measure. For example, merchants who use false scales may obtain reliable measurements but invalid results, at least from the customer's point of view. 

21.4.2.2. An educational test must exhibit the same characteristic of validity we expect of other

measuring instruments. If we want an examination to measure the ability of students to apply a

skill, it must measure the ability to manipulate appropriately, and not simply the ability to recall

facts about the skill or merely explain the significance of the activity. If we design an examination
234 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

to measure how well students understand the operation of a four-cycle internal combustion engine,

we should make sure we're not just measuring their ability to read the specifications sheet. 

21.4.2.3. We can determine the validity of a measuring instrument by comparing it with a criterion or standard relevant to the test or test item. For example, when the purpose of the test is to

measure a special aptitude (ability or talent), the test is valid if it requires the student to demonstrate that aptitude under realistic conditions. No written test can validly measure aptitude for

piloting an airplane. However, written tests can more validly measure one's ability to navigate

since that skill is primarily a pen-and-paper planning process. The only valid test for demonstrating aptitude to pilot a plane is a physical test performed in the plane itself or in a simulator (the

former yielding more reliable judgments than the latter because of slightly different handling characteristics). 

21.4.2.4. Sometimes we verify the validity of a measuring instrument by comparing results with

later on-the-job performance. The real objectives of Air Force instruction, after all, are usually

aimed at improving job performance. If the course objectives relate to job performance, then subsequent job performance may be the criterion for determining the validity of tests used in a course.

We can verify our tests by testing our students again, after they graduate, or by giving the tests to

experts in the same field. 

21.4.2.5. At times, our goal in Air Force schools is not to improve performance at a specific job,

but rather to raise the overall intellectual ability of the students or to improve their judgment. Most

advanced courses in military and civilian nontechnical schools seek this type of educational outcome; many measuring instruments used in these schools measure achievement that cannot be

related to specific job performance. Consequently, it is hard to determine validity. In these

instances, the best we can do is to identify analytical steps, processes, and actions that, if accomplished correctly, will lead to the types and quality of judgment we expect. 

21.4.2.6. It should now be clear that when we state objectives in terms of specific abilities, the test

should require students to demonstrate these abilities. Likewise, when we state objectives in terms

of factual knowledge, understanding, and application, the test should have students demonstrate

behavior we are willing to accept as evidence of their achievement. 

21.4.3. Objectivity: 

21.4.3.1. This third characteristic of evaluation relates to the ability to grade with a relative

absence of personal judgment or subjectivity. The bias of the rater or test scorer should not affect

the score. For example, a supervisor in a civil engineering squadron must select three workers for

a team to complete an emergency construction job. Six available people are called into the office

for interviews and evaluations. The supervisor can compare their weights, heights, ages, and other

physical characteristics that can be rated objectively. But these measurements do not tell the supervisor enough because he or she also needs to know something about the workers' experience levels

and then judge just how much experience will qualify them to do the job right the first time. The

supervisor needs to know how well they work under stress, their emotional stability, their attitudes

toward work, etc. In making these evaluations, the supervisor must try to be objective. However,

personal considerations, attitudes, and judgments will undoubtedly influence the evaluation of all

considerations not directly measurable. Thus, part of the evaluation lacks objectivity because the

judgments about personal qualities, attitudes, and the effect of experience on ability are subjective.

These subjective judgments need to be discounted in the decision as much as possible. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 235

21.4.3.2. In classroom measurement, essay tests tend to be subjective because our opinions of a

student's organization, handwriting, seriousness, etc., may influence the grade we give the test.

The grades we give on essay tests may vary from day to day, student to student, or from one scorer

to another. The more objective we can make the criteria for judging a test's score, the better graders we will be because students of comparable ability will have a better chance of receiving comparable or equal grades. In the case of essay questions, this requirement may preclude judgments

of writing style or word choice and force us to look at measurable items, such as inclusion of

required facts and definitions, order of presenting material, etc., to ensure objectivity. 

21.4.4. Comprehensiveness: 

21.4.4.1. A measuring instrument must liberally sample the skills or knowledge being measured.

For example, suppose the owners of grain elevators want to classify the grade of carloads of

wheat. If they analyze a bushel of wheat from the top of each carload, they will have a poor test

because it is not sufficiently comprehensive. The wheat at the bottom of the car may be infested

with insects. But, if the owners take 50 test tubes of wheat from different positions in the carload,

even though they may analyze less than a bushel of wheat, they will have a more comprehensive

evaluation of the contents of the car. By the same token, a contender who only fights rookies or

spars with one partner can never really arrive at the conclusion that he's ready for the title fight

because he doesn't have enough data to make that judgment. He hasn't been matched against different skill levels or styles of boxing to comprehensively measure his ability. 

21.4.4.2. Similarly, in classroom measurement, a test or rating must liberally sample the skills

representative of the stated instructional objectives. An exam should not test just one area of the

curriculum in depth at the expense of other areas that also need evaluation. Just as the owner of the

grain elevator must select samples of wheat from different positions in the car, we must be sure we

include a representative and comprehensive sampling of course objectives. In the ideal case, we

would measure all course objectives. However, we usually have limited testing time available.

Sometimes we write too many noncritical objectives rather than focusing on the critical ones—

this would have the same effect of not sampling comprehensively. If we try to limit our objectives

to those important enough to measure, we can construct an evaluation program that tests a much

larger sample of our more important objectives. In any case, we must deliberately take comprehensive samples of as many objectives as possible. 

21.4.5. Differentiation. We must construct measuring instruments that detect significant differences

in ability. For example, suppose a machinist wishes to measure bearings that are slightly graduated in

size. If we use a ruler to measure the diameters of the bearings, the differences among them may not

be obvious. But if we take measurements with a micrometer, we can easily differentiate between the

diameters of the first and second bearing, the second and third bearing, and so on up the scale. Similarly, we can design classroom tests to differentiate among our students. There are two methods of differentiation we need to recognize. 

21.4.5.1. Norm-Referenced Differentiation. This is the comparison of items to each other. For

example, one goal the machinist might have in taking the measurements is to arrange the bearings

from smallest to largest. When we want to show the relative difference in sizes of the bearings, our

measurement is norm-referenced. In a norm-referenced evaluation program, a test or rating must

measure small and sometimes relatively insignificant differences among the elements we're measuring. 
236 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

21.4.5.1.1. When we need to use the evaluation data to rank order or give a letter grade to students to distinguish the higher achievers from the lower, our goal is to compare individual performances against each other to show relative position within the group (comparing to a

norm). Often we make this comparison without caring whether or not the individual or the

group has actually met the stated objectives, or sometimes there is no stated learning objective. 

21.4.5.1.2. When we construct a test or rating scale to differentiate achievement for norm-referenced analysis, we look for three features: a range of scores, different levels of difficulty, and

the distinction between students who are generally low and those who are generally high in

achievement. Such a basis for judgment has little significance beyond helping us give letter

grades or achievement rewards. It certainly does not tell us what the student learned or

whether the student learned what we had hoped. 

21.4.5.2. Criterion-Referenced Differentiation. This is the comparison of elements or items to

a standard. A more significant way our machinist might have used the measurement of the bearings is to compare each bearing to a standard to find out whether it meets established tolerances.

The question then, is "Does each of the items being measured meet the tolerances?" In the classroom we should ask whether each student met the stated objective instead of how the student compared to the average. The former approach to testing distinguishes criterion-referenced testing

from most traditional (norm-referenced) testing programs. The primary function of differentiation

in criterion-referenced testing is to make a clear distinction between those students who have mastered an objective and those who have not. Rank ordering or letter grading is of secondary importance. 

21.5. Determining Means of Measurement. An effective measuring instrument must be based on all

five of the characteristics we've covered—reliability, validity, objectivity, comprehensiveness, and differentiation. In determining appropriate methods of measurement, we must select instruments that include

the largest representation of these essential characteristics. Now let's turn to another important consideration in evaluation—the purpose of the evaluation. The purpose we have for using an evaluation instrument depends on the unique circumstances of the school, the instructor, and the students. 

21.6. Reasons for Evaluation. Why are we testing? Do we test to improve instruction, pinpoint student

deficiencies, identify specific degrees of skill achievement, or to predict success on a future job? Our

answers to these questions will determine the procedures needed to reach these goals. If we are evaluating

solely to assign grades, measuring instruments will be much simpler. In Air Force schools, however, our

primary reason for evaluating is usually to determine whether students can perform a job (represented by

our stated objectives). Our task, then, is to ensure there is a strong correlation between the objective and

the tasks required by the job. 

21.7. Nature of Required Behavior: 

21.7.1. To determine whether an objective realistically represents the job our graduates will be tasked

to perform, we must ask the following questions: Can the student's behavior be realistically represented by word or pictures on a pencil-and-paper test? Must students perform in real situations for the

evaluation to be valid? Do students need an active or passive knowledge of the material in our course?

Will they respond in much the same form as we taught them or do we want them to translate or synthesize the material in some way? Do we need to modify our curriculum and course materials to get
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 237

the kind of evaluation we really need? NOTE: Physical performance and essay testing require more

time to accomplish and evaluate, so we must plan for them if they are necessary.

21.7.2. When the knowledge, activity, or skill is important for safety or to protect life, or if it threatens

the destruction of an expensive piece of equipment, then we should expect the student to perform correctly the first time, every time on the job. In some fields, such as medical or maintenance, students

must perform at least the critical elements of the required skill under realistic conditions for evaluation. Less important or less critical skills may be evaluated by administering a pencil-and-paper test. 

21.8. Availability of Time and Facilities. Are students required to perform the skill during the learning

process to certify learning, such as in flight training? If so, we must evaluate as an extension of the learning activity. If students are not required to demonstrate the exact skill during the learning process, we can

save time by not having to design a formal evaluation using on-the-job conditions. This flexibility can

save us time, space, and money through our ability to use simulation. In either case, the facilities and

equipment available for evaluation are essential factors to consider. Time may also influence the decision.

For example, how much time must we set aside to evaluate? Do we have the time available to evaluate the

objective fully? Sometimes our answers will influence our needs and our constraints will determine our

capabilities. 

21.9. Availability of Qualified Faculty: 

21.9.1. When choosing the best means of evaluating what we have taught, we must consider the qualifications of the faculty. Can the teachers judge student performance using a rating scale? Can they

judge student responses effectively using less objective instruments such as essay tests and other supply-type tests? 

21.9.2. Only when these factors have been considered and weighed can the instructor or evaluator

choose the best means of testing students. Quite likely, no single means will accomplish all purposes.

Under such circumstances, the instructor must use a variety of measuring instruments or compromise

by accepting less than the ideal from the evaluation program. 

21.10. Summary. Educational evaluation is the systematic process of judging how well individuals, procedures, or programs have met educational objectives. Criterion-referenced testing is concerned with

determining educational effectiveness and is, therefore, inseparable from the learning process itself.

Every effective instructor must be an evaluator because it is through evaluation—internal or external, formal or informal—that the instructor will get the required feedback that tells whether the instruction is successful. The process begins with a clear definition of objectives, regardless of the means of evaluation. In

practice, testing and performance ratings are almost the exclusive means used to estimate how well students achieve objectives. A secondary purpose of evaluation may be to rank or to give letter grades to students as some measure of general achievement through norm-referenced testing and analysis. 

21.10.1. The evaluation process must be systematic and continual. Unplanned or disorganized observations usually lack the desirable characteristics of comprehensiveness, validity, and reliability. To be

usable, evaluative judgments must be presented in a form that can be properly interpreted by the

school, the instructor, and the student. No matter what means we use, the test should possess, to the

maximum degree possible, the five characteristics of evaluation. They include: validity—measuring

what it is supposed to measure as defined by the objective; reliability—yielding consistent results;

objectivity—eliminating personal biases of the scorer; comprehensiveness—measuring a representa-
238 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

tive sample of instructional objectives or behaviors associated with one objective; and differentiation—detecting significant differences in student achievement, particularly between those who have

and have not mastered instructional objectives. 

21.10.2. The basis for choosing one measuring instrument over another is the degree to which they

exhibit the five characteristics of effective evaluation. A variety of methods should be used to evaluate

students correctly. In choosing between any two equally valid means of evaluation, the instructor

should decide on the basis of simplicity. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 239

Chapter 22 

CONSTRUCTING AND ADMINISTERING CLASSROOM TESTS 

22.1. Introduction. Undoubtedly, written tests are the most frequently used means of measuring how

well students achieve learning objectives. Ideally, the test items we write will be so mechanically sound

that only students who have mastered our course content will be able to answer them correctly. Others,

including "test-wise" students, will be able to do no more than guess. Writing such items is not easy, but

the results of writing sound test items are highly rewarding. In Chapter 23 we will learn more about how

to write test questions that measure our instructional objectives. 

22.1.1. This chapter contains general suggestions for preparing test items and specific suggestions for

writing selection items (multiple-choice, matching, and true-false) and supply items (essay, short

answer, and completion). The relative advantages and disadvantages of selection and supply items are

also discussed in detail. To further assist your understanding of test-construction principles, a poorly

written test item and a corrected example follow the discussion of each type of test item. 

22.1.2. Finally, this chapter also addresses important considerations involved in structuring and

administering written tests and the scoring of supply items. Approaches to the scoring and grading of

selection items are discussed in Chapter 26. 

22.2. Suggestions for Preparing Any Test Item. Consider the following general suggestions when

writing test items of any type: 

22.2.1. Keep the wording simple and direct. Test items are not the place to show off one's vocabulary.

State items in the working language of the student and the job. 

22.2.2. Avoid tricky or leading questions. Many people attempt to write tricky items in hopes that

only the better students will pick up the trick. Unfortunately, they may not and, therefore, do not

receive credit for items they are actually able to answer. 

22.2.3. Keep all items independent of other items on the test. No item should give away the answer to

another question. Also, the answer to one item should not depend on having to know the answer to

another item. 

22.2.4. Crucial words or phrases in the stem should be underlined, capitalized, italicized, or otherwise

highlighted. If possible, avoid negatives altogether; it is amazing how many people miss negatives

even when they have been capitalized and underlined. 

22.2.5. Include sketches, diagrams, or pictures when these will present information to the student

more clearly than words. 

22.2.6. Be fair, clear, and straightforward. If we write and use enough good test items, we will identify the students who have mastered our curriculum and those who have not. 

22.3. Selection Test Items. Selection test items require students to select the correct response from a list

of responses. Multiple-choice, true-false, and matching are examples of selection items. 

22.3.1. Selection test items have three major advantages over supply test items (paragraphs 22.7.

through 22.11.) that require students to furnish their own answers (see Table 22.1.). First, since students only have to identify the correct answer, two or more people can score selection items without
240 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

letting personal bias or opinions affect the result. These items lend themselves well to scoring by clerical assistants or a computer. 

Table 22.1. Comparison Between the Two Major Types of Test Questions. 

22.3.2. Second, selection items take comparatively little time to answer. Students only have to read

the item and choose between the responses provided rather than write out their answers. Thus, in a

given period of time we can give students more selection items to answer than we could give them

supply-type items. If testing time is limited, this enables instructors to test course material more comprehensively. 

22.3.3. Finally, selection items can be readily analyzed statistically. Since answers to selection items

are either right or wrong, statistical analysis is relatively easy. The quantitative measures referred to in

Chapter 25 and Chapter 26, such as the ease index and the differentiation index, can be computed by

machine quite easily. 

I A B C 

T Selection (i.e., Multiple 

E Supply (i.e., short answer Choice, True/False, 

M Factor completion) Matching) 

1 Chance for guessing Student has to furnish 

information with no help 

provided. 

Student may be able to guess the 

answer or eliminate incorrect 

ones. 

2 Cover a lot of material in a 

short period of time 

Varies with the different 

supply-type tests. The 

completion test can cover more 

of a given topic than the essay 

test, which provides only a 

limited sample. 

Generally true. A large sampling 

can be obtained within a regular 

class period. However, the 

multiple choice may not give the 

adequacy of the sample of the 

true/false or matching tests. 

3 Easy to score Needs evaluator to make 

judgment, even with short 

answer questions. 

A definite advantage is the 

machine-scored answer sheet. 

4 Easy to construct Except for the essay, which 

requires an extremely 

well-worded question to test the 

required level of learning, the 

supply-type test item is no more 

difficult than the selection-type 

test item to construct. 

The multiple-choice test is more 

difficult to construct than all 

other types of test items. 

Extreme care must be taken in 

writing stems and distracters. 

True/false and matching are 

relatively easy to construct. 

5 Measures all levels of learning The essay is the best type of test 

item for this factor. Completion 

type items are useful for lower 

levels only. 

Well-constructed multiple 

choice items can measure all 

levels, while true/false is 

primarily for lower levels only. 

6 Statistically analyzed Cannot be statistically analyzed 

because variety is too great. 

All easily analyzed. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 241

22.3.4. A distinct disadvantage of selection test questions is the possibility of successful guessing.

Students have a 50 percent chance of correctly answering true-false items and about a 25 or 33 percent

chance (depending on the number of choices) of answering multiple-choice items correctly. The percentage for matching items depends upon the format. To offset this weakness, test writers should

adhere to the mechanics for writing good test items that help minimize successful guessing. 

22.4. Multiple-Choice Items. The multiple-choice item can be used to measure student achievement and

works equally well when a test problem has one correct answer or one best answer from an assortment of

plausible answers. When possible, use completion and essay items to measure such student behaviors as

explain, define, and describe. If constraints on the testing program do not permit use of supply-type questions, multiple-choice items may prove to be a suitable alternative. 

22.4.1. Constructing Multiple-Choice Items. Certain standard terms are used in the construction of

multiple-choice items. The preliminary sentence that poses the question or states the situation is

known as the "stem" (see Figure 22.1.). Possible answers that can be selected by the students are

known as "alternatives" (see Figure 22.2.). The correct answer is the "keyed response," and incorrect

answers are called "distracters." Distracters are designed to attract less-informed students away from

the correct answer. The example in Figure 22.3. illustrates this terminology. 

Figure 22.1. Stems. 

In preparing or revising the stem of a multiple-choice item, the instructor should observe the 

following general principles: 

- Write the stem so it clearly represents the central problem or idea. The function of the stem is to set the 

 stage for alternatives. 

- Only place the material in the stem relevant to the idea or to the solution of the problem unless selection 

 of relevant material is part of the problem. 

- Make sure the stem does not reveal the correct response. Avoid clue words or phrases. 

- Include language in the stem common to all alternatives to avoid repetitious wording and to save 

 reading time for the student. 

- Avoid any wording unnecessary to answer the question. 

- Avoid negative statements whenever possible because they often confuse the student. 

- Exercise caution when using the articles "a" or "an" at the end of the stem. These articles may reveal 

 the correct response if all alternatives do not conform grammatically to the stem. 
242 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 22.2. Alternatives. 

Figure 22.3. Multiple-Choice Alternatives. 

22.4.1.1. Multiple-choice items usually provide three, four, or five alternatives (Figure 22.3.). In

most instances, it is difficult to design more than five plausible alternatives (alternatives that

appear correct to a student who has not mastered the subject matter). 

The alternatives are as important as the stem. To prepare or revise the alternatives to a 

multiple-choice item, the instructor should observe the following principles: 

- Make sure that incorrectness is not the only criterion when developing distracters. Distracters may 

 include any of the following: (1) a response that relates to the situation and sounds plausible but is 

 incorrect, (2) a common misconception, (3) a statement that is true in itself but does not satisfy the 

 requirements of the stem, or (4) a statement that is either too broad or narrow for the requirements of 

 the stem. 

- Avoid clue words. Students with experience in taking tests usually recognize that statements containing 

 such words as "all," "always," and "never" are likely to be false. Similarly, statements containing such 

 words as "usually" or "sometimes" are likely to be true. 

- Make sure all alternatives are approximately the same length. We often use longer statements in the 

 correct alternatives than in the incorrect ones, and this may be a clue to the correct answer. 

- When alternatives are numbers, list them in ascending or descending order of magnitude. 

 - Make all alternatives plausible to the student who has not achieved the required level of learning in the 

 subject matter being tested. 

- Place correct alternatives in random positions throughout the total test. The instructor should avoid a 

 consistent pattern of correct answers within a test or in a series of tests. 

- Avoid using the alternative "all of the above" and/or "none of the above." If you must use them, be 

 extremely cautious. The "all of the above" option makes it possible to answer or guess the answer to 

 the item on the basis of partial information by noting other correct or incorrect alternatives. The "none 

 of the above" option may be measuring nothing more than the ability to detect incorrect answers, which 

 is no guarantee the student knows what is correct. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 243

22.4.1.2. Properly designed multiple-choice items do not permit students to easily guess the correct answer. An effective and valid means of diverting the less-informed student from the correct

response is to use incorrect answers commonly made by students as distracters. 

22.4.1.3. Questions designed to measure the knowledge level of learning should provide only one

correct alternative; all other alternatives should be factually incorrect. In questions designed to

measure achievement at higher levels of learning, some or all alternatives should appear to be reasonably acceptable responses, but one alternative is a better response than all the others. In either

case, instructions to students should direct them to select the correct or best alternative. 

22.4.2. Examples of Multiple-Choice Items. Multiple-choice items may be written in a variety of

forms, as shown in Figure 22.4., Figure 22.5., Figure 22.6., Figure 22.7., Figure 22.8., Figure 22.9.,

Figure 22.10., and Figure 22.12.. 

22.4.2.1. Stem Written As a Question. (See Figure 22.4.) Writing the stem as a question is usually a better form than the incomplete stem because it is simpler and more natural. 

Figure 22.4. Stem Written As a Question. 

22.4.2.2. Stem Written As an Incomplete Statement. (See Figure 22.5.) Be careful in using

this form to avoid ambiguity, clues, and unnecessarily complex or unrelated alternatives. 

Figure 22.5. Stem Written As an Incomplete Statement. 

22.4.2.3. Multiple Response. (See Figure 22.6.) In this form, more than one of the alternatives is

correct; students are instructed to mark all correct answers. 

Figure 22.6. Multiple Response. 

What is the purpose of the Oak Leaf Cluster? To 

 a. be awarded in lieu of a repeat decoration. 

 b. denote the award of a decoration in lieu of a ceremony. 

 c. denote presentation of a decoration at an official ceremony. 

 d. use with miniature ribbons on the mess dress uniform. 

The order in which military persons enter staff cars is 

 a. according to the commander's desire. 

 b. ascending according to rank. 

 c. descending according to rank. 

Why are summer days hotter than winter days? In the summer, the 
244 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

22.4.2.4. Definition. (See Figure 22.7.) Two varieties of this form are shown. The form illustrated by the first item is normally more difficult for the instructor to prepare and for the student to

choose the correct response. The criterion objective used to describe the first item would be quite

different than that for the second item. 

Figure 22.7. Definition. 

22.4.2.5. Stem Supplemented By an Illustration. (See Figure 22.8.) This form is useful for

measuring the ability to read instruments, identify objects, use principles in hypothetical situations, etc. 

Figure 22.8. Stem Supplemented by an Illustration. 

 a. Earth is nearer the sun. 

 b. Sun shines almost straight down on the Earth. 

 c. Earth's axis is at a greater angle to the sun. 

Validity is defined as 

 a. the degree to which a test item measures the objective from which it was written. 

 b. a consistent percentage of right answers for a test item over several administrations. 

 c. the process of developing a test item which does not allow for personal bias to be present. 

OR

The degree to which a test item measures the objective from which it was written is a definition of 

 a. validity. 

 b. reliability. 

 c. objectivity. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 245

22.4.2.6. The Negative Variety. (See Figure 22.9.) This form always emphasizes the negative

word. Avoid using the negative variety because tests should be used to measure what something is

instead of what it isn't. 

Figure 22.9. The Negative Variety. 

22.4.2.7. Association. (See Figure 22.10.) This form is useful if a limited number of associations

must be made. It asks the student to tie one thing to another. (Matching items serve better if a large

number of related associations are required.) 

Figure 22.10. Association. 

22.4.2.8. Problem-Situation: 

22.4.2.8.1. A problem-situation format poses a realistic set of circumstances leading to a problem for students and asks them to find the correct or best solution from among the alternatives.

The problem-situation may require students to recall and select facts or it may require more

analytical and reflective thinking. 

22.4.2.8.2. The situation should, however, require the use of applicable course content. As the

problem-situation format is discussed under other types of items in this chapter, refer to the

principles described in Figure 22.11. to assist you in developing this useful format. See Figure

22.12. for an example. 

Figure 22.11. Problem-Situation. 

Which is NOT a surface-to-surface missile? 

 a. Minuteman. 

 b. Polaris. 

 c. Pershing. 

 d. Bomarc. 

Which of the following is a rotary wing aircraft? 

 a. OV-10 Bronco. 

 b. UH-1 Huey. 

 c. T-38 Talon. 

 d. C-130 Hercules. 

Certain principles should be followed in developing the problem-situation format: 

- Make both the situation and the problem realistic. Whenever possible, an actual situation should be 

 presented. 
246 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 22.12. Example of a Problem-Situation Format. 

22.4.3. Suggestions for Writing Multiple-Choice Questions. The checklist at Figure 22.13. contains suggestions for constructing sound multiple-choice questions. Use this checklist as a guide for

writing multiple-choice questions, as well as for analyzing one that has already been written. Use this

checklist to identify errors, rewrite items, and compare the rewrite to the corrected version. 

Figure 22.13. Checklist for Writing Multiple-Choice Items. 

22.4.3.1. Checklist Analysis. The multiple-choice question found in Figure 22.14. violates one

or more of the suggestions included in the checklist (Figure 22.13.). Using the checklist at Figure

- Make both the situation and the problem specific. Allow no confusion regarding details or requirements. 

- Limit problems so students may respond to them in the allotted time. 

 - In the interest of economy and efficiency in testing, construct several test items to exploit as many 

 aspects of a single situation as possible. 

- Add unimportant details at times to determine the student's ability to select the important facts. 

- Do not present a situation previously presented to the student. 

The following is an example of the problem-situation format used with the multiple-choice item 

type: 

Sgt Smith and Sgt Jones are in the same academic section. Every time the instructor asks a question, these 

two individuals banter and bicker among themselves trying to prove the other incorrect. This disrupts the 

entire class, and no one concentrates on the subject at hand. According to the text, which type of military 

discipline should the instructor use? 

 a. Preventive—the instructor should educate the students on behavior appropriate for the classroom. 

 b. Corrective—the instructor should separate the disruptive individuals before the situation becomes 

 uncontrollable. 

 c. Punitive—the instructor should warn the individuals that if disruptive behavior continues, 

 punishment will follow. 

No. Stem: Yes No 

1 Key words and negatives emphasized? 

2 Simply and clearly worded? 

3 Free of clue words and giveaways? 

Alternatives:

4 Brief; all common wording in stem? 

5 Only one clearly correct or best answer? 

6 All distracters plausible? 

7 All about same length or arranged by length? 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 247

22.13., let's analyze the mechanical soundness of the test item in Figure 22.14. Read the first

question on the checklist and see if the item is satisfactory. Then go to the second question and so

forth until you've read all seven questions. 

Figure 22.14. Multiple-Choice Test Item. 

22.4.3.1.1. (Question 1) Are key words and negatives in the stem emphasized? NO. Normally such words as "probably," "most likely," "best," and "no" in the stem are capitalized,

underlined, or otherwise brought to the student's attention as having particular importance in

the context of the test item. Depending on the writer's intent, almost any word in the stem may

be a key word. 

22.4.3.1.2. (Question 2) Is the stem simply and clearly worded? NO. This issue is frequently open to subjective judgment; however, in this case it is obvious we should check. A

good way to keep the stem simple is to ask other instructors if they understand it. 

22.4.3.1.3. (Question 3) Is the stem free of clue words and giveaways? NO. "Essay test" is

the only answer that agrees grammatically with the article "an" in the stem. 

22.4.3.1.4. (Question 4) Are alternatives brief and is all common wording in the stem?

NO. "Test" is unnecessarily included in all alternatives. Eliminating repetition in the alternatives often gives the student a more clear and concise answer from which to choose. 

22.4.3.1.5. (Question 5) Is there only one clearly correct or best answer? In this item,

YES, there is one best answer. We must understand the material ourselves to make this judgment. The best way to assure there is only one correct or best answer is to write out why it is

correct and why the distracters are incorrect. This explanation is called the "rationale." Writing

out a rationale for each item not only helps assure one best answer, but also aids us or other

instructors administering the test to explain the answers. 

22.4.3.1.6. (Question 6) Are all distracters plausible? NO. A performance-rating test is not

a written test. Except in obvious cases, this can be a real judgment call. We frequently learn

only after the test is given whether distracters are really plausible or not. Then we can see how

many students selected each alternative. In this particular item, the last distracter (d. performance rating test) is not plausible. 

22.4.3.1.7. (Question 7) Are alternatives about the same length or arranged by length or

other logical order? YES. However, inexperienced test item writers usually make the correct

answer the longest answer. This is often because they wish to be fair by spelling out the correct

answer as accurately as possible. No such effort is required to make an incorrect answer more

An instructor wants to use a written test to ascertain a student's organizational ability. Compared 

with other types of tests, of the following the instructor would probably use an 

 a. multiple-choice test. 

 b. true-false test. 

X c. essay test. 

 d. performance rating test. 
248 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

incorrect. It is also frequent practice to "hide" a correct answer in the middle of the alternatives. The tendency toward writing longer, correct answers can be reduced with practice.

Arrange alternatives in logical order to eliminate the tendency to hide answers. When no other

logical order is apparent, arrangement in alphabetical order or by length will suffice. In this

item, the alternatives could have at least been arranged alphabetically. 

22.4.3.2. Checklist Summary. We've answered NO to Items 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 on our checklist.

See Figure 22.15. for appropriate changes to our corrected item. 

Figure 22.15. Corrected Item. 

22.5. Matching Test Items. The matching item, with several variations, presents many advantages of the

multiple-choice item. It is particularly useful in measuring understanding of closely related concepts or

facts. The matching item is actually a collection of related multiple-choice items. Thus, the matching format provides a more compact form for measuring the same learning and can allow more efficient use of

testing time. 

22.5.1. Constructing Matching Test Items. The instructor should observe the following principles

in constructing matching test items: 

22.5.1.1. Give specific and complete instructions. Do not make students guess what is expected of

them. 

22.5.1.2. Test only essential information; never test for unimportant details. 

22.5.1.3. Use closely related materials throughout an item. When students can divide the set of

alternatives into distinct groups, the item is reduced to several multiple-choice test items with just

a few alternatives. This increases the possibility of guessing the correct answer. 

22.5.1.4. To minimize guessing by elimination, make all alternatives plausible. 

22.5.1.5. Arrange the alternatives in some logical order. An alphabetical arrangement is common. 

22.5.1.6. If alternatives are not to be used more than once, provide three or four extra to reduce

guessing. 

22.5.2. Examples of Matching Items. Like multiple-choice items, matching items can be constructed in a variety of forms—equal columns, unequal columns, inference matching,

cause-and-effect matching, and coded alternatives for scientific reasoning. See below explanations

and examples of each in Figure 22.16. through Figure 22.20. Figure 22.21. provides a checklist for

writing matching test items. 

A student's ability to organize material can BEST be measured by using which type of written test? 

 a. completion. 

 b. essay. 

 c. multiple-choice. 

 d. true-false. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 249

22.5.2.1. Equal Columns. When using this form (Figure 22.16.), the instructor should either

plan to use items in the response column more than once or not at all to preclude guessing by elimination. 

Figure 22.16. Example of Equal Columns. 

22.5.2.2. Unequal Columns. This form (Figure 22.17.) is preferable when alternatives may not

be used more than once. 

Directions: In the blank before each base in Column A, write the letter from Column B 

corresponding to the name of the state where it is located. Each state may be used more than once; 

some not at all. 

 Column A Column B

 Air Force Base State

1. _____ Eglin a. Alabama 

2. _____ England b. Florida 

3. _____ Plattsburg c. Indiana 

4. _____ Maxwell d. Louisiana 

5. _____ Grissom e. New York 

6. _____ Wright-Patterson f. Ohio 

7. _____ Griffis g. Tennessee 
250 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 22.17. Example of Unequal Columns. 

22.5.2.3. Inference Matching. The item in Figure 22.18. would probably measure learning at

the comprehension level. 

Figure 22.18. Example of Inference Matching. 

22.5.2.4. Cause-and-Effect Matching. This is a useful form (Figure 22.19.) to measure learning

at the comprehension level. 

Directions: In the parenthesis before each statement, write the number of the location in Column B 

to which the statement in Column A applies. Each location may be used once, more than once, or 

not at all. 

 Column A Column B

( ) 1. The eastern end of this island is located directly south from the 1. Bermuda 

 easternmost part of the United States. 

 2. Cuba 

( ) 2. Would be crossed in a direct flight from Key West to the 

 Panama Canal. 3. Haiti 

( ) 3. Etc., to a maximum of nine statements. 4. Jamaica 

 5. Nicaragua 

Directions: Which of the following characteristics of a good test are implied or referred to in the 

statements below? Fill in the space on your answer sheet corresponding to the letter of the term you 

believe is implied or referred to by the speaker. Each of the characteristics may be used once, more 

than once, or not at all. 

 a. Differentiation 

 b. Validity 

 c. Objectivity 

 d. Comprehensiveness 

_____ 1. Well, I've finally finished constructing this test and it contains items at all levels of difficulty. 

_____ 2. After grading this test, I have the feeling that even the students who did well don't understand 

 the subject material. 

_____ 3. Thirty test items cover this entire unit? 

_____ 4. I wonder if this test will really tell me what the students know about the subject matter? 

_____ 5. Be sure you follow the key because it is the only fair way to judge students. 

_____ 6. Etc. (more statements can be added) 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 251

Figure 22.19. Example of Cause-and-Effect Matching. 

22.5.2.5. Coded Alternatives for Scientific Reasoning. This type of matching item (Figure

22.20.) can be used to differentiate the achievement levels of better students. Items of this type

normally measure achievement to at least the comprehension level. 

Figure 22.20. Example of Coded Alternatives for Scientific Reasoning. 

Directions: Listed below are certain facts followed by several statements. Fill in the space on your 

answer sheet corresponding to the letter (a, b, or c) that represents the best statement of the 

relationship between each statement and the fact that precedes it. 

 a. The statement is the cause of the fact. 

 b. The statement indicates a result of the fact. 

 c. The statement is not related to the fact. 

Fact: A flash of light occurs.

Statement: 

1. A roar of thunder can be heard. 

2. Electricity passed between clouds and the earth. 

Fact: Metals, generally speaking, expand when heated.

Statements: 

3. Like poles of a magnet repel each other. 

4. After driving the car for several miles, the individual found it difficult to remove the spark plugs. 

Directions: Below are some hypotheses and methods for testing them. On your answer sheet, fill in 

the space corresponding to the following conditions: 

 a. The item directly helps to prove the hypothesis true. 

 b. The item indirectly helps to prove the hypothesis true. 

 c. The item directly helps to prove the hypothesis false. 

 d. The item indirectly helps to prove the hypothesis false. 

 e. The item is unrelated to proof or disproof of the hypothesis. 

Hypothesis: Thunder causes rain.

1. Observations show that, during a rain storm, it always begins to rain immediately after a clap of 

thunder. 

2. The meeting of cool and warm air masses simultaneously causes thunder and precipitation. 

Hypothesis: High temperatures for a few days cause rain.

3. Heated water in a pan evaporates. 

4. Many desert areas exist with virtually no vegetation. 
252 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

22.5.3. Suggestions for Writing Matching Items: 

22.5.3.1. The sample test at Figure 22.21. violates one or more of the checklist questions in Figure 22.22. Again, please use the checklist to analyze this sample test. 

Figure 22.21. Sample Matching Test Item. 

Figure 22.22. Checklist for Writing Matching Test Items. 

22.5.3.2. As we can see by entering NO in Questions 1 through 8 in Figure 22.23., what this item

primarily needs is a set of instructions plus a little cleaning up. Check the corrected version in Figure 22.24.

1. Uniform Code of Military a. Establishes rights, privileges, rules, and punishment for military 

 Justice personnel. 

2. Status of Forces Agreement b. Provides for controls over duties, customs, and privileges of 

 military personnel in a foreign country. 

3. Command c. Implements controls over duties, customs, and privileges of 

 military personnel in a foreign country. 

No. Instructions Yes No 

1 Clear what is to be matched? 

2 Where and how to match? 

3 Indication of number of times each alternative can be used? 

4 One column contains more entries than the other? 

5 Spaces provided for responses? 

6 Column requiring more reading on the left? 

7 Each column composed of similar materials and appropriately titled? 

8 Alternatives arranged in some logical order (alphabetical, numerical, or 

chronological)? 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 253

Figure 22.23. Questions to Ask. 

Figure 22.24. Corrected Sample Matching Test. 

Question 1. Makes clear what is to be matched? NO 

Question 2. Indicates where and how to match? NO 

Question 3. Shows number of times alternatives may be used? NO 

Question 4. One column is longer than the other? NO 

(When one or both of these last two suggestions is ignored, it usually means there is one 

and only one correct response in the second column to each problem posed in the 

first column. Therefore, students who can match any alternative find it easier to 

match remaining alternatives.) 

Question 5. Provides space for responses? NO 

Question 6. Column requiring more reading than the other is on the left? NO 

(In the sample question, students may have to read through the long definitions in the 

second column several times to complete the question.) 

Question 7. Each column composed of similar materials and appropriately titled? YES 

Similar materials? YES Titled? NO 

Question 8. Alternatives arranged in logical order? NO 

(As in multiple-choice items, alphabetical order or length is useful when no more logical 

order is obvious.) 

Instructions: Match the legal instruments in Column B to their definitions in Column A in the space 

provided. Each instrument may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 

 Column A—Definitions Column B—Legal Instruments

_____ 1. Establishes rights, privileges, rules, and a. Code of Conduct 

 punishment for military personnel. 

 b. Command Regulations 

_____ 2. Implements controls over duties, customs, and 

 privileges of military personnel in a foreign country. c. Status of Forces Agreement 

_____ 3. Provides for controls over duties, customs, d. Uniform Code of Military Justice 

 and privileges of military personnel in a foreign 

 country. 
254 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

22.6. True-False Items. True-false items are useful in testing knowledge of facts, especially when there

is little question whether a statement about a fact is either right or wrong. True-false items may also be

used to determine the persistence of popular misconceptions when the suggestion of a correct response in

a multiple-choice item would be too obvious. The chief disadvantage of the true-false item is that the possibility of correct guessing, particularly in simple items, is greater than in any other type of selection test

item. 

22.6.1. Constructing True-False Items. True-false items have probably been used and misused to a

greater extent than any other selection test question type. Too often, instructors merely scan text material, select statements more or less at random, and then insert negatives in approximately one-half of

the statements to make them false. They mistakenly believe they can justify answers to these items by

referring students to pages in the text. When tests are constructed in this manner, the principal attribute

measured is photographic memory. Tests of this sort have brought objections to selection tests in general and true-false items in particular. The instructor should observe the following principles in constructing true-false test items: (NOTE: Include only one idea in each true-false item.) 

22.6.1.1. Do not make part of a statement true and another part false. 

22.6.1.2. Avoid the use of negatives. They confuse the reader. 

22.6.1.3. Avoid involved statements. Keep wording and sentence structure as simple as possible.

Make statements clear and definite. 

22.6.1.4. Whenever possible, use terms that mean the same thing to all students. Short, simple

statements will increase the likelihood that the point of the item is clear and that passing or failing

it will be determined by the students' learning—not their reading ability. 

22.6.1.5. As a rule, avoid absolutes, such as all, every, only, no, and never. Such unequivocally

true or false statements are rare; statements containing absolutes are usually false. Similarly, avoid

statements containing some, any, and generally, which are most frequently true. These terms are

often called hedgers. 

22.6.1.6. Avoid patterns in the sequence of responses because students can often identify

sequence patterns. Instructors sometimes deliberately use patterns to make hand scoring easier.

This is poor practice. 

22.6.1.7. Make statements brief and uniform. Some instructors unconsciously make true statements longer than false statements. Students are quick to take advantage of this tendency. 

22.6.2. Examples of True-False Items. True-false items may be written in the forms shown in the

examples in Figure 22.25. through Figure 22.28.. Other items of this general type have also been

devised to reduce guessing to a minimum. These include adding to the basic true-false choice the

choices of "sometimes true—sometimes false," and similar variations. In addition, this type of item

can be made more difficult and discriminating by requiring the student to suggest what will make false

statements true. 

Figure 22.25. Declarative Statement. 

T F Winds circulate clockwise around a high pressure area in the Northern Hemisphere. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 255

Figure 22.26. Cluster. 

Figure 22.27. Statement with Illustration. 

Figure 22.28. Double True-False. 

22.6.3. Suggestions for Writing True-False Items. The checklist at Figure 22.29. provides another

checklist that summarizes the principles for constructing mechanically sound true-false items. 

The M-16 Rifle 

T F stock is constructed of high grade walnut. 

T F is chambered for a .223 caliber cartridge. 

T F may be set to fire either automatic or semi-automatic. 

T F disassembly kit is stowed under the butt plate. 

Directions: Indicate your answer in the space provided to the left of each statement, as if the 

statement is 

 a. true and the reason is correct for the statement. 

 b. false and the reason is incorrect. 

 c. true and the reason is incorrect. 

 d. false and the reason is correct. 

_____ Statement: Aluminum is used in transportation. 

 Reason: Aluminum is light and strong. 

_____ Statement: Most items made of metal corrode. 

 Reason: Many metals corrode. 
256 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 22.29. Checklist for Writing True-False Items. 

22.6.3.1. Sample True-False Item. The true-false item in Figure 22.30. violates one or more of

the principles of sound construction listed in the Figure 22.29.

Figure 22.30. Sample True-False Item. 

22.6.3.2. Checklist Analysis. Using the checklist provided at Figure 22.29., let's examine the

true-false item at Figure 22.30. for quality of construction. 

22.6.3.2.1. (Question 1) Is the item short and simply stated? NO. Although the informed

student may well understand the words used in the item, the sentence structure is awkward and

fragmented, making it difficult for the student to grasp its meaning. 

22.6.3.2.2. (Question 2) Does the item test only one idea? NO. The item addresses two distinct points, one regarding the violation of a certain characteristic of evaluation and the other

regarding a possible explanation for such a violation. Not only is this confusing to students, it

creates problems in interpreting what students understand or do not understand about the question's content. 

22.6.3.2.3. (Question 3) Is the item free of absolutes and hedgers? NO. In this question,

the hedger "In general" and the absolute "never" are not only misleading and imprecise, but are

also contradictory. Avoid these types of terms whenever possible. 

22.6.3.2.4. (Question 4) Is the item stated positively? YES. 

22.6.3.2.5. (Question 5) Is the item totally true or false? NO. This is a frequent occurrence

when attempting to test more than one idea with one item, as discussed in paragraph

22.6.3.2.2.

22.6.4. Checklist Summary. We've answered NO to items 1, 2, 3, and 5 on our checklist. See Figure

22.31. for appropriate changes to our corrected item. 

No. Item Format Yes No 

1 Short and simply stated? 

2 Tests only one idea? 

3 Free of absolutes and/or hedgers? 

4 Stated positively? 

5 Totally true OR false? 

T F In general, the characteristic of evaluation that is never violated by experienced writers of 

 selection test items is validity, and this is a function of training and experience. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 257

Figure 22.31. Corrected Item. 

22.7. Supply Test Items. A supply test item requires students to furnish their own answers. They are not

given alternative responses from which to choose. The basic forms of supply questions are completion,

short answer, and essay. Supply test items are mechanically easier to construct than selection items but far

more difficult to evaluate. 

22.7.1. When the ability to express ideas or original thinking are to be measured, supply items have a

distinct advantage over selection items. The ability to solve problems and to think creatively are seldom worthwhile end products in themselves; it is usually necessary to communicate the solutions or

ideas to others, frequently in writing. When developing the ability to write clearly is a legitimate

course objective, supply items may be used effectively. Test items that call for a written discussion,

such as the essay form, also give students an opportunity to express themselves—something students

often like to do. 

22.7.2. Constructing a supply item for which several equally competent instructors can give comparable scores is difficult. This difficulty in attaining objectivity often leads to reduced test reliability.

Clerical assistants usually can not score supply test items because they must understand the subject

matter area covered by the test. As a rule, this means that the instructor must score supply items. The

supply item also requires considerably more time to score than a selection item. 

22.7.3. Another disadvantage of the supply item stems from the ability of students to think and read

more rapidly than they write. Consequently, in a given time block, this type of test may be less comprehensive than a selection item test. 

22.8. Completion Items. Completion items require the student to provide one or more words omitted

from a statement. The student must supply at least part of the idea expressed in the statement. When the

correct word or words are supplied in the proper blank, the statement is complete and true. Completion

item testing virtually eliminates the possibility of guessing and is a time-saving device in comparison with

the essay test. 

22.8.1. Scoring Key. The completion item can be used in testing student ability to make verbal associations of the who, what, when, where, and why types. However, it is difficult to construct items that

require but one correct response; therefore, the scoring of completion items is normally less objective

than scoring of selection items. Even after determining that a given response is correct, instructors frequently must decide to give part or full credit for responses they did not anticipate. For this reason,

they should make a complete scoring key (for any supply item) when they prepare the item. 

22.8.2. Constructing Completion Items. Instructors should observe the following principles to construct completion questions: 

22.8.2.1. Construct a completion item so it contains only one blank in each sentence. Multiple

blanks in a sentence can quickly lead to ambiguity and, therefore, to reduced validity and reliability. 

T F Improved validity of test items is the most frequent result of training the writers of test 

 questions. 
258 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

22.8.2.2. Write the statement so that the blank appears at or near the end of the item. This arrangement provides the student with necessary information to fill in the blank without having to read

through the item twice. 

22.8.2.3. Be sure there is only one correct or best response for each blank. In the interest of scoring objectivity and overall test reliability, both the students and the instructor should have a clear

understanding of the criteria for acceptable responses. 

22.8.2.4. When testing comprehension and higher levels of learning, word completion statements

differ from the way they were worded in texts or lectures. If not expressed differently, the test will

measure a level of learning no higher than the knowledge level regardless of the form of the question or the subject matter. 

22.8.2.5. Make all blanks uniform in length. Blanks adjusted to the length of the anticipated

response may provide a clue to the correct answer. Directions for completion items should state

that the length of the blanks does not indicate the length of the nature of the response. They should

also indicate whether a single blank always requires one word or whether short phrases may sometimes be supplied. 

22.8.2.6. For convenience and accuracy in scoring, include a separate series of blanks arranged in

a vertical column on the test page. Instruct students to provide their responses in these blanks

rather than in the blanks within the items. 

22.8.3. Examples of Completion Items. Completion test items may be constructed either as incomplete statements or as sentences or paragraphs with key words omitted. Some acceptable examples of

completion test items are incomplete statements and sentence or paragraph completion. 

22.8.3.1. Incomplete Statement. This type (Figure 22.32.) is more difficult for the student than

the direct question form of short answer item. The instructor must constantly be on guard to avoid

ambiguous, incomplete statements such as "Columbus was born in...," which could be answered

with a city, country, or year. 

Figure 22.32. Example 1 – Incomplete Statement. 

22.8.3.2. Sentence or Paragraph Completion. Omit only key words or phrases. Avoid copying

from textbooks (Figure 22.33.). 

The name of the man who first successfully flew the airplane is __________. 

The Air Force became a separate branch of the military in 19___. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 259

Figure 22.33. Example 2 – Sentence or Paragraph Completion. 

22.9. Checklist for Writing Completion Items. The brief checklist at Figure 22.34. can be of assistance in implementing the principles for writing sound completion items. The question at Figure 22.35.

violates one or more of these checklist items. 

Figure 22.34. Checklist for Writing Completion Items. 

Figure 22.35. Sample Item. 

22.9.1. Checklist Analysis: 

22.9.1.1. (Question 1) Is there a total of one or two blanks at or near the end of the sentence?

NO. As blanks increase in a completion item, so does the ambiguity of that item. Also, blanks at

the beginning of the sentence cause students to reread frequently in attempting to grasp the sense

of the statement. 

1. _____ 

The (1) __________ of a sound varies (2) __________ as the square of the distance 2. _____ 

from the source. 

OR

1. _____ 

In 1795, Napoleon was given command of a small army in (1) _____. The wonderful 2. _____ 

genius of the young leader made the (2) _____ campaign the decisive factor. By rapid 3. _____ 

movements he separated (3) _____ and (4) _____ forces. In eleven days he forced 4. _____ 

(5) _____ to conclude peace. 5. _____ 

No. Item Format Yes No 

1 Blank(s) at or near end of sentence? 

2 Blanks approximately same size? 

3 Blank(s) related to key terms? 

4 Worded so that response possibilities are limited? 

_______, ________, ________, ________, and are usually presumed to be the most common functions 

of management taught by educators in __________. 
260 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

22.9.1.2. (Question 2) Are blanks approximately the same size? NO. The variable lengths of

blanks may provide clues to the keyed responses and may confuse students unnecessarily. Keep

blanks the same length and provide clear instructions regarding their use. 

22.9.1.3. (Question 3) Are blanks related to key terms? Probably NO, although it would

depend upon the actual keyed responses. It appears that the blank at the end of this item is requesting something less than key information. 

22.9.1.4. (Question 4) Is the question worded so that response possibilities are limited? NO.

Besides the fact that the information requested in the final blank may be interpreted by students in

a number of ways, the lack of a source reference in the sentence would seem to permit student

opinions as acceptable responses. 

22.9.2. Corrected Completion Test Item. Figure 22.36. shows a corrected completion test item

based on the checklist. 

Figure 22.36. Corrected Item. 

22.10. Short-Answer Items. In general, the short-answer item as a type of supply test item includes features of both the completion and the essay item. It may be used in measuring ability to recall facts, basic

concepts, and principles. The advantages and disadvantages of the short-answer item are essentially the

same as those of completion questions. However, the short-answer item often tests ideas more fully

because the recalled idea must be stated in a more complete form. 

22.10.1. Constructing Short-Answer Items. Instructors should observe the following principles in

constructing short-answer test items: 

22.10.1.1. Be specific. The student should know exactly what is expected. If the instructions are

not specific, test results are likely to be unreliable and invalid. 

22.10.1.2. Be sure each required answer involves a simple idea, concept, or fact. Otherwise, a

meaningful evaluation of student responses becomes quite difficult. 

22.10.1.3. Be sure students know how complete to make their responses. Usually, the wording of

the item can provide this information. Sometimes, the amount of space will indicate the length of

the response. However, the amount of space provided for a response should not be a clue to the

correct answer; it should serve only as a guide to the desired length of the response. 

22.10.2. Examples of Short-Answer Items. Short-answer test items may be constructed in the following forms: direct question, association, short explanation, list, and pictures or diagrams. 

22.10.2.1. Direct Question. This form is usually easier for the average student than a completion

item because it helps eliminate ambiguous elements (Figure 22.37.). 

According to the article written by George S. Odiorne, the two most common functions of management 

are _____ and _____. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 261

Figure 22.37. Direct Question Example. 

22.10.2.2. Association. This form is acceptable when only a few correlations are being made

(Figure 22.38.). Matching items are more functional if several different associations are required. 

Figure 22.38. Association. 

22.10.2.3. Short Explanation. This form can be used to obtain maximum comprehensiveness

with a minimum of guessing (Figure 22.39.). 

Figure 22.39. Short Explanation Example. 

22.10.2.4. List. This form is especially useful for informal classroom teaching (Figure 22.40.). 

What are the two main classifications of rocket fuel?__________ and __________. 

OR

Who was the first Secretary of Defense? __________ 

After each level of learning, write the name of the author of the taxonomy from which that level was 

drawn. (Bloom, Krathwohl, or Simpson) 

Responding _______________ 

Guided response _______________ 

Synthesis _______________ 

Comprehension _______________ 

Adaptation _______________ 

Characterization _______________ 

In one sentence, explain a significant contribution each of the following men made to the 

development of military aviation. 

General Benjamin Foulois _______________ 

General Billy Mitchell _______________ 

Captain Eddie Rickenbacker _______________ 

General James Doolittle _______________ 
262 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 22.40. List Example. 

22.10.2.5. Picture or Diagram. Pictures or diagrams often add clarity, speed the testing process,

and make testing more interesting and valid (Figure 22.41.). 

Figure 22.41. Picture or Diagram Example. 

NOTE: Since short answer items are so similar in construction to essay items, suggestions for writing

short answer items are included in the next section. 

22.11. Essay Items. Any sharp differentiation between short answer and essay items would be a compromise at best. Fortunately, such a distinction is not necessary. The difference between the two forms is perhaps more noticeable in the length of responses than in the wording of the items themselves. The essay is

probably the least efficient form of item for measuring simple recall (knowledge level of learning). It

should be used only when students are required to think reflectively or creatively, to organize knowledge

in the solution of a problem, and to express their solution in writing. 

List at least four significant reasons why flying safety practices are important. 

 a. ________________________________________ 

 b. ________________________________________ 

 c. ________________________________________ 

 d. ________________________________________ 

 e. ________________________________________ 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 263

22.11.1. Major Disadvantage of Essay Items. The major disadvantage of essay items is the scoring.

For this reason, instructors should make a complete scoring key for each essay item when they first

prepare it. The construction and use of the scoring key will be explained later in this chapter. 

22.11.2. Constructing Essay Items. One of the difficulties in constructing essay items is that the

process appears too easy. Like selection items, however, essay items with good scoring keys are quite

difficult to construct. Before preparing an essay question, instructors must understand the objectives

to be measured. They must also give clear instructions concerning the kind and length of required

responses. Items of equal value on a test should be balanced in difficulty. Instructors cannot evaluate

the students' achievement of the same objective unless all students provide answers to the same test

items. Therefore, instructors should not offer students a choice of questions. 

22.11.2.1. Generally, use essay items for purposes for which they are best suited; that is, to measure achievement at the comprehension or higher level of learning. 

22.11.2.2. State the items clearly so students will know exactly what type of discussion is

required. Do not use vague essay questions in an effort to test ingenuity. If the items are skillfully

designed, students will have ample opportunities to apply their ingenuity and creativity. Essay test

items should mean essentially the same thing to all students who have achieved the desired level

of learning. Revise or eliminate all items with a double meaning. 

22.11.2.3. Whenever possible, increase the number of test items and reduce the amount of discussion required for each. This will not only make scoring easier, but will also probably increase the

comprehensiveness of the test. 

22.11.2.4. Suggest a time limit for each item. Indicate the desired length of response, or otherwise

limit responses. 

22.11.2.5. As part of the instructions to students, explain how each item affects the final score of

the overall test and the possibilities of partial credit for each item. Every student should understand the criteria used in the scoring process. 

22.11.2.6. Avoid making the answer to a first item the basis for a second item. Items linked in this

manner may cause students to miss an entire series of test items although they may be wrong on

just the first. It is nearly impossible to interpret results in such situations. 

22.11.3. Examples of Essay Items. Essay items may be designed and classified in various ways.

One classification can be made according to the type of response required of the student. Seven major

types of essay items based on this classification are shown in the following examples: 

22.11.3.1. Comparison. In 100 words or less, compare norm- and criterion-referenced measurement. This question is worth 20 points and no partial credit will be awarded. Up to five points may

be deducted for grammar and organization. 

22.11.3.2. Decision. Defend the assertion that the death penalty should be abolished. You will

have 20 minutes to answer this question. The question is worth 25 points and partial credit may be

awarded. No points will be deducted for spelling and grammar. 

22.11.3.3. Causes or Effects. In the space provided below, discuss how institutional racism

inhibits social progress in the United States. Support you answer with specific examples. The

value of this question is 15 points with partial credit available. Spelling, grammar, and organization will not be graded. 
264 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

22.11.3.4. Explanation. In 250 words or less, explain the principles involved in airfoil lift. This

question is worth 30 points; partial credit is available. Up to three points will be deducted for

spelling, grammar, and organization. 

22.11.3.5. Summary. Summarize in 300 words or less the functions of management. Your answer

should be supported with specific, personal examples. This question is worth 50 points with partial credit available. Up to 10 points may be deducted for organization, clarity, and grammar. 

22.11.3.6. Illustration. In the space provided below, illustrate the peculiarities of high-speed

aerodynamics. Limit your answer to verbal descriptions and use examples when appropriate. This

question is worth 25 points with partial credit available. No points will be deducted for spelling,

grammar, or organization. 

22.11.3.7. Guided Essay. Another classification of essay items can be made according to format.

The essay item at Figure 22.42. represents an attempt to present a realistic situation and to guide

the student's response. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 265

Figure 22.42. Guided Essay Item. 

22.12. Checklist for Writing Essay or Short Answer Questions. The checklist at Figure 22.43. summarizes several of the principles for constructing sound essay and short-answer items. Guidelines for the

scoring of these types of supply items are provided later in the chapter (paragraph ___). The principles for

the construction of each are virtually the same. Use the checklist to analyze the mechanical quality of the

item in Figure 22.44.

Read the following situation, then answer the two questions provided. Question 1 is worth 10 points; 

question 2 is worth 15 points. Partial credit is available. For full credit, your answer should contain 

specific, relevant support for all conclusions made. No points will be deducted for spelling, 

grammar, or organization. 

SITUATION: Captain Henry Jones is a management analyst at Randolph Air Force Base. You are the 

comptroller. Five months ago the maintenance squadron commander requested a study of his maintenance 

control system. You gave Captain Jones the assignment. He is young and aggressive, and although he had 

no maintenance experience, you felt he could handle the job. A recent check on his progress showed the 

following developments: 

1. He had not completed any studies but showed varying degrees of progress on seven different studies, 

with "three more in the planning stages." Of the seven, two were held up because of a deadlock between 

Captain Jones and the officers in charge of the areas in which he was making the studies. The two officers 

in charge stated that he did not understand maintenance problems and that his recommendations were 

faulty. The other five studies were apparently stagnant. 

2. Captain Jones had established requirements for nine temporary reports from maintenance squadron 

activities to provide him with data in various maintenance areas. The requests for these reports had been 

initiated at different times. 

_____________________________________ 

Directions: Respond to each of the following questions in no more than two handwritten pages. You 

will have approximately 45 minutes to complete the exam. Your answers will be evaluated on their 

content alone, and from 0 to 20 points may be awarded for each answer.

QUESTIONS: 

1. In what respect did Captain Jones err most seriously? 

2. In the present situation, how can the two studies, which have been held up because of non-concurrence, 

be best completed? 
266 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 22.43. Checklist for Writing Short-Answer and Essay Items. 

Figure 22.44. Short Answer or Essay Item. 

22.12.1. Checklist Analysis: 

22.12.1.1. (Question 1) Is the item stated clearly? NO, not really. "Discuss" by itself does not

adequately describe the nature of the desired response. The words "discipline" and "environment"

are particularly ambiguous and require more specific direction for the student. 

22.12.1.2. (Question 2) Is the point value of the item clearly indicated? NO. Students need to

be appraised of the relative weight of the item in the overall test, just as the scoring procedures of

other item types are revealed. 

22.12.1.3. (Question 3) Is the length of the expected response indicated? NO. Instructions to

students should include a realistic guide in terms of time, words, or space for adequately answering the item. 

22.12.1.4. (Question 4) Does the item address partial credit? NO. Particularly in an essay item,

partial credit may be available. Specifically on what basis that credit will be awarded is of interest

to the student. 

22.12.1.5. (Question 5) Are factors other than content indicated that will affect the score?

NO. Sometimes the total score for the item is not based on the content of the response alone; grammar, spelling, neatness, and organization may be factors considered important enough to score in

an essay item. If such factors will be judged, let the student know what and how much. 

22.12.2. Checklist Summary. We have answered NO to all five questions on our checklist. This

question can be fixed as shown in Figure 22.45.

No. Item Format Yes No 

1 Item stated clearly? 

2 Point value of the item clearly indicated? 

3 How much response is expected (in time, words, or space)? 

4 Whether or not partial credit is available? 

5 Factors other than content affect the score (e.g., grammar, organization,

neatness, spelling)? 

 ITEM: Discuss the concept of discipline as it relates to the Air Force environment. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 267

Figure 22.45. Corrected Essay Test Item. 

22.13. Assembling the Test. Once the desired test items have been prepared, pay careful attention to putting the overall test together. All information required to identify the test should be printed on the first

page or the cover page or the students may fill in this information. The name and location of the school,

name of the course, section number, date, and student code number are often included. 

22.13.1. A complete set of instructions, which may be provided in written form, orally, or by visual

aid, should specify what text and other references or tools may be used during the test and the time

allowed for parts or for the total test. The instructions should include a statement of the number of

items in the test and indicate clearly how each student should respond. A good plan is to give a sample

item with the correct response. The instructions should also tell whether to proceed individually from

part to part or page to page or whether to wait for a signal or further instructions. Students should also

be told the procedure to follow when they have completed the test. If reliable testing data is to be compiled for administrative purposes, testing instructions should be kept uniform from class to class. 

22.13.2. Test items should be placed on the page so that each item stands out clearly from the others.

For example, true or false items two lines long should be single-spaced, but there should be two

spaces between items. A space should separate the stem of multiple-choice items from the list of alternatives. The alternatives should appear in a single column beneath the stem and indented beyond the

paragraph margin. 

22.13.3. For machine-scored tests, take precautions to ensure the items can be used with

machine-scored answer sheets. Special answer sheets can be designed for specific test objectives,

while stock answer sheets generally can be used for true-false items, multiple-choice items with 5 or

less alternatives, and for matching items with 15 or fewer alternatives. 

22.13.4. As nearly as can be anticipated, arrange items in ascending order of difficulty within groups.

Items of known difficulty used before are readily arranged in order of difficulty. Students are put at

ease when they find relatively easy items in the early portion of the test. 

22.13.5. A test should be designed to ensure that most students can complete it. When many students

cannot complete a test, much of its efficiency is sacrificed and student morale is likely to suffer. On

the other hand, it may not be desirable for all students to complete the test before the end of the allotted time. In that event, a large portion of the group may have to wait for the remainder to finish.

Allowing students to leave as they complete a test (as in some room arrangements) may distract and

confuse those who are still working. 

22.14. Administering the Test. Although the decision to administer a test does not always rest with

instructors, they are often allowed to decide when to test. Instructors should arrange for tests to be administered in the morning when students are fresh and alert, rather than in the afternoon when they are tired

and less likely to be at their best. 

In no more than 500 words, explain the relationship between the concept of self-discipline and the 

accomplishment of the Air Force mission. Provide support for your statements in the form of specific 

examples—both hypothetical and real. This question is worth a total of 25 points, 5 points of which will 

be for organization and grammar. Partial credit may be awarded. 
268 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

22.14.1. Selecting a place to administer the test is equally important for reliable testing results. Students are more likely to perform at their best in a quiet, well-lighted, well-ventilated room with a comfortable temperature. Ample working space is particularly important when separate answer sheets are

used and when the students may have to make computations on scratch paper. If students are uncomfortable or distracted by physical surroundings, expect their scores to suffer. Also, since some students

are affected more than others, scores will be less reliable. 

22.14.2. Arrive at the examination room well in advance of the class to assemble test materials. Some

instructors prefer to have test papers and other materials in place before the students arrive. Extra

tests, answer sheets, and pencils should be available. In administering the test, provide clear and concise instructions to avoid confusion. Students are less likely to become nervous or tense, when they

understand exactly what they are supposed to do. Therefore, their test scores will represent a more

accurate picture of their achievement. 

22.14.3. Whether you win the confidence of your students in the testing situation depends largely

upon your personality and the effectiveness of your teaching. Make every effort to encourage the students and put them at ease. 

22.14.4. Although carefully written directions for taking the test should be a part of the test, you may

wish to give oral directions as well. Before beginning the test, invite the students to ask questions concerning procedures and make it clear whether questions may be asked of you after the test begins. Any

errors, misprints, omissions, or other defects in the test should be found and explained beforehand. 

22.14.5. If the test has time limits, these should be announced and observed. Tell the students whether

they can turn in their papers and leave the room during the period or whether they must remain seated

until all materials are collected. 

22.15. Scoring Supply Items. You should explain the procedures for scoring supply items at the time

students take the test. The explanation should include a discussion of the relative weight of each item or

problem and its separate parts. With this information, the students can determine how to allocate their

time and effort. 

22.15.1. Scoring supply items often presents serious difficulties. For reliable test results, the rating

assigned to a given paper must be comparable when it is scored by several competent instructors. If

one instructor assigns a "Poor" score to a test paper and another instructor assigns a "Good" score to

the same paper, the grades may express instructors' bias and not student proficiency. 

22.15.2. To achieve scores that are as objective and reliable as possible, you should arrange for more

than one person to score each paper. Supply items are highly subjective and difficult to evaluate;

therefore, they require a great deal of time to grade. You may be tempted to assign the best grades to

students who use their phraseology or who have otherwise done well in the course. 

22.16. Scoring Essay Test Items. The principles for achieving objectivity apply to completion,

short-answer, and essay test items. Since the essay test is the most difficult test to score objectively, this

paragraph includes a detailed discussion of the principles involved in scoring essay tests. 

22.16.1. After you are satisfied the essay item is carefully and accurately prepared, the next task is to

make certain as much objectivity as possible is used in grading the responses. The effectiveness of an

essay examination depends to a large degree on how well it is graded. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 269

22.16.2. In grading essay responses, you must (1) use appropriate methods to minimize biases, (2)

pay attention only to the significant and relevant aspects of the answer, (3) be careful not to let personal idiosyncrasies affect grading, and (4) apply uniform standards to all the papers. Undoubtedly,

the uniformity of grading standards (hence the reliability of the scores) is probably the most crucial

aspect of essay grading for without uniformity, there is no valid way to measure achievement of objectives. 

22.16.3. Decide in advance what qualities to consider in judging the adequacy of the answer. If more

than one distinct quality is to be appraised, make separate evaluations of each. In an essay test, instructors are generally trying to appraise the achievement of objectives directly and explicitly related to the

content areas. These may include areas such as knowledge of facts, principles, theories of the content

area, and the application and development of these to novel situations and problems. They may also

wish to appraise the development of generalized skills of writing, such as logical organization,

English usage, and spelling. These two dimensions are quite different and should be rated and

reported to the student separately. This separation is necessary to enable the instructor to make a judgment of the extent to which the student is achieving the distinctive objectives of the subject matter and

to reveal to the student whether any deficiency in answering the question is due to weakness in subject

matter or weakness in written expression or both. 

22.16.4. Prepare an answer guide or model answer in advance showing what points should be covered. This measure helps provide a common frame of reference for evaluating each paper and is especially important if the scoring of the papers is spread across a number of days. After the preliminary

guide has been prepared, check it against a sample of responses. This step helps determine the adequacy of the scoring guide; therefore, do not rate this sample of papers. If the check reveals that students have consistently interpreted the question at a consistently lower level than the scoring guide,

then revise the specifications of what represents an acceptable answer to correspond more closely to

the performance. Instructors frequently object to this procedure as representing a lowering of educational standards, but it is not. Usually, differences between the original scoring guide and student

answers are due to lack of clarity in the original question or the instructor's unrealistic expectations of

what students can do within the limits of the testing time. 

22.16.5. Read all answers to one item for all students before going on to the next. This allows you to

maintain a more uniform set of standards of grading across papers and you will be less likely to be

influenced in your judgment of the quality of the answer to another item by how the student answered

the previous one. 

22.16.6. Grade the papers as anonymously as possible. The less you know about who wrote an

answer, the more objectively you can judge what was written. 

22.16.7. Write comments and correct errors on answers to essay items. A test is most effective for

motivation and learning when students get prompt, specific information on their strengths and weaknesses. Also, if you make a tally of the types of comments and errors, you will gain valuable information to judge the effectiveness of your teaching. 

22.16.8. Try to score all responses to a particular item without interruption. Scores may vary markedly from one day to the next and even from morning to afternoon of the same day. We would be very

unfair to our students if we allowed a personal argument with a spouse, a migraine headache, or an

upset stomach to influence the grades we give students for their answers. Our scoring is valid only to
270 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

the degree that it is based on the quality of the subject's answer and not on the reader's disposition at a

particular moment. 

NOTE: Although we recommend all responses to a particular item be read at the same time, we also suggest there be short breaks during the reading period. Otherwise, you can become fatigued very easily. 

22.16.9. If possible, have two independent readings of the test. A double reading by two independent

readers will make the scores more reliable. If independent readings are done, the scores should not be

recorded on the test booklet—instead, they should be written on a separate sheet. Seeing the scores

from the first reading could markedly influence the scores on the second reading, and thus defeat the

aim on maintaining independent scoring. 

22.16.10. The sample essay test question at Figure 22.46. provides us with a sample essay item and

instructions. Instructions for answering an essay item should include the length of the essay, time

allowed, worth of the item, if partial credit will be given, and if spelling, organization, and grammar

will be graded. 

Figure 22.46. Sample Essay Test Question. 

22.16.11. The sample scoring key for essay test items (Figure 22.47.) lists the most important elements of an answer. The key is helpful to remind you of the ideas to look for in an answer. However,

your knowledge is still needed to judge the quality of the answers. 

Figure 22.47. Sample Scoring Key for Essay Test Items. 

ITEM: 

Explain how implementing a Management by Objectives (MBO) system might improve worker 

performance and organizational effectiveness. 

INSTRUCTIONS: 

Answer this question in 150-200 words using specific hypothetical or actual examples where appropriate. 

This question is worth 20 points; up to 5 points may be deducted for organization, grammar, and spelling. 

Partial credit may be awarded for the content section of the question. 

For full credit the student should address, with specific examples, the following significant teaching 

points: 

 a. MBO is a good motivational tool for the supervisor, although it does not guarantee success. 

 (5 points) 

 b. MBO can have a positive impact upon the meeting of individual and organization needs. (5 points) 

 c. Increased involvement and participation of workers with the job goals and objectives lead to an 

increase in satisfaction, creativity, and productivity. (5 points) 

 d. Grammar, spelling, punctuation, etc. (5 points) 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 271

22.17. Summary. A primary purpose for testing is to improve instruction and, thereby, to increase learning. The grades derived from testing are, at best, a secondary testing objective. 

22.17.1. Two broad categories of test items are selection and supply. The selection category includes

true-false, multiple-choice, and matching items, all of which provide alternatives from which the student must choose. The supply category includes completion, short-answer, and essay items, all of

which require the student to supply whatever information is requested. Advantages of selection test

items are a high degree of objectivity in scoring, the capability to measure the acquisition of large

numbers of facts, ideas, or principles in a relatively short time, and convenience in the development of

statistical analyses. 

22.17.2. Supply items have a distinct advantage over selection items when you are measuring the

ability to express ideas or original thinking. When properly constructed, either selection or supply

items can measure learning at any level. The problem-situation variety of either supply or selection

test items can measure learning at the higher levels. It can aid in differentiating among students of

high achievement and in estimating the degree of learning achieved by students. 

22.17.3. The actual writing of test items is one of our most difficult tasks. We must understand the

basic concepts involved. When assembling items for a test, the instructor should include a complete

set of instructions. Students should know exactly what is expected of them, the relative value of test

items, and time limits. Normally, test items should be arranged in order of difficulty, starting with the

easiest, and grouped according to subject matter and item type. 

22.17.4. Instructors should understand the effects of physical facilities, temperature, humidity, lighting, time allowed, and time of day on the reliability of test results. Similarly, they should understand

the function of oral instructions preceding a test. For reliable test results, the circumstances surrounding each testing session must be consistent. 

22.17.5. A test may be valid, reliable, and comprehensive, but if it is not scored properly, individual

scores are useless. To increase objectivity, model answers and a scoring key should be used to score a

test with supply-type items. One of three basic procedures can be used to score a test with selection

items. Whatever the method of scoring, students should be told specifically about the method when

the test is administered. Obviously, if a good test is to be used effectively, scoring is a vitally important

procedure. 
272 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 23 

MEASURING LEARNING OUTCOMES 

23.1. Introduction. An orderly process for writing sound objectives and worthwhile test items was introduced in Chapter 3. This approach to planning for learning outcomes produces behavioral objectives and

criterion-referenced tests as required by AFMAN 36-2234. The process for writing student-centered

objectives and tests works well for most Air Force instruction with the possible exception of wholly physical skills. This process will produce sound objectives for cognitive and affective learning as well as job

tasks that include, but are not limited to, physical skills. Using criterion objectives (as explained in Chapter 5) might best develop wholly physical skill objectives, aimed at developing dexterity or manipulative

tasks (touch typing, shooting a firearm, or athletic skills). 

23.2. Overview and Review. Although the process for writing sound instructional objectives and tests

has been explained throughout this manual, this chapter will show additional, more complete applications

using examples from some of the Professional Military Education institutions in our Air Force. We will

illustrate the process applied to a knowledge-level lesson objective (Figure 23.1.) and two comprehension-level objectives (Figure 23.2. and Figure 23.3.) in Bloom's Cognitive Taxonomy. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 273

Figure 23.1. Sample Knowledge-Level Test Question. 

STEP 1 

(note 1) 

LEVEL-OF-LEARNING LESSON OBJECTIVE. Know the fundamentals of the US 

Air Force Instructional Systems Development (ISD) model. 

STEP 2 SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR

(note 2) 1. Define ISD. 

2. List the phases of the ISD process. 

3. State the purpose of ISD. 

4. Label each phase of the ISD model when given a blank graphic. 

STEP 3 ISD is the Air Force procedure for replacing live classroom instructors with computer- 

(note 3) based instruction. 

 T ( ) F( )

(Key: False) 

NOTES:

1. This knowledge-level lesson is typical of many factual lessons taught for recall or 

recognition. The lesson might be an introduction to a larger block of instruction that would 

look at ISD in much more depth, or it could be a one-time lecture to make students aware 

of the model. In this objective, "fundamentals" is a "catch all" term used to save space and 

keep the objective relatively short. The writer of this objective could have spelled out 

which fundamentals (process for assessing needs, format for writing objectives, etc.), but 

the objective could have become so long as to be unreadable. An outline of the lesson plan 

would show which fundamentals were to be included in the lesson. 

2. The samples of behavior listed here describe the behavioral evidence of learning. These 

behaviors, and others equivalent to them, can be used to show mastery of the 

level-of-learning lesson objective. Students may be asked to recall or recognize any of this 

information essentially as it was taught to them. For the purpose of illustration, a test 

question is written from Sample of Behavior #1. Each of the other samples will work 

equally well as long as the anticipated learning outcomes are limited to recall or 

recognition activities. 

3. Although a true-false test item was written from this sample of behavior, several other test 

item types could be used to measure this same sample. Figure 23.3. illustrates how a 

sample of behavior may be used to generate several test item types. By answering this item 

correctly, students will provide some evidence of reaching the lesson objective. If more 

evidence of mastery is needed, students may be tested on additional items that measure 

other behavioral samples of learning at the same level of learning. 
274 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 23.2. Sample Comprehension-Level Test Question. 

STEP 1 LEVEL-OF-LEARNING LESSON OBJECTIVE. Comprehend the behaviorist 

(note 1) learning theory concepts of chaining, shaping, and reinforcement. 

STEP 2 SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR

(note 2) 1. Define each concept in terms other than those used in class. 

2. Identify new examples of each concept. 

3. Compare the critical attributes of each concept to those of the other concepts. 

4. Explain why an apparent example of any of these concepts is or is not a correct 

example. 

STEP 3 An example of reinforcement is 

(note 3) 

( ) a. Offering a child 50 cents to clean a room. 

( ) b. Patting a dog on the head after it performs well. 

( ) c. Placing a child in timeout after a temper tantrum. 

(Key: b) 

NOTES:

1. This objective identifies several concepts that are to be taught for understanding. The 

comprehension level of learning, called for in this objective requires more than simple 

recall or recognition. This objective is more difficult to achieve than knowledge-level 

objectives because students who comprehend concepts must be able to exhibit more 

demanding evidence of learning. The lesson objective names three separate concepts 

rather than just one or two. This is neither good nor bad. It indicates, however, that the 

instructor feels sufficient time is devoted to the lesson to develop comprehension of all 

three concepts. 

2. Students may be asked to show their understanding of these concepts on a written test 

which cannot be answered by recall or recognition. Students must go beyond the facts 

taught to them and generalize to new and unfamiliar material. For the purpose of 

illustration, a test question is written from sample of behavior #2. Each of the other 

samples will work equally well as long as the anticipated learning outcomes require 

students to be able to generalize on the three concepts taught. 

3. Several other test item types could be used to measure this same sample. Figure 23.3.

illustrates how the same sample of behavior may be used to generate several test item 

types. By answering this item correctly, students will provide some evidence of reaching 

the lesson objective. If more evidence of mastery is needed, students may be tested on 

additional items that measure other behavioral samples of learning at the same level of 

learning. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 275

Figure 23.3. Sample Test Questions at the Comprehension Level. 

SCENARIO: All questions below are based on the following scenario: 

Audiovisual specialists do not need to know geometry or trigonometry to do their jobs. The 

audiovisual specialist course director, Captain Richard Kline, believes that all personnel should 

take geometry and trigonometry to increase their mental faculties. He has prepared a course 

proposal to submit to the school's curriculum committee.

STEP 1 LEVEL-OF-LEARNING LESSON OBJECTIVE. Comprehend the concepts of 

Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism as they relate to 

education. 

STEP 2 SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR

1. Define each concept. 

2. Identify examples of each concept. 

3. Compare the critical attributes of each concept. 

4. Predict the reaction of a person identified with each of the concepts to a specific 

educational issue or innovation. 

5. List the critical attributes missing from a scenario that would be necessary to illustrate 

a given concept. 

STEP 3 Test Item (True/False) 

The curriculum committee, with a past voting record which is clearly Perennialist in 

nature, will probably support the proposal to require all audiovisual specialists to take 

geometry and trigonometry. T ( ) F ( )

Test Item (Matching) 

Match the predicted responses to the situation described in the scenario in column B with 

the major schools of educational philosophy listed in column A by placing the appropriate 

letter in the space provided. Each of the responses may be used once, more than once, or 

not at all. 

Column A Column B

Philosophy Responses

( ) 1. Essentialism a. "Yes, require all students to take these subjects." 

( ) 2. Perennialism b. "No, students should not be required to take these 

subjects." 

( ) 3. Progressivism c. "Yes, students should have a choice on which subjects

 to take." 

( ) 4. Reconstructionism

Test Item (Multiple Choice) From the situation described above, the Perennialist 

committee members will: 

( ) a. support the proposal. 

( ) b. not support the proposal. 
276 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

23.3. Test-Writing Process. The figures in this chapter are organized to illustrate the writing of test

items. Although the subject matter varies, each figure contains an appropriate example of the kind of

information generated by each step in the process. The following general comments may be helpful in

interpreting these figures: 

23.3.1. Step 1. Each figure contains an acceptable level-of-learning objective. 

23.3.2. Step 2. Several samples of behavior are included for each level-of-learning objective. There

is no significance to the number or order of these samples. Nor is there any significance to the specific

samples of behavior used as illustrations. (Figure 23.3. further illustrates how a single sample can

generate any of several test item types.) 

23.3.3. Step 3. These criterion-referenced test items have high content validity. Each figure shows a

clear trail from the level-of-learning objective to the test item. As products of the first two steps, use

( ) c. support teaching trigonometry only. 

Test Item (Completion/Fill-in) In the situation described above, the vote of the curriculum 

committee with a Perennialist philosophy will be __________________. 

Test Item (Short Answer/Essay) What will be the vote of a curriculum committee in the 

situation described above if the committee is clearly: 

(1) Essentialist 

(2) Perennialist 

(3) Progressivist 

(4) Reconstructionist 

In general, the analysis of Figure 23.2. applies to this figure as well. This is another example of a lesson 

in which several concepts are to be taught, then tested. These concepts happen to be philosophical theories 

as they relate to education. This general objective format applies equally well to several alternative 

theories of management, different doctrines of strategy and tactics, or alternative concepts of leadership. 

This figure is unique from the previous examples in that it illustrates how the same sample of behavior 

can generate several alternative test items. The behavior in this sample is to "predict." Whether the 

students let us know of their predictions by circling, checking, matching, filling in, or writing them out is 

not important. The sample of behavior is particularly valuable to the student as a study guide if we change 

test item formats from time to time, or if we intend to test the same behavior with more than one item type. 

Each of the samples illustrated in this chapter could be developed into the whole range of test items in the 

same way as shown for this figure. The significant student behaviors for this objective include define, 

identify, compare, predict, and list. The actual student behaviors required to complete the answer to the 

test item--select, match, and write—are of no particular consequence. This illustration further emphasizes 

the importance of well-stated and appropriate samples of behavior. Again, regardless of the test item type, 

the ability to predict is what is important about the several test item examples in this table. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 277

these test items to provide evidence of achieving the level-of-learning objective. The test items measure what they are intended to measure. 

23.4. Summary. The process for writing student-centered objectives and tests is a valuable planning tool.

Almost all cognitive and affective objectives easily lend themselves to this treatment, as do many complex tasks involving psychomotor skills. General objectives, which specify a level of learning in some

acceptable taxonomy, give us a starting point (Step 1). We then name the samples of behavior we will

accept as evidence of learning (Step 2). Test items are then written to provide us with this evidence (Step

3). 
278 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 24 

EVALUATION BY RATING 

24.1. Introduction. When we evaluate student performance and traits, instructor observation and judgment are often the only satisfactory bases for evaluation. A paper-and-pencil test can measure understanding of administrative procedure, but we must exercise judgment to determine how well procedures are

administered. It is possible to devise examination items to determine a supervisor's understanding of management principles, but we need judgment to determine how well the person actually applies those principles on the job. 

24.1.1. Rating instruments should be valid and reliable. Rating instruments are valid when they measure the trait or ability they are supposed to. Instructor ratings are reliable when they measure traits or

abilities consistently. We determine the validity of a rating and supporting rating instruments in much

the same way as we determine the validity for any measurement of learning. We may need to establish

content, concurrent, or predictive validity for a rating instrument. Validity is the most important characteristic of rating instruments as well as other measures of learning. (Chapter 25 provides further

discussion on ways to establish validity.) 

24.1.2. The reliability of ratings is not difficult to determine. If we are rating supervisors on their ability to manage, we ask a number of qualified people to observe the performance and rate the supervisor. The extent to which the observers agree on the ability being rated is a measure of reliability. We

can consider the rating highly reliable if the observers are in complete agreement. 

24.1.3. Several people will rarely agree on the adjective describing the exact quality of a performance. Two observers who agree on the high quality of a performance may use different words to

describe it in the rating. For example, in using the rating scale superior, excellent, good, fair, and

unsatisfactory, one observer might describe a performance as "excellent" and the other describe the

same performance as "superior." Each may be trying to say the same thing, but in different words. 

Figure 24.1. Rating Scale. 

24.1.4. To avoid the apparent unreliability that arises from semantic difficulties, the instructor may

use a scale that has numbers instead of words, such as in Figure 24.1. Observers using this scale to

rate a performer on ability to drive a car might circle 9 if they thought the car was driven in the best

possible manner; 1, if in the worst possible manner; 5, if average; and so on. However, simple numerical scales of this sort may provide observers with too meager a frame of reference. Numbers may

mean the same things to an observer as words do. Numbers have the advantage of appearing to be

equally spaced, easier to rank, and easier to tabulate. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 279

24.2. Rating Methods. For the purpose of rating student performance, the instructor must assign an

absolute value to the trait, performance, or ability of a student without reference to the performance or

ability of any other student. In effect, the instructor rates the person, trait, or performance according to a

fixed scale. Our instructional objectives specify the scale to be used in the rating and the fixed point at

which the rated performance is acceptable. Regardless of the number of points on a rating scale, we

should divide the scale at some point into acceptable and unacceptable zones. Gradations within those

zones are indications of how acceptable or unacceptable the instructor rated the performance when compared to the standard. The acceptable and unacceptable data from these ratings can be analyzed in the

same criterion-referenced way as other test data. (See Chapter 25.) 

24.2.1. Numerical Scale: 

24.2.1.1. The simplest form of rating scale is the numerical scale. Any number of points on the

scale are feasible, but an odd number is commonly used so the center figure can stand for average

or passing. The number of points on the scale should depend upon the number of differentiations

required and upon the ability of instructors to differentiate. 

24.2.1.2. Most instructors can make at least five differentiations, which break a group into those

who far exceed standards, slightly exceed standards, meet standards, fall slightly below standards,

and fall far below standards. Few trained instructors can reliably make more than nine differentiations. As a result, most rating scales contain five to nine points. 

24.2.2. Descriptive Scale. The descriptive scale uses phrases to indicate levels of ability. Figure

24.2. shows a descriptive scale for rating pilot ability. Five levels of ability are described. Such a scale

is more versatile than the numerical scale because the degrees of excellence can be varied to suit the

occasion. For example, suppose an instructor wants to evaluate a particular student trait. He or she

feels all the students are notably satisfactory, but the course instructor wants to know to what degree

each is better than satisfactory. A numerical scale might be useful, except for the common impression

that the lowest numbers on the scale indicate very inferior performance. 

24.2.2.1. A good choice of descriptive phrases helps to reduce rating errors. If instructors do not

use extreme descriptions, the categories at the end of the scale are less objectionable. By using a

descriptive scale, like the one shown in Figure 24.2., the instructor has a better frame of reference.

Here, only the lowest rating possible is labeled unacceptable. All other ratings indicate degrees of

acceptability. If we had used a numerical scale in this instance, instructors might have tended to

shift ratings to the high end of the scale. 

Figure 24.2. Descriptive Scale for Rating Student Performance. 
280 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

24.2.2.2. The major disadvantage of using descriptive scales is a semantic one. An "excellent"

problem solver does not mean the same thing to all instructors. Another disadvantage is the difficulty in selecting phrases that describe degrees of performance that are equally spaced. When the

scale shown in Figure 24.2. is used, most people feel there is less distance between "excellent"

and "superior" than between "fair" and "good." Well-written instructional objectives, with clearly

defined standards for each point on the scale, can help to lessen this problem. 

24.2.3. Graphic Scale. The graphic scale is a combination of the numerical and descriptive scales.

Besides a numerical scale, various adjectives or phrases are set below a continuous horizontal line,

which represents the range of the ability or trait being measured. In using the graphic scale, the

instructor must consider the numerical range of the scale, the phrases that describe the various positions on the scale, and the point on the scale used to separate acceptable from unacceptable performance. 

24.2.3.1. Three typical forms (examples A, B, and C) of the graphic scale are shown in Figure

24.3. In example A, the instructor is given instructions for judging the energy level of students.

The instructor is instructed to mark the scale after considering energy and application to duties on

a daily basis. These instructions help reduce rating errors and encourage instructors to consider the

same things about each student. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 281

Figure 24.3. Examples of Typical Forms of the Graphic Scale. 

24.2.3.2. Example B in Figure 24.3. shows a graphic scale in which certain types of behavior are

described for each point on the scale. With most scales, the instructor must not only observe but

also evaluate to form a rating. People can observe more accurately than they can evaluate what

they have observed. The difficulty of evaluation increases errors of rating. When ratings can be

based on observations alone, reliability is greatly improved. With the scale in example B, the

instructor is only required to record—not evaluate—the actions of the person being rated. Hence,

this type of graphic scale incorporates much objectivity. If a trained instructor observes accurately

and records honestly in using this scale, most rating errors should be eliminated. In preparing this

type of scale, the instructor must make sure the behavior described for each point is actually an

improvement over that for the point just below it. In each case, distances between the points

should appear to be about equal. 

24.2.3.3. The scale in example C is similar to that in example B except that descriptive phrases are

not provided for all points on the scale. In some respects this is an improvement. Many times

instructors feel the rating should fall somewhere between two points. Such a rating is possible

with this form of the graphic scale. The fuller descriptions in example C increase the likelihood

that observed behavior could be pinpointed on the scale. Generally speaking, the more detailed the

descriptions, the better the rating results. At some point, however, the descriptions may be too

UNSATISFACTORY SATISFACTORY 

Example A 1 2 3 4 5 

Industry: Consider energy 

and application to duties day 

in and day out.

Lazy Indifferent Diligent Energetic Untiring 

Example B 1 2 3 4 5 

Cooperation: Creates Indifferent Gets along An Actively 

Demonstration of friction. to others. with most harmonious promotes 

willingness to work with people. team harmony in 

others. worker. working with 

others. 

Example C 1 2 3 4 5 

Initiative: Action taken on Slow to act, Takes Anticipates 

own responsibility. even when a 

decision is 

much needed. 

Waits for 

others. Lets 

opportunities 

pass. Does not 

volunteer. 

Reticent. 

needed action 

without delay. 

Volunteers for 

some tasks. 

Undertakes 

all routine 

jobs without 

supervision. 

Dependable. 

needs. Works 

ahead and 

prepares for 

possibilities. 

Actively seeks 

opportunities. 

Eager. 
282 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

long to print directly on the rating form. At that point, brief descriptors may be used as reminders

of the more detailed descriptions published elsewhere. 

24.2.4. Checklist. The checklist is sometimes considered a separate rating method, but is actually a

two-point rating scale. A checklist is useful for rating the ability to perform a set procedure. It is also

a simple method of rating skills when the purpose is to determine whether students have reached a certain minimum level, without regard to degrees of acceptable or unacceptable performance. Figure

24.4. shows a portion of a checklist that might be used to rate instrument flying proficiency. In using

the scale, the instructor indicates whether the completion of each step was satisfactory or unsatisfactory. Breaking a performance into many observable elements eliminates or reduces many rating errors. 

Figure 24.4. Checklist for Rating Proficiency in Instrument Flying. 

24.2.4.1. Reliability is usually high in checklist rating because of the "go" or "no go" nature of the

decisions required. For example, if apples are to be sorted into a hundred different categories ranging from rotten to top quality, the possibility of error would be enormous. If the categories are

reduced to rotten, partially rotten, fair, good, and excellent, the number of possible errors is greatly

reduced. Fewer choices require fewer and less-refined judgments. When the number of choices is

reduced to two, rotten or sound, the chance for either error or bias is still further reduced, and reliability and objectivity improve correspondingly. Because of its many broad differentiations, the

checklist is comparatively reliable. 

24.2.4.2. On the down side, however, only a limited amount of information can be obtained from

a checklist. For example, the checklist in Figure 24.4. does not indicate how far above or below

standard the satisfactory pilot performed each maneuver. For purposes of an instrument check, the

information obtained would be sufficient to determine whether each pilot reached a certain minimum level of proficiency, but little else is determined. 

24.2.5. Product Scale: 

24.2.5.1. At times, we rate the tangible product of a performance rather than the performance

itself. Figure 24.5. shows a product scale for rating the ability to fly an instrument trainer. We

require the pilots being tested to fly a pattern that corresponds to the pattern shown at E. After

completing the exercise, we compare the pattern produced to the patterns on the scale. 

INSTRUCTIONS: If the performance is satisfactory, place a "+" in the space provided. For 

unsatisfactory performance, place a "-" in the space provided. 

1. Maintains constant heading (within 5o of course). [ ] 

2. Maintains constant altitude (within 50 feet). [ ] 

3. Can make a timed turn (gyros caged) (within 10o of new heading). [ ] 

4. Can make a steep turn (within 50 feet of altitude). [ ] 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 283

Figure 24.5. Product Scale. 

24.2.5.2. If followed carefully, this procedure can eliminate nearly all rating errors. The scale provides a tangible standard a rater can use to measure the product. Product scales tend to reduce or

eliminate most rater errors. 

24.2.6. Forced Choice. Another approach to performance rating is the forced-choice technique,

which uses two to five descriptions of behavior in each block. Both favorable and unfavorable statements may be included in a block. Most rating instruments contain 25 to 30 blocks. Figure 24.6.

shows a single block containing four descriptions—two favorable and two unfavorable. The rater is

asked to select the most characteristic and the least characteristic statements. Although the favorable

and unfavorable statements are easily distinguished, the rater does not know whether A or B receives

more credit. 
284 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 24.6. Single Block of Forced-Choice Instrument. 

24.2.6.1. The decision is so precise that the observers are usually forced to ignore their general

impression and think back to specific instances of behavior. Because the rater reports behavior

without being permitted to judge the quality of the behavior, reliability is greatly improved. 

24.2.6.2. An objection to the forced-choice technique is that considerable research is necessary to

produce a scale for any given purpose and to devise a fair method of keying the responses. For

example, before the scale is constructed, items known to differentiate between good and poor performances are paired with items that do not differentiate. Both items in the pair must be shown to

have approximately equal appeal to the rater. Because of such factors, instructors seldom try to

construct forced-choice rating scales. 

NOTE: The scales described so far are probably the most common. Except for the forced choice, most of

the scales considered (or variations of them) can be designed by classroom instructors. Naturally, they

should be constructed carefully to serve specific purposes and keyed to carefully written instructional

objectives. 

24.2.7. Other Rating Scales. It is possible but quite difficult to use more sophisticated rating scales

in a criterion-referenced situation. These types of scales are normally developed only by experts. Generally speaking, better data for criterion-referenced testing is obtained through numerical scales,

descriptive scales, graphic scales, checklists, and product scales. Some of these types of scales

include: 

24.2.7.1. Sociometric Techniques. This allows individuals to rate themselves or others according to their performance in a group. Some sociometric techniques are useful to evaluate social

traits and attitudes. Others can be applied in the classroom to judge the amount or quality of participation by students in projects and discussions. Some techniques employ diagrams, often called

sociograms, which are easy for an instructor to use. 

24.2.7.2. Q-Techniques. This is a type of rank-order scaling. It rates traits as well as performances of students and teachers. Often the rater sorts and scores a predetermined set of descriptive

terms or makes a selection of terms after a specific period of observation. 

Most characteristic Least characteristic 

A. Can take over in an emergency. [x] [ ] 

B. Fair and just in dealing with others. [ ] [ ] 

C. Lacks interest in job. [ ] [ ] 

D. Questions orders from supervisors. [ ] [x] 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 285

24.2.7.3. Semantic Differential Scale. These depend upon key words with opposite meanings.

The words are placed at opposite ends of a line with numbers representing a spectrum of values, in

this manner: 

NOTE: Surprising success has been reported by researchers working with such scales. 

24.2.7.4. Self-Anchoring Scales. These use the rater's opinion as a point of departure and are frequently written for self-evaluation. One might begin: Here are the numbers 1 through 10. Let 1

represent the untrained beginning instructor, and let 10 represent the ideal master instructor. Now

circle the number you feel best represents your ability level as an instructor today. From this point,

instructors can estimate their ability in the past and future or even estimate the abilities of others. 

24.3. Constructing the Rating Device. The process for constructing a rating instrument involves certain

general steps that will naturally vary according to the type of scale being made. In all cases, however, the

type of rating scale used is dictated by the performance or trait to be measured as described in the instructional objective. 

24.3.1. Determine Objective and Purpose. The initial step is the same for constructing any other

measuring instrument—determine the objective and carefully define it in terms of observable behavior (see Chapter 3). An objective may be to determine a student's effectiveness in a particular skill, to

evaluate the level of achievement in performing a complex task, or to predict the proficiency in applying what has been learned. After the objective has been clearly defined, the task is to determine not

only what to evaluate (the objective), but also why the evaluation is to be made (the purpose). 

24.3.2. Select Traits or Factors. This step requires careful consideration of the job that the subject is

now or will be doing. In light of the objective and purpose of the rating, what traits or factors determine the success or failure of the person being rated? Selected traits or factors must be critical, observable, distinguishable, specific, differentiating, and limited in number. 

24.3.2.1. Only select traits or factors critical or essential to the person's success. If promptness is

not a trait that must be considered to determine a degree of proficiency, do not include it. On the

other hand, if it is essential and an objective of your course, it must be included to make the rating

valid. The fact that a trait is highly important or desirable in a rating is no guarantee it is essential. 

24.3.2.2. Traits or factors must be observable. Base ratings on what you can see instead of your

interpretation of the situation. Base the rating upon an eyewitness report—circumstantial evidence. 

24.3.2.3. Select distinguishable traits or factors. If the traits are so closely related that a rating on

one ensures a similar rating on the other, logical error and loss of comprehensiveness will lower

the validity of the rating. 

24.3.2.4. Select traits or factors that can be defined in terms that have the same meaning for all

instructors. They should be specific and definite, rather than vague or general in nature. 

24.3.2.5. After studying the traits that seem to meet the criteria, eliminate those that do not differentiate. If all people possess the trait to the same degree or level, it serves no useful purpose in the

rating scale. 

autocratic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 democratic
286 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

24.3.2.6. The number of traits or factors may vary from 4 to 10. Having too many factors or traits

may overburden instructors. Accurate observations of a critical sampling are superior to sporadic

observations of a bulky list of traits. 

24.3.3. Define Traits. The traits or factors selected must be clearly and accurately defined in terms of

observable behavior pertinent to the situation. Definitions should show what students do rather than

how well they do it. For example, voice (as used by a drill instructor) might be appropriately defined

as "volume and clarity in giving commands." Such comments as "uses voice well" or "an able and

effective communicator" are inadequate. The first gives no guidance as to what is to be considered

under voice and the second is, in itself, an evaluation. 

24.3.4. Determine Degrees of Success: 

24.3.4.1. The levels of performance should relate to the purpose of the evaluation and the instructor's ability to differentiate. If the pulse of the rating is to identify only three groups—poor, average, and good—there is no justification for using a five-point scale. If the nature of the evaluation

is such that the rater can identify or distinguish between only two levels of performance, a scale of

seven or more levels of attainment would be inappropriate. 

24.3.4.2. Rating scales used for criterion-referenced measurement should have an understood or

labeled point to distinguish acceptable from unacceptable ratings. This distinction is necessary

regardless of the number of points on the rating scale used to grade levels of acceptability and

unacceptability. 

24.3.5. Describe Degrees of Success. Each degree of success or level of performance in each trait or

factor should be described in terms of observable behavior. These word pictures indicate how well the

person performs. Quality of performance rather than frequency should be stressed. 

24.3.6. Assign Weights. Determine how important each factor is and weight it accordingly. It is possible that all factors are not of equal importance. Figure 24.7. provides an example of a rating system

for two duty assignments—one administrative, the other technical. The weight given each factor can

be determined by pooling the opinions of several persons thoroughly familiar with the performance

requirements specified in the instructional objective or supporting documents. Examine these weights

after the scale has been used to determine if the ratings actually differentiate between those who are

effective and those who are ineffective on the job. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 287

Figure 24.7. Example of a Rating System for Two Duty Assignments. 

24.3.7. Validate. A validation study is a method or procedure used to examine, review, and improve

the rating instrument itself. In the validation of a rating scale, the following considerations are important: 

24.3.7.1. Base the study on a significant number of cases, normally 50 to 100. With small groups,

it may be necessary to use the scale several times before attempting to validate it. 

24.3.7.2. In order to determine the reactions of raters, compare the ratings of one individual made

by several raters, as well as the ratings of several individuals made by a number of raters. 

24.3.7.3. Note variations in ratings and determine the cause. The most common causes of variations are poorly defined traits, inadequate description of performance levels, and improper weighting (see Chapter 21). 

24.3.7.4. Validation of the rating scale is a continuous process. If the instructor does not analyze,

critique, and improve the rating instrument, it will not serve its intended purpose. 

24.4. Common Rating Errors. Instructors may differ in their ratings when scales are used to record

observations and judgments of quality. These differences are often called rating errors. Some errors

appear to be caused by the design of the scale, some occur only with certain groups of observers, and

some happen with individual observers. Some observers are subject to errors when rating all persons,

some when rating certain groups, and some when rating only certain individuals. Other errors occur only

when certain traits or attributes of students are rated. 

24.5. Classifying Rating Errors. Errors can be classified into four broad groups: error of central tendency, error of standards, error of halo, and logical error. The first two kinds of errors, central tendency

and standards, affect all students rated by an instructor who is subject to either of the errors. The third type

of error, halo, affects only certain students within a group. The fourth, logical error, appears only when

two or more traits of students are being rated. These common errors may all be reduced; some may be

eliminated by training the instructors and carefully designing a rating scale. 

POINT VALUE 

Administrative Technical 

I. Job knowledge 15 10 

II. Cooperation 20 10 

III. Judgment 20 20 

IV. Personal responsibility 20 10 

V. Leadership 15 10 

VI. Growth potential 5 35 
288 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

24.5.1. Error of Central Tendency. Many instructors hesitate to give either extremely good or

extremely bad ratings and tend to group their ratings close to the center of the scale. This tendency

generally occurs with inexperienced instructors. Even with experienced instructors, this error may

appear when rating personal qualities or abilities that are difficult to identify, such as teaching ability

or personality. Analyzing a number of ratings made by a single instructor may reveal the error of central tendency. For example, on a 9-point scale, an observer made 100 ratings of administrative ability,

all of which were either 4, 5, or 6 (Figure 24.8.). You would assume that administrative ability would

vary more in a sample of this size and that the observer made an error of central tendency. 

NOTE: Some observers place too many ratings at the extremes and too few near the center of the scale,

but this tendency is rare. Although the error is the opposite of central tendency, it may be considered in

that category. 

Figure 24.8. Error of Central Tendency. 

24.5.2. Error of Standards. Some instructors tend to overrate or underrate because of the differences in their standards. Standards of physical measurement are fixed units—inches, centimeters,

ounces, and grams. But in rating with only mental standards for comparison, there may be as many

different standards as individual instructors. 

24.5.2.1. Well-trained and experienced instructors usually distribute their ratings similarly, which

usually indicates that similar standards are used. Inexperienced and untrained instructors are less

likely to have similar distributions. 

24.5.2.2. Thirty persons, representing an average group, were simultaneously rated on a single

trait by instructors A and B who had different interpretations of the standards of acceptability for

that trait. The differences in standard are reflected by the ratings in Figure 24.9. If instructors A

and B were to rate an additional group of 30 persons, their standards should probably be more

nearly alike. As instructors A and B receive more training and gain experience in rating this trait,

their distributions should tend to agree more closely, particularly as they relate to the point of

acceptable or unacceptable behavior. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 289

Figure 24.9. Error of Standards. 

24.5.2.3. If instructors A and B were already experienced raters, it would appear that A has a strict

interpretation of the standards and B has a lenient interpretation. If experienced instructors have

consistent yet quite different interpretations of standards, training should reduce the differences.

One partial administrative correction procedure would either be to add a certain number to all of

A's ratings or to subtract that number from all of B's; another would be to add to A's ratings and

subtract from B's. An effective correction procedure can be determined after comparing the ratings

given by A and B with the ratings of several other competent instructors. Better still, the course

director can inform instructors A and B of their error in standards, give them further training, and

encourage them to make more consistent yet correct ratings. 

24.5.3. Error of Halo or Horns. Instructors sometimes allow their ratings of performance to be

influenced by their general impression of the student. Such an impression is usually formed on the

basis of observations or knowledge that have little or nothing to do with the rating. If allowed to influence judgment, this outside influence would result in an upward or downward shift of all ratings. If

instructors are favorably impressed, they may rate students too high (error of halo). If they are unfavorably impressed, the shift is toward the low end of the scale (error of horns). The halo and horns

errors may affect an entire group or only a few individuals within a group. 

24.5.3.1. Halo and horns errors can be traced to the likes, dislikes, opinions, prejudices, and

moods of raters. When considering friends or close acquaintances, instructors may tend to give

undeserved high ratings on all favorable traits. Such a halo error is often called error of leniency. 

24.5.3.2. Some people believe that close-set eyes show dishonesty. An instructor who holds this

belief is likely to be affected by it when rating a student with close-set eyes. Some people have

preconceived concepts about certain racial groups. They may believe that one group is industrious, another thrifty, yet another excitable. Others have an aversion to or a special liking for religious groups. All these preconceptions may influence instructors. When the halo or horns error is

traced to such sources, it is sometimes called error of stereotype. 

24.5.3.3. For example, Jones and nine other instructors simultaneously rated six persons on teaching ability. In Figure 24.10., all 10 instructors agreed reasonably well on the teaching ability of 5

of the 6 persons rated. All but Jones agreed on the teaching ability of the sixth (F). Apparently

Jones allowed some general impression regarding F to influence the rating unduly. 
290 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 24.10. Halo or Horns Error. 

24.5.3.4. The error of halo or horns may be suspected in some situations, but frequently goes

undetected. These errors can be positively identified only when many competent and experienced

instructors rate a number of persons under identical conditions. However, the simultaneous use of

a large number of instructors is often uneconomical and administratively inadvisable. Usually

only extreme cases are detected, even under controlled conditions. Even when halo and horns

errors have been identified, their reappearance cannot usually be predicted. This is the most difficult error to overcome. 

24.5.4. Logical Error. A logical error may occur when two or more traits are being rated. An instructor who tends to give similar ratings to traits that do not necessarily go together is making a logical

error. For example, some instructors may think an industrious person is also efficient, or that a prompt

person is also industrious. This is not necessarily so. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 291

24.5.4.1. The term logical error is used to mean that the traits are related in the mind of the person

making the error. The relationship may not appear to be logical to someone else. As a matter of

fact, the instructor who exhibits an error of this sort is probably not really aware of it. 

24.5.4.2. Figure 24.11. shows how six observers (A, B, C, D, E, and F) rated a certain person on

four traits—industriousness, promptness, efficiency, and courtesy. On three of the traits—industriousness, promptness, and courtesy—the six observers agree reasonably well. However, E gave a

much higher rating on efficiency than did the other observers. Since E assigned the same rating to

both efficiency and industriousness, it appears the instructor thinks industriousness and efficiency

are much the same, a logical error. There may be many reasons for this error: E may not have had

adequate opportunity to observe the performer's efficiency, may have an erroneous conception of

efficiency, or may not be able to distinguish between efficiency and industriousness. 

Figure 24.11. Logical Error Ratings. 

24.6. Improving Ratings. Ratings can be improved and errors reduced or eliminated by using well-constructed scales, but greater improvement is possible through the training of raters. Satisfactory reliability

can be achieved only when an instructor has gained experience in rating and is familiar with all causes of

error. Instructors should thoroughly understand the common rating errors, correct rating procedures, and

the various rating techniques. The more an instructor knows about causes of unreliability, the easier it is

for that instructor to avoid errors. 

24.7. Summary. By definition, rating contains a subjective element. Therefore, it is subject to the following types of errors: logical, central tendency, standards, and halo (or horns). Despite these possible errors,

the rating process may be the most effective method available for evaluating a person's overall ability or

the quality of performance. Because of common rating errors, differences in ratings may indicate the ability of the instructor to rate rather than the actual differences between the people rated. In view of that possibility, it is necessary to frequently analyze rating results. Instructors can further improve ratings through

careful consideration of the various steps in the construction of the rating scale, and most important of all,

by thorough and continuous training. 

NOTE: For additional examples of rating instruments, see Chapter 10 and Part III to Attachment 9. 
292 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 25 

CRITERION-REFERENCED EVALUATION 

25.1. Introduction. Tests should measure how well students meet our instructional objectives. From

true-or-false tests to simulated war games, we gather measurement data to compare student performance

to what we intended to teach. Before we start to teach, tests tell us which students need some or all of what

we have to offer. During the course of instruction, tests tell us and our students how they are progressing.

At the end of instruction, tests tell us whether individuals have achieved each instructional objective. 

25.1.1. How we report and analyze criterion-referenced test (CRT) items is the focus of this chapter.

Generally speaking, CRTs are different from the norm-referenced tests we have used for many years.

Some consider CRT analysis to be a new point of view brought on by our increasing use of student-centered objectives. When we are no longer as concerned about using test data to rank order students or to give comparative grades (such as A, B, C), then norm-referenced testing (see Chapter 26)

is of secondary importance. The primary concern of a CRT is to measure, report, and analyze student

performance as it relates to specific, significant instructional objectives. 

25.1.2. The placing of norm-referenced testing and analysis in a secondary role may be the most difficult concept to accept in this manual. See Chapter 26 for a detailed discussion on the use of test data

in norm-referenced applications. Most of us have experience with normative testing systems. We have

consciously or unconsciously grown to expect tests and test data to be used to rank order or compare

students to each other. 

25.1.3. Sometimes, we are concerned about how many students passed with a score of 70 percent or

what percentage of test takers are distinguished graduates. But we often forget the primary purpose of

evaluation programs in Air Force schools is to measure student achievement of instructional objectives. No other use of test data should interfere with our need to compare what students can do to what

they should be able to do, as described by our instructional objectives. 

25.1.4. It is important, then, to become familiar with the ways we can obtain, report, and analyze CRT

data. Chapter 3 through Chapter 5 and Chapter 21 through Chapter 24 describe in detail the techniques needed to obtain CRT data from well-written objectives and tests. In the remainder of this

chapter, we will discuss useful ways in which CRT data may be reported and analyzed. 

25.2. A CRT Reporting Format. We have better ways to report CRT data than percentage test scores or

traditional letter grades. Neither of these old standbys tells us what we really need to know. Yes, they do

tell us how our students performed relative to others in the class. But the more important question is: Did

any or all of the group members reach the course objectives? Relative grading does not report that critical

piece of information. 

25.2.1. A better way to present CRT data is a simple reporting grid. Already in use in many schools,

such a grid lists the objectives to be mastered along one axis and the names of individual students

along the other. As each student passes a measure of each objective, an appropriate notation is

recorded in the correct square on the grid. If overall class performance on specific objectives is of

interest, we can tally individual scores and report the number or percentage of the group who have

achieved the objectives. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 293

25.2.2. Figure 25.1. illustrates a quite simple reporting format for CRT data. In this example, CRT

test results show how each student is progressing in the course based on CRT performance. Each CRT

gives us pass or fail or "go" or "no go" data of each student for each objective. Student A achieved two

of the objectives but failed an attempt at passing a CRT on the third objective. Student D attempted

and passed a CRT on each of the four objectives. Student E failed the CRT for objective 1 and has

been unable to go on to the other objectives. We can make many sophisticated variations to this simple

grid, but the basic idea remains the same. In order to analyze the effectiveness of our instructional program, we need to test and report CRT data for each student on each objective. 

Figure 25.1. Simple Reporting Format for CRT Test Data. 

25.2.3. Figure 25.2. is a more sophisticated reporting format that achieves the same basic purposes as

Figure 25.1. Actual test scores are reported in Figure 25.2., and the standard for passing is shown. For

example, student D scored only 43 on objective 1 and failed because a minimum passing score of 85

is required by the instructional objective. This student passed objective 2 with a score of 13 (9 is listed

as the minimum passing score). Student D also scored what appears to be a very fine 98 on objective

3 but failed that objective because the standard is 100. On the fourth objective, student D received a

passing rating for a task which has no numerical value and is simply rated "pass" or "fail." Overall,

student D failed, or at least has not yet satisfactorily completed, the course of study. The data on the

grid shows the minimum course standard is passing at least three of the four stated objectives. Student

D achieved only two objectives—one short of the required minimum. Even though student D performed well above standard and well above all other students in the group on objective 2, the test

results on individual objectives are not averaged, so outstanding performance on one objective cannot

make up for poor performance on others. No averaging, grading on a curve, or using other leveling

devices is another significant difference between CRT analysis and more traditional normative techniques. 

Student Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 3 Objective 4 

A Yes Yes No 

B Yes Yes Yes No 

C Yes No 

D Yes Yes Yes Yes 

E No 
294 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 25.2. Detailed Reporting Format for CRT Data. 

25.2.4. An even more detailed display of CRT data is illustrated in Figure 25.3. This figure displays

two important additional items of data not found in Figure 25.1. and Figure 25.2.—the number of

behavioral samples (keyed to the actual number of the test item) used to measure achievement of the

objective and the level of performance on the test items (mastery level) required to show satisfactory

achievement of the objective. 

Figure 25.3. Summary Table of Mastery or Nonmastery by Curriculum Objectives. 

OBJ OBJ OBJ OBJ Total Minimum 

Raw 1 Raw 2 Raw 3 4 OBJS Course Course 

Score STD P/F Score STD P/F Score STD P/F P/F Passed Standard Grade 

Student A 80 85 F 5 9 F 97 100 F P 1 3 of 4 Fail 

Student B 85 85 P 11 9 P 100 100 P F 3 3 of 4 Pass 

Student C 97 85 P 9 9 P 100 100 P P 4 3 of 4 Pass 

Student D 43 85 F 13 9 P 98 100 F P 2 3 of 4 Fail 

__

Totals 4 2 Pass 3 Pass 2 Pass 3 Pass 10 Pass 2 Pass 

2 Fail 1 Fail 2 Fail 1 Fail 6 Fail 2 Fail 

COMPREHENSIVE SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL STUDENT PERFORMANCE 

STUDENT RECORD #226638 

OBJECTIVE 1 OBJECTIVE 2 OBJECTIVE 3 

Behavioral 

Sample 

Test 

Item # 

Pass/ 

Fail 

Behavioral 

Sample 

Test 

Item # 

Pass/ 

Fail 

Behavioral 

Sample 

Test 

Item # 

Pass/ 

Fail 

1 8 F 2 16 P 1 1 P 

2 9 P 3 22 F 1 2 P 

3 10 F 6 23 P 2 7 F 

4 11 P 7 24 P 2 17 P 

5 12 P 8 30 P 

Summary 5 3 5 4 4 3 

Mastery

Level 4 of 5 4 of 5 3 of 4 

(Passing)

Mastery

Decision No Yes Yes 

(Pass?)
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 295

25.2.4.1. In this figure, student #226638 attempted to pass three objectives. The data from this

grid reveals that objective 1 was not passed but objectives 2 and 3 were (see bottom line of grid,

mastery decision). The data reported for each objective supports the pass or fail decision. Five different samples of behavior were tested for objective 1 (samples 1 through 5). Each sample was

tested by a single test item (items 8 through 12). The pass or fail data for objective 1 shows the student failed items 8 and 10 but passed items 9, 11, and 12. The mastery level for this objective is set

at 4 of 5 items passed. Therefore, the student failed to achieve objective 1, indicated by the word

"No" on the bottom indicating the mastery decision. 

25.2.4.2. Data for objective 2 reveals the student passed the objective by answering 4 of 5 test

items correctly. The minimum standard for this objective is 4 of 5, so a "Yes" is entered on the bottom indicating the mastery decision. 

25.2.4.3. The student also passed objective 3. Notice that the test on this objective was put

together a little differently and the mastery level has changed. Although there are four test items,

only two samples are being measured for the objective. (This may be a math objective where more

than one problem is typically tested on the same math function.) Also note that there are only four

test items for this objective instead of five as for objectives 1 and 2. We can test any number of

behavioral samples with any number of test items. In objectives 1 and 2, we tested five samples

each with one test item per sample. For objective 3, we only tested two samples but used two test

items for each sample. The number of samples tested and the number of test items is a value judgment on our part, in the sense that there may be no precise statistical data or job data to help us

make a decision on the number of samples to test. We may have to rely heavily on expert opinion

to decide what level of performance is acceptable. 

25.2.5. Close in importance to the data on individual students is data on group performance. Figure

25.2. gives us totals about the class as a whole so we can evaluate course effectiveness. CRT analysis

shows that no objective was mastered by all of the students—an important fact for school managers.

Further, students achieved only 10 of 16 objectives (4 students X 4 objectives). This data may raise

further questions about the effectiveness of the curriculum or at least about the efficient and effective

use of Air Force resources. 

25.2.5.1. Figure 25.1., Figure 25.2., and Figure 25.3. report individual student achievement of

course objectives. We determine how well students have mastered these objectives by tests that

measure carefully stated objectives. This display of CRT data for analysis reports the outputs of

these courses. We can make the grids more sophisticated, if required, by adding items such as the

number of attempts to pass each CRT, the dates of the CRT, and the length of instructional time

between CRTs. 

25.2.5.2. Some of the data from these grids could be used to rank order student performance so as

to arrive at comparative grades or distinguished graduates. However, these uses of the data should

not interfere with the primary purpose of CRT analysis: to account for the performance of each

student on each objective. One unique way, then, to use the data from these figures for comparing

students is to rank them by the number of objectives achieved rather than the average of their test

scores or letter grades. Based on CRT data, the ranking for students (from highest to lowest) in

Figure 25.2. is student C, student B, student D, and student A. 

25.2.6. Ideally, none of the students who come to our schools for group instruction should already be

masters of our course objectives. If they are able to perform at the level described in our instructional
296 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

objectives, they don't need the school. By the same token, all students who complete our course

should ideally have mastered all of the instructional objectives. If the objectives really satisfy Air

Force needs and if we really teach and test with a focus on the objectives, we should have all students

meet all objectives. This is an ideal we may never achieve, but it is an ideal toward which we work. 

25.2.6.1. If too many students show up in our classrooms already knowing what we intend to

teach, we are wasting time and resources by making them take the course. To reduce the number

of students who show in a pretest that they do not need some or all of our school, we can take some

of the following actions: 

25.2.6.1.1. More carefully describe prerequisites and course objectives to eliminate overlap

between courses. 

25.2.6.1.2. Design special tracks for individuals through self-paced, individualized instruction

rather than lock-step group instruction. 

25.2.6.1.3. Provide exemption procedures that allow students to skip some or all of a course

while still receiving credit based on a pretest. 

25.2.6.2. If we must use large group instruction with instruction time as a constant, we may have

to settle for less than 100 percent of the student body achieving all course objectives. However, we

should not take lightly the figure we do settle for. It may be more reasonable to accept a lesser goal

because of scarce resources, limited time, or lack of specific student motivation or aptitude. The

effectiveness of group instruction is often judged by arbitrary standards such as 90 percent of the

students will achieve 90 percent of the objectives (or 80 percent of the students will achieve 80

percent of the objectives). These figures may seem far more reasonable than the 100 percent of the

students achieving 100 percent of the objectives, but we must realize that the 90 percent/90 percent standard means we are satisfied with the course if 81 percent of possible objectives are

achieved (90 percent of possible objectives X 90 percent of the student body to achieve them). In

applying the 90 percent/90 percent criterion to a course with 20 objectives and 50 students (a possible total of 1,000 objectives to be achieved), we would only need to accomplish 810 objectives

overall (18 objectives X 45 students) to consider group instruction successful. 

25.2.6.3. There are no statistical techniques to tell us what pretest and posttest percentages are

acceptable. Statistics do not make decisions for us; they simply give us data for decisionmaking.

Value judgments are ours to make, and we need to make a value judgment on acceptable pretest

and posttest percentages. We can arrive at these value judgments in many ways, some of which

have little or no educational basis. Personnel problems, economic factors, or other considerations

may influence the decisions. 

25.3. CRT Item Analysis. Since the term "criterion-referenced" was first introduced in 1962, there has

been a great deal of research to improve methods of evaluating student performance against established

standards as opposed to the traditional norm-referenced methods of evaluating students. As a result of that

research, there have been a number of different statistical formulas developed to use in CRT item analysis.

We will look at two very effective formulas that give us useful data to determine the effectiveness of criterion-referenced evaluation programs. 

25.3.1. Ease Index (EI). As indicated earlier, the ideal CRT situation includes a pretest and a posttest. These tests give us information about what the students know about our objectives before taking

our course (nonmasters) and then measure how much was learned as a result of our course (masters).
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 297

To make this comparison, we must look at each individual test item to determine how easy or difficult

the item is. If a majority of our students are answering a particular item correctly, this indicates the

students know the objective tested (provided it is a well-constructed and valid test item [see Chapter

22]). 

25.3.1.1. The EI is found by identifying the number of students who correctly answered the test

item (R) divided by the number of students who took the test (N). This total is then multiplied by

100 to give a percentage (Figure 25.4.). 

Figure 25.4. Ease Index Formula. 

25.3.1.2. This formula is frequently used for both criterion- and norm-referenced evaluation.

Although the statistical results will be the same, the interpretation of the results will differ (see

Chapter 26 for norm-referenced interpretation). In general, a test item with an EI of 0 to 40 percent is a difficult item, an EI of 41 to 75 percent is considered to have a medium difficulty, and a

76 to 100 percent EI is considered an easy item. 

25.3.1.3. For example, if 20 students out of 80 answered an item correctly, the formula for computing the EI would be 20/80 (100) = .25. For a pretest, this may well be an indicator the students

need to be taught the material. If this were the EI for a test item after the material has been taught,

it might indicate there was limited learning of this particular item. However, remember that the

numbers are only indicators. They do not identify or solve problems. They should get our attention

to give us an idea of how our educational program is working. 

25.3.1.4. When using the EI with a pretest in CRT, an EI of 50 percent or above on a given item is

considered unacceptable. The 50-percent point is an arbitrary number and the actual cutoff point

or standard for a pretest item is a decision that depends on the school objectives, curriculum, and

a wide variety of data. 

25.3.1.5. When using the EI with a posttest in CRT, an EI of less than 80 percent may be considered unacceptable. After having taught the material, if we have constructed test items well, the students should perform much better on the test. Much like a 50 percent EI on a pretest (nonmasters),

the 80 percent EI for a given item on a posttest (masters) is an arbitrary figure. This figure may

vary depending on a number of educational factors and value judgments. 

25.3.1.6. By looking at the EI of individual test items on pretests and posttests, we can gain a great

deal of valuable generalized information in managing an educational program. As a result of using

the EI formula, we can gain insight into how much educational growth has taken place. 

25.3.2. Differentiation Index (DI). The Cox & Vargas DI simply measures the difference between

the EI of a test item on the pretest and that same item on a posttest. More often than not, when using

criterion-referenced analysis, the same test items are used for the pretest and posttest. Although this is

 R/N (100) = % Ease Index 

 R = Number who answered item correctly divided by 

 N = Number who took the test. 

 Multiply the result by 100. 
298 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

not the only method used in CRT item analysis, it is a very effective method and provides very usable

data. 

25.3.2.1. The Cox & Vargas DI is found by subtracting the EI of a given test item on the pretest

from the EI of the same item on the posttest. The difference is an indicator of the growth for that

item from the pretest to the posttest. Once again, it is critical to keep in mind that the statistics

from any test item analysis are only indicators that problems may exist. They do not identify the

nature of these possible problems. 

25.3.2.2. When using written evaluation instruments, areas of concern include the construction of

the item, its validity, how the material is taught, and other factors that influence test taking. However, statistical analysis gives us some strong indicators and waves a red flag to get our attention

when potential problems are indicated in individual test items. 

25.3.3. The Ideal CRT Item Situation. The ideal situation for any individual CRT item is much like

that for the overall test. When any group of students arrives at our school, we should test them to

determine their need for our instruction. We may find they know nothing about one, several, or all of

our objectives. The less they know, as shown by the pretest, the more ideal the situation: the more they

need our course. Our selection and screening procedures have worked. 

25.3.3.1. We discussed objectives as a group and the value judgments involved in setting an overall pretest or posttest standard. As we look at individual CRT items that measure objectives, however, we need to examine the items one by one. An analysis of group performance on each item in

a CRT can be a powerful tool for managing the curriculum. Figure 25.5. provides data on three

test items from a CRT pretest and posttest. In this example, each test item happens to sample different objectives, but the same discussion would apply if all test items measured the same objective. 

Figure 25.5. Percent of Correct Responses to Test Items. 

25.3.3.2. The data for test item #1 shows that only 20 percent of the students coming into the

course knew the material well enough to correctly answer the item. Whether this percentage is too

high or too low depends on the value judgments we make. But it is a reference point to which we

can make comparisons. An obvious comparison comes about when we see that only 56 percent of

the students correctly answered that same test item on the posttest. Only 36 percent more of the

students were able to pass this CRT item on the posttest than on the pretest (56 percent [post] - 20

percent [pre] = 36 percent [growth]). This growth does not seem high enough when we compare

the 56 percent posttest percentage with the ideal 100 percent posttest goal. On the other hand, 56

percent group performance on the posttest may be acceptable in a short course on a less-than-critObjective 1 Objective 2 Objective 3 

Test Item #1 Test Item #2 Test Item #3 

Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post 

20% 56% 67% 71% 12% 89% 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 299

ical objective. However, 36 percent growth is neither bad nor good by itself. Questions need to be

asked about the curriculum, the selection procedures, or the evaluation program if only 56 percent

of our students can respond correctly to a posttest item that measures an objective. Is the test item

bad? Is the objective poorly taught? Is 56 percent an acceptable posttest achievement percentage

considering the possible high level of learning involved? Obviously, the answers to these questions might not be easy. 

25.3.3.3. Data for test item #2 of Figure 25.5. shows a high percentage of the group is already

able to pass this test item when they reach our course. The 67 percent entry figure detracts from

the luster of the 71 percent posttest statistic. These figures may reveal at least two problems. First,

a very high entry percentage may raise the question of appropriate content. By itself, the 67 percent is neither good nor bad, but such a high percentage of correct answers in an incoming group

might have curriculum implications concerning the need for the course, the level of the curriculum, or the screening of potential students. The small 4 percent growth figure from pretest to posttest may tell us more. It is hard to imagine a case involving an Air Force school where such a

growth figure would be acceptable. Whether in relative terms (4 percent growth on this individual

test item) or absolute terms (71 percent of the ideal 100 percent), this posttest statistic tells us

something about our curriculum or the delivery of instruction—and it probably isn't something

good. 

25.3.3.4. The third test item from Figure 25.5. comes much closer to the pretest and posttest ideal.

It appears that the vast majority of our incoming class needs this instruction (100 percent - 12 percent correct on pretest = 88 percent potential growth for class). Of that potential 88 percent, we

were able to accomplish quite a bit—a 77 percent class growth. This is probably good growth and

is certainly superior to either of the other sets of test item data. 

25.4. Group CRT Data as a Management Tool. To the extent that what we want in the way of group

performance differs from what we actually get, we have a curriculum problem of some type. We may be

able to do a better job managing our curriculum by paying special attention to group or aggregate CRT

item data. Take, for example, an attempt to improve a curriculum through test item management. The

variables that may be different in each of our own situations are the acceptable group percentages for pretest and posttest items, the time to respond to curriculum problems revealed by test item analysis, and the

individual curriculum responsibilities in cases of unsatisfactory test item data. This example is typical of

what can be done to the management of curriculums by improving the use of group CRT item data. 

25.5. Characteristics of CRT Evaluation. As we report and analyze CRT data, we assume we are using

good tests and test items to get data. Good CRTs and test items must have each of the critical characteristics demanded of all effective evaluation devices (see Chapter 21). CRT items must be reliable, valid,

objective, comprehensive, and capable of differentiating. These characteristics are the same as those we

have always demanded from Air Force measurement devices, but the characteristics take on a new and

unfamiliar look to instructors who have only worked with norm-referenced testing (see Chapter 26). 

25.5.1. Reliability. A reliable CRT item or other measure is one that yields consistent results. In other

words, will the same person taking the test twice answer the test items much the same way. Reliability

is not generally a severe problem with performance rating provided conditions in the evaluation situation remain constant. Reliability can be a problem in paper-and-pencil testing, however, because constructing a good test item is difficult. 
300 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

25.5.1.1. CRT items with poor reliability are easy to spot if we can recognize the symptoms. If

students who are about equal in knowledge or ability have scores that vary widely on a CRT or test

item, we may have an unreliable exam. Likewise, if we test the same student twice on the same

CRT or test item (within a short period of time), and he or she passes once and fails the next time,

we may have an unreliable exam. 

25.5.1.2. In neither of these cases could we say with certainty that the exam is not reliable, but we

should be suspicious. We can use statistics to help us write reliable CRTs. 

25.5.2. Validity. For a test to be valid, it must measure exactly what we intended it to measure as

defined in our objective. We should ask ourselves the questions at Figure 25.6. to determine the kind

of validity we're checking. 

Figure 25.6. Three Usable Approaches to Determine Validity. 

25.5.2.1. Content Validity: 

25.5.2.1.1. Content validity is probably the easiest and best way to assess whether or not the

CRT measures the objective. We can establish content validity by examining the test and comparing the items to carefully written objectives. No statistical test is used to establish content

validity. If subject matter experts feel it measures what the objectives call for, it is valid. If they

do not, it is not valid. 

25.5.2.1.2. This technique for establishing validity is practical and useful for Air Force

instruction. A test of content validity is a reputable technique and should be rigorously

applied. The usefulness of content validity as a tool in a school will vary with the quality of the

objectives. The test may validly measure the objectives, but valid measurement of worthless

objectives yields valid but worthless data for the school. 

25.5.2.2. Concurrent Validity. If we already have another good CRT measure of what we want

to test, we can determine the degree of association between the results of the first CRT and the new

one we want to use. To the extent that they are related, we have established their level of concurrent validity. We may wish to determine a level of concurrent validity between our own exam on

management and a nationally recognized exam that has been accepted as valid. We may wish to

check the validity of a newly developed multiple-choice management exam against a very

time-consuming, but valid essay exam now in use. A statistical test is required to establish a level

of concurrent validity. 

25.5.2.3. Predictive Validity. We can establish predictive validity for our CRT in much the same

fashion as we can determine concurrent validity. When we have two CRT measurements of what

we believe to be the same skill or knowledge taken at a considerable length of time from each

other, we may wish to determine how well the first CRT predicted success on the second CRT. We

may wish to see how our school posttest predicts success on the job as measured by supervisor ratings. Or we may wish to determine how well a pencil-and-paper test can be used to predict future

Content Validity— Does the CRT measure what the instructional objective specifies? 

Concurrent Validity— Does one CRT compare favorably with another, already validated CRT? 

Predictive Validity— Can student scores on one CRT be used to predict success on a second CRT? 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 301

success on a performance exam. In these and similar situations, we can use various statistics to

establish predictive validity between two CRTs provided they are both scored on a pass-or-fail

basis and the tests are separated by a substantial period of time. 

25.5.3. Objectivity. One of the most obvious benefits of CRT is the positive effect upon objectivity

in testing. While it is almost impossible to remove all personal bias from measurement, CRT allows us

to come closer to that ideal. We can improve the objectivity of a CRT by ensuring that objectives are

appropriate and well written. Further, careful attention to content validity greatly improves objectivity. To the extent that any element of the objective is ambiguous, the CRT has the potential to lose its

objectivity. Instructor bias may creep into any measurement situation. For help with this problem,

refer to Chapter 22, Chapter 23, and Chapter 24. 

25.5.4. Comprehensiveness. CRT should be comprehensive by its very definition. CRTs measure

instructional objectives; therefore, our tests should be comprehensive by the very act of finding out

whether we accomplished what we set out to accomplish. Ideally, we should be 100 percent comprehensive in our testing programs. Any objective worth stating should be important enough to teach and

to measure. There may be some reason to have some objectives that are not measured, but we should

be able to justify each case. If our objectives represent our needed and desired learning outcomes and

we test them, we have a built-in mechanism to ensure comprehensiveness. 

25.5.5. Differentiation. We can use statistical tests to help us tell whether our test items can tell the

difference (differentiate) between persons who have mastered our course and those who have not.

Masters of our course include our graduates, those persons exempted from our course because of

equivalent training or experience, and those acknowledged experts already working in the field for

which we are preparing our students. Nonmasters are essentially any group of students or potential

students who do not possess or are not supposed to possess the knowledge and skills we teach. If our

test items cannot differentiate those who are graduates of our course from those who are getting ready

to take it, we have some sort of problem (Figure 25.7.). 

Figure 25.7. Possible Problems Causing Lack of Differentiation. 

25.6. Summary. To report and analyze CRT data correctly, we need to use techniques different from

those we traditionally use. The need to change techniques comes about because CRT is concerned with

comparing a student's performance with instructional objectives rather than with the level of performance

of other students. 

25.6.1. An appropriate display of CRT data will assist us as we analyze the results of our instruction.

A reporting format that accounts for individual student achievement for each significant instructional

objective is a valuable tool. This reporting format may be as simple as a grid listing each student on

Poor Selection of Students—Too many students coming to our course already possess the skills we 

intend to teach. 

Poor Curriculum and Instruction—There is little growth on the part of the students during our course. 

Poor Test Items—Something in our test items may be causing qualified students to perform poorly while 

not affecting unqualified persons. 
302 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

one axis and each objective on the other. Or, it may be so complex as to need computer support to keep

track of and analyze instructional variables such as learning time and attempts at mastery. 

25.6.2. Except for extreme examples, the passing or failing point in a CRT situation is quite subjective. We must often settle for less than perfect performance on our examinations. Time, money, student characteristics, and other variables often affect our standards negatively. Although pretest scores

of 0 and posttest scores of 100 percent are ideal, we must often accept less than the ideal. The extent

to which we exceed the ideal score at entry or fall short of the ideal at exit is a subjective decision.

Many complex variables affect that decision. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 303

Chapter 26 

NORM-REFERENCED ANALYSIS 

Section 26A—Overview 

26.1. Introduction. Schools that use evaluation data to compare the performance of one student to the

group use some form of norm-referenced analysis. Awards to the commandant's trophy winner, the best

writer, distinguished graduates, and similar rankings of outstanding groups or individuals are usually the

products of norm-referenced analysis. 

26.1.1. Norm-referenced analysis is a classification or label applied to the use of evaluation data for

comparing students to each other rather than to a specific instructional objective. Many different statistical techniques can be used to evaluate students' scores on written tests and performance rating

instruments. In some schools, especially in professional military education programs, there has been a

tradition of identifying and rewarding the best performers in each class by comparing students on

many different tasks. Norm-referenced analysis is characterized by using data to compare students to

the "norm" or average. Any or all of the following items may be used for the purpose of comparing

students: written test scores, grades on writing and speaking assignments, grades in drill and ceremonies, grades in physical training, and numerical estimates of various leadership traits. 

26.1.2. Consider the following hypothetical case to help distinguish between criterion- or objective-referenced analysis (see Chapter 25) and norm-referenced analysis. Suppose we have 50 students in a 1-week course and we use only one evaluation instrument—a final written test of 100

questions. If we set minimum passing at 70 percent of the objectives being tested and compare student

scores to the 70 percent standard, we use a form of criterion-referenced measurement. If we are more

interested in rank ordering our students than holding them to a specific cutoff score for passing, the

process would be called norm-referenced measurement. If we set a minimum standard for passing and

we also desire to rank order students for the purpose of recognizing the students who performed better

than others, then we are using both criterion-referenced measurement and norm-referenced analysis. 

26.1.3. This chapter presents several statistical measurements and procedures commonly used to

compare students with each other. The advent of inexpensive calculators with many functions has

decreased the need to be thoroughly familiar with the computations for most statistical measures.

However, understanding how to compute various functions helps to reinforce the meaning of statistical concepts. 

Section 26B—Grading Methods 

26.2. Overview. This section is concerned with several grading methods. The basic data used throughout

the examples are the final school grades made by 150 students in a hypothetical Air Force school. Whatever grading method is used, a frequency distribution of scores should be established first. The scores may

be the result of a single administration of the test or they may have been accumulated over a period of

time. 

26.2.1. Construct the frequency distribution of the scores made by the 150 students (Figure 26.1.) as

follows: 
304 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 26.1. Tabulation of a Frequency Distribution. 

26.2.1.1. Step 1. In column 1, list the scores obtained by the group from the highest to lowest. 

26.2.1.2. Step 2. In column 2, enter tally marks for each score. 

26.2.1.3. Step 3. In column 3, record the number of tally marks for each of the scores. Because

this column tells how frequently each score occurred, it is known as the "frequency (f) column."

The total of this column should be the total number of persons in the group. This frequency distribution (columns 1 and 3) is used to compute grades. 

26.3. Rank-Order Grades. Rank-order grades are best computed from the basic frequency distribution

shown in Figure 26.1. Figure 26.2. shows the rank order that would be assigned to all 150 students. Two

students tied for the highest rank in the class. If evaluation instruments had the capability of making finer

differentiations between the two students, one would have ranked first and the other second. Because it is

not possible to differentiate between them on the basis of available information, they should both receive

the same rank-order grade. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 305

Figure 26.2. Computation of Rank-Order Grades. 

26.3.1. In cases of a tie, it is customary to assign all members the median rank of the tying group.

Therefore, in Figure 26.1. the highest two would be assigned the rank-order grade of 1.5/150. Seven

students tied for the ranks three through nine; therefore, each would receive the rank-order grade of 6/

150. 

26.3.2. To find a rank-order grade of tying students, the instructor should note the lowest and highest

ranks of those in the tying group and average these two ranks. You may use the following formula to

compute rank-order grades: 

A B C 

School Score Number of Students (f) Rank-Order Grade 

47 2 1.5/150

46 7 6/150 

45 8 13.5/150

44 8 21.5/150

43 12 31.5/150

42 11 43/150

41 15 56/150

40 12 69.5/150

39 8 79.5/150

38 12 89.5/150

37 12 101.5/150

36 10 112.5/150

35 7 121/150

34 1 125/150

33 7 129/150

32 6 135.5/150

31 4 140.5/150

30 2 143.5/150

29 4 146.5/150

28 1 149/150

27 1 150/150
306 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

26.3.3. For example, 25 students received scores higher than 43 and 12 students received 43. The

highest person in the group receiving 43 would therefore have a rank of 26; the lowest, 37. The

rank-order grade for each of these 12 students is computed as follows: 

NOTE: Here, T is the rank of the student at the top of the tying group; B, the rank of the student at the

bottom of the tying group; and N, the total number in the class. 

26.3.4. The formula may be used to obtain the rank-order grade for the 8 students with the score of

44: 

NOTE: We would say that the rank order of 8 students with a score of 44 is 21.5 out of 150 students. 

26.4. Percentile-Rank Grades. The percentile rank for a specific score is defined as the percentage of

persons in the reference group who obtained scores equal to or less than the given score. Thus, if a raw

score of 50 equals a percentile rank of 87, called the 87th percentile, then 87 percent of the people in the

reference group obtained scores equal to or less than 50. A percentile rank of five indicates that only 5

percent of the group obtained equal or lower scores. A percentile rank involves percentages of people and

indicates a student's relative standing in percentage terms. 

26.4.1. Scores on the Airman Classification Test and the Air Force Officer Qualifying Test are

reported in percentiles. By contrast, percentage scores express performance in terms of percent of content mastered. A percentage score of 85 means that a student answered 85 percent of a test correctly. 

26.4.2. Percentile rank grades are computed from a frequency distribution in much the same way as

are rank-order grades. The main difference is that percentile-rank grades are computed from the lower

end of the scale. 

26.4.3. Probably the easiest method of converting a frequency distribution into percentile-rank grades

is to use the basic distribution of student scores as follows: 

26.4.3.1. Step 1. Construct a cumulative frequency column (Table 26.1., column C) which shows

the number of students below the score given. For example, no one scored below 27. Therefore,

the entry in column C for 27 is 0. One student had a score lower than 28; the entry in column C for
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 307

28 is 1. Two students scored below 29; the entry in column C for 29 is 2. This process is continued

to the top score. Obviously, the top entry in column C is 148. The cumulative frequency for the top

percentile rank can be checked against the total number in the distribution. 

26.4.3.2. Step 2. Construct a column (Table 26.1., column D) that shows the number of students

below a particular score, plus one-half the number of students obtaining that score. Entries for column D may be obtained by adding 1/2 the number in column B to the entry in column C. For

example, in Table 26.1. the entry in line 12, column D, for the school score of 36 is 38 because 10

(1/2) + 33 = 38. For the score of 41, the entry at line 7, column D, is 94.5 because 15 (1/2) + 87 =

94.5. 

Table 26.1. Computation of Percentile-Rank Grade. 

26.4.3.3. Step 3. It is now a simple matter to compute the percent of the total group that lies

below the middle of each score. To do this, divide each entry in column D by the total number of

L

I

N

E

A B C D E

School 

Score

Number of 

Students (f)

Number of Students 

Below Each Score

(Column 3 Plus Half 

the Number in 

Column B)

Percentile-Rank 

Grade

1 47 2 148 149.0 99 

2 46 7 141 144.5 96 

3 45 8 133 137.0 91 

4 44 8 125 129.0 86 

5 43 12 113 119.0 79 

6 42 11 102 107.5 72 

7 41 15 87 94.5 63

8 40 12 75 81.0 54 

9 39 8 67 71.0 47 

10 38 12 55 61.0 41 

11 37 12 43 49.0 33 

12 36 10 33 38.0 25

13 35 7 26 29.5 20 

14 34 1 25 25.5 17 

15 33 7 18 21.5 14 

16 32 6 12 15.0 10 

17 31 4 8 10.0 7 

18 30 2 6 7.0 5 

19 29 4 2 4.0 3 

20 28 1 1 1.5 1 

21 27 1 0 0.5 0 
308 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

students, and then multiply by 100. For example, the l0 students with a score of 36 receive a percentile-rank grade of 25; they are at the 25th percentile, obtained as follows: 

26.4.3.4. Step 4. These arithmetical procedures can be expressed by the formula presented below.

In this formula, Y is the number of students below a particular score; f, the number of students

receiving that same particular score; and N, the total number of students in the class. Usually the

decimal portions of percentile-rank grades are not considered important; consequently, percentile

rank is usually reported to the nearest whole percent. 

26.5. Percentile-Group Grades. Many methods of percentile-group grading are used. Instructors may

invent one to suit their needs. However, all students in a group with identical scores should receive the

same grade. Whatever groups are used, some of the dividing lines are almost sure to fall where they will

separate the members of a group who have the same score. If this occurs, you must decide on which side

of the group to place the line. A basic distribution of scores may be grouped in several ways (Table 26.2.). 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 309

Table 26.2. Computation of Several Percentile-Group Grades with Different Percentage 

Groupings. 

26.5.1. For the method in column C, the class is divided into four groups: the top 20 percent of the

class (superior); the next 30 percent (above average); the next 40 percent (satisfactory); and the bottom 10 percent (unsatisfactory). Twenty percent of 150 (the number of students who took the test) is

30; therefore, a count from the top of the distribution should include 30 students. However, the 30th

student from the top is among the 12 students who received a score of 43. If we place the dividing line

just above this group, only 25 students are within the top 20 percent. If we place the dividing line so

as to include the whole group with a score of 43, then 37 students would be within the top 20 percent.

Since 25 is closer to 30 than 37 is, we placed the dividing line between the scores 43 and 44. The position of this dividing line will vary with instructors; for the individual instructor, it is likely to vary

according to mood and general impressions. Subjectivity is involved even more in this method in

identifying the bottom l0 percent. Ten percent of 150 is 15, so a count from the bottom of the distribution should include 15 persons. This dividing line falls at the middle of the group that received a score

of 32, making an arbitrary decision necessary. 

A B C D E F 

L Percentage Groupings 

I 10%, 20%, 

N School Score Number of 20%, 30%, 40%, 20%, 

E (Raw Score) Students (f) 40%, and 10% and 10% Tenths Quarters 

1 47 2 Top 20% Top 10% 1 1 

2 46 7 (Superior) (A) 

3 45 8 

4 44 8 Next 20% 2 

5 43 12 Next 30% (B) 3 

6 42 11 (Above 2 

7 41 15 Average) Next 40% 4 

8 40 12 (C) 5 

9 39 8 Next 40% 6 3 

10 38 12 (Satisfactory) 

11 37 12 7 

12 36 10 Next 20% 8 

13 35 7 (D) 9 4 

14 34 1 

15 33 7 

16 32 6 10 

17 31 4 Bottom 10% Bottom 10% 

18 30 2 (Unsatisfactory) (F) 

19 29 4 

20 28 1 

21 27 1 
310 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

26.5.2. The method in column D is similar to the method in column C with these exceptions: five

groups are used, the percentages are intended to be symmetrical, and letters instead of adjectives are

used to identify the groups. In the method at column E, the class is divided into l0 approximately equal

groups. Column F divides the class into quarters. 

26.6. Arithmetic Mean. The arithmetic mean of a set of scores can be found by totaling them and dividing that sum by the number of scores. For example, the mean of 103, 101, 98, and 98 is 100, computed as

follows: 

NOTE: We can further illustrate the method of computing the mean by considering grades obtained from

the class of 150 students (Table 26.3.). The numbers in column B tell how many students obtained each

raw score. The mean is computed using the following steps: 

26.6.1. Step 1. Arrange the raw scores of the test (referred to as X) in numerical order from highest to

lowest without repeating identical scores. 

26.6.2. Step 2. In column B, list the number of students who made that score (referred to as frequency

or f). Total this column to determine the number of students in the class, referred to as N. 

26.6.3. Step 3. Multiply each score by the number of students who made that score and place that

number in column C, fX. The table shows that two persons obtained a score of 47; therefore, this score

should appear twice in the list. To save space, however, we can enter 94 (47 multiplied by 2) in line 1,

column C. The next entry is 46 times 7, or 322. The column is completed in this manner. 

26.6.4. Step 4. Find the sum of column C. This is the sum of all 150 scores obtained on the test. In the

example, the sum is 5,830. 

26.6.5. Step 5. Divide the sum of scores (5,830) by the number of scores (150) to obtain the mean

(see the following formula). The result is usually reported to the nearest tenth. 

Here, M is the mean; the Greek letter sigma, the "summation of" the frequency (f); X, a test score; and

N, the number of scores. 

26.7. Standard Deviation. The same frequency distribution of grades (Table 26.3.) is used here to show

how to find the standard deviation of any distribution. The following method is used: 

26.7.1. Step 1. Determine how much each test score deviates from the mean (column D) by subtracting the mean from the test score. For example, 47 - 38.9 = 8.1, the deviation of the highest score; and
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 311

27 - 38.9 = -11.9, the deviation of the lowest score. Note that the deviation of all scores below the

mean are negative. 

26.7.2. Step 2. Square the deviation, referred to as d2 (see Table 26.3., column E). If 8.1 (the deviation of the test score 47) is multiplied by itself (that is, squared), the product is 65.6. The column is

completed in this manner. 

26.7.3. Step 3. For a particular score, multiply the frequency of the score by the deviation squared,

referred to as fd2 (see Table 26.3., column F). Just as the test score is multiplied by the frequency to

determine the mean, the square of the deviation is multiplied by the frequency to determine the standard deviation. 

Table 26.3. Computation of Mean, Standard Deviation, Standard Scores, and T-Scores. 

NOTES:

1. Sum of this column is 150. 

A B C D E F G H

L

I Test Frequency Standard

N Score (f) fX Deviation fd2 Score

E (X) (note 1) (note 2) (d) d2 (note 3) (d/s) T-Score

1 47 2 94 8.1 65.6 131.2 1.76 68 

2 46 7 322 7.1 50.4 352.8 1.54 65 

3 45 8 360 6.1 37.2 297.6 1.32 63 

4 44 8 352 5.1 26.0 208.0 1.10 61 

5 43 12 516 4.1 16.8 201.6 .89 59 

6 42 11 462 3.1 9.6 105.6 .67 57 

7 41 15 615 2.1 4.4 66.0 .45 55 

8 40 12 480 1.1 1.2 14.4 .23 52 

9 39 8 312 .1 .0 .0 .02 50 

10 38 12 456 -.9 .8 9.6 -.19 48 

11 37 12 444 -1.9 3.6 43.2 -.41 46 

12 36 10 360 -2.9 8.4 84.0 -.63 44 

13 35 7 245 -3.9 15.2 106.4 -.85 42 

14 34 1 34 -4.9 24.0 24.0 -1.07 39 

15 33 7 231 -5.9 24.8 243.6 -1.28 37 

16 32 6 192 -6.9 47.6 285.6 -1.50 35 

17 31 4 124 -7.9 62.4 249.6 -1.72 33 

18 30 2 60 -8.9 79.2 158.4 -1.93 31 

19 29 4 116 -9.9 98.0 392.0 -2.15 29 

20 28 1 28 -10.9 118.8 118.8 -2.37 26 

21 27 1 27 -11.9 141.6 141.6 -2.59 24 
312 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

2. Sum of this column is 5,830. 

3. Sum of this column is 3,234. 

26.7.4. Step 4. "Standard deviation" may be defined as the square root of the average of the squares

of the deviations from the mean of the distribution. Compute the standard deviation of this distribution

by using the following formula where s is the standard deviation; f, the frequency; d, the deviation of

a score from the mean; and N, the number of scores. 

26.8. Standard Score. Now it is a simple matter to find the standard score corresponding to any given

raw test score. Standard scores (SS) are defined as scores expressed in terms of their standard deviation

distances from the mean. This definition may be expressed in terms of the following formula where X is

the test score, M is the mean, and s is the standard deviation. 

26.8.1. The basic formula can be reduced to d/s because d is the amount each raw score deviates from

the mean and is the same as X - M. 

26.8.2. To calculate the standard score (Table 26.3., column G), divide the amount each score deviates from the mean (column D) by the standard deviation. For example, the test score 47 expressed as

a standard score may be found as follows: 

26.9. T-Scores. Standard scores can be converted to T-scores, which have a mean of 50 and a standard

deviation of 10. (NOTE: T-scores are usually reported to the nearest whole number.) This conversion is

expressed in the following formula: 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 313

26.9.1. For example, the test score 47 expressed as a T-score would be found in the following manner— 

26.9.2. In actual practice, the labor of computing standard deviation, standard, and T-scores is

reduced considerably by using a calculator or computer software. Instructors will find many shortcuts

as they become more familiar with the process. 

26.10. Grading Methods Compared. To compare grading methods, suppose two students in a class of

90 received the scores shown in Figure 26.3. for five subjects. The raw scores tell nothing about the real

proficiency of either student in the five subjects. It is only possible to draw conclusions about their comparative standings. Inspection reveals that Frank Brown excels John Doe in three of the five subjects, but

there is no way of knowing the quality of the difference. If the scores of the two students are averaged,

John Doe has the higher average. It might, therefore, be inferred that John Doe is the better student,

assuming the five subjects are equally important. 

Figure 26.3. Raw Scores Made by Two Students. 

26.10.1. In Figure 26.4., Brown's and Doe's rank-order grades are shown. These rank-order grades

give more information than the raw scores alone. Differences in rank order are not proportional to differences in ability; however, there is a tendency to infer such a relationship. Furthermore, although

Frank Brown ranked above John Doe in writing, such fine discriminations are not warranted near the

center of so large a group. 

Students 

Subject Frank Brown John Doe 

Practice teaching 156 186 

Curriculum construction 16 6 

Special laboratories 30 25 

Evaluation 11 2 

Writing 129 130 

Average Score 68 70 
314 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 26.4. Rank-Order Scores Made by Same Two Students. 

26.10.2. The scores of Brown and Doe were converted to the percentile-rank grades shown in Figure

26.5. In general, the situation is the same as with the rank-order grades. Again, the apparent difference

in writing abilities of two students is not genuine. 

Figure 26.5. Percentile-Rank Scores Made by Same Two Students. 

26.10.3. The mean and standard deviation of the distribution of the 90 scores in each of the 5 subjects

were computed and are recorded in Figure 26.6. When these values were compared with the scores of

Brown and Doe, their T-score grades for each of the five subjects were obtained. If you keep in mind

the normal probability curve and the scales shown in Figure 26.7., you can obtain a clear picture of

the proficiency of each student relative to that of other students: 

Students 

Subject Frank Brown John Doe 

Practice teaching 45/90 9/90 

Curriculum construction 11/90 89/90 

Special laboratories 47/90 79/90 

Evaluation 6/90 89/90 

Writing 43/90 42/90 

Average Score 32/90 61/90 

Subject Frank Brown John Doe 

Practice teaching 50 90 

Curriculum construction 88 4 

Special laboratories 48 12 

Evaluation 82 1 

Writing 52 53 

Average Score 64 32 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 315

Figure 26.6. T-Score Grades Made by Same Two Students. 

T-Score 

Subject Mean Score Standard Deviation Frank Brown John Doe 

Practice Teaching 56 20 50 65 

Curriculum construction 2 4 60 35 

Special laboratories 30 5 50 40 

Evaluation 8 3 60 30 

Writing 130 36 50 50 

Average Score — — 54 44 
316 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 26.7. Comparison of Grading Methods. 

26.10.4. Frank Brown is average, or well above average, in all five subjects. John Doe, on the other

hand, is above average in only one subject, and clearly below average in three subjects. Furthermore,

Brown's mean T-score is well above the average of the total group, whereas Doe's mean T-score is

clearly below average. One of the advantages of grades based on standard scores is that they may be

averaged fairly. Averages based on other grading methods are open to question. For example, Doe had

a higher course average based on original raw scores, yet he is clearly a poorer student. 

26.10.5. When grades in several subjects are to be weighted and then expressed as a single composite

grade, the grades should be based on standard scores. By doing this, the instructor can be sure each

subject has been truly weighted according to the weighting factor. For example, if scores in each subject are first converted to T-scores and each set of T-score grades is multiplied by the weighting factor,

then each student's sum may be used as a measure of his or her relative position in the class. This

approach to weighting subjects is shown in Figure 26.8. for Brown and Doe. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 317

Figure 26.8. Weighted Scores Made by Same Two Students. 

NOTE: T-scores may be weighted, but the original raw scores and accumulated points should not be

weighted; weighting original raw scores may only make weightings less reliable, as in the case of Brown

and Doe. 

26.10.6. Most of the grading methods used to compare students with each other are based on the characteristics of the bell-shaped normal curve. The properties of the normal curve never vary; therefore,

it is used widely in normative analysis of testing data. Figure 26.7. shows the normal curve and a

comparison of the measurement units used with various normative grading methods. You can find an

indepth discussion of the properties and use of the normal curve in any textbook on tests and measurement. 

Section 26C—Effectiveness of Individual Test Items 

26.11. Ease Index of Test Items. The ease index (EI) of a test or a particular test item is a measure of

how easy that test or item was for the group taking the test. The ease of an item is also a measure of its

difficulty, so it is sometimes called the difficulty index. The distribution of norm-referenced test scores

can be adjusted by changing the ease of items or by eliminating some items and selecting others on the

basis of their difficulty. If the difficulty level of items has been adjusted properly, the average score of the

group should fall between 50 and 60 percent of the maximum possible score and scores should cover

nearly the whole possible range—from the guessing level to almost perfect. This situation is ideal in norm

referencing. 

26.12. Simple Formula for Ease Index. The simplest way to determine the EI of an item is to divide the

number of persons who answered the item correctly by the total number of persons who took the test.

Multiply this quotient by 100 to convert the result to a percentage figure. The following formula is used to

compute the simple EI of an item, where R is the number responding correctly and N is the number taking

the test: 

Frank Brown John Doe 

Weight Factor Weighted Weighted 

(percent) T-Score Score T-Score Score 

Practice teaching 35 50 18.50 65 22.75 

Curriculum construction 10 60 6.00 35 3.50 

Special laboratories 10 50 5.00 40 4.00 

Evaluation 25 60 15.00 30 7.50 

Writing 20 50 10.00 50 10.00 

Total 54.50 47.75
318 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

26.12.1. If everyone answered the item correctly, the numerator and denominator of the fraction

would be the same, and the EI would be 100 percent. If no one in the group answered the item correctly, the numerator would be 0, and the EI would also be 0. Consequently, the range of the EI is from

1 to 100 percent. The higher the percentage, the easier the item; that is, an item with an EI of 80 percent is easier than an item with an EI of 35 percent. 

26.12.2. The responses of 150 airmen to a question on a management test are shown in Figure 26.9.

On the basis of 47 correct answers, the EI for this item would be computed as follows: 

Figure 26.9. Distribution of Responses to Test Item. 

26.13. Interpreting the Ease Index: 

26.13.1. The EI is only a statistical indicator. It should not be used by itself to judge the worth of an

item; instead, it should be used with other data. All statistical data (including the EI) used in comparisons must be based on equivalent groups. For example, an item having an EI of 85 percent with an

advanced group of students might well have an EI of 45 to 60 percent with a group of basic students. 

Response (For One Item) 

Groups According Incorrect 

to Total Test Score or Omitted Correct Number of Students 

High third (above 65) 22 28 50 

Mid third (61-65) 38 12 50 

Low third (35-60) 43 7 50 

Total 103 47 150 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 319

26.13.2. An effective norm-referenced test should include items representing a considerable range of

difficulty, but most of the items should be of about average difficulty (EI of 50 to 60 percent). If

instructors have a pool of test items, they can select items to cover the range of abilities in the class in

such a way that the distribution of test scores fills the scale and approximates a normal curve. 

26.14. Differentiation Index (DI) of Test Items. When an item is answered correctly by some students

and not others, it divides the class into two groups. This question arises: In what other way are the two

groups different? A really effective instructor wants to know not only those students who answer an item

correctly, but also the kind of student who has the ability to answer it correctly. 

26.14.1. One means of analyzing an item is to determine the total test standing of the students who

answer the item correctly. If the students who answer the item correctly are predominantly those with

high total test scores, the item is adding to the effectiveness of the test as a whole. It is contributing

positively toward the differentiating ability of the test. 

26.14.2. If students who answer the item correctly are about equally divided between those with high

total test scores and those with low scores, the item contributes little or nothing to the differentiation

of the test as a whole. In fact, it may detract from the efficiency of the test by unfairly adding to the

scores of some students and subtracting from others. Do not overlook the possibility that the quality of

instruction—rather than a poor test item—could be the reason for little differentiation. 

26.14.3. In general, the group that responds correctly to any item should be composed principally of

students who have high total test scores. This score grouping is particularly necessary if the test is

designed to cover closely related material. In this situation, the test should have high consistency

within itself. An item that can be used to separate students who achieve high test scores from those

who do not is said to have differentiation ability. For purposes of analysis and comparison, this ability

can be represented by an index number. 

26.15. Computing Differentiation Index. The DI measures the ability of an item to differentiate

between students with high scores on the total test and those with low scores. There are a number of formulas for computing this index. The formula selected must be the one that best fits the needs of the user.

(Some testing authorities use the term discrimination index or validity index when discussing this type of

test analysis.) 

26.15.1. One method of computing the DI is to divide the test papers into groups based upon the overall test scores. For example, if three groups are used to compute the DI of 150 students, the best 50 test

papers are placed in the high group, the next 50 papers in the middle group, and the last 50 papers in

the low group. The number of students in each group who responded correctly to the item are then

counted. For the management test (Figure 26.9.), 50 airmen were in each third of the class. In the high

third, 28 airmen answered the item correctly; in the middle third, 12; in the bottom third, only 7. 

26.15.2. Subtract the number of persons in the low third who answered the item correctly from the

number of persons in the high third who also answered it correctly. This difference is then divided by

one-third the total number of students in the group, which represents the total number of students

divided by the number of groups used. In this particular case, three groups were used; therefore, N is

divided by three. The formula for computing the DI when three groups are used is as follows, where

H is the number of students in the high third who answered the item correctly, L is the number of students in the low third who also answered the item correctly, N is the number of students who took the

test, and 3 is the number of groups: 
320 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

NOTE: The index of 0.42 indicates the degree to which the item differentiates between those students

who obtained high total test scores and those who obtained low total test scores. 

26.15.3. Note that the symbols in the formula for the DI duplicate those of the formula for the validity

index discussed earlier. However, the indexes represent different things; the difference lies in the criteria used to obtain either index. 

26.16. Interpreting the Differentiation Index. The theoretical range of the DI is from -1 to +1. If all

students in the high group answered the item correctly and no one in the low group got the item correct, a

+1 DI would result. If all students in the low group got the item correct, when none in the high group did,

a -1 would result. If the same number of students in both the high and low groups responded correctly, the

DI would be 0. 

26.16.1. As can be seen, when the test scores indicate that more students in the upper third of a class

answer an item correctly as opposed to those in the lower third, the item is said to have a positive (or

plus) differentiation. On the other hand, if more students in the lower third get the item correct, it is

said to have negative differentiation. 

26.16.2. Any item may be neutral or have zero differentiation because of an equal distribution of

scores. If this occurs with very easy or very difficult items, it may be acceptable. However, items with

very low positive differentiation, zero differentiation, or negative differentiation should be qualitatively examined for validity. If neutral or negative differentiation occurs with items of medium difficulty, you need to determine the reason and correct it before the item is reused. 

26.17. Analyzing All Responses To a Test Item. In addition to the information available from the EI

and DI calculations, another useful source for test item analysis is to look at all the responses to a test

item. This can be accomplished by portraying response information in the same general format as is done

for the DI, except attention is directed to all responses—not just those made to the correct answer. Quite

often the way students respond incorrectly can provide valuable information on the effectiveness of a test

item. 

26.17.1. Figure 26.10. lists the responses to a four alternative multiple-choice item and illustrates this

type of analysis. This method can be adapted to other types of test items. When the distribution of the

150 responses to this question are analyzed, the following aspects are worth noting: 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 321

Figure 26.10. Analysis of All Responses To a Test Item. 

26.17.1.1. The item has a substantial DI (0.42), as has been shown. The distribution shows a definite relationship between the total test score and correct responses (alternative C). Nearly

two-thirds of the airmen who selected the correct response were from the high third of the class in

terms of total score. More than half of the airmen in the high third of the group selected the correct

response. 

26.17.1.2. None of the students chose alternative A. Since the item has essentially three alternatives, alternative A should be reworded, removed, or replaced. This alternative should be constructed to appeal to some of the 90 airmen who either answered the item incorrectly or

deliberately omitted it. 

26.17.1.3. Half of the airmen who selected alternative B came from the high third of the group.

This indicates that these airmen may have been given some misinformation or they have been misled by the wording of the alternative. Only the correct response should be positively related to the

total test score. This alternative should be rewritten. 

26.17.1.4. Alternative D has been selected most often by airmen in the low third. It differentiates

in terms of the total test and is, therefore, a good distracter. 

26.17.2. Data furnished by tabulation, such as in Figure 26.10., is useful to the test constructor and

interpreter. If the item is valid, the data may be interpreted as follows: 

26.17.2.1. Students who selected the correct response to the item can be assumed to have

achieved that objective. 

Groups According to Items Number 

Total Test Score Alternatives Items Not of 

A B C* D Omitted Reached Students 

High third 95 

65 0 16 28 6 0 0 50 

Mid third 64 

61 0 10 12 10 10 8 50 

Low third 60 

36 0 9 7 12 17 5 50 

TOTAL 0 35 47 28 27 15 150 

* Correct response
322 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

26.17.2.2. Students who selected incorrect alternatives or who omitted the item can be assumed to

not have achieved that objective. 

26.17.2.3. Alternative A is ineffective and must be replaced, further investigation is required

regarding alternative B, and alternative C is apparently good as it is. 

26.17.2.4. Students who reached an item, but omitted it, did so by choice. 

26.17.2.5. Subsequent items were omitted because the students failed to reach them. 

26.18. Summary. Instructors should use norm-referenced analysis when there is a need to compare students with each other. We may want to provide recognition and awards to students who perform very well.

Also, by using norm-referenced analysis of evaluation data, we can identify those students who are not

doing well in our classes when their performance is compared with the performance of other students. 

26.18.1. Statistical measures used in norm-referenced analysis include rank ordering, percentile ranking, percentile grouping, standard scores, and T-scores. Also, the mean and standard deviation are

used to calculate many statistical concepts. 

26.18.2. Several important phases are considered in evaluating the worth of a norm-referenced test.

When a test is working effectively the scores resemble a normal curve of distribution, having a wide

range with the majority of the scores grouped near the center of the distribution. It is useful to analyze

individual test items in terms of difficulty level and ability to differentiate. Through proper interpretation and use of this information from each item, the instructor can analyze each test to see if each test

item is achieving its purpose as planned. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 323

Chapter 27 

USING FEEDBACK IN THE CLASSROOM 

27.1. Introduction: 

27.1.1. We are familiar with courses that consist of readings, lectures, an assigned paper or project,

and tests. In traditional courses like these, individualized comments from instructors to students are

limited to grades on papers, quizzes, exams, and the final grade. But comments of this sort come well

after students have been evaluated on their course work. If there is any impact on learning, it will

come during the next phase or in another course or in some follow-on activity on the job. 

27.1.2. Such after-the-fact comments, called summative evaluation, often contribute little to student

learning because they come too late for the student to take corrective action. On the other hand, the

most important job of an instructor may be to provide information which students can use to improve

themselves throughout the course. Such information, called formative evaluation, guides students

while they can still take corrective action and indicates to instructors if a change is needed in the

teaching approach. 

27.2. Definition and Theory. In order to differentiate between end-of-course grading and information an

instructor may provide during a course, many educators use the word feedback. In general, feedback is

any information about the results of a process. When we use a computer, for instance, we feed in information and get back responses. In the social sciences, feedback is information that returns to the source of a

process (or to a preceding stage) so as to reinforce or modify it. For instance, if the coach finds that the

football team is weak in defensive tactics, players are scheduled for more blocking practice. In psychological jargon, feedback is called knowledge of results. 

27.2.1. In the classroom, then, feedback can be defined as information students receive from their

instructor about their performance that will cause them to take corrective action and guide them in

attaining the goals of the course more effectively. 

27.2.2. This notion of feedback or knowledge of results is actually quite complex. Textbooks use such

terms as primary versus secondary feedback, extrinsic versus intrinsic, augmented versus summary,

and specific versus general. Students receive feedback from at least five sources—self, the learning

task, fellow students, the instructor, and the school. We do not understand completely how the process

works in each instance, but the broad outline is clear. 

27.2.3. Feedback generally serves one or two purposes—informational and motivational. The first is

generally responsible for correcting student errors. The second encourages the student to try harder.

Informational feedback should be motivating, but motivational feedback does not necessarily provide

information. A pat on the back or a word of encouragement may motivate a student, but will not necessarily point out errors in that student's performance. 

27.2.4. Feedback seems most effective when narrative comments are accompanied by numerical

scores of ratings, especially when students clearly understand the scales or numbers used. Narrative

summaries have a higher chance of being biased than scores or ratings, and if the narrative is too specific or goes too far the feedback may actually be counterproductive. 

27.2.5. Feedback need not always be negative or destructive. In fact, positive feedback is normally

seen as warmer and more sincere than negative feedback, even when given in identical ways. Be care-
324 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ful, though, when giving feedback to students because they may appear to tolerate criticism, but perceive instructors' attempts to point out weak areas as threatening. This perceived threat often causes

defensive behavior on the part of the student, which may result in a lack of improvement. 

27.2.6. It might appear that the best advice is "to accentuate the positive," or to discuss positive feedback and ignore the negative. This technique, however, is not the answer. Students reinforced only for

success tend to lower their goals in order to ensure success. Criticism may hurt, but praise may not

always help. 

27.2.7. We cannot reconcile these conflicting statements about feedback more than to say that positive information is more readily received than negative. Negative information generally tends to

arouse defensive behavior on the part of the student. Yet, teachers must stress positive aspects of student performance and, at the same time, adequately communicate weaknesses and needed improvement. Emphasizing the positive should enhance student reception or acceptance and hopefully foster

some attempts to apply the feedback in the future. 

27.3. Giving Feedback to Students. The purpose of feedback is to improve student performance. In its

most effective form, it provides constructive advice, direction, and guidance to students in their efforts to

raise their performance levels. (See Attachment 11 and Attachment 12 for examples.) 

27.3.1. Feedback is a communication medium in the sense that the instructor can review course standards with the students and provide feedback on their performance in relation to these standards. Students must understand the purpose and role of feedback in the learning process. Otherwise, they may

reject the feedback and make little or no effort to improve. 

27.3.2. Feedback can also be used as a device to reinforce learning. Although not all feedback can be

used this way, the instructor should take every opportunity to use feedback as a means of clarifying,

emphasizing, or reinforcing instruction. For example, if several students falter when they reach the

same step in lesson planning, student feedback may indicate a need to repeat an explanation or to give

special emphasis to the step in subsequent critiques. 

27.4. Characteristics of Effective Feedback: 

27.4.1. Objectivity: 

27.4.1.1. Effective feedback focuses on the student and student performance; it should not reflect

the instructor's personal opinions, likes, dislikes, or biases. For example, if a student demonstrates

a complicated test construction sequence, it would be unfair to give feedback on personality traits

unless they interfere with performance. If a student makes a speech and expresses views that conflict with the instructor's beliefs, the instructor should give feedback on the merits of the speech,

not on the basis of agreement or disagreement with the student's views. 

27.4.1.2. The "error of halo" is a pitfall in giving feedback, much the same as it is a pitfall in summative evaluation. Instructors sometimes permit favorable or unfavorable impressions of students

to influence their judgment. Sympathy or over-identification with a student can be a barrier to

objectivity. A conflict of personalities can unwittingly color a judgment. Feedback must be honest

to be objective; it must be based on actual performance—not performance as it could have been or

as the instructor and the student wish it had been. 

27.4.2. Acceptability. Students must first accept the instructor before they can willingly accept feedback. They must develop confidence in the instructor's qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, com-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 325

petence, and authority. The instructor usually has the opportunity to establish rapport and mutual

respect with students before feedback is needed. If there is no such opportunity, however, the instructor's manner, attitude, and knowledge of the subject must serve instead. Students usually accept feedback when instructors present it with conviction and sincerity. The competent instructor does not rely

on rank or position on the faculty as a basis for feedback. Although these are important elements of an

instructor's authority, student acceptance depends on more active and demonstratable qualities. 

27.4.3. Constructiveness: 

27.4.3.1. Feedback is pointless unless a student profits from it. Praise just for the sake of praise

has no value unless the only goal is to motivate or improve self-concept. The instructor should

identify a fault or a weakness and also provide positive guidance for the student to improve. Negative criticism that does not point toward improvement or a higher level of performance should be

omitted from feedback. 

27.4.3.2. Effective feedback reflects the instructor's consideration of the student's need for

self-esteem, recognition, confidence, and the approval of others. Ridicule, anger, or fun at the

expense of the student have no place in constructive feedback. The instructor should occasionally

offer comments to the student in private. In some cases, discretion may rule out any feedback at

all. For example, feedback may not help a student impaired by a physical defect that the student

cannot change. Although instructors need to be straightforward and honest, they must also respect

the student's personal feelings. 

27.4.4. Flexibility. As effective instructors, we should remain flexible in giving feedback. We should

avoid mechanical, predetermined techniques and preconceived opinions regarding content, subject

matter, and student capability. We should consider the actual content of a student effort or what actually happens during a student activity before giving feedback on those observed factors that affected

performance. Sometimes a good student will do poorly and a poor student will do well. A friendly student may suddenly become hostile or a hostile student may suddenly become friendly and cooperative. We should be honest enough to evaluate each effort on its own merits. 

27.4.4.1. We should also be sensitive to student reaction to feedback. If a student does not respond

to a given comment, we should not dwell at length on that area because our criticism will likely

fall on deaf ears. On the other hand, if the student shows a keen interest or appears motivated in a

given area, we should offer a more detailed analysis of the area and other suggestions for improvement. 

27.4.4.2. We should vary our organization and methods of giving feedback. We may choose to

begin with our own comments, continue with a group critique, if appropriate, and finally request

individuals to give feedback on their own performances. Additional ideas on organizing and conducting a feedback session are included later in this chapter. 

27.4.4.3. Use different approaches to cope with different situations and adapt the tone, technique,

method, organization, and content of the feedback to the occasion and the student. We frequently

confront the problem of selectivity—what to say, what to omit, what to stress, and what to minimize. Consider the class situation, student ability, subject matter, the time allotted for the feedback, and other factors when determining your approach. Feedback should never be so rigidly

designed or executed that you cannot allow for variables. 

27.4.5. Organization: 
326 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

27.4.5.1. Unless feedback follows some pattern of organization, a series of otherwise valid comments may lose their impact. Almost any pattern is acceptable if it is logical and understandable to

the student and instructor. Therefore, the instructor should tell the student what the pattern will be

in order to improve the student's comprehension of the feedback. For example, an effective organizational pattern might be the sequence of the student activity itself. In certain instances, feedback can begin at the point of failure and work backward through the steps that led to the failure.

A successful performance can be analyzed in a similar fashion. 

27.4.5.2. Sometimes a defect is so glaring or a strength so obvious it overshadows the remainder

of the student activity and can serve as the focal point of feedback. Breaking the whole into parts

or building the parts into a whole has strong possibilities. Whatever the organization of the feedback, the instructor should be willing to change if the student cannot understand it. 

27.4.6. Comprehensiveness. Comprehensive feedback does not need to be extremely long or treat

every detail of a student's performance. As instructors, we must decide whether we can achieve the

best results by discussing a few major points or a number of minor points. Base the feedback on areas

that need improvement or on areas we reasonably expect a student to improve in. 

27.4.6.1. Effective feedback includes both strengths and weaknesses. Only the instructor can

determine a proper balance between the two. It is a disservice to students to dwell on the excellence of their performances and neglect areas that need improving. 

27.4.6.2. As instructors, we should be specific with our comments and recommendations. Such a

statement as "Your second phase wasn't as good as the third phase," has little value to the student

until the student learns exactly why the second phase was not as good as the third. If we have clear,

supportable ideas in mind, we should express them firmly and authoritatively in easily understood

terms. Specific examples followed by practical suggestions are more meaningful than generalities.

Students cannot act upon recommendations unless they understand what the recommendations

are. At the conclusion of a feedback session, students should have no doubts concerning what they

did well, what they did poorly, and, most importantly, how they can improve. 

27.5. Methods of Giving Feedback. Critiquing a student's performance is the instructor's responsibility—never delegate it in its entirety. However, we can add interest and variety to our feedback if we draw

on the talents, ideas, and opinions of others. The following methods for giving feedback may be used individually or in combination: 

27.5.1. Instructor Feedback. Most critiquing results from the direct leadership and guidance of the

instructor. For example, we conduct workshop sessions to refine skills, hold individual conferences or

critique in front of a group, examine outlines and drafts, and coach and conduct practice sessions. 

27.5.1.1. Group Critiques. Sometimes we give feedback in a one-to-one, student-to-teacher setting. A more efficient way is often within a general class session because students may make identical mistakes as they perform an exercise or explore new experiences. Giving feedback to a group

of students means that more aspects of the subject can be covered. 

27.5.1.2. Written Feedback. Writing down feedback allows us to devote more time and thought

to preparing it than when we give immediate oral feedback in the classroom. What we lose in

spontaneity we often make up for in more complete, carefully considered comments. Written feedback also gives students a permanent record they can refer to as necessary. Rating scales (a form
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 327

of written feedback) often provide for standardization among instructors, which students appreciate. 

NOTE: We provide graphic rating scales and brief, but specific guidance for giving feedback in these

two areas because so many academic instructors evaluate writing and speaking. 

27.5.2. Student Feedback. Other methods of feedback focus on student leadership under the instructor's supervision. We often involve students in the feedback session because they learn as they help

teach others. Many civilian schools use a system of teachers' aides or graduate assistants to help with

the feedback because direct involvement with students can be extremely valuable; more experienced

students can give more effective student-centered feedback. 

27.5.2.1. Self-Evaluation. One goal of education is to give students enough confidence to be

self-critical; allowing them to evaluate their own performances can help with this process. Beginner writing students, for instance, can often spot elementary errors in their own work if they participate in a supervised proofreading exercise. When television facilities are available, an effective

way to critique public speaking is for students to see themselves on TV. Giving students a checklist or a scale of some sort often aids them in self-evaluation. When students evaluate their own

work, the instructor should follow up to make sure the feedback is complete and accurate. 

27.5.2.2. Student-Led Evaluation. Students can give feedback in a variety of ways, but their

feedback should not supersede that of the instructor. Sometimes a student may lead the discussion

in a group feedback session, but the instructor should set the ground rules. The efficiency of this

type of feedback may be limited by the inexperience of participants, but it may also generate a

high level of student interest, participation, and learning. In student-led evaluation, the instructor

invites members of the class to comment on student activity or singles out one student to present

all the feedback. Another technique is to divide the class into small groups and assign each group

a specific area on which to comment. Using basic criteria and guidelines issued by the instructor,

these groups then present their findings to the class. Their combined reports provide comprehensive feedback of individual and class performance. 

NOTE: Whatever the method, the instructor remains responsible for the overall quality and completeness

of the feedback (Figure 27.1.). If students participate in the feedback, the instructor must make allowances for their relative experience. Normally we should reserve time at the end of student-feedback sessions to cover those areas that may have been omitted or not given sufficient emphasis. 
328 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 27.1. Ground Rules To Aid the Instructor in Giving Feedback. 

27.6. Summary. By the nature of the job, instructors are evaluators; therefore, they should be able to give

feedback in the classroom. Feedback is not part of the grading process, but a step in the learning process.

Feedback is intended to improve future performances of the students and, when possible, to reinforce

learning. Effective feedback stresses student strengths as well as suggestions for improvement. Feedback

should be acceptable, constructive, flexible, organized, and comprehensive. Classroom feedback may be

varied for interest, and it may be both written and oral. Student participation in feedback should be carefully supervised; instructors should reserve time for themselves to ensure adequate coverage. 

1. Establish and maintain rapport with the students. 

2. Tell the students the organizational pattern to be used in the feedback. 

3. Cover the major strengths and weaknesses. Try to be specific and give examples if possible. 

4. Avoid trying to cover everything. A few well-made points may be more beneficial than numerous but

inadequately developed points. 

5. Do not extend feedback beyond its scheduled time. A point of diminishing returns can be reached

quickly. 

6. Allow time for a summary of the feedback to reemphasize the most important things a student should

remember. 

7. Try to avoid comments with "never" or "always"—most rules have exceptions. Your feedback may be

wrong. 

8. Do not criticize something that cannot be corrected. 

9. Do not criticize when you cannot also suggest an improvement. 

10. Avoid controversies with the class, and try not to take sides with group factions. Stop the discussion

before arguments get started. 

11. Avoid being maneuvered into the unpleasant position of defending feedback. If feedback is honest,

objective, constructive, and supported, no defense should be necessary. 

12. If part of the feedback is written, it should be consistent with the oral feedback. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 329

Chapter 28 

STUDENT DIFFERENCES 

28.1. Introduction. Since we were old enough to notice the world around us, we have seen that people

are different. The physical differences are most obvious; psychological differences (personality, motivation, and intelligence) are less obvious. Physical and psychological differences among individuals are

important concerns in such areas as business, politics, and recreation, but they are especially important in

education. Along with objectives, teaching methods, and evaluation, an understanding of our students is

one of the most important factors in education. 

28.1.1. While there is much research on student differences, firm conclusions are often hard to draw

because of conflicting results. Conclusions about student differences often prove to be incorrect or

only partially true as additional or more exacting research is conducted. Many educational decisions

have been made based on faulty generalizations. Therefore, caution must be our guide as we examine

this important area. 

28.1.2. When studying human differences, we use measurement techniques to obtain a range and distribution of scores and to describe how individuals differ. Most human differences cluster around a

value known as the average. If we look at many individuals, we find some above and some below the

average, resulting in a distribution known as the normal curve (see Chapter 26). Thus, in measurements of differences in intelligence, the major clustering of cases occurs at a score of 100 (the mean).

Intelligence quotients below 70 and above 130 are few in number compared to the cases at or near the

mean of 100. Similarly, the clustering of cases on the individual difference of height recently reflected

an average of 5 feet 8 inches for adult males in the United States. 

28.1.3. Because students vary so widely on many important dimensions, instructors must be aware of

these variations within a single classroom. Educators have normally taken one of two approaches in

planning curriculums for students with a wide range of individual differences. 

28.2. Match the Method to the Student. This approach recognizes that students differ in abilities and

other characteristics that affect their learning. Instructors should not accept all teaching methods and curriculums when they don't produce the desired learning outcomes. 

28.2.1. For example, if a student or group of students have trouble succeeding under a given teaching

method, the instructor should change or improve the method so the students will succeed. Special

efforts are directed toward helping students performing below the average. The instructor also tries to

allow above average students to move ahead at greater speed to capitalize on their special talents. 

28.2.2. However, better teaching methods and means of reinforcing student behavior are not always

practical. Drawbacks to this approach include the costs involved and the difficulty of designing and

implementing effective programs. 

28.3. Match Students to the Planned Learning Experience. This approach accepts the instructional

system as it exists. Using measures of student differences to predict success minimizes failure. Using tests

and other evaluative data, forecasts are made in selecting, guiding, and admitting students to different curriculums, units, or courses of study. The school does not adapt its curriculum to the students. 
330 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

28.3.1. This approach protects students by keeping them away from situations in which they are not

likely to succeed. If students have too little ability to succeed in a school, course, or given curriculum,

they are not admitted or are placed in an environment in which they can succeed. Information about

student differences is used to predict and select. Only students with a high enough probability of success are admitted into the specified level or curriculum. 

28.3.2. However, testing and evaluation instruments are often inaccurate or unreliable for predicting

success. Students are forced to adapt to the teaching methods rather than having the methods adapted

to their needs. Students who fail may not be as much at fault as the methods of instruction used on

them. 

28.4. Combining the Two Approaches. Some combination of the two approaches described in paragraphs 28.2. and 28.3. is probably superior to either one alone. If a teaching method is not succeeding with

a student, then we should use another method. We should not consider teaching methods as fixed, nor

should we disregard the students' abilities. We should look for some optimal match of students with methods. 

28.4.1. Students at one level of a given aptitude may yield greater achievement on one teaching

method while students at another level of that aptitude may yield greater achievement using a second

method. For instance, a student with fairly low mechanical aptitude might profit most from

one-on-one instruction, while a student with higher aptitude may learn as efficiently in a group using

the demonstration-performance method. No longer would a search be made for the one best way to

teach. Many ways to teach would be investigated, each of which may be "best" for particular types of

students. 

28.4.2. Too little is known as yet to make possible the widespread design of educational programs

based upon a combination of these two approaches. Many educators, however, are currently attempting to meet this need. Instead of arguing about which of two teaching methods is best for everyone,

chances are that both claims have some validity for some students. 

28.4.3. Because of student differences, no one method, test, curriculum, or version of any teaching-learning activity is likely to be equally successful with all students. Student differences and teaching methods interact to help or hinder learning. Ideally, we should never lose sight of the need to

monitor and then match students to methods in some fashion that best fit the individual student. 

28.5. Group Differences. People are often grouped and studied on the basis of their age, sex, race, or

background. When differences are found, they are referred to as group differences. For instance, school

officials might gather data to compare achievement of male and female members at a military academy or

the success rate of black and white undergraduate pilot trainees. Managers might draw conclusions from

the accident rate of Air Force pilots under 30 years of age compared with that of pilots over 30. 

28.5.1. The results of research on group differences are often of limited use to educators because of

the controversy they generate or because one study often conflicts with another. However, useful and

tentative conclusions are being drawn in some areas of study, with implications for classroom instructors. For instance, much research has investigated sex differences in the classroom. Although differences in verbal, visual-spatial, and mathematical ability have been found between the sexes, the

cumulative research on ability and actual school achievement does not offer sufficient evidence for

treating adults differently based on their sex. More importantly, current findings suggest that instructors should not hold different expectations of cognitive performance for the sexes. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 331

28.5.2. While the extensive amount of research on group differences cannot be summarized in this

chapter, here are some guidelines for dealing with these differences in the classroom: 

28.5.2.1. Work to Eliminate Stereotypes. Stereotypes are oversimplified, rigid beliefs about

categories of people. These beliefs tend to be invalid because they are overgeneralizations. If we

believe that all noncommissioned officers (NCO) conform to the image of the drill sergeant, all

second lieutenants are naive, all civil servants are not dedicated, or all fighter pilots are adventuresome, then we are guilty of forming stereotypes. 

28.5.2.1.1. Today, many work positions are filled (and wages set) based upon stereotypes fostered by such innocent means as textbooks and TV shows. These communication mediums

often show groups of people in stereotypical roles. The portrayals and values they project may

actually interfere with or prevent personal growth for members of these groups. 

28.5.2.1.2. While there is no easy way to eliminate stereotyping from our behavior, we need

to make a concerted effort to eliminate the hundreds of subtle ways in which people are treated

based upon their sex, race, age, or background. These unsupported beliefs about people can do

great harm. An awareness of our own use of stereotypes is a good place to start; we should

examine our use of stereotypes and decide how they might be influencing our behavior in the

classroom. We should then work to eliminate these unsupported beliefs about people and the

influence they might have on our behavior. 

28.5.2.2. Use Caution in Using Group Averages. Suppose we read a research article that indicates adult males are superior to adult females on visual-spatial tasks, or adult females are superior

in tasks that involve understanding and producing language. How might this information have a

negative effect on our relationships with students? 

28.5.2.2.1. When we speak of group averages or group characteristics, we should be

extremely careful in applying these figures or descriptions to an individual student. While the

average height of adult males may be 5 feet 8 inches, this average certainly means little when

dealing with a student who is 6 feet 4 inches tall. Similarly, take great care when using knowledge that males are superior to females on visual-spatial tasks. Individual students in your

class may deviate from the average of their group and the women may surpass the men in

visual-spatial tasks in that particular class. Additionally, expectations come into play. Students

often perform to the level of their instructor's expectations. If we expect female students to

outperform males in a language class, our expectations may influence actual performance. 

28.5.2.2.2. If we are tempted to apply group averages to individuals, we might consider the

comment of a famous British writer who was once asked, "Who has the most brains, man or

woman?" His reply was, "Which man? Which woman?" Instead of treating students as members of a group, we should treat them as individuals. 

28.5.2.3. Recognize an Instructor's Limitations. When we focus on group differences in our

classrooms, we soon realize they are a fact of life we cannot change. We cannot alter a person's

age, sex, race, or background. Most students do not want to be treated differently based upon their

group membership. Therefore, we can make certain we do not say or do something to offend them

or cause them to lose interest. At the same time, they deserve to be respected for who and what

they are. 

28.5.3. In summary, we should be very careful when basing educational policies and classroom practices on group differences. 
332 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

28.6. Individual Differences. Our students will arrive with different personalities, varying motivation, a

wide range of past achievements, and differing abilities. There is little we can do about their past achievements or personalities. We can, however, provide an environment in which they will be motivated and

opportunities to help them make the best use of their abilities. 

28.6.1. Differences in Motivation. Probably the individual difference of most concern to Air Force

instructors is motivation. Motivated students learn more effectively. Unmotivated students are likely

to be a disturbing influence on others. Some students will possess an inner motivation, while others

will be motivated to learn only when external rewards are offered, such as grades or the opportunity to

be a distinguished graduate. Certain students will memorize the textbook if you ask them to since they

want to please you. Some students will strive for excellence in all aspects of a course, while others

will exert only enough effort to meet the minimum criteria for passing. 

28.6.2. The Concept of Motivation. Psychologists use the concept of motivation to account for

changes in and the frequency and vigor of a person's activities. We are always doing something, but

some of our activities occur more often than others and continue longer. Additionally, some activities

are pursued more vigorously than others. Outcomes that usually give rise to pleasant feelings will be

pursued; those that usually give rise to unpleasant feelings will be avoided. While a motive cannot be

observed directly, when activated by a situation we can see its effect on behavior. We say persons are

motivated or we speak of their motivation. 

28.6.2.1. Understanding Motivation. The concept "motivation" is complex and can be viewed

as encompassing other closely related concepts. 

28.6.2.1.1. Needs. When students have a need, they lack something a given activity or outcome can provide. The need to belong, for instance, can motivate a student to seek group

acceptance. 

28.6.2.1.2. Interests. If students have an interest in a subject, they tend to pay attention to it.

For instance, the student who is interested in computers is more likely to pay attention to

instruction in that subject. 

28.6.2.1.3. Values. Students with a particular value have an orientation toward a class of goals

considered important in their lives. A student who values patriotism will most likely be motivated in a lesson on the flag or the Code of Conduct. 

28.6.2.1.4. Attitudes. Attitudes consist of feelings for or against things (people, objects,

ideas). If students like mathematics, they get pleasure from activities that involve mathematics. Students seek activities toward which positive attitudes are held. Attitudes direct and

arouse purposeful activity. 

28.6.2.1.5. Incentives. Incentives can satisfy an aroused motive. Incentives such as good

grades, awards, and selection as a distinguished graduate motivate students who want to

achieve. 

28.6.2.2. Aspiration. Aspiration is the hope or longing for achievement. A certain level is needed

if the student is to make an effort. For instance, the NCO may aspire to be a college graduate and

be willing to devote evening hours to complete degree requirements. 

28.6.2.3. Achievement Motivation. The concept of motivation helps to explain why students

with the same scholastic aptitude or intelligence perform differently in our classrooms. When stu-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 333

dents achieve beyond their predicted capability, we speak in terms of overachievement. When

they achieve below predicted capability, we say they underachieve. 

28.6.2.3.1. It will not take us long to note that our students differ in achievement motivation.

Students with high and low achievement motivation will perform differently on tasks when

working independently. Students low in achievement motivation will need more of our assistance in the form of supervision, direction, and structure. Highly motivated students will

require little encouragement or direction when working in areas they value. 

28.6.2.3.2. Students high in achievement motivation will persist in task completion and have

the desire to complete interrupted tasks. They also have the desire to keep up orderly progress

toward distant goals. During group activities, instructors will find these students want to work

with partners who can get the job done. 

28.6.2.4. Fear of Failure: 

28.6.2.4.1. Not all student motivation comes from the desire to succeed. Some students will be

motivated by the fear of failure. In the past, students may have experienced shame, ridicule by

peers, or punishment for failure. The resulting fear of failure may be more motivating than a

desire to do well. The fear may even keep students from attempting certain activities, or they

may be motivated to attempt unrealistic tasks. 

28.6.2.4.2. Suppose your course uses programmed instruction with its emphasis on errorless

performance. You may find a decrease in motivation among students whose motivation to succeed is higher than their fear of failure. However, you may see an increase in motivation

among students whose fear of failure is higher than their motivation to succeed. If you use

strict grading with your students, those whose motivation to succeed is high should be more

motivated, students whose fear of failure is greater than their desire to succeed will probably

perform worse. 

28.6.2.5. Affiliation, Power, and Approval. Some students will be motivated by the want and

need of friendly relationships with other persons (affiliation). By mixing teaching methods, we

can provide opportunities for these students to participate in small groups. Others will be motivated by the desire to influence others (power). We can provide leadership opportunities in group

activities or we may need to counsel these students on their tendencies to dominate or manipulate

others as a cause for their being disliked. Other students will have strong needs for recognition or

approval. We will have to give special attention to this group in our counseling program. We can

provide opportunities for these students to participate in classroom activities where their particular

talents can be recognized. 

28.6.2.6. Motivation and Reinforcement. From the viewpoint of psychologists who emphasize

the role of reinforcement in learning, all of us are motivated by the reinforcing consequences of

our past behavior. Our motivated students may not have strong motives to learn or be driven by

powerful drives and needs; rather, they may be students who have been properly reinforced for

certain behaviors in their past. The students may have been rewarded in the proper amount and at

the proper time when a certain behavior was exhibited. The truly motivated student may be the

person who has learned to get along for long periods of time without much apparent reinforcement. From the behavioral perspective, we can motivate students by a great deal of reinforcement

in the early stages of learning (for instance, praise for each correct answer) followed with a gradual thinning out or lowering of reinforcement as the student matures. 
334 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

28.6.2.7. Frustration and Motivation. Incentives such as grades, awards, and distinguished

graduate programs provide a degree of control over most students because the expectation of reinforcement is usually met with actual reinforcement. But what happens when such expectations are

not reinforced? Suppose we have students working for good grades, wins in some form of athletic

competition, or verbal praise. In the past we have reinforced this behavior with these incentives. 

28.6.2.7.1. But suppose we stop these incentives. The students' behavior may show changes in

energy and direction leading to frustrated behavior—expected grades are not received, the students do not or cannot score points for their team, or students may be moved from a group in

which they are doing well to one in which they do not receive their expected reinforcement—

frustration results. Similarly, keeping students from finishing a task they are engrossed in

because time ran out leads to frustration. Eliminating students from athletic competition with

their peer group because their peers are too skilled blocks their chances for reinforcement. 

28.6.2.7.2. Frustrating situations like these motivate students because they change student

energy level and direction. However, the motivated behavior is usually in a socially undesirable direction resulting in emotionality, withdrawal, regression, over-activity, and aggression. 

28.6.2.7.3. As instructors, we should guard against frustrating situations. When we see signs

of aggression, withdrawal, or inappropriate displays of emotion exhibited by our students, we

should regard such behavior as a cue to the occurrence of frustration. We should make an

effort to determine the source of the frustration. 

28.6.3. Techniques for Motivating Students. Figure 28.1. lists techniques to use to motivate students. In addition, educational research suggests the following techniques to motivate students: 

Figure 28.1. Techniques for Motivating Students. 

Verbal Praise Words such as "good," "great," and "fine" work as powerful motivating devices 

when given after a proper response or performance or after a close approximation 

of a proper response or performance. Verbal praise is easy to use and serves as the 

most natural of the motivational devices available to an instructor. Praise given 

after a certain behavior increases the frequency of that behavior. 

Written Comments Studies indicate that a short encouraging note based on a student's test performance 

has a more positive effect on future test performance. Additionally, brief comments 

are more effective than grades alone in motivating students to do better on future 

tests. 

Grades Students have learned that benefits are associated with getting good grades. 

Consequently giving tests and assigning grades have come to have the effect of 

motivating students to learn. Not only do grades affect what is learned, they affect 

how much is learned. They become incentives and reinforcers. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 335

28.6.3.1. One of the strongest arguments against using tests and grades as motivators is their link

with anxiety. When a student's anxiety is very low or very high, test performance is lowered.

Almost always, very high anxiety will hurt performance. However, moderate anxiety motivates in

a beneficial way by assisting performance. For students with high anxiety, we should seek ways to

lower it in the classroom; for those with low anxiety, we might find ways to raise it to improve performance. 

28.6.3.2. When students receive either a pass or no credit for a course instead of conventional

grades (such as A through F), the result may be decreased effort. Some students may do less work.

However, many students and faculty members frequently mention the positive consequences of

this type of grading system. There is less pressure on students, they can experiment in new areas,

and a healthier attitude develops toward the course. These benefits may outweigh any reduced

quality or amount of student achievement occurring under a pass or no credit type of grading as

shown in Figure 28.2.
336 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 28.2. Benefits Associated With Grading System. 

Creative Behavior Doing the unexpected or something novel has the effect of motivating by arousing 

the student's curiosity. One Air Force instructor established a reputation based 

upon this technique. During a class period this instructor might appear as an old 

west gunfighter to emphasize points. The next day the instructor might be dressed 

as an astronaut. Students looked forward to classes because of the unexpected. 

Instructors might turn the tables and ask students to prepare a test for them to take. 

Or students can be asked to prepare test questions for use on the next exam. In a 

case study, the instructor might vary the approach by giving students several 

solutions to the problem and asking them to determine which is best. 

Periodic 

Reinforcement 

Providing reinforcement to students as a course progresses can keep them 

motivated to the end. If we make early stages of a learning task easy students will 

have some initial success in task accomplishment. Introduce the difficulties and 

complexities of a task gradually and ensure that all students have a chance for 

reinforcement so their appetite will be whetted. This action will require us to know 

the variety of talents and skills possessed by our students. 

Familiar Examples The value of examples as support material was discussed in Chapter 6. Examples 

when based on the experiences of your students serve to motivate. 

Building Block 

Concept 

Building upon what has previously been taught is motivational. Using the 

cognitive taxonomy of learning we build upon prior instruction. When students see 

how we use prior instruction to build the current lesson the effect is motivational. 

We should emphasize that the material we are now learning does not stand in 

isolation. We will be using it again later in the course or unit of instruction. When 

possible, we should call upon previously acquired facts, concepts, and principles 

to develop a current lesson. 

Computers, 

Simulations, and 

Games 

In addition to dealing with higher levels of learning in the cognitive domain, the 

use of simulations, games, and computers can be fun and may provide important 

learning experiences and usually keeps students highly involved and motivated. 

Using and developing such devices usually increases classroom motivation. 

Classroom Leader 

Support 

We should try to get the leaders among the students to adopt the goals and 

objectives of the course. If the formal and informal leaders—not always the same 

person—in a class support us and our efforts, other students will be motivated to 

do likewise. 

Unpleasant Stimuli The list of unpleasant stimuli to avoid is long and includes items such as having 

students sit too long in an auditorium, having them try to listen in a room with poor 

acoustics, putting them too far away from a board or screen, not telling them how 

they are doing in the course until it is too late to do something about it, or not 

meeting their requests for help. These stimuli have a negative effect on motivation 

and should be eliminated. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 337

28.6.3.3. As we work to motivate students and find techniques that work we should take the time

to annotate our lesson plan so the techniques can be used the next time the lesson is taught. If a

motivational technique does not work, drop it from the lesson plan. In time we will have a lesson

that motivates as well as teaches. 

28.6.4. Differences in Ability. The testing movement during the 1920's revealed a wide range of student intelligence quotients in typical public school classrooms. Studies indicated that the brightest students could move at a more rapid pace and learn much more than less able students. The findings

raised questions about accepted teaching methods and indicated that many materials, texts, and topics

were inappropriate for some students. Educators concluded that any attempt to teach students in a

group would likely miss the mark for some students. The findings greatly complicated the task of

teachers. 

28.6.4.1. As a solution, educators turned their attention to individualized instruction. Students

should work on tasks appropriate to their particular abilities. To the extent possible, they should

move ahead at their own pace. Accounting for individual differences in student ability became one

of the primary purposes of individualized instruction. 

28.6.4.2. Individualized instruction occurs when the goals of instruction, learning materials, subject matter, or methods of instruction are specially chosen for a particular student or a small group

of students with common characteristics. The members may be placed in a special seminar and the

academic program tailored to their special needs. 

28.6.5. Independent and Self-Directed Study. Air Force instructors may have an opportunity to

allow students to work on their own as a supplement to, or replacement for, segments of a course.

When this opportunity exists, instructors can provide a student or small group of students with an

assignment that lasts for a few hours, several days, or weeks. Students may not be required to attend

formal classes during this period. 

28.6.5.1. If we use this approach, we should ensure that students clearly understand the objectives, resources available, task steps involved, time allotment, and evaluation techniques prior to

the start of the study. The degree of supervision given depends on the maturity and objectives of

the students. We may need to supervise and guide the students fairly closely or they may work

almost entirely on their own and be responsible for a finished product which we will evaluate. 

28.6.5.2. Research on self-directed study suggests that most students will need some guidance,

even if they are going to work independently. Many students are not ready for intellectual independence and will complain if thrown unprepared into an extreme form of self-directed study. The

method seems to work best in more advanced courses where students have previously dealt with

the same material at a basic level. 

28.6.5.3. Be aware that initial student reaction to self-directed study courses is often unfavorable.

However, students do develop more favorable attitudes toward future opportunities for intellectual

independence. The unpleasantness from initial exposure to this approach probably comes from the

big change in teaching methodology. But the broadening experience eventually makes students

accept more independent work. When using this approach, we should keep in mind that the unfavorable initial reaction may last and could affect student response to any additional self-directed

studies. 

28.6.6. Contracting. One variation of the use of independent and self-directed study involves using

learning contracts between individual students and the instructor (Figure 28.3.). The approach can be
338 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

used for a total course, as a means of supplementing a basic course for all students, or for use with

selected students. A contract involves an agreement, usually written, between the instructor and student. 

Figure 28.3. Elements Found in Learning Contracts. 

28.6.7. Mastery Learning. This approach to individualizing instruction operates on the premise that

time is a crucial variable in the learning process. In this approach, the instructor fixes the degree of

learning expected of students at some mastery level and allows time for learning to vary so that all or

almost all students achieve the desired level of mastery. 

28.6.7.1. Mastery is defined in terms of a specific set of major objectives students are expected to

exhibit by subject completion. The subject is then broken into a number of smaller learning units.

Unit objectives, whose mastery is essential for mastery of major objectives, are defined. Students

are allowed to demonstrate mastery of a unit at any time they choose. Brief diagnostic (formative)

tests provide feedback to the students and instructor. 

28.6.7.2. When unit learning problems are identified, supplementary instructional correctives are

applied to help students. These correctives involve use of small group problem sessions, individual tutoring, alternative textbooks, workbooks and programmed instruction, audiovisual methods,

Objective Specify in the contract the particular objectives to be achieved. 

Evaluation 

Techniques 

Agree upon the formal means of evaluation whether it be a test, oral or written 

report, or a project. 

Available 

Resources 

Make the student aware of available resources for starting the learning experience. 

Task Steps Establish a series of task steps leading to achievement of the objectives. 

Checkpoints Meet periodically with the student to discuss problems and progress. These 

meetings serve to motivate the student. 

Deadlines Establish and require the student to meet realistic deadlines. If the student fails to 

meet a deadline, counseling is usually required. Renegotiate the contract, if 

necessary. 

Reinforcement When possible, reward the student for contract completion. An opportunity to brief 

others, participation in a conference, or an opportunity for extended study in an 

area of interest might serve as the reward. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 339

academic games and puzzles, and reteaching. The students demonstrate achievement of course

objectives through end-of-instruction (summative) evaluation. The instrument used defines mastery in terms of a specific set of skills each student is expected to have learned by completion of

the subject. 

28.6.7.3. The mastery approach is very student oriented. Students are graded solely on the basis of

the final (summative) examination performance. Grades are based on performance against a predetermined standard and not relative to peer performance. All students who attain the standard

receive appropriate grade rewards. There is no fixed number of rewards. Students are given constant feedback through a series of ungraded, diagnostic progress tests, and each student is given all

the help needed to learn. The mastery learning approach is particularly effective when students

have a wide, but manageable, range of entry skills. 

28.6.7.4. While the mastery learning approach has high potential, there are limitations. First, the

approach works best when the course requires minimal prior learning or previous learning that

most of the students already possess. We would not want to institute the approach in an advanced

course if most of the students did not possess certain basic skills or if time or money did not permit

us to modify the instructional design to take this into account. The approach may not be able to

offset the negative effects of prior learning deficiencies. Second, the approach has been most successful for subjects that are sequentially learned. The learning of a unit builds on the learning of all

prior units. Finally, the subjects in which mastery learning strategies are most effective tend to be

those for which there is a single definite right answer to each question. 

28.6.8. Personalized Instruction. One approach that appears to work successfully with adults

involves personalized instruction (Figure 28.4.). Using the concepts of independent and self-directed

study, personalized instruction is supplemented with traditional instructional techniques. 
340 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Figure 28.4. Personalized Instruction. 

28.6.8.1. Courses taught using the guidelines (Figure 28.4.) for personalized instruction show

promising results. Student reaction tends to be positive and examination scores are higher than in

courses conducted in a traditional manner. 

28.6.8.2. We should attempt conducting such a course only when we have carefully decided what

we expect students to learn. The objectives should clearly state responsibilities. This knowledge

can help overcome negative feelings about the lack of structure that often accompany participation

in independent study programs. Many students like self-paced instruction because it allows them

to study where and when they please. They also like the personal interaction with tutors. 

28.6.9. Cognitive Learning Style. Students learn in many ways. They perceive, think, and solve

problems differently. The general patterns students use as they perceive, think, and solve problems

can be called their cognitive style or cognitive learning style. 

28.6.9.1. Learning research is beginning to identify several distinct styles of learning that can

affect how much and how well students learn. There are several models for analyzing cognitive

learning style in current educational literature. Some deal with preferences students have for learning through passive listening rather than active participation. Other models attempt to link

Individual Pacing Students can rapidly complete a course, often using a fraction of the time required 

for group instruction; however, they may use more time than is allotted for 

traditional instruction within constraints imposed by the administration. Students 

work to meet established criteria and do not compete against each other. 

Mastery Oriented Before students can progress to new material, they must demonstrate mastery of a 

particular area of instruction. Students are not penalized for failure. If failure 

occurs, students study the material again before retesting on a parallel form of the 

test. They continue the cycle until mastery is achieved, which usually means 80 or 

90 percent correct responses. When students finish the unit of work, a new study 

guide is provided for the next unit. 

Tutoring More advanced students can often serve as tutors for those needing assistance. 

Encouragement and support are provided. 

Study Guides Students are provided with study guides for each unit. The guides contain unit 

objectives, study references, suggestions for study, experiments and projects that 

can be undertaken, and sample test items. 

Supplemental 

Materials 

Lectures, demonstrations, discussions, teaching interviews, case studies, and 

movies can be provided for motivation or clarification. Students normally attend 

on a voluntary basis. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 341

self-concept with willingness to accept group norms or to take risks. Many other personality characteristics are included in these models. Considerable research suggests that various aspects of

cognitive learning style should be explored further. 

28.6.9.2. Many schools, particularly at the community college level, have employed an analysis

of cognitive learning styles for placing students into courses taught differently. Grades seem to

improve and anxiety is reduced when students and their learning experiences are matched on the

basis of cognitive learning style. Individual instructors can do very little, however, to take advantage of the various learning styles in typical classrooms. Some models for determining learning

style are very theoretical; many of the techniques are very sophisticated, time consuming, and

expensive. Further, if a cognitive learning style can be determined, we have the additional problem

of matching several alternative ways of teaching to the many and varied student cognitive learning

styles. 

28.6.9.3. The growing interest in cognitive learning style may yet be one of the most fruitful

approaches to dealing with individual differences in the classroom. Like so many other attempts to

deal with students as individuals, however, the fate of cognitive learning style analysis will depend

on results as compared to costs. From what we have learned so far, the approach appears to

deserve further serious study. 

28.7. Summary. One of the basic themes of psychology is that of human differences—no one is exactly

like anyone else. These differences complicate the task of classroom instructors, but they also provide the

challenge. 

28.7.1. Many educators have chosen to adapt the system to account for differences in abilities and

other characteristics that affect student learning. Teaching methods are changed or improved so students can succeed. Other educators have chosen to accept educational systems as they exist and they

try to minimize failure by admitting students who will most probably succeed. Each approach has

shortcomings so attempts are being made by educators to synthesize the two approaches to overcome

the effects of student differences. 

28.7.2. As classroom instructors, there is not much we can do to overcome group differences based on

sex, age, race, or background. However, we can work to eliminate stereotypes based on these differences, use caution in interpreting group averages, and recognize our own limitations in coping with

these differences. 

28.7.3. Students vary in their motivation. Many students are motivated by the need to achieve, while

others may be motivated more by a fear of failure. The want and need for affiliation, power, and recognition also serves to motivate students. Frustration can motivate students, but the motivated behavior is usually in a socially undesirable direction. 

28.7.4. Techniques for motivating students include verbal praise, personal notes on their test performance, grades or similar rewards, creative behavior on the part of the instructor, reinforcement at the

appropriate time, use of familiar examples, building upon previous instruction, obtaining classroom

leader support, avoiding unpleasant stimuli, and using computers, simulations, and games. 

28.7.5. Differences in ability in a classroom may be met through such means as independent and

self-directed study, contracting, mastery learning, and by personalizing instruction. 
342 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 29 

THE DYNAMICS OF SMALL LEARNING GROUPS 

Section 29A—Overview 

29.1. Introduction. Appropriate teaching methods are a continuing concern of Air Force instructors. The

formal teaching lecture, for example, may place students in a passive role and fail to provide enough

incentive or motivation for students to learn. On the other hand, self-paced or individualized instruction,

which often provides more incentive or motivation, may not be feasible. 

29.2. Small Learning Group Defined. Small group learning is a way to overcome limitations of some

methods while promoting verbal and nonverbal interaction among instructors and students. A small learning group is a collection of students who share a common learning objective and occupy a space so limited there can be direct verbal and nonverbal communication among them. A small learning group might

consist of as few as 3 or as many as 20 students. The upper boundary is arbitrary, but the benefits of small

group learning are reduced if there are many more than 20 persons. 

29.2.1. The demonstration performance, guided discussion, and case method discussed in this guide

are instructional methods generally designed for small learning groups. However, these aren't the only

methods designed for small group learning (see Chapter 19). Each method helps students become

socialized and adjust to the learning environment by promoting interaction in the classroom. 

29.2.2. Simply forming small groups of students, however, does not guarantee effective group learning. Human communication is comprised of two major ingredients—content and process. The first

deals with the subject matter or the task the group is working on. In most learning settings, people

focus on the content. The second ingredient, process, is concerned with what is happening among

members while the group is working. Group process or dynamics deals with such items as norms,

cohesiveness, consensus, individual roles, group feeling, needs, and leadership. In many learning

groups, too little attention is paid to process, even though it is a major cause of ineffective learning. 

29.2.3. Analysis of verbal behavior in learning groups indicates that about half of the discussion

focuses on process and half on content. Certainly educational content is of prime importance, but process statements that encourage a group's progress are also important. Attention to process serves to

keep students on track by orienting the discussion and satisfying their personal and social needs. Sensitivity to group process will help an instructor diagnose students' problems early and deal with them

more effectively. 

Section 29B—Small-Group Learning Influences 

29.3. Benefits of Small-Group Learning. Although small-group learning has some limitations, such as

the higher cost of a smaller student-to-instructor ratio, the benefits generally outweigh the limitations.

Some benefits of small-group learning include: 

29.3.1. Most students tend to perform better on many cognitive and skill-oriented tasks when working

with others in small groups. The presence of others working on the same problem increases motivation to perform well. This motivation may be lacking with either large groups or individualized learning. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 343

29.3.2. Students can gain a clearer understanding of the material when they interact with the instructor and other students. Much informal learning occurs in families and other groups; therefore, students

are accustomed to learning in groups. 

29.3.3. Most students enjoy interacting with others in social, recreational, and educational groups.

Satisfaction and enjoyment of learning is increased when participating with others. 

29.3.4. Students often learn faster in groups than individually. Obviously, such factors as content matter and individual motivation influence whether individuals learn faster in groups. 

NOTE: In spite of the positive influences a group can have on students, there are other influences that

may or may not be beneficial. For example, membership in a group places much pressure on individual

students to conform to group norms. 

29.4. Norms. Every group develops norms; that is, shared expectations of conduct and participation that

guide and regulate group behavior. Norms reflect how students speak, to whom they speak, where they sit,

what the classroom activities are, and what the limits are for expressing their own attitudes and values.

Usually such norms are not even stated, but are still readily apparent to students who have been in the

class even for a short time. In a large lecture class, for instance, instructors have greater responsibility for

determining norms than in smaller groups where students and instructors can interact more easily. On the

other hand, in small groups instructors must be particularly careful not to impose norms on the group

unnecessarily. Group atmosphere or feeling will be improved if students are allowed to help develop

norms. 

29.4.1. Classroom norms become apparent in two ways: (1) certain behaviors either recur often or are

avoided, and (2) punishments or sanctions are taken against persons who deviate from the norm. Others may frown, ignore, or even comment negatively about the behavior. Some norms are productive:

students should relate their comments to what has been said previously; students should arrive at class

on time; the instructor should include all students in the discussion, etc. Some norms, however, are

largely counterproductive: students should talk about whatever they want; the instructor should "put

down" students who express different points of view; the instructor and students do not need to prepare for class, etc. 

29.4.2. Students must conform to productive norms if they are going to learn efficiently in groups. If

productive norms are clearly understood but violated by one or more students, then other class members will generally act to bring violators in line. They may exert pressure by talking to them directly.

Usually the first comments are light and humorous, but if gentle teasing and light comments do not

change the behavior, the language may become more biting and satirical. Instead of laughing with the

nonconformists, others begin to laugh at them. If the member still does not conform, direct ridicule

and finally rejection of the nonconformist may result. Obviously, the instructor should take action to

prevent behavior that may threaten the cohesiveness of the learning group. 

29.5. Cohesiveness. Cohesiveness, or the ability of a group to stick together, is essential in small group

instruction. Cohesive groups—groups where students have high group loyalty—exhibit higher morale,

greater productivity, and more communication. 

29.5.1. Morale. The morale of members is related closely to cohesiveness. If the group is important

to them, students pay attention to its problems and get more involved in the subject matter. They spend

more time on behalf of the group and want others in the group to do well. 
344 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

29.5.2. Productivity. Cohesive learning groups are more productive because class members help one

another. If one student is having trouble, others often offer to assist. Students in groups with little

cohesiveness often lack initiative and have to wait for instructions from the instructor. They often do

only what they are told and no more. 

29.5.3. Communication. Cohesiveness encourages communication among students and between the

students and the instructor. Students feel secure as a part of a group and are not afraid to speak up. The

instructor and class leader do not feel threatened when questions are asked. Everyone is interested in

the welfare of the group. Groups lacking cohesiveness may be quiet, polite, boring, and even apathetic. Cohesive groups tend to be noisier, tend to disagree more, and often run overtime in class

because there is generally a good deal more discussion on each point raised. 

29.6. Increasing Cohesiveness. With small group interaction, we want to increase cohesiveness to promote learning. Some steps for improving cohesiveness in the learning group consist of the following: 

29.6.1. Set obtainable objectives. Clear obtainable objectives are important to efficient planning and

teaching. Course objectives, objectives for large blocks of instruction, and individual lesson objectives not only enhance learning but also increase morale. Achieving an objective rewards a group.

Making daily and weekly progress rewards the group regularly. Of course, for objectives to build

morale, they must be obtainable and clearly specified and understood by all. 

29.6.2. Reward the group. Reaching an objective is in itself a reward for the group, but the instructor

can provide incentive and promote teamwork by rewarding the entire group for achieving a goal.

Praising the class for good work and planning social affairs recognizing a job well done are ways of

rewarding the group. Many classrooms are geared entirely toward rewarding only individuals. Yet as

any athletic coach and most experienced teachers know, encouraging persons to look out only for

themselves to the exclusion of others leads to trouble. The wise instructor uses both individual incentives and group rewards to enhance small group learning. 

29.6.3. Build a group tradition. As discussed in paragraph 29.4., once a group is established, norms

develop. Norms are a part of group tradition. Other things also happen. Unusual, humorous, or otherwise memorable incidents become a part of the group's history and tradition. An instructor can emphasize that the group exists over time by recalling such incidents at class meetings. Highly cohesive,

social organizations such as churches and service clubs enact ceremonies and traditions over and over.

One instructor built a group tradition and aided cohesiveness by slipping into the classroom early each

morning to write a little saying on the dry erase board. When the instructor failed to do so one morning, the seminar group was genuinely disappointed. 

29.7. Consensus. Certain cohesive groups will express disagreements more openly than less cohesive

ones. Such expression is both desirable and expected. But there comes a time when consensus or agreement on issues must come if closure is to result. In learning groups as with other types of groups, success

can generally be measured by the group's ability to reach its objectives. Although consensus in the sense

of unanimity may be nearly impossible to achieve, there are some guidelines the instructor can follow to

help the group reach general agreement. 

29.7.1. Clarify the discussion. Make sure the group's activity is understandable, orderly, and focused

on one issue at a time. Consensus comes more easily if each of the factors is weighed individually and

systematically. Encourage each student to stick to the subject, avoid side discussions, and clarify the
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 345

issues with questions so everyone can have equal understanding. Instructors can keep the discussion

focused and prevent the introduction of extraneous or unrelated matters. 

29.7.2. Use process statements. As suggested earlier, process statements deal with what is happening

in the group. While process statements may relate to the content, they serve primarily to stimulate and

facilitate discussion. Use statements such as, "What you've said seems to make sense. How do the rest

of you feel?" "So far we seem to agree on the first two points; let's move on to the third." "Have we

heard from Joe yet?" "This is really a productive discussion." Questions that ask for clarification and

statements that get the class discussion back on track are also types of process statements. When both

instructor and students use process statements effectively, agreement will come more readily and

learning will increase. 

29.7.3. Seek different views. Encourage all students to present their views and provide information

and evidence to support their views. Expressing a wide range of opinions and views allows a great

opportunity for learning to take place. At the same time, participation by all students will allow them

to have their voices heard and will increase their satisfaction with the discussion and conclusions

reached. 

29.7.4. Remain open to different views. This discussion is clearly the corollary to the preceding

guideline. We have all known people who seek the views of others with no intent to be influenced by

them (don't confuse me with the facts; my mind is made up). When others present irrefutable facts and

figures or even a good idea you may not have thought of before, don't be afraid to alter your position

or admit you may have been wrong. Good instructors often learn from their students. Also, instructors

can serve as models for the behavior of students in the matter of not being overly opinionated. Studies

show that low or moderately opinionated instructors and students are held in higher esteem by others

than highly opinionated ones. 

29.7.5. Use group pronouns. Studies show that less cohesive groups, that is, groups less successful in

reaching consensus, tend to use more self-referent words such as I, me, my, and mine. On the other

hand, groups that reach consensus and are more cohesive are more apt to use group-referent words

such as we, our, and us. As an instructor, talk about the seminar or class as a group. Talk about what

"we" hope to accomplish and how "we" can work together to achieve "our" objectives. Do not emphasize what "I" want done or what is best for "my" interests. Stress that while all students should be concerned with their own learning, they should also be interested in the learning of others in the group.

The roles each student assumes can help with effective functioning of the group and with creating an

atmosphere where learning can take place. 

Section 29C—Roles of Class Members and Instructors 

29.8. Class Member Roles. In all small learning groups, students begin to play different parts or roles

after they have been together for a while. When a student becomes comfortable with a role and the rest of

the group offers rewards for assuming the role, that student has found a place in the group. The student

expects to play the role and others expect it as well. This situation is comparable to roles in plays and,

interestingly, just as people play different roles in different plays, they also play different roles in different

groups. The gregarious life of the class may be quiet, devout, and reserved in church. The person who is

ill tempered and bossy at home may be a likeable, even-tempered person in the classroom. A student may

be outspoken in one class and a good deal more reserved in another where the content matter is less famil-
346 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

iar. The basic principle here is that a student's role is worked out jointly by the student and the rest of the

group. 

29.8.1. Student behavior in learning groups is similar to role behavior in other small group situations.

Obviously there are many different roles and one person might fill more than one role in a group.

Some task roles found often in learning groups are: idea-initiator—proposes new ideas, new goals,

possible solutions; information giver—offers facts and information, personal experiences, and evidence useful for the group; and coordinator—develops, describes, and shows relationship among

facts, ideas, and suggestions. 

29.8.2. Common roles for group maintenance are: supporter—agrees, praises, shows warmth and solidarity to others; harmonizer—mediates differences between others, finds common ground, reconciles

disagreements, conciliates, and suggests compromises; and tension reliever—jokes, points out humor

in the situation, and puts others at ease by reducing formality and status differences. 

29.9. Dealing with Nonproductive Roles. Instructors are pleased to have students assume productive

roles like those described in paragraph 29.8. With students like these, the learning group becomes more

productive for all its members. However, instructors are often faced with the problem of students who

play nonproductive roles. Here are some common problems and suggestions for dealing with the problems: 

29.9.1. Monopolizers talk too much and hinder participation by others. If they know a lot about the

subject and are eager to be helpful, then don't embarrass them for you may need them in this role later

on. Do not, however, let them monopolize or give long speeches. Politely turn the conversation to

another student by asking a direct question. Do not use an overhead question (a question asked of the

group as a whole) because a monopolizer will most likely answer. If monopolizers are simply trying

to impress others with their knowledge or status, encourage them only when their comments are productive; otherwise, politely interrupt them and move to another student or a different topic. Other

members of the group will generally handle the problem for you. Give them positive reinforcement

when they do. 

29.9.2. Arguers take issue with what the instructor and other students say. They may simply have

strong personal convictions about the topic. If this is the case, don't close your mind to some possibly

good ideas just because of the opinionated manner in which they are presented. Talk to arguers outside

of class and explain that while you consider their views important for the group to consider, they must

not hinder overall group effectiveness. It is possible that arguers are attempting to gain recognition or

perhaps even attempting to disrupt the group. Try not to get too excited—above all, don't let the group

become antagonistic. Remember that the group is at least partly responsible for a person playing this

role. You may want to talk to other students outside of class and ask them what they think can be done

to understand the person and help change the behavior. 

29.9.3. Nonparticipants show reluctance to participate verbally in class discussions. Although nonparticipation may result from not being prepared, students often don't participate because they feel

insecure as individuals or insecure with the particular group, perhaps due to perceived status or rank

differences. Spend extra time with these people outside of class. Discover their interests. In class, ask

such students direct open-ended questions. Make certain the question can be answered easily, but not

with either a "yes" or "no" response. When these students take part in the class discussion, give positive reinforcement. Say something like, "That's interesting, Mary. We need to hear from you more

often." Or, "I hadn't thought of it that way before; good answer." 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 347

29.9.4. Clowns don't take things seriously and as a result distract others and hinder learning. These

students generally enjoy attention. Encourage them when tensions mount. Laugh and let them know

you admire their humor. Ignore them when "clowning around" is inappropriate. They will not like to

be ignored and will soon learn when and when not to supply humor. 

29.10. Dealing with Nonproductive Groups. Instructors occasionally find that rather than having problems with individual students, they have problems with nonproductive groups. Some common causes are: 

29.10.1. Apathy—lack of enthusiasm, low response rate, yawning, quietness. Apathy may result from

tension often felt in first meetings of the group, lack of interest in the topic, or a boring instructor.

Whatever the cause, don't give up too soon. Even experienced instructors find that their learning

groups sometimes become apathetic. Make time for small talk, kidding, and humor. Show as much

enthusiasm and energy as possible. Do not give up if first attempts at motivating the group are unsuccessful. Use explicit and interesting examples to stimulate interest. 

29.10.2. Hostility—arguing, sarcasm, personal antagonism toward other students and the instructor.

Hostility may result from tensions among students, frustration or dissatisfaction with the school, or

perhaps from some external or seemingly unrelated source. Dissatisfaction with housing or transportation problems can transfer directly to antagonism for the school and even for the learning group.

Attempt to alleviate external and internal problems. Support students who assume suitable roles.

Relieve tension with small talk and humor. If necessary, bring the situation into the open. Remind the

group of its objectives. 

29.10.3. Confusion—students ask directions excessively and complain their time is being wasted.

Listen to what students have to say and take the time to be especially understanding and provide

needed direction. Structure will most likely be welcomed as students want to get to work. Do not overemphasize the social aspect of the group. This will only postpone resolving the problem. 

29.11. Student Needs. Individual roles and group behavior come as a direct response to needs of students

in the group. Although psychologists may disagree on the number and nature of human needs, two facts

important to the learning group are commonly agreed upon: (1) some behavior is goal directed and results

from a student being internally motivated (for example, a student will study to get a good grade in a

course), and (2) other behavior can be brought about by teachers who are aware of student needs (for

example, a teacher can show how the subject matter is important to the student). Whatever the case, student needs trigger behavior, and the instructors can influence student behavior by knowing student needs. 

29.11.1. Probably the best known classification of needs is one developed by Maslow. Body—basic

physiological needs for food, water, sleep, and air. Safety (security)—protection from harm or injury.

Belonging—social need for warmth, acceptance, approval. Self-esteem—for self-enhancement, competence, importance. Self-actualization—for self-fulfillment, accomplishment, having arrived. 

29.11.2. Maslow suggests that these needs must be satisfied sequentially. That is, once body needs are

satisfied a person is concerned with satisfying safety needs. After safety needs are satisfied, then concern is for belonging and then self-esteem needs. Once the first four kinds of needs are satisfied, the

person is concerned with becoming self-actualized. 

29.11.3. Instructors who understand the direct relationship between student needs and the roles students play in the group will be better equipped to adjust their own teaching behavior within the group.
348 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

More specifically, instructors will be able to find the most appropriate role or behavior for themselves

in the learning group. 

29.12. The Instructor As Leader. Instructors often need to assume task and maintenance roles like class

member roles to help the group function effectively. Rather than simply play roles, instructors must vary

their entire task and maintenance leadership behavior to fit the situation. Task behavior in the learning

group relates to how the instructor organizes and defines student roles and structures learning. Maintenance behavior is concerned with how the instructor maintains good human relations with students by

using open, supportive, helping actions. 

29.12.1. The amount and kind of instructor involvement relates directly to the maturity of the group.

In other words, although task and maintenance behavior by the instructor should vary with the situation, there are some predictable ways on how they should vary (Figure 29.1.). 

Figure 29.1. Instructor Task and Maintenance Roles. 

29.12.2. The reasons for adjusting leadership behavior to the situation are many, but one of the prime

reasons is that students' needs change. Remember Maslow's classification of needs described in paragraph 29.11.1. Consider the example of student seminar groups at a typical United States Air Force

professional military education course; it seems safe to assume that students arrive with basic needs

fairly well satisfied. 

29.12.2.1. High task and low maintenance. Students gather in the auditorium to receive briefings

and information important to them as new students. They are told where to go, what to do, what is

expected of them, and how the school is run. Emphasis is on the task and structure of the school

with very little consideration shown to them as individuals. School officials engage in very little

maintenance behavior. 

29.12.2.2. High task and high maintenance. Students are soon assigned to seminars or small learning groups with a seminar advisor or instructor. Still there is strong emphasis on the task. Students

are told about general course requirements, communication skills requirements, and evaluation

procedures, but the instructor also exhibits strong maintenance behavior. Students get to know

each other and the instructor and begin to feel more at ease. The instructor, knowing their body

and security needs are satisfied, is appealing to their need to belong. Certainly the need for task

orientation and structure cannot be ignored early in the course when students need direction, but

maintenance behavior is needed to give students a sense of belonging. 

29.12.2.3. Low task and high maintenance. Students gain confidence as the course progresses.

They understand what is required of them and how to meet the requirements. They also feel as if

they actually belong to their home seminar learning group. The work may still be demanding, but

the atmosphere is more relaxed and the group is cohesive. Students are now striving for a sense of

1. High task and low maintenance with a new group. 

2. High task and high maintenance as group begins to mature. 

3. Low task and high maintenance as group reaches greater maturity. 

4. Low task and low maintenance for fully mature groups. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 349

achievement—they want to do more than just belong to the group; they want to be thought highly

of by the group. Recognizing the student's need for self-esteem and accomplishment of tasks on

their own, the instructor should maintain high maintenance behavior, but reduce task behavior and

say in effect, "I have confidence in you to make decisions and do the work without my looking

over your shoulder." 

29.12.2.4. Low task and low maintenance. When the course is nearly over and students have met

the objectives, they are ready to graduate. The group will soon cease to meet, and the instructor

will no longer lead. At this time, very low task and low maintenance behavior by the instructor is

appropriate. The group has fully matured and its members will go to their assignments. 

29.12.3. The really effective instructor, then, is one who is able to use the correct balance of task and

maintenance behavior to ensure that student needs are met and maximum learning takes place. 

29.13. Summary. The small learning group is an important part of education. In learning groups, the

instructor must consider both the content or subject matter of the group and the process or interaction

among group members in order to increase the benefits and decrease the limitations of small-group learning. 

29.13.1. Every group develops norms that regulate behavior and influence cohesiveness. In cohesive

groups, students have high group loyalty and exhibit higher morale, greater productivity, and more

communication among members. Group cohesiveness can be increased by setting obtainable objectives, rewarding the group, and building group tradition. Cohesiveness promotes needed consensus or

agreement by the group on major points. Consensus is encouraged when the instructor and students

clarify the discussion, use process statements, seek different views, remain open to different views,

and use group pronouns. 

29.13.2. Students play roles in the learning group. Nonproductive student roles such as monopolizer,

arguer, nonparticipant, and clown, and group problems of apathy, hostility, and confusion need to be

dealt with by the instructor. Attention to student needs will help the instructor understand student roles

and be able to assume the proper balance of task and maintenance behavior needed to promote a productive learning group. 
350 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Chapter 30 

THE INSTRUCTOR AS A HELPER 

Section 30A—Overview 

30.1. Introduction. Effective counseling can improve student performance. Since few Air Force schools

have full-time counselors, Air Force instructors should be prepared to help students in this regard when

the need arises. This chapter will assist you in meeting this responsibility. 

30.1.1. One purpose is to help people make wise choices and decisions; the second is to help people

be better adjusted or to promote their mental health. When discussing Air Force academic counseling,

our emphasis is on helping students improve or change their behavior by making wise choices that

will help their academic progress. The second purpose, to promote adjustment or mental health,

should be left to professionals in the field of mental health. 

30.1.2. In discussing counseling, we will first define the term and classify student requests for assistance. Next, we will examine the helping relationship so important in effective counseling. Third, we

will discuss techniques and practices taken from three different counseling approaches. Paragraphs

30.16. and 30.17. provide direction for referring students when the need arises and legal guidance concerning confidentiality of information in a military counseling setting. 

30.2. Counseling Defined. There are many definitions of counseling, but most of them do not seem

appropriate to counseling students in military schools. By extracting three common characteristics from

the various definitions, however, we can define counseling as (1) a process (2) involving a helping relationship (3) directed toward improvement or change in student behavior. Let us examine these characteristics in more detail. 

30.3. Counseling as a Process. Counseling may be viewed as a three-phase process or cycle of helping. 

30.3.1. Self-Exploration. In the first phase, the instructor directs efforts toward establishing a base or

building a good relationship with the student. The student is allowed to explore the problem in depth.

The instructor uses listening skills, proper responses, and effective questioning techniques, along with

empathy, respect, warmth, and genuineness in building the relationship. 

30.3.2. Self-Understanding. Once the foundation for the relationship is established, the instructor

helps the student gain self-understanding. The instructor assists the student in making some sense out

of the many pieces of the puzzle. Although students think about their problems a great deal, they frequently are unable to change their behavior. A student may recognize that nightly visits to the club

interfere with academic preparation and yet persist in this behavior. What is missing is commitment to

change. Therefore, in this phase the student must not only understand the problem in depth, but make

a commitment to follow through with a plan or program designed to correct the inappropriate behavior. 

30.3.3. Student Action. The final phase may be the most difficult. The instructor and student must

devise a plan the student can follow to resolve his or her problems. The instructor and student consider

alternate plans and the possible consequences of these plans before selecting one. The emphasis is on

outcomes and achievement of attainable goals. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 351

NOTE: These three phases illustrate counseling as a process. At the core of this process is the helping

relationship. 

30.4. The Helping Relationship. The second characteristic of counseling—the helping relationship—

refers to interactions in which the instructor makes a determined effort to contribute in a positive way to

the student's improvement. While shoe clerks, policemen, bankers, and politicians all provide help, the

term "helping relationship" is not used to describe their services because their primary purpose is not to

assist in the personal development of the individual. In counseling, we establish a helping relationship by

drawing upon ourselves in ways that help students live more in harmony with themselves and others, and

with a greater understanding of themselves. The relationship develops because students need assistance,

instruction, or understanding. The helping relationship is so very important. 

30.5. Improvement or Change in Student Behavior. The third characteristic of counseling, improvement or change in student behavior, describes the goal of counseling. Counseling can be considered successful when some kind of change or improvement occurs in a student's observable behavior. 

30.5.1. After counseling, it is not enough for a student merely to speak of renewed confidence in, for

example, lecturing before a group. Such a comment does not allow us to be sure our counseling was

successful. However, if the student gets up in front of the class and presents the lecture with a new

degree of confidence, then we have observable evidence the behavior has changed or improved. 

30.5.2. Or consider a student who could not perform satisfactorily on tests because of a high anxiety

level. Observable evidence after counseling intervention would be a report that the student took several tests without experiencing anxiety that interfered with test performance. While we cannot say

with certainty that the change was the result of counseling, it is quite probable that counseling intervention contributed to the improved performance. 

30.6. Student Requests for Assistance. Students will come to us asking for information and action or

understanding and involvement. If a student asks for information, we provide the appropriate verbal

response. When the student asks for a handout from our lecture, we take the appropriate action to get it.

Neither of these interactions would be classified as counseling. But when students verbalize a request for

understanding or involvement, they are generally seeking a helping relationship and counseling is

involved. Most students have occasions when they wish to talk with others about matters important to

them. As instructors, we must be alert for these needs even when they are not verbalized. With this type of

request, we must be ready to enter into a helping relationship. 

Section 30B—The Helping Relationship 

30.7. Importance of the Helping Relationship. All theories and approaches to counseling stress the

relationship between participants as the common ground for the helping process. Such a helping relationship allows the instructor to contribute in a positive way to the improvement of student performance. We

often speak of the counselor's role as facilitating the change. Because the helping relationship is so significant in effective counseling, you need to clearly understand its key components. 

30.8. The Counseling Environment. The setting in which counseling is conducted has some bearing on

whether the relationship will be facilitated or thwarted. Our goal is to provide the atmosphere that will

contribute most to communication. 
352 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

30.8.1. Privacy. One of the most important physical considerations is privacy. Students desire and

have a right not to be seen or heard by other students, instructors, or others when they enter into a

counseling relationship. Nothing will limit the relationship more quickly than knowing others are able

to hear or see what is taking place. 

30.8.2. Seating Arrangement. Little research has gone into the effect of seating arrangement on the

helping relationship. Available research suggests that a seating position across the corner of a desk

works well. Another arrangement is comfortable chairs placed close to each other at a 90-degree angle

with a small table nearby. You might find that a chair-facing-chair arrangement works better for you.

Most students should be comfortable with distances of approximately 30 to 40 inches between the

counselors and themselves. 

30.8.3. Limited Interruptions. The instructor must establish rapport and build trust. Outside interruptions can only hinder. Phone calls, knocks on the door, people who want "just a word" with you,

and secretaries who must have you sign this document "at once" may destroy in seconds what you and

the student have tried hard to build over a period of time. 

30.8.4. Student Folders. Information in a student's folder can be useful in preparing for a counseling

session. However, place the folder in a drawer or removed it from view before the student arrives.

Otherwise, the student may become more concerned with what is in the folder than with discussing

the problem at hand. Be careful not to prejudge students based on information in the folder or to

expect certain attitudes, behavior, or achievement from students based on written comments of other

instructors. To properly help students, remain objective in your relationship with them. 

30.8.5. Confidentiality. Students seeking help from instructors may reveal intimate, personal, and

sometimes painful details and experiences. Because such highly personal and private revelations may

bring embarrassment or ridicule, students do not want them disclosed. They usually assume others

will not have access to their disclosures without their express consent. When a student enters counseling under this assumption, a confidential relationship exists and the instructor is normally obligated to

maintain this confidentiality. However, in addition to the ethical considerations, there are legal implications involved. Paragraph 30.17. outlines your legal rights and responsibilities concerning confidentiality when counseling in a military setting. 

30.9. Stages of a Helping Interview. We might think of the actual counseling interview in terms of

stages labeled initiation, development, and closing. Earlier we discussed the development stage in terms

of self-exploration, self-understanding and commitment, and action. Let us examine initiation and closing

in more detail. 

30.9.1. Initiation. During this stage you should work to establish rapport. You might focus upon

some neutral topic or event known to you and the student. However, avoid trite conversation that may

result in an increase in strained feelings, such as "It's a nice day, isn't it?" Being friendly, attentive, and

demonstrating interest to reduce student resistance are important, but don't make the mistake of consuming valuable time with extended idle conversation implying that the weather, sports, or activities

are what the student wants to discuss. 

30.9.1.1. Keep any opening conversation brief. Focus on the student's reason for being there.

Statements such as "Please tell me what you wished to see me about," "I understand you wanted to

see me," "I've asked you to come in because...," or "Please feel free to tell me what's on your

mind" should get you off to a good start. Try avoiding the use of "May I help you?" and "What is
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 353

the problem you would like us to discuss?" The words "help" and "problem" may hinder development of the relationship. 

30.9.1.2. Initiate counseling appointments on time or provide a good and sufficient reason why

the appointment was not met. Tell students how much time you have available for the counseling

session. This procedure provides an important framework for the interview and allows the students to orient themselves. If available, 30 to 45 minutes is generally sufficient for counseling sessions. However, few instructors will have the luxury of this much time. Structure the interview

according to the time available. 

30.9.1.3. Initiation ends when the instructor and student understand what is to be discussed and

agree that it should be. Although the focus may shift to a more primary concern as the interview

progresses, you have agreed to discuss a point and are ready to proceed to the development stage. 

30.9.2. Closing. Both partners in the interview should be aware that closing is taking place. No new

material should be introduced or discussed during this stage. (If such information does come out,

schedule another counseling session.) A concluding statement by the instructor may suffice. Or a short

summation of the session with the agreed-upon course of action by either the instructor or the student

can effectively close out the session. Closing is especially important because what occurs during this

last stage is likely to determine the student's impression of the interview as a whole. 

30.10. Instructor Attitudes. The essential components of the helping relationship are attitudes rather

than skills. For this reason, it has been difficult to analyze what good counselors do to establish a helping

relationship so others can be trained to do likewise. During a counseling session, instructors must communicate the attitudes of acceptance, understanding, and sincerity by their actions, words, gestures, and

facial expression. The main skill instructors must develop is that of communicating this understanding of

what the student is trying to express, and doing it in a warm, sincere way. 

30.10.1. Acceptance (Warmth). Different authorities use different terms to describe this attitude or

core condition of counseling. Some call it "unconditional positive regard" while others use the term

"nonpossessive warmth." Primarily nonverbal, this instructor attitude is a direct outgrowth of the

instructor's ability to appear nonjudgmental. It involves a willingness to allow students to differ from

one another and the realization that the experiences of each student are a complex pattern of striving,

thinking, and feeling. The student experiences acceptance as a feeling of being unconditionally understood, liked, and respected. Acceptance—a positive, tolerant attitude on the part of the instructor—is

one of the conditions that enables the student to change behavior. 

30.10.2. Understanding (Empathy). Counseling is basically a perceptual task. Learning to say the

right thing at the right time without learning to listen, watch, and understand is not possible. While listening, instructors must put themselves in the student's place and try to see the circumstances as the

student sees them—not as they look to an outsider. While simple to say, this attitude is hard to learn.

The first step in communicating this attitude is to listen carefully to what students say about how they

feel because of what is happening to them. The next step is to think of words that represent the students' feelings and their situations. Finally, use words to tell students you understand their feelings and

their situations. For instance, if a student expresses concern about a relationship to an instructor, you

might respond with empathy by saying, "Underneath your frustration, I can sense a great deal of

anger. You're giving 100 percent and instead of appreciating your effort, your instructor expects even

more. That's pretty hard to take." 
354 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

30.10.3. Sincerity (Genuineness). With this attitude, essential harmony exists between what the

instructors say and do and what they really are. Sincerity is the opposite of phoniness. The instructor

cannot role-play being a counselor. Each of us can sense from the tone of voice, gestures, or mannerisms of some of the actors used in TV commercials that they are playing a role. They are putting on a

facade in saying things they don't feel. Thus, with sincerity you mean what you say and say what you

feel, keeping in mind that you are trying to be helpful to the student. 

30.11. Interviewing Skills. The following interviewing or communication skills can help the instructor

develop a helping relationship with students: 

30.11.1. Attending Behavior. These skills pertain to the physical behavior you exhibit while listening to another person. Your posture, eye contact, and facial expression carry messages to the student

while you communicate. Effective attending skills communicate you are interested. If the skills are

ineffective, it is doubtful a helping relationship will develop. 

30.11.1.1. Effective attending behaviors show acceptance and respect for students. Eye contact is

regular; movement is toward the students and not away. Your posture should be relaxed, leaning

slightly toward the students. Match your facial expression with your feelings or the students' feelings. Keep the voice clearly audible—neither too loud nor too soft. Maintain a high energy level

so you can stay alert throughout a long conversation. 

30.11.1.2. Effective attending skills can be developed with practice although your initial efforts

may seem mechanical. If you work hard at projecting acceptance, understanding, and sincerity,

you will find good attending skills developing quite naturally. 

30.11.2. Noting Nonverbal Behavior. Student nonverbal responses are more likely to transmit the

real message than the spoken one. Facial expression alone can transmit more than half the meaning of

a message. Nonverbal responses are automatic; students are not generally aware of them. However, do

not fall into the trap of believing a certain nonverbal response can mean only one thing. Arms folded

across the chest may mean defensiveness, but they may also mean the person is comfortable in that

position or is cold. Nonverbal behavior also varies from culture to culture. Therefore, nonverbal

behaviors must always be judged within the context of what is happening in the counseling session

and their meaning considered tentative. In counseling sessions, the students' nonverbal behaviors provide clues to possible underlying feelings or motives but do not serve as proof they exist. 

30.11.3. Questioning Techniques: 

30.11.3.1. Questioning is a common and very overused technique. Used improperly, it tends to

make students see the counseling session as an inquisition in which they can sit back and think

along the lines indicated by the questions. One question usually leads to another and before long

the instructor is searching for additional questions to ask. Or the instructor may ask questions

accusingly, arousing fear and suspicion on the part of the student instead of cooperation. 

30.11.3.2. Used properly, questions can solicit needed information and direct student conversations to helpful channels. When used, the questions should be open-ended and require more than a

"yes" or "no" response. For instance, ask "How did you feel after the test?" instead of "You felt

great after the test, didn't you?" Avoid double-barreled questions such as "Are my questions helpful, and are you learning more about yourself?" Use indirect questions where possible since they

inquire without seeming to do so, such as "You've been here at the school a week now. There must
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 355

be a lot you want to talk about." Another example would be, "You must have many thoughts about

our new grading system." 

30.11.4. Responding. Responding skills allow you to continue communicating with the students

without relying on questions. Through practice, although they may seem mechanical at first, instructors can learn to use the following responding skills: 

30.11.4.1. Restatement of Content. Restating the content is an attempt to convey understanding

either by simply repeating or rephrasing the communication. In restating, you make no attempt to

clarify, interpret, or organize what the student has said. 

30.11.4.2. Reflection of Feeling. Here, the instructor's intent is to show that student feelings or

experiences are correctly understood. The focus is on student attitudes. Reflection techniques

bring student feelings and attitudes to the surface. These techniques also bring problems into

awareness without making a student feel pushed by the instructor. The instructor mirrors student

attitudes so they can be clarified and understood. When properly achieved, reflection helps students feel deeply understood and clarifies student thinking so the situation can be seen more objectively. For instance, a student might say, "It's so hard knowing my wife is in the hospital while I'm

in school and there is absolutely nothing I can do." To reflect feeling, you would respond, "You

feel anxious and helpless right now." 

30.11.4.3. Reinforcing Responses. The "mm-hm" response accompanied by a nod of the head is

one of the most common reinforcing responses. Though not a word, it is a clearly uttered sound.

When used, it indicates "Go on. I'm with you. I'm listening and following you." 

30.11.4.4. Silence. Silence as a response can be difficult to master. We might consider two times

when it is especially appropriate. A pause may come because students are thinking over what they

just expressed and interruption would be inadvisable. In another instance, silence may fall just

after an emotion-laden expression by students; quiet acceptance of this pause is appropriate. 

30.11.4.5. Clarification. Clarification is another important response. Perhaps you simplify what

students have said to make it clearer or you try to verbalize ideas and feelings students have had

difficulty expressing clearly. When you clarify what students have said or tried to say, you are

using this skill. At other times, you may need to have students clarify something they said to you.

In this situation, an appropriate response may be a question such as "I'm sorry. I didn't quite understand your role in the argument. How did it get started?" 

Section 30C—Counseling Approaches 

30.12. Overview. Instructors who do even a moderate amount of counseling should give serious thought

to the approaches they use. Thought put into the selection of an approach should culminate in a theoretical

base from which to operate. While the theoretical base need not be a fully developed, sophisticated theory

of the counseling process, it should provide a structure or framework from which to operate. Without that

framework or structure, instructors may find themselves floundering during counseling sessions with

vague goals and no means of achieving them. 

30.12.1. Once developed, a theoretical base will allow you to make comparisons between the body of

unique information supplied by the student in counseling and a larger body of generalizations you

have about human behavior. Because you must make predictions alone or with the student about the

effects of each course of action available to the student, theory provides structure for making appro-
356 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

priate selections. A theoretical base can also tell you what facts you lack to achieve understanding of

the student. Finally, it can help you identify reasons for your success or failure as you counsel students. 

30.12.2. Counseling approaches or theories might be categorized in many ways. The behavioral

approach might represent one group, cognitive approaches a second, and affective approaches a third.

While you may not have the required training or need to fully understand and use these theories, the

techniques and practices from them may be useful in counseling students and in developing your own

counseling approach. You may find yourself drawn to an approach because of your own view of people and how they should behave. As you become more knowledgeable, you may find that proper

selection of techniques and practices from the different approaches increases the probability of giving

appropriate help to your students. With experience, you may develop a theoretical approach to assist

you in giving the best possible help in the counseling situation. To simplify our discussion we will

select one theory from each approach for development. 

30.13. Cognitive Approach. Rational-emotive counselors view people as being capable of both rational

and irrational (illogical) thinking. A major element in their theory is that our emotions are caused and controlled by our thinking. What we think becomes our emotion. 

30.13.1. Particularly important to this viewpoint is the idea that much of our emotional behavior

stems from "self-talk" or internalized sentences. What we tell ourselves is or becomes our thoughts

and emotions. Thus, our negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and shame come

from our thinking process. Simply stated, if we can learn to control our thinking, we can learn to control our emotions. 

30.13.2. Let us consider an example. Before students get ready to give speeches, they start talking to

themselves. The students picture all the things that can go wrong and anxiety starts to build. They continue to picture the worst possible outcomes and the anxiety increases. Consequently, they then have

difficulty performing because of their own irrational thinking that triggered the negative emotion of

fear or anxiety. 

30.13.3. Another common example occurs among students at teacher training schools. The thought of

getting up in front of a group of students and teaching a lesson produces negative thoughts. The students start repeating the things that might go wrong and fear or anxiety starts to build. This negative

self-talk continues. If they got up to teach and failed, the experience would be humiliating. If they

could not teach the lesson, they would probably fail at the school. If they fail at the school, their entire

military career will be affected. If their career starts going badly, the wives and children will be

affected. This catastrophic thinking continues until they have worked themselves up into an emotional

state that interferes with their school performance. 

30.13.4. Counselors who borrow from rational-emotive theory would explain to the students how

such self-talk brings on the very thing they are trying to avoid. They try to get the students to view the

situation realistically. What is the probability that the worst possible thing will occur? What if they

should fail the course? It might be in their best interest to know they should not go into a field for

which they are not suited. By focusing on the faulty reasoning, emphasis shifts to eliminating self-talk

that stands in the way of student progress and causes negative emotions they do not have to experience. The brain focuses on one thing at a time. If students change their negative thoughts for positive

ones, they can learn to control their emotions. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 357

30.13.5. At other times students can make themselves miserable through their negative self-talk, telling themselves how much they hate being at your school or attending your course. By learning to view

the situation realistically and cutting out the negative self-talk, students can accept the situation and

make the most of the experience. 

30.14. Behavioral Approach. Behavioral counseling has many applications in the military academic

setting. According to behaviorists, most human behavior is learned and is therefore subject to change. If

we can change the students' environment, we can assist in altering their behaviors. Our effectiveness in

counseling and the outcome of the counseling can be assessed by changes in specific student behavior

outside the counseling setting. 

30.14.1. Basic to behavioral counseling is the principle of reinforcement. Rewards such as praise,

affection, grades, and awards are given for appropriate behavior in hopes of getting students to repeat

this type of behavior. For instance, if a student is commended for a good class presentation, this reinforcement should motivate the student to prepare well for the next lesson in hopes of again receiving

recognition (called positive reinforcement). 

30.14.2. At other times, a certain student response stops disapproval, criticism, or nagging from others. Thus, this behavior is reinforced by the removal of the disapproval, criticism, or nagging, and the

particular response should occur again. For instance, a student does not get along well with other class

members and is not accepted by them. After counseling, the student responds to class members differently and disapproval stops. This new form of behavior has been reinforced and should continue to be

used by the student (called negative reinforcement). 

30.14.3. Student behavior that is not reinforced will be eliminated over a period of time. If students

are no longer called on when they raise their hands, this form of behavior will eventually be eliminated in that classroom. Students who become overly dependent on an instructor will usually stop this

practice if the instructor does not provide reinforcement for this type of behavior. 

30.14.4. What we do and say as instructors serves to reinforce appropriate or inappropriate behavior.

If we nod our head in counseling and say "mm-hm," we are giving positive reinforcement to what students say or actions they have taken. This action encourages the student to continue. But if we do not

like what students say or actions they propose, we should avoid reinforcement with head nods and our

responses. 

30.14.5. When using behavioral techniques in counseling, we should help students outline a course of

action during which we know a good chance exists for them to receive positive reinforcement. Thus,

there is a good chance for a positive change in behavior. However, if we outline a course of action

where the probability of failure is high, then student behavior may get worse or show no improvement. 

30.15. Affective Approach. One affective (or humanistic) approach is client-centered counseling. This

approach stresses student ability to determine the issues important to them and to solve their own problems. Client-centered counselors see students as basically good and behavior as being purposeful or goal

directed. If placed in the proper counseling relationship and given the opportunity, students will choose

courses of action that will lead toward actualization of their potential. The instructor's primary responsibility is to create a helping relationship in which students can gain self-understanding and self-acceptance.

Enhancement of the self-concept and actualization of potential are at the core of client-centered counseling. 
358 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

30.15.1. The client-centered approach might be especially effective in situations where students are

grappling with personal conflict. Consider, for example, situations in which students must decide to

stay in school and complete a course or withdraw to return home to solve or deal with a difficult family problem. Either option is feasible from an administrative standpoint. From your point of view, the

student should return home, resolve the problem, and return to complete the course at a later time.

However, no one knows the student and the total situation better than the student; consequently, only

the student can make the most reasonable choice. 

30.15.2. In these cases, for example, the self-concepts of the students may include attitudes about

themselves that preclude their being quitters or leaving commitments unfulfilled. What seemed to you

the wisest choice would not necessarily be the best one from the internal vantage point of these students. Your task as a client-centered instructor-counselor is to establish a helping relationship in which

students know they are accepted and free to make choices without fear of losing your regard and

understanding. In this helping relationship, students will generally choose the course best for them. 

30.15.3. Many military instructors will be dealing with immature students who have never taken

responsibility for their own behavior or actions. With these students, the client-centered approach is

often particularly effective. If certain students consistently ask your opinion on how to handle problem situations, work at establishing a helping relationship with them. Give them the responsibility to

resolve the problem situation. If they are successful, also give positive recognition as a form of reinforcement. 

30.15.4. Your own view of people may be similar to that of the client-centered counselor. If so, you

will probably be comfortable working at establishing a strong helping relationship with students and

allowing them to solve their own problems. When establishing the helping relationship, remember

that in the affective approach it is the attitudes of the counselor rather than techniques that facilitate

counseling. Thus, with the client-centered approach, your focus will be on the students—not on you as

the instructor. You should see a decreasing need for your assistance as students mature in problem

solving. 

Section 30D—Referrals and Communications 

30.16. Referral. Referral is the process of finding someone else to help the student. As teachers, we must

recognize when the needs of a student call for assistance beyond the scope of our training. Occasionally

we may encounter students who have problems that are not educational or which call for specialized service. Referral to a professionally qualified person is more appropriate than attempting to help solve the

problem. Marriage and family concerns, drug and alcohol abuse, and emotional disturbances brought on

by stress are common problems instructors encounter among members of their student body where referral is appropriate, or students may need specialized assistance from the legal office, social actions, or

another base or community agency. Even though the problem may not be serious, referral action is appropriate in all of these cases because few Air Force instructors have the required education and training to

help students with these concerns. 

30.16.1. Instructors should be familiar with the referral possibilities before suggesting this course of

action to the student. What kind of special service does this person require? Is it available and, if so,

where? First assess the resources of your own school. Perhaps you have staff members who have the

professional training required to deal with a particular concern. Second, determine the extent of services available on your base. A base mental health clinic may be able to handle a variety of problems
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 359

because of the diverse background of the professionals assigned. The drug and alcohol abuse unit of

your social actions office can give specialized assistance and one or more of the base chaplains may

have been trained as counselors. A variety of community services is also available to military personnel and should not be overlooked as referral possibilities. 

30.16.2. When referral becomes a consideration, do not hesitate to discuss the situation with your

supervisor or someone on your faculty who has professional training. You may need to call base or

community agencies for their recommendations. 

30.16.3. A student may show resistance, doubt, fear, guilt, or defensiveness when you suggest referral. Be prepared to cope with these reactions. When suggesting referral, communicate your acceptance, understanding, and concern just as you did in establishing the helping relationship. Offer to

make the contacts and arrangements with the referral resource and assist in any way possible. Arrange

for a followup with either the agency or the student to determine if you need to help further. 

30.16.4. When suggesting referral, students may indicate they would prefer making their own contact

with the referral source. If so, attempt to arrange a followup procedure to determine how you might be

of further assistance. The student may also reject the referral attempt. If so, do not interpret this reaction as a failure on your part. The student may now be more openly facing the problem as a result of

the counseling intervention or the student may have decided upon another course of action. 

30.17. Communications Between Instructors and Students in a Counseling Environment: 

30.17.1. The military does not recognize any legally enforceable "privileged communication"

between a counselor and counselee (i.e. instructor and student), as is the case in attorney-client, chaplain-penitent, physician-patient, Military Equal Opportunity-client, or spousal privilege. For further

information, see The Military Commander and the Law, 4th edition, 1998. A promise of confidentiality by a counselor cannot override the legal requirement to report crimes, and a counselor who is told

of a criminal act committed or about to be committed must report this information or be personally

subject to criminal prosecution. The breach of confidentiality, in and of itself, does not give rise to

grounds for legal action in libel or slander. Further, the counselor has an absolute privilege from libel

or slander actions when testifying in court or before an administrative body. 

30.17.2. Counselors should consult with their local documentation management office and judge

advocate officials to resolve any uncertainty. 

30.18. Summary. Effective counseling can improve student performance. Therefore, Air Force instructors should be prepared to counsel students when the need arises. 

30.18.1. Definitions of counseling stress that counseling is a process involving a helping relationship

directed toward improvement or change in student behavior. The purpose of counseling in the Air

Force academic setting is to assist students in making wise choices and decisions. 

30.18.2. All theories and approaches to counseling stress the relationship between participants as the

common ground for the helping process. A helping relationship allows the instructor to contribute in

a facilitating, positive way to the improvement of student performance. Establishing a proper environment for counseling, developing the interview by stages, projecting proper attitudes in the session, and

using appropriate interviewing skills are important considerations in establishing a helping relationship. 
360 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

30.18.3. Once fundamentals of the helping relationship are mastered, instructors can give serious

attention to developing a counseling approach. Techniques and practices from different theories can

be useful in counseling students and developing a counseling approach. With experience, the instructor may develop a theoretical approach that will assist in giving the best possible help in the counseling situation. 

30.18.4. Instructors must recognize that the needs of students occasionally call for assistance beyond

the scope of their training in counseling. Referral is the process of finding someone else to help the

student at such times. Instructors should familiarize themselves with sources of assistance both on

base and in the civilian community. 

30.18.5. Confidentiality of communications between instructors and students in a counseling relationship is essential. However, there are instances in military settings when confidentiality cannot be

maintained. Instructors should contact the nearest base legal office if guidance is needed. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 361

Chapter 31 

SELF-CONCEPT 

31.1. Introduction. Educators and psychologists are becoming increasingly aware that the self-concept

of students is closely connected to how they learn and behave. Research evidence indicates that lack of

academic involvement, misdirected motivation, and low performance in academic subjects characteristic

of underachievers, failures, dropouts, and the culturally disadvantaged may be due in part to negative

self-concepts. These students have difficulty in the classroom because they do not believe they can do

academic work. When students say, "I'll never pass this test I just know it," they are reflecting how they

feel about themselves. With this attitude, chances are increased they will not do well on the test. Thus,

performance depends not only on how intelligent they are, but also on how intelligent they think they are. 

31.1.1. Current literature and research also suggest a close link between self-concept and mental

health. Such evidence leaves little doubt that the mental health of individuals depends deeply on the

quality of their feelings about themselves. Just as individuals must maintain healthy views of the

world around them, so must they learn to perceive themselves in positive ways. 

31.1.2. Recognizing the importance of self-concept, instructors should also realize that the self-concept of students can be changed, for better or worse, through their experiences in the academic environment. While successful experiences in schools are no guarantee of a generally positive

self-concept, they do increase the probability that such will be the case. In contrast, unsuccessful

experiences in school show that these individuals will develop negative academic self-concepts and

increase the probability of their developing negative overall self-concepts. 

31.1.3. In this chapter we will describe important facets of the self-concept, explain certain environmental forces that have shaped the academic self-concepts of students, summarize the role of defense

mechanisms in protecting the self-concept, and identify actions an instructor can take to enhance students' self-concepts. 

31.2. Description of the Self-Concept. All of us have mental blueprints or pictures of ourselves. The

blueprint is composed of a system of interrelated ideas, attitudes, values, and commitments influenced by

past experiences, successes, failures, triumphs, humiliations, and the way others reacted to us especially

during our formative years. Consequently, we arrived at more or less stable frameworks of beliefs about

ourselves and have proceeded to live in consistent manners within those frameworks. This framework is

known as the self-concept, although the terms self-perception, self-image, and self-structure are often

used to describe the beliefs. Thus, we act like the people we conceive ourselves to be. In fact, it is difficult

to act otherwise even with conscious effort and willpower. 

31.2.1. Once established, the mental blueprint or picture of ourselves provides a screen through which

everything else is seen, heard, evaluated, and understood. The likelihood is increased that our behavior will cause others to respond toward us in ways that validate and support our self-concepts. If the

self-concept is generally positive, it engenders self-respect and confidence, while a generally negative

self-concept leads to feelings of inadequacy and a lack of confidence. 

31.2.2. The self-concept may also be thought of as a theory we have about ourselves. Just as we use

data from our experiences to make inferences about the world and the people with whom we interact,

we also make inferences about ourselves by observing our own behavior and the reactions of other
362 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

people to us. Our self-theory affects our behavior; our behavior in turn affects our self-theory—a theory continually being tested and revised. 

31.2.3. We might speak of a student's self-concept in terms of levels in a hierarchy. At the top is the

general self-concept representing a set of beliefs students hold about themselves. At the next level are

three major areas of self-concept for students: academic, social, and physical. Finally, we come to specific areas of self-concept related directly to a kind of activity or subject matter area. These specific

self-concept areas are probably the easiest to change. Under academic self-concept would be specific

areas such as mathematics, English, and history abilities. Under social self-concept would be such

areas as friendship, dating, and dancing. The physical self-concept would include athletic and appearance self-images. Successes or failures of students directly affect specific self-concepts. The pluses

and minuses in specific areas affect the major areas of self-concept, which, in turn, affect the overall

self-concept. 

31.2.4. With this knowledge of what the self-concept is, let us turn to an explanation of environmental

forces that may have shaped the self-concepts of students we will be dealing with in the academic

environment. 

31.3. Formation of the Academic Self-Concept. While instructors should strive to improve the general

self-concepts of students, their best chance for success is in improving the scholastic or academic

self-concept. Our appreciation of a student's academic self-concept will be enhanced if we understand the

role parents, teachers, peers, and the school has played in shaping that self-concept. 

31.3.1. Parental feedback and evaluation, caring or lack of it, and acceptance or rejection have a striking effect on how students view their general intellectual abilities and abilities in specific subject

areas. Research suggests that parents who combine caring, acceptance, and high, but reasonable

expectations are likely to rear children who think well of themselves and who strive to do as well as

they can in school. Parents who pay no attention at all to the academic accomplishments or failures of

children, or who attend only to the children's failures and rarely to their successes, are contributing to

the development of a negative academic self-concept. Thus, the type and amount of reinforcement

coming from parents has a significant effect on children's academic achievements and their academic

self-concepts. 

31.3.2. Students who complete secondary education have devoted nearly 20,000 hours to school and

related activities. During this long period of time, which includes some of the most impressionable

stages of a person's development, students are being taught the curriculum of the school and another

curriculum based on interactions of persons within the school. The latter curriculum teaches students

who they are in relation to others and their places in the worlds of people, ideas, and activities. They

may learn the latter curriculum more slowly, but it won't be forgotten as easily as the school curriculum. 

31.3.3. Not only does the school provide the stage upon which most of the drama of a person's formative years is played, it houses the most critical audience in the world—teachers and peers. It is here, in

the face of their most severe critics that students, whether in kindergarten, graduate school, or Air

Force schools, are likely to be reminded again and again of either their failings and shortcomings or of

their strengths and possibilities. 

31.3.4. Teachers play an enormous role in the development and change of the self-concept. Research

shows that students consider teachers to be "significant others" in their lives. What they say or do is
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 363

important to the students. Teachers dispense rewards, punishment, acceptance, and rejection on a

colossal scale. 

31.3.5. Peers also play an important role. By admiring those who succeed in school or seeking their

assistance with problems, peers provide positive reinforcement for the academic self-concept. Similarly, when peers ridicule a classmate or point out deficiencies, they are contributing to the development of a negative academic self-concept. 

31.3.6. While students may enjoy a few hours in which they are not judged (relative to others) by

teachers, peers, family, and others, there are few school hours in which they are not judging themselves against the standards set by themselves, the teachers, peers, and their families. At no other time

in their career as workers, members of families, citizens, or persons engaging in leisure activities will

they be judged so frequently by others and possibly by themselves. These relative judgments arise

because almost all of a student's school learning occurs as a member of a group. Judgments are made

frequently because schools have stressed competition for so long as a primary motivational technique.

Relative rather than absolute norms are the basis for most judgments. 

31.3.7. Because of the sequential nature of learning tasks and their consistency from year to year, the

student tends to remain in much the same position relative to other students. This results in stability of

school marks and test performance. In general, the more public and official the judgments (or marks)

the greater the effect they are likely to have on the student's perception of adequacy in the subject.

Sooner or later such students are forced to accept some judgments about their capabilities with groups

or learning tasks. 

31.3.8. The student gradually acquires a consistent performance as tasks accumulate in large numbers. If performance has been adequate, the student approaches the next task with confidence. If performance has been inadequate, the student comes to believe in his or her inadequacy with respect to

this type of learning. 

31.3.9. The student approaches the next task with marked reluctance. If the experience was painful

enough, the task will be avoided or at least approached with little enthusiasm or marked dislike. Thus,

the student's personal feelings about a subject or set of learning tasks are highly influenced by their

perceptions of their adequacy or inadequacy with such tasks. Generally, adequacy or inadequacy for

most students is defined in terms of their standing in the upper or lower portions of the local distribution of marks. 

31.3.10. Success or adequacy in an academic subject opens it up for further consideration and use.

Failure in an academic subject may effectively close this subject for further consideration. As various

indices accumulate, students gradually begin to generalize about their adequacy or inadequacy with

school learning tasks. If they have positive experiences, they are likely to develop a generally positive

view about school and school learning. If their experiences are negative and the students, their teachers, and the parents regard learning as inadequate, then they are likely to develop a negative view

about school and school learning. Given a sufficient number of unsuccessful learning experiences,

nearly everyone would succumb to an acceptance of a negative or inadequate self-view about learning. 

31.3.11. Thus, we might conclude that the academic self-concepts of students in our classrooms were

formed primarily during the critical years in elementary and junior high schools. The frequency and

consistency with which they received positive or negative feedback from parents, teachers, and peers

largely shaped the academic self-concept they bring into our Air Force classrooms. 
364 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

31.3.12. Once the self-concept is formed, students will attempt to defend this concept of self through

the use of defense mechanisms. These mechanisms will influence behavior of students in our classrooms. 

31.4. Self-Concept Defense Mechanisms. Whether we are aware of it or not, all of us use certain

defense mechanisms to preserve or protect our self-concepts. In fact, our success in meeting daily stresses

and strains of living can be traced to our effectiveness in using certain defenses. However, if we use them

to avoid assuming responsibility, to avoid risk taking, or to develop excuses for immature or self-defeating behavior, then they can have a negative effect on our behavior. Their use is normal unless they begin

to interfere with the maintenance of self-esteem rather than aiding it. Defense mechanisms can best be

understood in view of the objective they serve, which is to safeguard the integrity and worth of the self.

Some of the most common in the academic environment follow: 

31.4.1. Compensation. Here we attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable quality by

emphasizing a more positive one, or reduce tension by accepting and developing a less preferred but

more attainable objective for a more preferred but less attainable objective. Students who regard

themselves as unattractive may develop exceptionally winning personalities to compensate. Students

may say they would rather spend their evenings working on lesson plans than anything else they can

think of when they would rather be with a person of the opposite sex who has resisted their dating

requests. 

31.4.2. Projection. With this mechanism we relegate the blame for our own shortcomings, mistakes,

and transgressions to others or attribute our own motives, desires, characteristics, and impulses to others. The athlete who fails to make the team may feel sure the coach was unfair, or the tennis player

who examines the racket after a missed shot is projecting blame. When students say, "Everybody will

cheat on an exam if given the chance," they are projecting. 

31.4.3. Rationalization. Rationalization aids in softening disappointment when we don't reach our

goals and helps us come up with excuses when we do something we believe we shouldn't but want to

anyhow. Heavy smokers rationalize when they say, "The relationship between cancer and smoking

isn't conclusive, and if we should get it in the future a cure will be discovered by then." Other students

rationalize when they say, "We had to cheat because others were and we might not have passed the

course otherwise," when in reality they didn't know the material. 

31.4.4. Denial of Reality. We can often ignore or refuse to acknowledge disagreeable realities. We

turn away from unpleasant sights, refuse to discuss unpleasant topics, deny criticism, and become so

involved with work that we don't have to deal with marital, child-rearing, or other personal problems. 

31.4.5. Reaction Formation. Individuals sometimes protect themselves from dangerous desires by

not only repressing them but actually developing conscious attitudes and behavior patterns that are

just the opposite. A student may develop a who-cares-how-other-people-feel attitude to cover up feelings of loneliness and a hunger for acceptance. 

31.4.5.1. Information on these and other defense mechanisms such as fantasy, repression, displacement, emotional insulation, regression, and introjection can be obtained from a good psychology text. The instructor should recognize that the mechanisms are used to preserve the self

and with learned behaviors they function at relatively automatic and habitual levels and involve

some measure of self-deception and reality distortion. Because they soften failure, alleviate anxi-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 365

ety and hurt, and protect our feelings of adequacy and worth, we can consider them normal adjustive reactions unless they seriously interfere with the effective resolution of stress situations. 

31.4.5.2. While defense mechanisms are learned behaviors, student feelings about themselves are

learned responses. Students need to unlearn bad feelings and acquire new feelings. While this is

not always easy, it is possible. Through purposeful effort, Air Force instructors can enhance the

self-concepts of students in their classrooms by helping them acquire new feelings about themselves. 

31.5. Enhancing the Self-Concept: 

31.5.1. Thus far in our discussion, we have reasoned that the past experiences of students can have a

vast influence on their current behavior. Their behavior is influenced not only by the accumulation of

their past and current experiences, but more importantly by the personal meanings they attach to their

perceptions of these experiences. Their behavior is more than simply a function of what happens to

them from the outside. It is also a function of how they feel about themselves on the inside. Although

they cannot change what happened to them yesterday, they can change how they feel about it today.

They cannot change the event, but can modify the perceptions they have about the event. In this manner, they can change their view of themselves or their self-concept. 

31.5.2. Before examining specific suggestions for improving the self-concept of students, we need to

deal with the question of which comes first—a change in academic self-concept leading to improved

academic performance or improved academic performance leading to an improved academic self-concept. It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that each is mutually reinforcing to the other to the

extent a positive change in one facilitates a positive change in the other. If students begin Air Force

schools with low levels of self-confidence or self-regard and experience sufficient successes, we

would reasonably expect their self-concepts would be elevated as far as school ability is concerned.

However, if students begin Air Force schools with high confidence in their abilities to do the academic

work and experience excessive failures, their self-concepts may be lowered. Under the latter conditions students must shift focus to other areas, usually nonacademic, to maintain self-esteem or continue to lose self-confidence and self-esteem. 

31.6. Suggestions for Improving Self-Concepts: 

31.6.1. Give Recognition. In transactional analysis, the term "positive strokes" is used. Behaviorists

talk in terms of positive reinforcement. Adlerian psychologists use the term "encouragement." The

concept is similar in each case. When students do something worthy of recognition, instructors need

to give positive feedback to the students. Such recognition makes the students feel alive, important,

and significant. An achievement, innovative or creative idea, or a good effort all deserve recognition

from the instructor. Such feedback is most important in improving any student's self-concept. Remember that you have the power to help students recognize their strengths and possibilities or to remind

them again and again of their weaknesses and shortcomings. 

31.6.2. Serve as a Good Model. As an instructor you will have a considerable influence on student

self-concepts, particularly as these attitudes are related to feelings about being able to think, answer

questions, and solve problems. You will quickly be established as a significant person in the eyes of

most of your students. Perhaps you will be significant because you are the only person in the school

environment who makes a particular student feel like an individual of worth and value. 
366 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

31.6.2.1. While all students deserve to have their total development facilitated by a truly competent human being—their instructor—you cannot teach what you do not know well yourself. As an

instructor, you should strive to grow and live fully if you are to help students learn to do likewise.

Research indicates that teachers who have low self-concepts tend to have students in their classrooms with lower self-concepts, while students in classrooms where teachers have positive

self-concepts tend to have students with high self-concepts. 

31.6.2.2. Just as leaders must model appropriate behavior for followers, so must instructors be

positive models for their students. Thus, effort directed toward improving your own self-concept

may lead to an improved self-concept for students in your classrooms. 

31.6.3. Stimulate Cooperation—Not Competition—Among Students. Modern society places a lot

of emphasis on competition. While competition can lead to improved performance as students strive

to do their best, competition against others can result in negative perceptions of the self if the students

happen to lose more than they win. With cooperation, everyone can experience the success of the

group and no one is viewed as the winner or loser. 

31.6.4. Consider Mastery Learning. Mastery learning was discussed in Chapter 28 as a concept

designed to meet individual needs of students. Using this approach, a student's performance is measured against objectives rather than against the performance of other students. As the instructor, you

determine mastery, which often means achieving 80 to 85 percent of the course objectives. Time is the

most crucial variable. Provide each student with sufficient time to achieve mastery. Theoretically,

when you provide the proper instruction along with proper diagnostic techniques and correctives

(tutoring, programmed instruction, reteaching), 90 percent of a given group of students will achieve

mastery. 

31.6.4.1. When used properly with appropriate subjects, mastery learning appears to be able to

eliminate most of the effects of individual differences on level of achievement. Each student is

provided with an excellent opportunity for success. Most students get an A or B indicating mastery. Mastery learning becomes both a subjective recognition by students of their own competence

and public recognition of this competence by the school or society. 

31.6.4.2. While approximately 25 percent of students achieve the desired performance standards

(A or B) in conventional group-based instructional programs, research indicates that nearly 75

percent of the students are reaching the same performance standards with mastery learning. The

impact on the student's self-concept is significant. Mastery learning seems to have the potential to

ensure each student a history of successful and rewarding school learning experiences and, in the

process, to shape positive affective development. 

NOTE: Despite this potential for enhancing a student's self- concept, mastery learning has limitations

that may preclude its use in your educational setting (see Chapter 28). 

31.6.5. Have High But Reasonable Expectations For Students. Considerable research suggests

that students perform up to the expectations teachers have for them. When instructors believe students

will perform well academically, they normally do; on the other hand, when expectations for student

performance are low, students usually perform poorly. Likewise, when students are expected to

behave in certain ways, they often do. Instructors unknowingly encourage and reinforce the very

behaviors they expect from their students. If instructors are prejudiced or have a tendency to stereotype students, they are setting up expectations that can have a negative effect on student performance.

What research is beginning to tell us is what common sense has always told us. Students grow, flour-
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 367

ish, and develop better in a relationship with someone who trusts them and believes in their capabilities. 

31.6.6. Recognize Potential in Students. During the past two decades, an increasing number of

behavioral scientists have concluded that humans function at 10 percent or less of their potential. For

instance, scientists tell us that the human mind can store as many as 600 memories a second for a lifetime of 75 years without the slightest strain. It is estimated that our brain has the capacity to learn as

many as 40 languages and would allow us to complete the required courses of dozens of colleges. If

these statements on the capacity of the brain are true, new means and methods must be designed to

actualize a person's vast possibilities and latent powers. However, most of today's physical and cultural environment works in opposition to the development of this potential. A negative self-concept

certainly stands in the way of releasing the potential of students. So the next time you have students

who tell you they can't, tell them they can, and even when you suspect that maybe they really can't, tell

them they can; then who knows, they just might. 

31.7. Summary. In this chapter we have seen that the self-concept of students is an important determiner

of academic achievement. The beliefs students have about themselves have significant effects upon how

they learn and behave. 

31.7.1. Students have overall self-concepts that might be thought of as composed of physical, social,

and scholastic self-concepts. The latter are composed of specific self-concepts that represent the areas

where the instructor can have the most impact because they are the easiest to change. 

31.7.2. In understanding students, we need to realize the impact parents, teachers, peers, and the

school environment have had in shaping their academic self-concepts. While these groups are judging

students, students are also judging themselves. Once the perceptions of self begin to form, there is a

good chance they will be reinforced over a period of time, especially if the students continue to interact with the same groups. 

31.7.3. Defense mechanisms are used by students to preserve or protect their self-concepts. The common mechanisms encountered in the classroom include compensation, projection, rationalization,

denial of reality, and reaction formation. 

31.7.4. The self-concept can be changed; instructors are in a strategic position for enhancing a student's self-concept. Giving recognition, modeling a positive self-concept, stimulating cooperation

(and not competition) in the group, using mastery learning, having high but reasonable expectations,

and working to release the potential that exists in each student are suggested means of enhancing the

self-concept. 

ROGER M. BLANCHARD

Assistant DCS/Personnel 
368 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Attachment 1 

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AFPD 36-22, Military Training

AFMAN 36-2234, Instructional Systems Development

AFH 36-2235, Volumes 1 through 11, Information for Designers of Instructional Systems

AFPD 36-23, Military Education

AFI 36-2706, Military Equal Opportunity and Treatment Program

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Abbreviations and Acronyms 

ACSC—Air Command and Staff College 

AIS—Academic Instructor School 

AR—anticipated response 

AU—Air University 

AWC—Air War College 

CRO—criterion-referenced objective 

CRT—criterion-referenced test 

d—deviation 

d2—deviation squared 

DI—differentiation index 

D-P—demonstration-performance 

EI—ease index 

f—frequency 

FUQ—follow-up question 

ISD—instructional systems development 

LOQ—lead-off question 

LOL—level of learning 

M—mean 

MEI—management effectiveness inspection 

MP—main point 

N—number of scores 

NCO—noncommissioned officer 

OJT—on-the-job training 

OTJAG—Office of The Judge Advocate General 

PD—prosecutorial discretion 

POW—prisoner of war 

Q&A—question and answer 

ROE—rules of engagement 

S—standard deviation 

SOB—sample of behavior 

SOS—Squadron Officers School 
382 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

SS—standard score 

TOOTLIFEST—the objective of this lesson is for each student to... 

TQM—total quality management 

UCMJ—Uniform Code of Military Justice 

USAFE—United States Air Forces in Europe 

Terms 

Affective Domain—Major area of learning which deals with acquired attitudes, values, etc. 

Affective Sample of Behavior—A statement containing (1) a measurable or observable action verb, (2)

reflecting the lesson objective's level of learning, (3) covering the entire subject matter of the objective

and (4) containing a personal adverb or adverbial phrase (one that describes the person versus one that

describes the action). (See also Cognitive Sample of Behavior Elements and Sample of Behavior.) 

Analysis—Level of cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) in which students are able to break down complex

organizational structures into their component parts. 

Anticipated Responses—Answers the instructors expect students to give in reply to planned questions. 

Application—Level of cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) in which students are able to use learned

material in new and concrete situations. 

Attention Step—Segment of a lesson introduction in which an instructor gains the attention of the

students and focuses upon the subject to be taught. 

Behavioral Indicators—(See Sample of Behavior.) 

Body—Major section of a lesson in which learning is developed through support material and various

teaching exercises to achieve instructional objectives; preceded by an introduction and followed by a

conclusion. 

Case Study—A teaching method in which students encounter a real-life or fictional situation under the

guidance of an instructor in order to achieve an instructional objective. 

Characteristics (of a concept)—(See Critical Attributes.) 

Characterization—Highest level of affective domain (Krathwohl, 1964) in which students integrate

values or value systems into their own life style or philosophy of life. 

Clarification Support—Type of instructional material used in the body of a lesson to develop learning

and clarify ideas; may include definitions, examples, comparisons, statistics, or testimony from experts

and trustworthy sources. 

Closure—The final segment of a lesson conclusion during which instruction is appropriately ended. 

Cognitive Domain—A major area of learning which deals with acquiring knowledge (as opposed to

attitudinal or manual skill knowledge). 

Cognitive Sample of Behavior—A statement containing (1) a measurable, observable, reliable, and

verifiable action verb, (2) reflecting the lesson objective's level of learning and (3) covering significant

aspects of the subject matter. (See Affective Sample of Behavior and Sample of Behavior.) 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 383

Comprehension—Level of the cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) in which students begin to develop

understanding and are able to translate, interpret, and extrapolate subject matter under study. 

Comprehension-Level Summary—Segment of a lesson at the comprehension level in which the

instructor reviews and expands on key material and develops relationships which lead to a generalization

which is, or supports, the instructional objective. 

Comprehensiveness—A characteristic of evaluation which requires the stated objectives of instruction

be tested or rated. The quality of a lesson overview or summaries that describes a complete preview or

review of all teaching points within the lesson. 

Concept—A class of people, objects, events, ideas, symbols, or actions grouped together on the basis of

shared critical attributes or characteristics and are called the same name. 

Conclusion—A major section of a lesson that follows an introduction and body. It should contain a

summary, remotivation, and closure. 

Condition Statement—The part of a criterion-referenced objective that describes the testing

environment including those problems, materials, and supplies to be given (included) or specifically

excluded from a measurement situation. 

Consistency—Describes the results of a reliable evaluation instrument which remain similar given

similar testing conditions (similar students, knowledge base, physical testing situation, etc.) over a period

of several uses. (See Reliability.) 

Counseling—A process characterized as a helping relationship between teacher and student directed

toward improvement, change, or reinforcement of student behavior. 

Creativity—The imaginative recombination of known elements into something new and useful. 

Criterion Objective—A precise description of a student-centered learning outcome for a planned

program of instruction that describes the performance and describes the conditions and standards for

assessment through criterion-referenced testing. 

Criterion-Referenced Test—Any test of carefully written measurable objectives to obtain data to

compare student performance levels with that specified in the criterion-referenced objectives or SOBs of

level-of-learning objectives. 

Critical Attributes—Necessary characteristics for determining class membership in a concept. 

Demonstration-Performance Method—A teaching method in which students observe and then practice

a sequence of events designed to teach a procedure, technique, or operation. It combines oral explanation

with the operation or handling of systems, equipment, or materials. 

Demonstration Phase—A phase of the demonstration-performance teaching method during which the

instructor shows students how to perform the skill to be learned. 

Differentiation—A characteristic of evaluation that requires tests and rating instruments be capable of

making distinctions between selected groups; usually masters or nonmasters of specific instructional

objectives in criterion-referenced testing or high and low overall test performers in norm-referenced

testing. 

Direct Question—An instructor-initiated question addressed to a particular student to elicit involvement,

seek an opinion, or draw out support. 
384 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Domain of Learning—A broad classification of learning types. The three widely accepted domains used

in this manual are the cognitive (thinking, understanding), affective (attitudes, values), and psychomotor

(physical/mental skills). 

Educational Objective—(See Student-Centered Instructional Objective.) 

Evaluation—The systematic process of measuring or observing and judging how well individuals,

procedures, or programs have met educational objectives. 

Evaluation Phase—A phase of the demonstration-performance teaching method during which the

instructor conducts criterion-referenced testing to determine the extent to which students have mastered

the instructional objectives. 

Examples (in concept teaching)—People, objects, events, ideas, symbols, or actions which have all the

critical attributes of a particular concept and can be correctly called by that concept name. 

Explanation Phase—A phase of the demonstration-performance teaching method during which the

instructor tells the students how to perform the skill to be learned. 

Extrapolation—A type of learning at the comprehension level (Bloom, 1956) in which students develop

sufficient understanding to estimate trends or predict outcomes regarding the subject matter under study.

The trend estimate or prediction is based solely on the data given. 

Feedback for Learning—Information students receive from their instructor about their performance

which will cause them to accept guidance and take corrective action to attain the goals of the course. 

Followup Question—An instructor-initiated question designed to guide student responses to a previous

question by rephrasing the original question to get the same response or by posing a new question that

elicits a partial or more specific answer to the original question. 

Formal Lecture—A structured and often rehearsed teaching lecture with no verbal participation by

students. 

Formative Evaluation—An evaluation of student progress toward instructional objectives during the

learning experience that is not used to determine criterion- or norm-referenced assessments of student

achievement. 

General-to-Specific Presentation—The process or pattern of outlining lesson main and subpoints so as

to start with the subject of an objective to be taught and then applying this subject in specific instances

that support original objective. 

Generalization—The result of identifying an example of a concept by matching its critical attributes with

those of the original concept. 

Guided Discussion Method—A teaching method in which students participate in an

instructor-controlled, interactive process of sharing knowledge and interpreting experiences in order to

achieve an instructional objective. 

Hierarchy—The characteristic of a domain of learning that rank orders the levels of learning of which it

is composed. (See Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and Domain of Learning.) 

Higher Levels of Learning—Those levels of learning above the comprehension level (Bloom, 1956)

that may be considered as the practical application of concepts and principles to complex, real problems. 

Informal Lecture—An often conversational teaching lecture with considerable verbal interaction
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 385

between instructor and students in which the instructor asks questions of and answers questions from the

audience. 

Instructional Media—All forms of instructional aids that give audible or visual support in a learning

environment. 

Instructional Objective—(See Student-Centered Instructional Objective.) 

Instructional Systems Development—A deliberate, orderly, flexible process for planning, developing,

conducting, and managing high-quality, student-centered instructional programs. 

Interpretation—A type of learning at the comprehension level (Bloom, 1956) in which students develop

and understand relationships among the various aspects of a communication and are able to perform such

activities as making inferences, generalizing, and summarizing. 

Introduction—Major section of a lesson designed to establish a common ground between the instructor

and students, to capture and hold attention, to outline the lesson and relate it to the overall course, to point

out benefits to the students, and to lead the students into the body of the lesson; usually contains attention,

motivation, and overview steps. 

Knowledge—The lowest level of the cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) in which students have the ability

to recall or recognize material in essentially the same form as it was taught. 

Knowledge-Level Summary—A reiteration of key points of content in a knowledge-level lesson

designed to help students remember facts. 

Leadoff Question—An instructor-initiated question at the beginning of a lesson or main point designed

to generate discussion. 

Learning—A change in student behavior resulting from experience or insight. The behavior can be overt

or covert and physical, intellectual, or attitudinal. 

Learning Center—A learning environment specifically developed to foster individualized instruction

and which emphasizes employment of instructional media to augment textbooks, manuals, and teacher

presentations. 

Lecture—(See Teaching Lecture, Formal Lecture, and Informal Lecture.) 

Lesson Plan—A teaching-learning plan which includes student-centered instructional objectives,

detailed content outline, and significant details describing the instructional elements such as media,

teaching method, and length of period. 

Level of Learning—The degree to which a student is expected to internalize (master) a mental subject,

values, or ability to perform psychomotor skills. 

Level-of-Learning Objective—A student-centered instructional objective that states the intended

subject matter for a planned program of learning activities and assigns a carefully defined taxonomy level

or proficiency level to that subject matter to indicate the desired level of mastery. 

Main Points—The primary, logical break out of subject matter to support an instructional objective. 

Mastery Learning—An approach to learning in which students progress from learning experience to

learning experience based on achievement of instructional objectives prescribed in the curriculum design

rather than other factors such as age, effort, or time of year. 

Measurement—The act of acquiring data in the educational environment without making value
386 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

judgments regarding the relative or absolute merits of those data. 

Method of Instruction—A planned program of instruction with characteristics sufficiently different

from other alternatives to be identified as a major vehicle for teaching subject matter. 

Motivation Step—The segment of a lesson introduction in which an instructor provides specific reasons

why students need to learn whatever they are about to learn. 

Nonexamples (in concept teaching)—People, objects, events, ideas, symbols, or actions that lack one or

more critical attributes of a particular concept and which should not be called by that concept name. A

close-in nonexample is a nonexample that is missing only one critical attribute. For instance, a close-in

nonexample of a chair is a stool. 

Norm-Referenced Test—Any test designed to obtain data for rank ordering or comparing relative

student performance. 

Objective—(See Student-Centered Instructional Objective.) 

Objectivity—A characteristic of evaluation that requires measurement in an educational environment be

correct, factual, and free from instructor bias. 

Organization—Level of the affective domain (Krathwohl, 1964) in which students compare, relate, and

synthesize new values into their own value systems. 

Overhead Question—An instructor-initiated question to which the instructor expects an answer, directed

to an entire group rather than to a specific student. 

Overview—Segment of a lesson introduction in which the instructor provides a clear and concise

explanation of the lesson objective, subject matter, and teaching method to be employed. 

Patterns (lesson plan organization)—The logical ways of organizing main or subpoints of a lesson;

includes time space, problem-solution, pro-con, cause-effect, or topical. 

Performance—Part of a criterion objective describing the observable student behavior (or the product of

that behavior) acceptable to the instructor as proof that learning has occurred. 

Performance-Supervision Phase—A phase of the demonstration-performance teaching method during

which students, under the supervision of the instructor, practice the skill they are learning. 

Post-test—A test given to a student upon completion of a learning experience to measure achievement. 

Pretest—A test given to students prior to entry into a learning environment to determine entry skills or

knowledge; can be used to identify portions of the instruction the student can bypass. 

Principle—A casual relationship between two or more concepts; a rule, axiom, theorem, or algorithm. 

Proof Support—A type of instructional material used during the body of a lesson that provides hard data

or expert testimony in support of an assertion. 

Psychomotor Domain—A major area of learning that deals with acquiring the ability to perform discrete

physical skills requiring dexterity, coordination, and muscular activity. 

Rating Scales—Any of a number of instruments upon which instructors record their assessments of

student performance through a process of observation or measurement and judgment. 

Receiving—Lowest level of affective domain (Krathwohl, 1964) in which students become aware of and

pay attention to someone or something. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 387

Relay Question—The teacher's response to a student-initiated question whereby the instructor redirects it

to another student to answer. 

Reliability—A characteristic of evaluation that requires testing instruments yield consistent results. (See

Consistency.) 

Remotivation Step—Segment of a lesson conclusion during which the instructor explains to them how

they can use the information presented and challenges the students to use what they have learned. 

Responding—A level of affective domain (Krathwohl, 1964) in principle in which students act or

comply with the instructor's expectations by performing an act and obtain satisfaction from it. 

Reverse Question—A teacher's response to a student-initiated question whereby the instructor redirects

the question to the student who asked it. 

Rhetorical Question—An instructor-initiated overhead question directed to a group but expecting no

answer. 

Sample of Behavior—A statement of student behavior that, if performed correctly, indicates to the

teacher that the students can perform a significant aspect of the lesson objective. A description of

behaviors from which the teacher can draw to write test questions. (See Affective Sample of Behavior

and Cognitive Sample of Behavior.) 

Self-Concept—A relatively stable framework of beliefs about ourselves that helps us act in a consistent

manner. 

Specific-to-General Presentations—The process or pattern of outlining lesson main and subpoints so as

to start by examining elements of the original subject then drawing a conclusion about the original subject

of the objective. 

Spontaneous Question—An unplanned, instructor-initiated question used to seek clarification, probe for

understanding, or to control the direction of the discussion; may be either a direct or overhead question. 

Standards Statement—Part of a criterion objective that describes the qualitative and quantitative criteria

against which student performance or the product of that performance will be measured to determine

successful learning. 

Strategies (lesson plan organization)—Provides the designer's intent during implementation. 

Student-Centered Instructional Objective—A statement of the student's learning goal, identifying the

level of learning and subject of the lesson; the description of the components of a domain of learning. (See

Domain of Learning.) This manual focuses on three that describe the cognitive, affective, and

psychomotor domains respectively that are hierarchical in nature. (See Hierarchy.) 

Summary—Segment of a lesson conclusion during which the instructor reiterates key points of lesson

content (knowledge level) or reviews and expands on key material and develops relationships that lead to

generalizations (comprehension level). 

Summative Evaluation—An evaluation of student achievement of instructional objectives at the end of

the learning experience used to measure and report the student's class standing or success in achieving the

objectives with the emphasis being on assigning a grade. 

Support—A type of instructional material used during the body of a lesson to clarify, characterize, or

prove an assertion, claim, or idea. (See Clarification Support and Proof Support.) 
388 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Synthesis—Level of cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) in which students are able to put parts together to

form new patterns or structures. 

Task Steps—The sequential, component steps in a larger task; represented by achievement of a criterion

objective. 

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives—A systematic classification scheme for sorting learning

outcomes into three broad categories (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) and rank ordering these

outcomes in a developmental hierarchy from least complex to most complex. 

Teaching Interview—A learning experience in which an instructor questions a visiting expert and

follows a highly structured plan which leads to achieving educational objectives. 

Teaching Lecture—A formal or informal presentation of information, concepts, or principles by the

teachers. 

Transition—Statements used by the instructor to move from the introduction of a lesson to the body,

between main points, between subpoints within each main point, and from the body to the conclusion of

the lesson. These statements show a logical relationship between the lesson segments they connect. 

Translation—A type of learning (Bloom, 1956) at the comprehension level in which students

demonstrate sufficient learning to grasp the meaning of a concept, principle, or other communication. 

Validity—A characteristic of evaluation that requires testing instruments measure exactly what they were

intended to measure. 

Valuing—Level of affective domain (Krathwohl, 1964) in which students accept, prefer, or commit

themselves to an object or behavior because of its perceived worth or value; to appreciate. 

Variable Attributes—Characteristics shared by some, but not all, members of a class of people, objects,

events, ideas, or actions which are grouped together on the basis of shared critical attributes and called by

the same concept name. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 389

Attachment 2 

EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR FORMAL LECTURE METHOD 

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART I

COVER SHEET

LESSON TITLE: Early Developments in Military Aviation 

RESOURCE PERSON:

TEACHING METHOD: Formal Lecture 

REFERENCES: Instructor Handbook for The Air Force Today, AFROTC/AU/1974; US Air Power: 

Ascension to Prominence, AFROTC/AU/1974; Of Those Who Fly, AFROTC/AU/1972; Through the Eyes 

of Aviators, AFROTC/AU/1973. 

AIDS/HANDOUTS/NOTETAKERS: Overview chart, overhead projector 

STUDENT PREPARATION/READING ASSIGNMENT:

PRESENTATION TIME: 30-37 Minutes 

PART IA

COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to know the significant 

developments in military aviation (1) prior to World War I, (2) during World War I, and (3) between 

World War I and World War II. 

COGNITIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR:

1. a. Describe the origins of military aviation. 

b. Identify uses of military aircraft prior to World War I. 

c. List accomplishments of selected military aviators prior to World War I. 

2. a. Select from a list military air functions in World War I. 

b. State the extent of US military air contributions in World War I. 

c. Identify significant accomplishments of aviators during World War I. 

3. a. Name General Mitchell as Commander Aeronautical Branch after World War I. 

b. Outline the major accomplishments of General Mitchell prior to his court-martial. 

c. State the primary mission of the Army Air Corps Tactical School between World War I and II. 
390 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to willingly receive the lecture on the significant developments in military aviation prior to, during, and just after World War I. 

AFFECTIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR:

1. Voluntarily takes notes during the lesson on significant developments in military aviation. 

2. Asks questions of the lecturer on the significant developments in military aviation. 

3. Encourages others to listen attentively during the lecture on significant developments in military aviation. 

PART IB

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Chronological 

STRATEGY: These students are just beginning to study military history, so I will present these developments chronologically rather than topically because the chronological pattern will give them a better sense 

of the relative speed of these developments and how they built on each other. I've divided the lecture into 

three periods that reflect very significant escalations and deescalations of exigencies brought on by external forces. This will show how need breeds more rapid developments than the natural progress of discovery through ongoing experimentation. I will proceed from the earlier period to the later period after the 

war. I have chosen the formal lecture because of the anticipated size of the audience and the amount of 

new material I recently incorporated into the presentation not yet recounted in a single, easily accessible 

reading for the students. 

LESSON OUTLINE:

MP1. Significant developments in military aviation prior to World War I: 

a. First flight of heavier-than-air craft 

b. Military Aeronautical Division in Signal Corps 

c. First US military aircraft 

d. First US aviation combat operations 

e. US entry into World War I 

MP2. Significant developments in military aviation during World War I: 

a. European development 

b. S entry into the war 

c. S accomplishments and personalities 

d. t. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne 

e. ublic recognition of air battles 

MP3. Significant developments in military aviation between World War I and World War II: 

a. General Billy Mitchell 

b. Air Corps Tactical School 

c. Moves toward a separate air service 

d. Advances in equipment and technology 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 391

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART II

TEACHING PLAN

Introduction

ATTENTION: (Rhetorical Questions) Who was the first Airman to be awarded the Medal of Honor? Did 

you know that Captain Barry Goldwater flew in the first flight of single engine fighters to cross the Atlantic? Did you know that Lieutenant Frank Luke had 18 kills in 18 days during World War I? 

MOTIVATION: As ROTC cadets, each of you is considering a commitment to the Air Force. Knowing 

the history of our service (particularly of US military aviation) can help you strengthen that commitment 

and develop an appreciation for the professional heritage we share. 

OVERVIEW: (Chart paper) We will review selected events and personalities of early military aviation 

during three broad periods: 

1. Prior to World War I (1907-1917) 

2. During World War I (1917-1918) 

3. Between the World Wars (1919-1939) 

TRANSITION: Today in military aviation we have sophisticated aircraft with complex weapons systems. The situation was quite different in the earliest periods of military aviation. 

Body

MP1. Significant developments in military aviation prior to World War I. 

a. First flight of heavier-than-air craft 

(1) Wright brothers - 1903 

(2) Discontinued activities due to patent problems - 1905-08 

b. Military Aeronautical Division in Signal Corps 

(1) Prompted by inquiry from President Roosevelt 

(2) Included one officer, two enlisted personnel 

(3) Operations confidential 

c. First US military aircraft 

(1) Specifications developed - 1907: 40 mph, 1 hour flying time, 2 passengers, able to land 

without damage, "dismountable" 

(2) Three contracts awarded initially—two forfeited 

(3) Acceptance flight flown - 1909 

(a) Pilot—Orville Wright 
392 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

(b) Army observer—Lt Frank P. Lahm 

(4) No operational mission defined—planes used 

(a) For reconnaissance 

(b) As directed by commander 

d. First US aviation combat operations 

(1) General Pershing in Mexico - 1916 

(2) Reconnaissance and communications dispatch 

(3) Eight aircraft taken—six destroyed and two returned as unsafe 

(4) Need for more and better equipment 

e. US entry into World War I - 1917 

(1) 35 flying officers - 1,000 enlisted men 

TRANSITION: Military aviation prior to World War I was characterized by indecision and confusion. 

No clear mission beyond reconnaissance was established. World War I brought with it the need for military aviation in various roles and both the mission and the force expanded greatly. 

MP2. Significant developments in military aviation during World War I. 

a. European development 

(1) More rapid than US 

(2) Extensive early reconnaissance and artillery direction 

(3) Efforts to disrupt reconnaissance led to aerial combat and pursuit 

(4) Development of air superiority strategies and tactics 

b. US entry into the war—late in 1917 

(1) No aviation involvement until spring 1918 

(2) European equipment and tactics used 

(3) Primary roles were reconnaissance and pursuit 

c. US accomplishments and personalities 

(1) Lt Field Kindley 

(a) 148 Aero Squadron 

(b) First American credited with aircraft kill - 13 July 1918 

(2) Lt Frank Luke 

(a) Flew combat mid August to 29 September 1919 

(b) Characterized by Bill Luke as headstrong, undisciplined 

(c) Once landed beside burning balloon he had shot down to get confirming signature 

from ground witnesses 

(d) 18 September 1918 - five kills in 10 minutes (two balloons, 3 aircraft) 

(e) 29 September 1918 - three kills in last mission (18 in 18 days) 

(f) Killed in action—first American to win Medal of Honor 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 393

(3) Capt Eddie Rickenbacker—leading American ace of World War I 

d. St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne 

(1) Control point for almost 1,500 aircraft—one-third American 

(2) Commanded by Gen Billy Mitchell 

(3) New concept of air supremacy under central control 

e. Public recognition of air battles 

(1) Exciting and colorful 

(2) Contrast to ground actions 

TRANSITION: World War I gave US military aviation its first combat test and a clear mission. 

Acknowledgment of its full value, however, would have to be achieved during the years between the 

World Wars. 

MP3. Significant developments in military aviation between World War I and World War II. 

a. Gen Billy Mitchell 

(1) Director of Military Aeronautics - 1919 

(2) Early believer in offensive air doctrine and equal status with Army and Navy 

(3) Air Service - 1920—combatant branch of Army 

(4) Demonstration of bombing effectiveness - 1921 

(a) German battleship sunk 

(b) Navy interest in aviation followed 

(c) Proved defensive and offensive use of bombing 

(5) Courts-Martial - 1925 

(a) Charges preferred by President Coolidge 

(b) Used as a forum by political and military enemies 

(c) Given 5-year suspension—chose to resign 

b. Air Corps Tactical School 

(1) 1920 - Langley; 1931 - Maxwell 

(2) Little experience on which to base teaching concerned with developing air doctrine 

(a) Strategic bombing doctrine developed—led to B-17 

(b) Pursuit doctrine neglected—fighter equipment and tactics not developed until 1943 

(3) Responsible for almost all military aviation strategy and tactics between World Wars—

training ground for World War II leadership 

c. Moves toward a separate air service 

(1) Gen Billy Mitchell was early leader 

(2) No major changes made by Army and Navy in defining separate role for military aviation 

(3) No clear decision by Army and Navy for responsibility of coastal defense 

d. Advances in equipment and technology 
394 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

(1) Lindbergh's cross-Atlantic flight (1927) gave impetus to military aviation—no limit to flying capabilities 

(2) Early refueling efforts 

(3) Instrument flight capability 

(4) First all-metal aircraft—Martin B-10 bomber 

(5) B-17 in 1937, higher and faster than pursuit aircraft, carried up to 5,000-lb bomb load 

TRANSITION: Military aviation showed tremendous advancement from 1903 to the beginning of World 

War II. We have discussed only a few highlights of that advancement, but there are some events and individuals especially important to remember. 

Conclusion

SUMMARY:

1. Significant developments in military aviation prior to World War I 

a. Wright Brothers - 1903 

b. Problems in Mexico - 1906 

c. Military Air in the Signal Corps - 1907 

2. Significant developments in military aviation during World War I 

a. Europeans ahead of US in equipment and tactics 

b. Primary mission was reconnaissance and patrol/pursuit 

c. Secondary mission was bombing, interdiction, and communications 

d. Public recognition was large and positive 

3. Significant developments in military aviation between World War I and World War II 

a. Gen Mitchell was early true believer—frustrations and court martial 

b. Army Air Corps Tactical School 

(1) Developed strategic bombing doctrine 

(2) Training ground for World War II leadership 

(3) Responsible for development of B-17 

c. No successful moves toward separate air service 

d. Progress in technology crowned by B-17 

REMOTIVATION: Today we have looked at some highlights of military aviation in its early days. Many 

more fascinating events and individuals are included in this time frame. I encourage you to read and learn 

as much as you can about them. Knowledge of and appreciation for our professional heritage can help to 

make each of us more informed, dedicated, and effective as Air Force professionals. 

CLOSURE: Study of history can prevent us from having to "reinvent the wheel" with each generation, 

each job, or each change in personnel. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 395

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART III

TEST ITEMS

ITEM 1

LESSON OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to know significant developments in military aviation during World War I. 

SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR: Select from a list military air functions in World War I. 

QUESTION: The two primary military air functions in World War I were patrol/pursuit and 

a. Courier. 

b. Interdiction. 

c. Reconnaissance. 

RATIONALE: Reconnaissance (c) is correct—consistent with lecture content. The other choices (a and 

b) are incorrect because those functions were not attributable to the years associated with World War I. 

ITEM 2

LESSON OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to know significant developments in military aviation during World War I. 

SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR: Identify significant accomplishments of selected aviators during World War 

I. 

QUESTION: Column A lists accomplishments in aviation. Column B lists World War I aviators. In the 

space to the left of each accomplishment, place the letter which matches the aviator responsible for that 

accomplishment. Each item in Column B may be used once or more than once. 

KEY:

1. a 

2. b 

3. b 

4. c 

Column A—Accomplishments Column B—Aviators 

1. First American credited with aircraft kill a. Lt Field Kindley 

2. First American to win Medal of Honor b. Lt Frank Luke 

3. Five kills in 10 minutes c. Capt Eddie Rickenbacker 

4. Leading American ace of World War I 
396 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Attachment 3 

EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR INFORMAL LECTURE METHOD 

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART I

COVER SHEET

LESSON TITLE: Time Management 

RESOURCE PERSON:

TEACHING METHOD: Informal Lecture 

REFERENCES:

1. How to Find the Time You Need Through Better Time Management, Robert C. Dorney 

2. How to Manage Your Time More Effectively With a Day-Timer, Charles R. Hobbs 

3. How to Get Control of Your Time, Alan Laiken 

AIDS/HANDOUTS/NOTETAKERS: N/A 

STUDENT PREPARATION/READING ASSIGNMENT:

PRESENTATION TIME: 30-37 Minutes 

PART IA

COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to comprehend the concept 

of time management. 

COGNITIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR:

1. Define time management in one's own words. 

2. Identify missing critical attributes in new nonexamples of time management. 

3. Identify new examples/nonexamples of time management. 

4. Explain why a given attribute is critical to the concept of time management. 

AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to respond with interest to 

the concept of time management. 

AFFECTIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR:

1. Openly participates in class discussion on the concept of time management. 

2. Assists others in understanding time management. 

3. Volunteers information from personal background to support the comprehension of time management. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 397

4. Displays positive, nonverbal communications during lesson on time management. 

PART IB

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Topical 

STRATEGY: Present this 30- to 37-minute lesson using the informal lecture method and the general-to-specific format to help the students logically follow the flow of the lesson. A deductive approach 

will be helpful in leading the students to comprehend the lesson objective. Define and explain the concept 

of time management by applying its critical attributes and tying them together to present the total concept. 

The lesson begins with a role play scenario of a person just tasked to do more projects because he or she 

is efficient. After the scenario, ask the rhetorical question, “Have you ever said to yourself, ‘If only I had 

more time.... !’ or ‘There just aren’t enough hours in the day!’”? Inform the students of the need to listen 

to the lesson. Maybe a statement like “if you have felt this way, it’s important to understand how to manage your time so you don’t become frustrated at work.” Then, present an overview so the students will 

know the key ideas and the direction this lesson is going. Start the body by defining time management 

from a working definition based on personal experience dealing with time management issues. This will 

establish a foundation for the lesson and help the students focus on the concept of time management. Then 

break down the critical attributes of time management by defining and supporting each attribute. Begin by 

first defining and explaining analysis. Then explain and define what’s meant by adjustment, performance, 

and goals and how they work together to ensure proper time management. Write each attribute on the 

white board and explain using examples to increase student understanding. Ask questions during MP2, 

the critical attributes to ensure student comprehension of the material. In MP3, provide scenarios and ask 

the students to evaluate them based on the critical attributes as either an example or nonexample of time 

management. If the students are able to distinguish between examples and nonexamples, you will feel 

confident they comprehend the concept of time management. Summarize the lesson by giving them the 

definition and critical attributes once more and reviewing the scenarios to ensure student understanding of 

the concept of time management. The lesson will then close with the proper remotivation, so the students 

will feel a need to retain and use the information. Finally, use an appropriate closure to end the lesson. 

LESSON OUTLINE:

MP1. Definition of time management. 

MP2. Critical attributes: 

a. Analysis 

b. Adjustment 

c. Performance 

d. Goals 

MP3. Examples and nonexamples (scenarios): 

a. Bob, example 

b. Bill, nonexample 

c. Doyle, example 
398 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART II

TEACHING PLAN

Introduction

ATTENTION: Role play scenario of a person just tasked to do more projects because he or she is so efficient (videotape sequence ahead of time). After scenario, ask rhetorical question, "Have you ever said to 

yourself, 'If only I had more time...!' or 'There just aren't enough hours in the day!'"? 

MOTIVATION: Recall that Robert C. Dorney, the vice president of a time management company said 

that time is a fixed commodity that can't be manufactured or stored. Also recount that Peter Drucker, 

author and one of our country's foremost experts on the business scene has said, "Time is our scarcest 

resource and unless it is managed, nothing else can be managed." Explain the importance of our roles in 

protecting national resources and even life (at times). Stress the importance of continually doing the best 

in the time we have available. Personalize this importance to the individuals in the class according to their 

career fields showing how time management can help them finish PME on time or early and how they can 

stand out as the experts simply by competently doing what needs to be done when it needs to be done. 

OVERVIEW: Before we can manage time properly, we must first understand exactly what time management is; that's exactly what we are going to do today. We are going to first define time management. From 

that definition we will see that four critical attributes must be present for time management to exist. Then, 

to ensure we fully understand this concept of time management, I will present some situations to you 

where you will need to determine if those situations are examples of time management or not. This is an 

informal lecture, so feel free to ask questions. I will ask you some as well. 

TRANSITION: We have already touched on the importance of time management. Let's see why it's 

important by showing what it is. 

Body

MP1. Definition:

Having researched extensively on the topic of time management, I found several excellent works. Two in 

particular seem to relate to our military environment more easily than others: 

Alan Laiken in his book, How to Get Control of Your Time, and Robert Dorney's, How to Find the Time 

You Need Through Better Time Management. 

Even with these excellent books, I discovered that neither one had the perfect definition for our purpose. 

What I did find was that by combining the thoughts and words of these two individuals we could create a 

working definition that clearly applies to our environment. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 399

Time management is: 

"Continually analyzing time and tasks and adjusting task requirements to most efficiently and 

effectively accomplish goals that have been established and prioritized." 

TRANSITION: Having created our own working definition that accurately tells us what time management is, we need to break that definition down to see just why this represents time management. 

MP2. Critical Attributes: (Reference definition) Looking at our definition "Continually analyzing time 

and tasks" we will refer to as analysis (mag card). 

"Adjusting task requirements" which means we must react to our analysis, we'll refer to as adjustment

(mag card). 

"Most efficiently and effectively accomplish our goals" (the purpose of adjusting) or performance (mag 

card). 

These goals don't just fall out of the sky; therefore, we must work with "goals that have been established 

and prioritized" goals (mag card). 

If all four of these critical attributes are present in a given situation, we have time management. But it 

takes more time than this to really comprehend this idea, so let's analyze each of these attributes further: 

A. Goals

I don't mean to confuse you, but we need to start here at the bottom with goals. Why do you think we 

should address the idea of establishing goals before any of these other items? 

AR: Must have direction/objective. 

Provides focus. 

Don't know what task must be done without them. 

Communication—if the team doesn't know what the goal is, they may be working against 

each other. 

A goal is the result or achievement toward which effort is directed. Establishing a goal, then, is making a 

conscious decision or having knowledge of the desired outcome. What are some of your current personal 

and professional goals? 

AR: Particular work project/tasking. 

School. 

Study for promotion. 

So you all have established goals—whether they are personal or have been established for you be someone else. But, as we all know, there are only so many hours in a day, week, month, etc. So we have to 

make choices. We have to prioritize or have priorities made for us. There must be an establishment of precedence, what is needed first, second, third, etc. 

Although it appears at the end of our definition, if we are going to have effective time management it must 

start with establishing and prioritizing our goals. 
400 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

B. Analysis

Once we have this solid list of prioritized goals, we must continually analyze both the time and tasks 

involved with reaching those goals. 

How do you analyze a task? 

AR: Break it down to see. 

What is required by the end user? 

What resources are needed? 

Who is qualified to perform the task? 

So you must know what the expected outcome is and how you will be able to accomplish that task. On 

rare occasions the task has an unlimited time requirement, but usually time is a critical factor. Therefore, 

time management inherently requires you to also analyze your time. How much time will it take to 

accomplish task X, Y, Z? How much time do I have to work with? What other constraints from tasks or 

duties do I have to deal with? 

It's one thing to analyze your tasks and another to analyze your time, but putting those two critical factors 

together is where it starts getting tricky. 

What are some situations you've been in where you had to analyze both your tasks and time? 

AR: Job and school. 

Job and family/house. 

Two, three, and four tasks on the job that all needed to be done now. 

C. Adjustment

Let's assume we have established and prioritized our goals and analyzed the time and task elements. That 

sounds good; however, you can have the best analysis in town, but unless you react and adjust to those 

elements you have not managed your time. The reason you need to continually analyze your time and 

tasks is that they are usually very fluid and dynamic—they are always changing. Priority #3 just became 

priority #1, task #1 needs a part that will not arrive for 2 more days, priority #4 was just modified and only 

requires a quick 30-minute fix, General X just walked in to check on his "baby" which until that minute 

was your priority #51, etc.... 

You cannot change the number of hours in a day, but effective time management requires you to adjust 

tasks based on your continual analysis of both the time and the tasks. Adjustment—it's a proactive 

response, not a reactive reaction. 

Why do all of this? If priority #3 just became priority #1, so what, I only had a day's worth of work left on 

it to finish—why not just finish it? If task #1 needs a part that will not arrive for 2 more days—why not 

just sit down and wait for it to show up? 

D. Performance

Although we often get frustrated by changing priorities, the fact is that things change, situations (needed 

parts) change. To meet our goals, we and our customers need quality products and service in a timely 

manner—quality, quantity, efficiency, and effectiveness. We must perform our duties and get our job done 

by completing the form or report by getting the aircraft launched ensuring safe parameters. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 401

I would wager that all of us at one time or another has had a true "want and need" for more time. Time 

management, something most of us do quite well but probably wish we could do even better. To do it better is to first truly understand "what" time management is. 

INTERIM SUMMARY: If we fail at time management, one of the most likely reasons stems from the 

first critical attribute we spoke of, goals. Our goals must be established and prioritized, both the 

long-range goals and the short-term goals. 

We must continually analyze both the time and tasks involved in reaching those goals. 

It does no good to analyze unless you actually react and adjust the task requirements based on your analysis. Keep in mind, however, that no action or adjustment is sometimes the correct action or adjustment. 

The purpose of course brings it full circle, in that the accomplishment of our goals can be performed in 

the most efficient and effective manner. 

TRANSITION: Having managed our time here effectively, we have just enough time to see whether you 

can now distinguish time management from time mismanagement. 

MP3: Examples/Nonexamples 

Hand out scenarios and have students discuss why each one is or is not an example of time management 

(see attached). 
402 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Answers to scenarios:

Scenario #1, Bob: This is an example. Although he got off to a slow start, Maj Bob did establish and 

prioritize goals. He now seems to be continually analyzing both the time and tasks involved and making appropriate adjustments to more efficiently and effectively accomplish those goals. 

Scenario #2, Bill: This is a nonexample. Although he acknowledged his shortcomings and took the 

class and analyzed his overall situation, Capt Bill did not establish goals. If he does not establish goals 

he cannot possibly prioritize them. Without those established and prioritized goals, all the analysis of 

time and tasks will serve no purpose because what adjustments he would make would have no foundation, therefore eroding what efficiency and effectiveness may or may not have been there. 

Scenario #3, Doyle: This is an example. Mr. Doyle establishes and prioritizes goals along with his 

managers. Mr. Doyle continually reviews and resuspenses (reacts) based upon his analysis of time and 

tasks. Company results indicate that things are running in an efficient and effective manner. 

TRANSITION: Excellent. We have managed our time extremely well. 

Conclusion

SUMMARY: We started this hour with a definition of time management, saying that it is "Continually 

analyzing time and tasks, and adjusting task requirements to most efficiently and effectively accomplish 

goals that have been established and prioritized." From that definition we determined that for time management to exist we needed to continually analyze our time and tasks, react to our analysis by adjusting

for the purpose, and performing efficiently and effectively those goals that have been established (our 

critical attributes). With that understanding, you were able to identify examples and nonexamples of time 

management. We saw that both Maj Bob and Mr Doyle were managing their time. While Capt Bill 

attempted to manage his time, he had never established his goals—critical to our concept of time management. 

REMOTIVATION: Now that you have a tool to be more efficient and effective, you have an obligation 

to use it on a daily basis. It can only result in career success for you, your unit, and the Air Force. 

CLOSURE: Even though time cannot be created or recovered, it can be lived to the fullest here and now 

by our using it correctly day by day, hour by hour. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 403

SCENARIO 1:

Bob is a major with 15 years in the Air Force. He is in charge of the Information Systems Division in his 

squadron and has four people working directly for him. He is also married and the father of 3 children, 

ages 12, 18, and 8. Bob notices that things are pretty hectic at work. He feels overburdened and notices a 

streak of rebellion in his children over the last 2 months. Bob has decided he is stretched to the limit and 

has no time for anything. He decides to take a time management class. After the class, he begins to take 

action. He establishes and prioritizes his top three long-range and top three short-term goals. He takes a 

survey of his time for 2 weeks. A pattern emerges. He discovers there are many things that can and should 

be delegated to his subordinates. There are many things that his division is doing that shouldn't be done 

and he decides to tactfully return the responsibility for those things to the division that should have 

responsibility. Bob discovers he has more free time to begin working on reports that were due 2 months 

ago. He then takes his survey and breaks it down into three classifications: daily goals, career and company goals, and personal goals. Breaking the items on his list into: A - vital, B - important, C - some value, 

and D - complete waste, he finds that his daily company and career goals are coming into order. In the area 

of personal goals, he realizes he is not spending quality time with his children. He then reviews his goals 

in this area and prioritizes them. Bob decides that his usual Wednesday night poker game with the boys is 

time better spent with his children. In 2 months, he notices the streak of rebellion that was so evident in 

his children is now gone. 

QUESTION: Why is this an example or nonexample of time management? 

SCENARIO 2:

Bill is a captain with 12 years in the Air Force. He is in charge of the Disaster Preparedness Division for 

the wing. He has a master sergeant and a technical sergeant working directly for him. They are very sharp 

and Bill has things pretty easy because of these two talented coworkers. His boss knows this and decides 

to task him with the base voter registration drive and also the Combined Federal Campaign. Overnight, 

Bill has deadlines and reports due for these projects. He has also just found out his section will be assuming the disaster preparedness duties for another nearby base because of budget cutbacks. Bill reads in the 

base newspaper about a time management class being offered. He decides to take it. After taking the class, 

Bill decides to put what he has learned into practice. He starts by analyzing his time to find out where it is 

going. He then prioritizes each area. Bill decides after all this work he deserves a vacation. Things are 

coming together. 

QUESTION: Why is this an example or nonexample of time management? 

SCENARIO 3:

Doyle is a happy-go-lucky fellow on the fast track at his company. He runs the budget division and has 

succeeded in cutting expenditures by 7 percent over the past year. He attributes this success to his semiannual meetings with managers at which he reviews the company goals, division goals, and his goals. After 

this meeting, supervisors meet with him and with their own workers so that bosses can review individual 

goals with their subordinates. Doyle also sends out memos reviewing all divisional suspenses and prioritizing them for this level but encouraging the supervisors to reprioritize those that pertain directly to themselves. As Christmas gifts, he gave each supervisor a day-timer for the office with training on how to 

record appointments, to-do lists, and suspenses. An independent consultant came in and confirmed that 

these day-timers are being used effectively by 80 percent of the supervisors and that 65 percent of the subordinate budget analysts also started using them. Doyle intends to reward the success of his division by 

giving all staff members some time off. 

QUESTION: Why is this an example or nonexample of time management? 
404 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Attachment 4 

EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR GUIDED DISCUSSION METHOD 

PROBLEM-SOLUTION PATTERN

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART I

COVER SHEET

LESSON TITLE: Deployments Decrease Area Tensions 

RESOURCE PERSON:

TEACHING METHOD: Guided Discussion 

REFERENCES: 

1. Personal Experiences 

2. Navy Times 

3. http://www.quoteland.com/quotes/author/394.html

4. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/nf/record/tr/trooseveltfp.html

AIDS HANDOUTS/NOTETAKERS: 

STUDENT PREPARATION/READING ASSIGNMENT:

PRESENTATION TIME: 30-37 Minutes 

PART IA

COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to comprehend that deployments decrease area tensions. 

COGNITIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR: 

1. Describe how deployments decrease area tensions. 

2. Explain why it is important to decrease area tensions. 

3. Defend the statement that deployments decrease area tensions. 

4. Predict the effect of area tensions when deployments occur. 

AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to respond with interest to 

the principle that deployments decrease area tensions. 

AFFECTIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR: 

1. Voluntarily participates in class discussion on how deployments decrease area tensions. 

2. Displays positive, nonverbal communications during lesson on how deployments decrease area tensions. 

3. Shares relevant experiences and stories on how deployments decrease area tensions. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 405

PART IB

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Problem/Solution 

STRATEGY: Present this lesson using the guided discussion method. Do this because most students will 

have either experienced themselves or had contact with others who have been on deployment. Also, most 

students will have knowledge of current world events and the United States' role in them. A problem/solution approach will be helpful for the students to achieve the cognitive lesson objective because it will provide a different perspective. This lesson is important because most military members have or will 

experience deployment sometime in their careers or know someone who has deployed (or will). Sometimes, we are too close to the "front line" to see the big picture. This lesson will show that there is a reason 

we do the things we do (go on deployment). Begin the lesson by passing out copies of the latest "All the 

ships at sea" from Navy Times. Explain that this is where the Navy is currently on deployment and ask if 

anyone has been on deployment (if no one has, ask if they know of anybody who is or has been). Have 

students expound—where did they go, how long were they gone, what did they do while in the country to 

support their mission, what was their mission. Tell students why they need to participate in the lesson (see 

importance of lesson above). Then, present an overview of the lesson. Start by having a student define 

deployment so everyone is starting on the same "sheet of music." Then, introduce the problem/solution 

approach to this topic. The problem is that increased area tensions threaten national security. The solution 

is that deployments decrease area tensions. The students will discuss both the problem and the validity of 

the solution using the deductive approach. I will start the discussion of the problem using a leadoff question. By using followup questions, I can make sure the students look at how increased area tensions 

threaten national security through war (or armed conflict), how the closure of sea lanes (which I will 

define for them prior to the followup question) threatens national security, and how nondemocratic 

aggression threatens national security. Once the students have adequately discussed the problem, I will 

summarize using the inputs provided. Then I will use a leadoff question to start the students discussing 

how deployments decrease area tension. I will use followup questions to make sure the students look at 

how deployments decrease area tensions through our presence and through international training and 

cooperation. Once the students have adequately discussed the solution, I will summarize the problem 

again and then summarize the solution. I will remotivate by again emphasizing that all military personnel 

may be called upon to deploy and that it helps to understand that there is a purpose. I will conclude with 

the following quote from Theodore Roosevelt that sums up what a deployment is all about: "Speak softly 

and carry a big stick." During the discussion, I will use PowerPoint to display the main points. 

LESSON OUTLINE:

Main Points with Subpoints:

MP1. Problem - Area tensions threaten national security. 

a. War (or armed conflict) threatens national security. 

b. Closure of sea lanes threatens national security. 

c. Nondemocratic aggression threatens national security. 

MP2. Solution - Deployments decrease area tensions. 

a. Presence decreases area tensions. 

b. International training decreases area tensions. 

c. International cooperation decreases area tensions. 
406 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART II

TEACHING PLAN

Introduction

ATTENTION: (Pass out copies of the latest "All the ships at sea" from Navy Times. Show a slide of the 

amphibious ship leaving on deployment.) Good morning/afternoon everyone, I am _________. What I am 

passing out is a copy of "All the ships at sea" as of (whatever date). It shows where all the Navy ships are 

currently. Notice that about one third of the ships are on deployment. I know the Air Force also goes on 

deployments. How many of you have experienced a scene similar to this one (point to slide), not deploying on a ship like these men and women are, but leaving loved ones behind to deploy? Where did you go? 

What did you do while you were there? What was your unit's mission? (If no one has been on deployment, 

ask if anyone has gone and ask the same questions. If no one can do that either, then give your own experience.) 

MOTIVATION: We all have seen on CNN troops being mobilized to go on deployment or aircraft taking 

off and landing on a carrier for deployment. Have you asked yourself, "Why are these people there? What 

is the purpose of sending American soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines on deployment?" Being in the 

military, it is very possible that some of us at one time or another will be tasked to deploy or at least know 

someone who has deployed. Sometimes we can be too close to the "front lines" to really understand why 

we deploy. Today, we are going to look at some reasons why the United States military deploys. 

OVERVIEW: During the next 35 minutes or so, we will discuss how increased area tensions threaten 

national security. I think we would all agree this is a problem. One of the most effective solutions the 

United States has found to this problem is through deployments. We will discuss how deployments 

decrease area tensions. Before we move on, a good definition of a deployment (as used by the US military) is the sending of troops temporarily to an area of the world to maintain a US presence or the taking 

of personnel and equipment from the United States and transporting them to a "hot spot" to cool it down. 

This is going to be a guided discussion. I will ask a few questions, but I want you to discuss the topic at 

hand. I will take notes on what you say so I can summarize your ideas. Please feel comfortable to express 

your opinion and share your experiences. Be courteous to each other and do not attack anyone because of 

a differing opinion. 

TRANSITION: Now that we know where we are going, let us start with the problem—increased area 

tensions threaten national security. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 407

Body

MP1: Increased area tensions threaten national security. 

Instructor Activity Anticipated Responses

Leadoff question (LOQ): How do increased area 

tensions threaten national security? 

Political instability will cause tension which 

may lead to war or armed conflict 

National assets may be threatened which will 

cause increased troop presence because of 

instability in the region 

Resources may be cut off from us if tensions 

increase, which will probably lead to increased 

troop presence 

Political unrest may cause terrorists to target 

US citizens which will force the United States to 

retaliate 

a. Followup question (FUQ): How does war or 

armed conflict threaten national security? 

We could lose or end up in a stalemate, the 

government would lose credibility which would 

cause us to look vulnerable 

Lose valuable assets, including people which 

will directly threaten national security 

Might not have the right or enough assets 

which would put all personnel and national assets 

at risk 

Concentrating in one area of the world may 

leave another "unprotected"; if this occurs, then 

someone or something will be vulnerable to 

attack 

b. Setup for FUQ: Sea lanes are like highway 

lanes. They are where ships, both military and 

civilian, travel. There are some critical sea lanes 

in the world like the Straits of Taiwan and the 

Straits of Malaysia near Singapore. 

FUQ: How would the closure of sea lanes 

threaten national security?

Resources would be cut off from us. If the 

resources are critical, we will have to take action 

to supply the necessary resources, which could 

include armed conflict 

Cannot participate in world trade effectively, 

thus hurting our economy

National pride is injured, we do not like to be 

told we can't go somewhere
408 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

TRANSITION: From your discussion we see that increased area tensions threaten our national security. 

Let us review what you said. 

INTERIM SUMMARY:

Summarize student ideas that support the first main point using what they said and, if possible, the terms 

they used. 

Add new information from my anticipated responses if they weren't addressed. 

Restate the first main point, "Increased area tensions threaten our national security." 

TRANSITION: The United States has found an effective way to reduce area tensions and thereby protect 

our national security—by deploying its military men and women. 

MP2. Deployments decrease area tensions. 

c. Lead-in to final FUQ: You have hit on some 

really good points, let us look at one more. 

FUQ: How does nondemocratic aggression 

threaten our national security?

Embassy and other in-country personnel can be 

in danger. Personnel are part of national security 

In-country assets are in danger. These assets 

could be valuable to the population or to the 

United States

We believe it is in our best interest for the entire 

world to be democratic, so we feel we have to do 

what we can to make everyone a democracy

We are closely tied economically to a lot of 

countries. If they are jeopardized, all resources or 

products provided are in jeopardy. Our economy 

is jeopardized

We have a role as the world's "police" to stop 

aggression. We would lose credibility if we did 

nothing

Instructor Activity Anticipated Responses

LOQ: How do deployments decrease area 

tensions? 

Our presence has the effect of decreasing 

tensions because of military power 

Training with other countries creates a 

common bond with other nations 

Quick response time to diffuse tensions 

Countries know we have things in place to take 

care of problems. This relieves tension or fear of 

attack 

a. FUQ: How does our presence decrease area 

tensions? 

We have a reputation as being a superior 

military force to that of most countries that cause 

the tensions 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 409

TRANSITION: As you have discussed, deployments are imperative to reducing area tensions. Now, let 

us take a look at what you have discussed today. 

Conclusion

FINAL SUMMARY: Briefly review MP1 (increased area tensions threaten national security). Then take 

MP2 (lesson objective/solution) and summarize the student's comments and add any appropriate anticipated responses. State what they concluded—deployments decrease area tensions; therefore, deployments 

protect national security. 

REMOVIVATION: It is always helpful in any task to know why you are doing it. Everyone wants to 

accomplish meaningful things. All of us in the military can be tasked to deploy. It can be a planned, cyclical thing like it is in the Navy or it may be a short-notice thing like it is sometimes in the Air Force and the 

We usually carry through with our "promises," 

so if a country "acts up" while forces are in the 

area, they know they are in trouble 

Other countries may not want to feel like they 

have to rely on us to solve all the world's 

problems and may put pressure on the offending 

country to straighten up 

b. Setup for FUQ: On navy deployments we more 

often than not train with other countries and I 

have been told the Air Force does also. 

FUQ: How does international training decrease 

area tensions?

We train countries to take care of themselves so 

we don't always have to be there 

If we train with countries on opposite sides of 

the fence, they may see that they are not so 

different after all and are able to work their 

differences out

Individuals in countries will get to know each 

other and as they go up in position may be able to 

work with each other

Interoperability if there is a problem

 

c. Setup for FUQ: On deployments, we are often 

performing the mission with other countries, like 

enforcing the no-fly zone over 

If there is a problem in the area, we work 

together to solve it. One country may have a 

novel approach 

Iraq with the British. FUQ: How does this 

international cooperation decrease area tensions? 

With the downsizing, we have fewer resources 

but must do more. It is easier to accomplish the 

mission if we have others to help 

It is hard for us to go into an area and interfere 

if we do not have the backing of other countries 

(Desert Storm vs Vietnam) 
410 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Army. In either case, it is nice to know that what we do matters. As you have discussed today, deployments are needed to decrease area tensions and therefore safeguard national security. Even though you 

may not personally deploy, you will probably know someone who does. Perhaps they will not know why 

they are going. With the information discussed today, you can educate your peers and give them a sense 

of purpose that perhaps they did not have before. 

CLOSURE: I would like to leave you now with an African proverb our 26th President, Theodore 

Roosevelt, was fond of saying. President Roosevelt believed in exercising military muscle in any manner 

that would bolster the United States as a world power. This proverb sums up what we do on deployment. 

"Speak softly and carry a big stick." 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 411

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART III

TEST ITEM

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to comprehend that deployments decrease 

area tensions. 

SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR: Describe how deployments decrease area tensions. 

QUESTION: Which phrase BEST describes how deployments decrease area tensions? 

a. participating in international training exercises promotes teamwork. 

b. stopping nondemocratic aggression reduces stressful situations. 

c. maintaining freedom of the seas allows countries to freely operate. 

RATIONALE: Option a is the correct answer. Participating in international training exercises is a part of 

many deployments and a way (answering the question "how") to decrease area tensions. By training with 

other countries, it shows unity to any possible aggressors. It also promotes interoperability in case there 

are problems. This rationale will be discussed by the students; if not, it will be brought up as a point by the 

instructor during the summary of MP2. 

Options b and c are incorrect because they answer the question of "why" we go on deployments—not 

"how" deployments decrease area tensions. 
412 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Attachment 5 

EXAMPLES OF CASE METHOD OBJECTIVES WITH CASE ELEMENTS 

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

Example 1

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to apply the ISD process to course development. 

MAIN POINTS:

1. Analysis. 

2. Design. 

3. Development. 

4. Implementation. 

5. Evaluation. 

6. "... apply the ISD process to course development." 

BOARD ARRANGEMENT:

Example 2

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to apply the Carkuff counseling approach 

to given counseling situations. 

MAIN POINTS:

1. (A) Attending skills. 

2. (A) Responding skills. 

3. (A) Initiating skills. 

4. "... apply the Carkuff counseling approach to given counseling situations." 

Analysis Design Development Implementation Evaluation Application of ISD
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 413

BOARD ARRANGEMENT:

Example 3 

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is to analyze the concept of professional ethics in a leadership 

situation. 

MAIN POINTS:

1. (A) Analysis of cast of characters and their relationships with each other. 

2. (A) Analysis of ethical considerations of each character. 

3. (A) Analysis of the impact of professional ethics in a leadership situation. 

Board Arrangement:

Attending Responding Initiating Application of Approach 

Characters Ethics Impact 
414 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Attachment 6 

EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR CASE STUDY METHOD 

PROBLEM-SOLUTION PATTERN 

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL 

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama 

PART I 

COVER SHEET 

LESSON TITLE: Involved Leadership Promotes Subordinate Success 

RESOURCE PERSON: 

TEACHING METHOD: Case Study 

AIDS/HANDOUTS/NOTETAKERS: Case Study: Money Troubles (Attached); Dry erase board. 

STUDENT PREPARATION/READING ASSIGNMENT:

REFERENCES: Personal Experiences 

PRESENTATION TIME: 

PART IA

COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST comprehend that involved leadership promotes subordinate 

personal success. 

COGNITIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR: 

1. Describe how involved leadership promotes subordinate success. 

2. Explain why involved leadership is important to promote subordinate success. 

3. Predict how involved leadership will lead to subordinate success. 

AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST respond with interest to the principle that involved leadership promotes subordinate success. 

AFFECTIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR: 

1. Voluntarily participates in class discussion on how involved leadership promotes subordinate success. 

2. Displays positive, nonverbal communications during lesson on how involved leadership promotes subordinate success. 

3. Shares relevant experiences and stories on how involved leadership promotes subordinate success. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 415

PART IB

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Problem-Solution 

STRATEGY: This lesson on comprehending that involved leadership promotes subordinate success 

will be presented using the case study method with the problem/solution pattern because this allows the 

students the opportunity to fully explore the possible problems inherent in a management situation like 

this one. The students will also participate in formulating possible solutions to the problems they have 

identified. Since there are various effective approaches to solving these kinds of problems, the case study 

method is ideal in that it provides an opportunity to tackle the problems from a number of different perspectives. I will begin by relating an experience I had with a sailor who was in a similar situation as the 

staff sergeant in this case. I will note that since the students are or will be supervisors, they should be 

motivated to develop a caring approach. The students should understand that the success of our subordinates stems not only from their professional efforts, but also from their personal efforts and we must do all 

we can to make sure they succeed. I am going to use the facts, assumptions, problems, and solutions 

(FAPS) model with this case. The facts, assumptions, problems, and solutions constitute the case elements (main points). The FAPS model is ideal since the pattern in the lesson is problem/solution. This 

model allows students to determine all the problems before deciding on the solutions. I will go around the 

room and have different people read the case aloud while the others follow along. This engages the visual 

and auditory senses increasing the ability to understand the material. I will ask the students to extract the 

facts from the case. After considering the facts, I will have the students identify logical assumptions based 

on what they have read and by drawing from their own experiences with similar situations. I will then 

summarize the assumptions. Next, I will have the students determine the problems they see in the case, 

both with events that occurred and actions that should have been taken. Next, I will summarize the problems found by the students. The students must then formulate solutions to the problems and pick the best 

solutions based on their experiences. I will summarize the case by recapping the facts, assumptions, problems, and the solutions so that the students can clearly see how crucial leader involvement is to furthering 

the success of subordinates. Finally, I will close by reminding the students that as supervisors and future 

supervisors it is important to take time to make sure our people, who are our greatest asset, are successful 

not only in their professional lives but also in their personal lives because the two are intertwined. I will 

close with an affective statement about how our involvement as leaders promotes success in our subordinates. 

LESSON OUTLINE:

MP1. Facts relevant to involved leadership promoting subordinate success. 

MP2. Assumptions relevant to involved leadership promoting subordinate success. 

MP3. Problems with involved leadership promoting subordinate success. 

MP4. Solutions to problems raised in involved leadership promoting subordinate success. 
416 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

PART II

TEACHING PLAN

Introduction

ATTENTION: Good morning, I am __________, a Navy surface warfare officer. I have served aboard 2 

ships and have supervised from between 10 and 40 people at a time, depending on my division. As a 

supervisor, I have had to deal with many personnel problems, both work related and personal. One of my 

more difficult problems dealt with one of my E-4s who was having monetary difficulties. He was married 

to a woman whom he cared about very much who had five children by previous relationships. They had 

marital problems which did not surprise anyone on the ship and he was seriously considering getting a 

divorce. He closed their joint checking account and told his wife about it. They separated and he left her 

in family housing while he moved aboard the ship. She continued to write checks on the closed account, 

cashing them at the base. She was smart about it because she would write them for the maximum amount, 

knowing that when the base found out about the closed account, she would not be held accountable, he 

would. They had some other debts for furniture, stereo equipment, and a car. We received several letters 

of indebtedness from the base each time a bad check was discovered. Our disbursing officer would give 

them to me instead of the commanding officer. We went to base legal to see if there was any way to hold 

her accountable for the money, but there was not. My E-4 continued to get farther and farther behind in his 

debts. His pay was garnished to the point that he had less than $100 per paycheck. His work performance 

was less than what I knew he was capable of. Much to everyone's surprise, he was promoted to E-5. Being 

the eternal optimist, I predicted that the promotion would cause him to take better pride in his work and 

that his performance would improve. My chief, an E-7 in the Navy, predicted that nothing would change 

and that his performance would continue its downward spiral. I am happy to report that I was right, the 

work performance did improve. Although when I left the ship he was still having some personal problems, he was not as despondent about them as he could have been. He appreciated the efforts my chief, the 

legal officer, and I had made to help him. Because I had faith in him and gave him encouragement, he was 

a great success as the workcenter supervisor. 

MOTIVATION: As supervisors and potential supervisors, we are obviously concerned about a subordinate's work performance. But this is only part of their lives. They also have a personal life we should be 

concerned with. Sometimes problems with their home lives will have devastating effects on their professional lives. They can even be potential career "enders." 

OVERVIEW: Today we are going to look at a case somewhat similar to the situation I experienced. The 

problem for the SSgt we are going to read about shortly starts as a personal one, but is leading down the 

path toward professional disaster. As we read, I want you to think about the facts of the case, the assumptions we can make, what the problems are—both with what is done and perhaps what was not done, and 

finally, a solution for the lieutenant. (Pick someone to read the first two paragraphs, someone else for the 

second two, and someone else for the last two). As you may have guessed, this is a case study. I am going 

to ask you questions and you are going to provide inputs. Before we continue, are there any questions 

about the case? 

TRANSITION: First, let us take a look at the facts of the case. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 417

Body

MP1. Facts relevant to SSgt James' success and failure and Lt Roberts' actions. 

TRANSITION: We have picked out many pertinent facts in this case, let us quickly summarize them. 

INTERIM SUMMARY: (From the whiteboard) Review the facts relevant to the situation. 

TRANSITION: Now that we have looked at the facts as stated in the case, let us make some logical 

assumptions based on what we know in the case and perhaps drawing from our own experiences. 

MP2. Assumptions relevant to SSgt James' success and failure. 

Instructor Activity Anticipated Responses

Leadoff question (LOQ): What facts are relevant 

to SSgt James' potential failure? 

Wife flew to previous duty station (overseas) 

and wants a divorce 

Lt Roberts has received many dunning letters, 

including ones for airfare to previous duty station 

SSgt James had told the first sergeant that he 

could pay for the trips to see his wife and children 

SSgt James claims the indebtedness letters are 

misunderstandings and that he has paid the bills 

Lt Roberts' secretary said that SSgt James had 

received many phone calls from a creditor SSgt 

James had disclaimed the debt for 

a. Followup question (FUQ): What facts are 

present relating to SSgt James' past success? 

He has 12 years in the Air Force with a good 

record 

He worked extra time to catch up on the unit 

b. FUQ: What facts do we know about Lt 

Roberts? 

Counseled SSgt James when he got back from 

emergency leave 

Counseled SSgt James every time a new 

dunning letter was received 

Forwarded overdue notices to the military 

personnel flight for verification of "just debts," 

but no results yet 
418 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

TRANSITION: We have made some very valid assumptions. Let us now quickly recap them. 

INTERIM SUMMARY: (From whiteboard) Review the assumptions relevant to the situation. 

TRANSITION: After looking at the facts and making some logical assumptions, we probably can see 

some problems. Let us pick those out. 

MP3. Problems related to SSgt James and Lt Roberts. 

Instructor Activity Anticipated Responses

LOQ: What assumptions can we make about 

SSgt James? 

His work has suffered due to his personal stress 

He is too embarrassed to ask for help 

He has not been to any sort of professional 

counseling for his financial problems 

He wants to reenlist 

He has not paid the overdue bills 

FUQ: What assumptions can we make His counseling method is not working 

about Lt Roberts' actions or inactions? He has not tried to get SSgt James to go to 

counseling 

He does not trust that SSgt James has paid the 

bills he claims he did 

He is torn about the recommendation for 

reenlistment 

He has never dealt with a similar situation 

He does not know who to turn to for help 

Instructor Activity Anticipated Responses

LOQ: What problems are facing SSgt May not be recommended for reenlistment 

James? Cannot pay his bills, which will continue to 

worsen if he can't reenlist 

Getting a divorce 

Work performance is deteriorating 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 419

TRANSITION: We have come up with many problems in this situation. Let us summarize them. 

INTERIM SUMMARY: (From whiteboard) Summarize the problems associated with the situation. 

(Make sure and connect the problems to SSgt James' overall failures.) 

TRANSITION: There are several ways to look at solutions to the problems we identified, but let us focus 

on the positive ones. 

MP4. Positive solutions for SSgt James and Lt Roberts. 

Providing for two households 

a. FUQ: What problems does Lt Roberts face? Must make a recommendation on whether SSgt 

James should be allowed to reenlist 

Spends a disproportionate amount of time with 

the one individual 

He has not been involved in the case enough. 

Counseling is the first step; if the problem 

persists, he should take additional steps 

Inexperience supervising personnel 

Not sure he can trust SSgt James personally, but 

can professionally 

Is losing productivity because of SSgt James' 

deteriorating work performance 

b. FUQ: What are some problems in the No one provided Lt Roberts training 

organization for this to occur? First sergeant has not been involved 

Leadership was not actively involved in 

subordinates' careers and personal lives 

Other subordinates may be having similar 

problems 

Instructor Activity Anticipated Responses

LOQ: What options are available to SSgt Seek financial counseling 

James? Get loan from Air Force Relief Society 

Give Lt Roberts proof he is trying to pay bills 

Seek divorce counseling 

Get custody of children, so he won't spend 

money to go see them 
420 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

TRANSITION: We have discussed a lot today, let us take a look at where we have been. 

Conclusion

FINAL SUMMARY: (From whiteboard) Briefly summarize the facts, assumptions, and problems. Then 

spend more time reviewing the solutions the students came up with to SSgt James' potential failure and Lt 

Roberts' actions or inactions. All these solutions fall into one category—more involved leadership. I think 

it is safe to say that a more involved leader promotes subordinate success. 

REMOTIVATION: All of us are supervisors, either of personnel or of students in the classroom. We all 

want our subordinates and students to be successful in their jobs, but how many of us think about their 

personal success? The two go hand in hand, and as leaders we must remember to do our best to get 

involved and make sure they are successful in both areas. 

CLOSURE: In these days of drawdowns, decreased spending, and realignments, we are all trying to use 

all of our assets to their fullest potential. I fully believe our most important asset is our people, regardless 

of whether I get laughed at for it or not. As leaders, it is important we remember our most precious asset—

our people. Thank you. 

a. FUQ: What options are available to Lt 

Roberts? 

Recommend SSgt James be allowed to reenlist 

with stipulations that he attend financial 

counseling and provide proof he is trying to pay 

bills 

Possible extension to SSgt James' enlistment to 

give him time to prove he can be responsible and 

pay bills 

Ensure SSgt James has food and a roof over his 

head (take care of his well-being) 

Refer SSgt James to the First Sergeant 

Go to the first sergeant for guidance 

b. FUQ: What could Lt Roberts have done to help 

SSgt James avoid the potential of his 

professional downfall? 

Been more involved. Instead of leaving it at 

counseling, he could have forced SSgt James to 

go to base financial counseling. 

Followed up on progress of payments 

Talked with creditors to see if there was an 

arrangement that could be made 

Had first sergeant get more involved 

Talked with the commander early to say what a 

good worker SSgt James was and asked for the 

commander's advice on how to deal with the 

financial problems 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 421

MONEY TROUBLES

Lt Roberts received a note from the squadron commander asking him if he would recommend SSgt James 

for reenlistment. Attached to the note was a letter from a creditor who complained about SSgt James. 

SSgt James had been the 608th Radar Squadron's personnel specialist for 1 year. When SSgt James first 

arrived from an overseas location, he was a very conscientious worker. The position he filled had been 

vacant for some time, and SSgt James had frequently worked during his lunch hour and after duty hours 

to catch up on the backlog of work. SSgt James was married and had two children. Six months after his 

arrival, SSgt James had applied for emergency leave. He explained to the first sergeant that his wife had 

unexpectedly withdrawn most of their savings and had returned to their previous residence with the children and he needed to fly out there to attempt to save his marriage. SSgt James assured the first sergeant 

he had ample funds to cover round-trip airfare if he could not get "hops" to his last base of assignment. 

After SSgt James returned from leave, Lt Roberts had an informal chat with him. SSgt James explained 

his family situation and, at the time, was unsure whether or not a marriage reconciliation was possible. 

Shortly thereafter, SSgt James told the lieutenant he was going to get a divorce. 

About 2 months after SSgt James had taken leave, Lt Roberts started receiving dunning letters from many 

of SSgt James' creditors. These reflected, among other things, airfares to SSgt James' previous location. 

When Lt Roberts counseled him on meeting his financial obligations, SSgt James claimed the bills were 

the result of his wife's move. He assured the lieutenant they were being paid and that he had retrieved his 

wife's credit cards so she could not charge anything else in his name. 

Over the next several months, more overdue notices arrived for nonpayment of the original bills in addition to several new ones. Each time an overdue notice arrived, Lt Roberts counseled SSgt James. Each 

time he was counseled SSgt James explained that the debt was a misunderstanding or that the bill was 

paid. On one occasion, he disclaimed the debt, but Lt Roberts' secretary said that SSgt James had received 

many calls from that particular creditor. The lieutenant had forwarded the overdue notices to the military 

personnel flight for verification as "just debts," but the results had not yet been returned. 

SSgt James had almost 12 years in the Air Force and, to this point, had a good record. Because SSgt James 

was due to reenlist soon, the commander wanted Lt Roberts' recommendation now. 
422 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

TEACHING NOTE

TOOTLIFEST comprehend involved leadership promotes subordinate success.

Facts relevant to... Assumptions relevant 

to...

Problems with ... Solutions to ...

LOQ: What facts are 

relevant to SSgt James’ 

potential failure?

LOQ: What 

assumptions can we 

make about SSgt 

James?

LOQ: What problems 

are facing SSgt James?

LOQ: What options are 

available to SSgt 

James?

- May not be 

- Wife flew to previous recommended for - Seek financial 

duty station - His work has suffered reenlistment counseling 

(overseas) and wants due to his personal 

a divorce stress - Can not pay his bills, - Get loan from Air 

which will continue Force Relief Society 

- Lt Roberts has - He is too to worsen if he can’t 

received many embarrassed to ask reenlist - Give Lt Roberts 

dunning letters, for help proof he is trying to 

including ones for - Getting a divorce pay bills 

airfare to previous - He has not been to 

duty station any sort of - Work performance is - Seek divorce 

professional deteriorating counseling 

- SSgt James had told counseling for his 

the first sergeant that financial problems - Providing for two - Get custody of 

he could pay off the households children so he won’t 

trips to see his wife - He wants to reenlist spend money to go 

and children FUQ: What see them 

- He has not paid the problems does Lt

- SSgt James claims the overdue bills Roberts face? FUQ: What options

indebtedness letters are available to Lt

are misunderstandings FUQ: What - Must make a Roberts?

and he has paid the assumptions can we recommendation on 

bills make about Lt whether SSgt James - Recommend SSgt 

Roberts’ actions or should be allowed to James be allowed to 

- Lt Roberts’ secretary inactions? reenlist reenlist with 

said that SSgt James stipulations that he 

had received many - His counseling - Spends a attend financial 

phone calls from a method is not disproportionate counseling and 

creditor SSgt James working amount of time with provide proof he is 

had disclaimed the the one individual trying to pay bills 

debt for - He has not tried to 

get SSgt James to go - He has not been - Possible extension to 

FUQ: What facts are to counseling involved in the case SSgt James’ 

present relating to enough. Counseling enlistment to give 

SSgt James’ past - He does not trust that is the first step; if the him time to prove he 

success? SSgt James has paid problem persists, he can be responsible 

the bills he claims he should take and pay bills 

- He has 12 years in the did additional steps 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 423

Air Force with a good 

record 

- He worked extra time - He is torn about the - Inexperience - Ensure SSgt James 

to catch up on the unit recommendation for supervising has food and a roof 

reenlistment personnel over his head (take 

FUQ: What facts do care of his wellwe know about Lt - He has never dealt - Not sure he can trust being) 

Roberts? with a similar SSgt James 

situation personally, but can - Refer SSgt James to 

- Counseled SSgt professionally the First Sergeant 

James when he got - He does not know 

back from emergency who to turn to for - Is losing productivity - Go to the First 

leave help because of SSgt Sergeant for 

James’ deteriorating guidance 

- Counseled SSgt work performance 

James every time a FUQ: What could Lt 

new dunning letter FUQ: What are some Roberts have done to 

was received problems in the help SSgt James 

organization for this avoid the potential of 

- Forwarded overdue to occur? his professional 

notices to the military downfall?

personnel flight for - No one provided Lt 

verification of “just Roberts training - Even more involved. 

debts” ...but no Instead of leaving it 

results yet - First sergeant has not at counseling, he 

been involved could have forced 

SSgt James to go to 

- Leadership was not base financial 

actively involved in counseling 

subordinates’ careers 

and personal lives - Followed up on 

progress of payments 

- Other subordinates 

may be having - Talked with creditors 

similar problems to see if there was an 

arrangement that 

could be made 

- Had First Sergeant 

get more involved 

- Talked with the 

commander early to say 

what a good worker SSgt 

James was and asked for 

the commander’s advice 

on how to deal with the 

financial problems 
424 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART III

TEST ITEM

OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST comprehend that involved leadership promotes subordinate success. 

SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR: Describe how involved leadership promotes subordinate success. 

QUESTION: Which phrase BEST describes how involved leaders promote subordinate success? 

a. By leaders encouraging personnel to study for advancement exams, subordinates will strive to 

succeed. 

b. Leaders who follow counseling with other methods ensure all avenues are used to enhance the 

subordinate. 

c. When leaders praise personnel for doing good work, the subordinates are motivated to do more. 

KEY: Option b is the correct answer. An involved leader will follow counseling with other methods if the 

counseling fails to bring about the desired results. This will be brought up in the case study discussion 

under solutions. Option a is incorrect. Although it is a way to promote subordinate success, it does not 

take much involvement on the part of a leader. Option c is incorrect. Praising personnel is a way to promote subordinate success, but like option a, it does not take much involvement on the part of a leader. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 425

Attachment 7 

EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR CASE STUDY METHOD 

TOPICAL PATTERN

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART I

COVER SHEET

LESSON TITLE: Effective Leadership Enhances Subordinate Effectiveness 

RESOURCE PERSON:

TEACHING METHOD: Case Study 

REFERENCES: Battle Cry of Freedom by James M. McPherson 

AIDS/HANDOUT/NOTETAKERS: Video clip from the movie "Gettysburg," whiteboard, mag cards, 

music from "Gettysburg" to set the appropriate atmosphere 

STUDENT PREPARATION/READING ASSIGNMENT:

PRESENTATION TIME: 30-37 Minutes 

PART IA

COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST comprehend that effective leadership enhances subordinate 

effectiveness. 

COGNITIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR: 

1. Explain why effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

2. Describe how effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

3. Predict the outcome on subordinate effectiveness when effective leadership is practiced. 

AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST respond positively to effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

1. Voluntarily participates in discussion of how effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

2. Shares personal examples on how effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

3. Displays positive nonverbal communications during lesson on how effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. 
426 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

PART IB

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Topical 

STRATEGY: In a small seminar environment, I will begin the lesson with a short introduction about how 

effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. I will carefully cover the rules of engagement 

so that the students are aware that their participation is critical to the success of the lesson. I will explain 

my role as a recorder and facilitator. I will emphasize the importance of competency, caring for people, 

and motivation, which are the key characteristics of a leader, and how these enhance subordinate effectiveness. The small seminar will allow maximum participation which is critical for comprehension of 

these important leadership concepts we have been studying and how they relate to us on the job. I will use 

a 5 1/2-minute video clip from the movie "Gettysburg" which depicts Colonel Chamberlain's charge at the 

battle of Little Round Top. The video clip will be presented during the overview and sets the stage for 

examination of these concepts during the lesson. The case elements (main points) of competency 

enhances subordinate effectiveness, care for people enhances subordinate effectiveness, and motivation enhances subordinate effectiveness will be used to analyze the case and can be presented in any 

order. Magnetic cards will be created for each of the case elements and placed on the enamel board prior 

to the beginning of the lesson. I will begin by asking questions about competency enhancing subordinate 

effectiveness and record the inputs given by the students. After all the inputs on the first case element 

have been recorded on the enamel board, I will summarize those inputs in order to drive home the pertinence of competency enhancing subordinate effectiveness. I will repeat this procedure with the remaining 

case elements. I will teach this lesson using a topical pattern since there is no problem-solving activity. I 

will ask questions targeted at the three sublevels of comprehension (translation, interpretation, and extrapolation) to reach the comprehension level. The students will provide the inputs necessary to provide a 

thorough look at competency, care for people, and motivation exhibited by Colonel Chamberlain; how 

these concepts enhanced his subordinates' effectiveness; and how those dynamics shown by leaders 

enhanced subordinate effectiveness in their own careers. It will be apparent to the students after the final 

summary, in which all the pertinent information generated during the lesson is reviewed, that effective 

leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

LESSON OUTLINE:

MP1. (C) competency enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

MP2. (C) care for people enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

MP3. (C) motivation enhances subordinate effectiveness. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 427

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART II

TEACHING PLAN

Introduction

ATTENTION: Imagine your subordinates in chemical suits--hot, sweaty, tired, and wanting to go home. 

You know you can't send them home so what can you do to keep them focused on their jobs, motivated to 

do their best? What you can do is be an effective leader!! 

MOTIVATION: We are all leaders whether it is as a formal leader or informal leader. We expect our subordinates or coworkers to follow our lead. We expect them to give their complete effort to a task even if 

they are tired, hungry, etc. It could be the difference between life and death! We cannot get the most from 

our subordinates or coworkers unless we are effective leaders. Today, I will show you how. 

OVERVIEW: Today we will look at how effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. To do 

this, we will use a case which is a clip from the movie "Gettysburg." After watching this clip, we will analyze the case by breaking it down into three main points. We will look at how competency enhances subordinate effectiveness, then how care for people enhances subordinate effectiveness, and finally how 

motivation enhances subordinate effectiveness. We will break this case apart by me asking questions and 

you providing support based on the case. Please keep in mind that we may have different opinions, so be 

polite and respectful to each other. Before we begin, let me give you a working definition from my 14 

years as an officer: 

Effective leadership: Someone able to produce the desired results while still focusing on the people and 

mission. 

Competency: Properly qualified, capable. 

Subordinate effectiveness: Someone doing a job to the best of his or her ability without complaining 

embodies excellence in all we do. 

Let me set up the clip. This movie is about the Civil War. Colonel Chamberlain led the 20th Maine for the 

North (Union). He is now confronted by Confederate soldiers. Read (slowly) the passage from the book 

Battle Cry of Freedom, page 659, paragraph 2. 

"Posted at the far left of this brigade was the 20th Maine, commanded by Colonel Joshua L. Chamberlain. 

A year earlier Chamberlain had been a professor of rhetoric and modern languages at Bowdoin College. 

Taking leave, ostensibly to study in Europe, he joined the army instead and now found himself responsible for preventing the rebels from rolling up the Union left. The fighting professor and his down-easterners proved equal to the occasion. For nearly two hours they stood off repeated assaults by portions of 

several Confederate regiments along the rocky, wooded slope filled with smoke, noise, and terror. With 

more than a third of his men down and the remainder out of ammunition—and with the Rebels forming 

another assault—Chamberlain was in a tight spot. But cool and quick-witted—perhaps a legacy of dealing 

with fractious students—he ordered his men to fix bayonets on their empty rifles and charge. With a yell, 
428 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

these smoke-grimed Yanks lurched downhill against the surprised rebels. Exhausted by their uphill fighting following a 25-mile march that day to reach the battlefield, and shocked by the audacity of this bayonet assault, the Alabamians surrendered to the jubilant boys from Maine." Let us look at the video clip. 

TRANSITION: Now that we have seen the case, we need to break it down into the case elements—Competence, Care for People, and Motivation—and see how each of these enhance subordinate effectiveness. 

Body

INTERIM SUMMARY: From whiteboard, summarize student comments and show how competence 

relates to the overall objective by showing both Chamberlain's competence and how our being competent 

will enhance our subordinates' effectiveness. 

TRANSITION: Competence is just one element of leadership that can be used to enhance subordinate 

effectiveness. Another important element of leadership is care for people. Let's take a look at the ways 

Chamberlain's subordinates' effectiveness was enhanced as a result of his care for people. 

MP1. Competency enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

Questions Anticipated Responses

LOQ: How did Chamberlain display -Use of tactics (wheel movement) 

competence in this clip? -Knew the objective 

-Knew the overall situation 

a. FUQ: How did this competence enhance -They followed him because they believed 

his subordinates' effectiveness? he knew what he was doing 

-Troops didn't hesitate when given an 

unbelievable order 

-Believed his competence would keep them 

alive 

b. FUQ: How would your demonstration of -Subordinates would want to follow the 

competence enhance your subordinates' example set 

effectiveness? -Subordinates' attention to detail would 

increase 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 429

INTERIM SUMMARY: From whiteboard, summarize student comments and show how care for people 

relates to the overall objective by showing both Chamberlain's care for people and how our caring for our 

people will enhance our subordinates' effectiveness. 

TRANSITION: We've looked at two vital elements of leadership—competence and care for people—

and saw how both can enhance subordinate effectiveness. Now let's look at the ways Chamberlain's subordinates' effectiveness was enhanced as a result of him motivating them. 

MP2. Care for people enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

Questions Anticipated Responses

LOQ: How did Chamberlain display care for -Gave the prisoner water 

people in this clip? -Did not kill the enemy who tried to shoot 

him 

-Cared for the entire Union Army by not 

retreating off the hill 

a. FUQ: How did his caring for people -His troops knew they would probably be 

enhance his subordinates' effectiveness? treated in the same manner if captured that 

Chamberlain treated the rebels 

-Would fight harder for him since they 

knew he had their best interest at heart 

-Knew he would not ask them to do 

anything he wouldn't do himself so they 

were more willing to fight for him 

b. FUQ: How would your demonstration of -Subordinates tend to work harder when 

caring for people enhance your subordinates' they know they are cared for 

effectiveness? -Subordinates are happier and morale 

increases 

-Subordinates begin to care more about 

others 
430 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

TRANSITION: We've looked at how three critical elements of leadership can enhance today. Now let's 

recap each of those and see how using them effectively will enhance subordinate effectiveness. 

MP3. Motivation enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

Questions Anticipated Responses

LOQ: How did Chamberlain motivate his -Explained what his plan was and why he 

men? was doing it 

-Decisiveness/confidence 

-Use of bugle and flag 

a. FUQ: How did this motivation enhance -Troops had buy-in for plan since they 

his subordinates' effectiveness? understood why he was doing it 

-His confidence in the plan was infectious 

to his troops 

-Reached the troops affectively by having 

the colors up front where they could see 

them and used music (bugle) to get 

their energies up 

b. FUQ: How would motivating your -They become more productive 

subordinates enhance their effectiveness? -They become better team players 

-They enjoy their work more 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 431

Conclusion

FINAL SUMMARY: From whiteboard, summarize student comments and show how motivation relates 

to the overall objective by showing how both Chamberlain's use of motivation and how our motivating 

our troops will enhance their effectiveness. Briefly reiterate important points from MP2, then MP1. Show 

how if we use each of these leadership elements ourselves we, too, will enhance our subordinates' effectiveness. Ensure an understanding that these three elements of leadership are related and have a direct link 

to the entire objective. Completely write out your final summary and practice it as such, to ensure you 

include all important areas. During your actual summaries, personalize them to include student inputs. 

See note below. 

NOTE: Summarize the information you drew from the case element of competence. This is just one of 

several characteristics of an effective leader. Then show how Chamberlain used competence to enhance 

his subordinates' effectiveness. Add additional examples of a competent leader from past lessons or from 

experience. Explain how these enhanced subordinate effectiveness. You have already summarized each 

case element individually and drawn conclusions that each one enhances subordinate effectiveness. Now 

show how the A term (Effective Leadership) relates to the B term (Subordinate Effectiveness) in the 

Chamberlain case. Having comprehended this principle in the Chamberlain case, use your expertise to 

draw relationships, connections, and conclusions and tie these to real-world examples that directly benefit 

your audience. 

REMOTIVATION: The next time your subordinates have to work long hours, whether to build a pallet, 

fly a mission, or type a document, remember you are the key to their effectiveness. You need to remember 

Colonel Chamberlain and how he knew the job, cared about his people, and encouraged them. Use these 

same traits to get your subordinates to accomplish the mission. In this time of doing more with less, it is 

highly likely we will work longer hours. Therefore, it is within your control whether subordinates work 

hard for you or complain to you. 

CLOSURE: Put yourself back in chemical gear—how will you influence your people? Ken Blanchard, 

The Heart of a Leader, says 

"Influence is an art—and it begins with the heart of a leader. It's time to let your heart soar." 
432 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

TEACHING NOTE

TOOTLIFEST comprehend effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness.

Competency enhances Care for people enhances Motivation enhances

subordinate effectiveness subordinate effectiveness subordinate effectiveness

LOQ: How did Chamberlain LOQ: How did Chamberlain LOQ: How did Chamberlain

display competence in this display Care for People in this motivate his men?

clip? clip?

- Use of tactics (wheel - Gave the prisoner water - Explained what his plan was 

movement) - Did not kill enemy who tried and why he was doing it 

- Knew the objective to shoot him - Decisiveness/confidence 

- Knew the overall situation - Cared for the entire Union - Use of bugle and flag 

Army by not retreating off the 

hill 

FUQ: How did this FUQ: How did his caring for FUQ: How did this motivation

competence enhance his people enhance his enhance his subordinates’

subordinates’ effectiveness? subordinates’ effectiveness? effectiveness?

- They followed him because - His troops knew that they - Troops had buy-in for plan 

they believed he knew what he would probably be treated in since they understood the 

was doing the same manner if captured rationale for why he was doing 

- Troops didn’t hesitate when that Chamberlain treated the it 

given an unbelievable order rebels - His confidence in the plan was 

- Believed his competence - Would fight harder for him infectious to his troops 

would keep them alive since they knew he had their - Reached the troops affectively 

best interest at heart by having the colors up front 

- Knew he would not ask them where they could see them and 

to do anything that he used music (bugle) to get 

wouldn’t do himself so they their energies up 

were more willing to fight for 

him 

FUQ: How would your FUQ: How would your FUQ: How would motivating

demonstration of competence demonstration of caring for your subordinates enhance

enhance your subordinates’ people enhance your their effectiveness?

effectiveness? subordinates’ effectiveness?

- subordinates would want to - Subordinates tend to work - become more productive 

follow the example set harder when they know they - become better team players 

- subordinates attention to detail are cared for - enjoy their work more 

would increase - Subordinates are happier and 

morale increases 

- Subordinates begin to care 

more about others 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 433

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART III

TEST ITEM

LESSON OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST comprehend that effective leadership enhances subordinate 

effectiveness. 

SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR: Describe how effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness. 

TEST QUESTION: Which of the following BEST describes how effective leadership enhances subordinate effectiveness? 

a. Capable leadership, which inspires subordinates and has compassion for them, will influence them 

to do their best. 

b. Leadership, which embodies integrity, inspires subordinates, and has compassion for them, will 

influence them to put forth some effort. 

c. Capable leadership sets the example and has compassion for subordinates day in and day out while 

on the job. 

KEY: Option a is correct because the leader is competent, motivates subordinates, and cares for his or her 

people all the while ensuring they are most effective. Option b is incorrect because integrity was not one 

of the leadership elements taught in the lesson. Option c incorrect because it doesn't address how the subordinates were influenced. 
434 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Attachment 8 

EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHING INTERVIEW 

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART I

COVER SHEET

LESSON TITLE: Laws of Warfare 

RESOURCE PERSON:

TEACHING METHOD: Teaching Interview 

REFERENCES: AFPD 51-4, Compliance With the Law of Armed Conflict

AIDS AND HANDOUTS/NOTETAKERS: Overview Chart 

STUDENT PREPARATION/READING ASSIGNMENT:

PRESENTATION TIME: 30-37 Minutes 

PART IA

COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST comprehend that adherence to laws of warfare prevents 

conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and destruction. 

COGNITIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR:

1. Justify why adherence to laws or warfare prevents conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and 

destruction. 

2. Predict the effects on conflict if the US did not adhere to the laws of warfare. 

3. Estimate the consequences on conflict if the enemy did not adhere to the laws of warfare. 

4. Given a scenario, explain how adherence to laws of warfare could prevent the conflict from escalating 

to uncontrollable death and destruction. 

AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST respond positively to the principle that adherence to laws 

of warfare prevents conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and destruction. 

AFFECTIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR:

1. Unhesitatingly predicts the probable outcomes in war situations resulting from violations of the laws of 

war. 

2. Openly explains the rationale and benefits of the laws of war using examples of actual past conflicts. 

3. Actively tries to persuade others who mock the utility of the laws in preventing uncontrollable death 

and destruction. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 435

PART IB

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Topical 

STRATEGY: This lesson, adherence to laws of warfare prevents conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and destruction, is designed to last approximately 45 minutes. My primary purpose is not to 

study the laws of war in depth, but to sensitize the students to the very real and important benefits we 

derive from adhering to them. Consequently, we will simply look at a sample of the laws and talk about 

their past and potential benefits during wartime. I’ve decided to use the teaching interview to heighten the 

affective impact of this lesson. I will also use the topical pattern to organize the main points. This is the 

most logical pattern to use. The inductive approach was selected to more easily understand this complicated subject. I've invited an interviewee who works intimately on questions related to the law of armed 

conflict (laws of war). The first main point is how adherence to requirements governing the status of parties prevents the indiscriminate killing of combatants, noncombatants, and civilians. First, the guest will 

talk about the requirements governing the status of combatants, noncombatants, and civilians and how 

these requirements protect human life during periods of conflict. Since this point deals with human life, it 

should be of great interest to the students and, consequently, draw students' attention to the interview more 

forcefully. Our focus will then shift to objects. The second main point is adherence to rules of aerial bombardment prevents the indiscriminate bombing of possible targets in an enemy nation. We'll develop rules 

of aerial bombardment so students can see why rules, valid targets, unacceptable targets, and location 

problems are such concerns in warfare. This is the second main point because students need to understand 

the impact of war on objects. This is important but not as important as the first main point. Both MP1 and 

MP2 need to be discussed before we can generalize to MP3. Once students understand how adherence to 

these requirements and rules prevents indiscriminate killing and bombing of target, I will question the 

interviewee on how the laws as a whole prevent conflicts from escalating. This is the third main point—

adherence to laws of warfare conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and destruction. In looking 

at the laws as a whole, we will address the reasons for following the laws, the consequences of nonadherence, the effect of bombing cities and disobeying orders, and finally how adhering to the laws keeps the 

smallest war from resulting in the end of civilization. I take this line of questioning so the students can 

deduce the conclusion about the benefits of following the law for their own good as well as the good of 

others. I will be asking all the questions of the guest during the body of the class; therefore, I will allow 

students to ask questions at the end, but before the conclusion of the lesson. This will allow the students 

an opportunity to eliminate any area of confusion as well as have the interviewee expand on any particular 

area. After student questioning is completed, I will do a final summary and conclusion based on my questions during the body and their questions during the question-and answer (Q & A) period. This final step 

will enhance the likelihood of the students identifying with this lesson. I want to make sure their concerns 

(as well as mine) are noted and emphasized. The only visual aids I will use are Powerpoint slides listing 

each main point on separate slides. When discussing MP1 make sure and have only the slide listing MP1 

on the monitor. The same applies for each other main point. In the summary, use the slide with all the 

main points on it to show the generalization of reaching the lesson objective. 

LESSON OUTLINE

MP1. Adherence to requirements governing the status of parties prevents the indiscriminate killing of 

combatants, noncombatants, and civilians. 
436 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

a. Combatants 

b. Noncombatants 

c. Civilians 

MP2. Adherence to rules of aerial bombardment prevents the indiscriminate bombing of possible targets 

in an enemy nation. 

a. Rules dictate targets 

b. Valid targets 

c. Unacceptable targets 

d. Location problems 

MP3. Adherence to laws of warfare prevent conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and destruction. 

a. Reasons for allowing laws of warfare 

b. Consequences of nonadherence 

c. Effect of bombing cities 

d. Disobeying orders 

e. Civilized warfare 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 437

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART II

TEACHING PLAN

Introduction

ATTENTION: Some war criminals say they believed it was their duty to kill everyone in their operational area, including women and children, because their superior desired it. 

The most common defense at Nuremburg was, "I was following orders." 

North Vietnam threatened to kill captured pilots because they were not combatants in a declared war. 

MOTIVATION: It is obvious that crewmembers would have an interest in the laws of warfare—their 

lives could depend upon it. It's not so obvious for the rest of us support personnel. But I look at Operation 

DESERT STORM. How many surprise deployments were there? The bottom line is that it's too late to 

learn it at the time. We must be familiar with the basics in advance. 

INTRODUCTION OF GUEST: Maj Nick Grebeldinger 

Education: Juris Doctorate Degree, Duquesne University 

LLM (International Law), George Washington University in Washington DC 

Graduate of Armed Forces Staff College 

Background: 3 years on Air Staff in International Law Division of OTJAG 

2 years in USAFE as member of International Law Directorate 

2 years at Jag School 

-Advised Tactical Air Command, Military Airlift Command, Air Force Logistics 

 Command, and Air University on law of warfare training 

-Lectured on laws of warfare at AWC, ACSC, and SOS 

OVERVIEW: 

1. Requirements governing the status of parties 

2. Rules of aerial bombardment 

3. Importance of following the laws of warfare 

DEFINE TERMS

ANNOUNCE Q&A PERIOD

TRANSITION: Before entering the discussion, Maj Grebeldinger, why have you channeled so much of 

your energies into this area of study? 
438 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Body

MP1. Adherence to requirements governing the status of parties prevents the indiscriminate killing of 

combatants, noncombatants, and civilians. 

Questions Anticipated Responses 

LOQ: Why can a squad of soldiers operating 

behind the lines in civilian clothes be shot as 

spies? 

Must be uniformed or else not protected 

a. FUQ: What is the status of an escaping POW? He or she does not easily fit into the combatant/

noncombatant dichotomy 

POW is entitled to attempt to escape and can 

only face administrative punishment (such as 

solitary confinement, bread and water) for 

attempting 

However, the captors can use deadly force to 

prevent an escape, provided the POWs are 

warned beforehand (the wire before the barbed 

wire fence you see in WWII movies) 

POWs cannot use deadly force to make their 

escape, nor can they steal items that would not be 

necessary for their escape (for example, they can 

steal clothes, money, or food, but not jewelry or 

personal items); in those cases, they would be 

tried under the legal system of the captor nation 

and sentenced to confinement in prison or death 

(in other words, they would no longer be treated 

as POWs) 

They revert to combatant status if they reach 

their own lines or country 

b. FUQ: How can a surrendering airman not Deceiving enemy 

resist when the enemy is approaching and the 

odds look better than when the airman 

surrendered? 

Could jeopardize future captives 

c. FUQ: Do those in noncombatant status Medics, chaplains 

differ? Separate category 

Afforded protection 

d. FUQ: In what conditions could civilians Not unless uniformed 

fight? 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 439

INTERIM SUMMARY: Summarize comments as they relate to how these requirements prevent indiscriminate killing. 

TRANSITION: We have seen how adherence to requirements governing the status of parties prevents 

the indiscriminate killing of human beings. This action helps prevent conflicts from escalating. Now, let's 

turn from people to objects as we examine target selection under the rules of aerial bombardment. 

MP2. Adherence to rules of aerial bombardment prevents the indiscriminate bombing of possible targets 

in an enemy nation. 

INTERIM SUMMARY: Summarize comments as they relate to the prevention of indiscriminate bombing of targets. 

TRANSITION: We have learned some basic rules and how they are applied to prevent the indiscriminate 

bombing of targets. Now let's find out what this means to us. 

MP3. Adherence to laws of warfare prevents conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and 

destruction. 

Questions Anticipated Responses

LOQ: How do the rules of aerial bombardment 

affect the decision on targets? 

Rules dictate the targets that can be attacked 

a. FUQ: What would be the situation of Valid target—if military targets are there 

targeting the capital of an enemy country with a 

nuclear weapon under the laws of warfare? 

b. FUQ: Why can't our enemies target downtown 

Montgomery? 

Montgomery is not a military target, though 

Maxwell is 

c. FUQ: What are some examples of targets that 

may be targeted and those that may not? 

Targets: military facilities, access roads, 

waterways, etc. 

Nontargets: Civilian population areas 

d. FUQ: How could we attack a factory if it's Precision bombing or military necessity 

next to a hospital? 

Questions Anticipated Responses

LOQ: Everyone knows the enemy doesn't Court-martial 

follow the laws of warfare. Why should we? War crime trial 

You as a POW 
440 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

TRANSITION: In adhering to the laws of a good teaching interview, I would like to now offer an opportunity for you (the students) to ask Maj Grebeldinger any questions you may have. 

Q&A SESSION:

TRANSITION: Those were great questions. Let’s see what we have looked at today. 

Conclusion

FINAL SUMMARY:

Summarize relevant material from Q&A session 

Summarize MP3 

Review MP2 

Review MP1 

Restate lesson objective 

REMOTIVATION: In time of peace it is hard to get excited about the laws of warfare. However, now is 

the time for us to prepare. If war comes, we will be too busy to take time. Our country cannot tolerate war 

criminals. You can't afford to be the war criminal or have one work for you. 

CLOSURE: Thank you, Maj Grebeldinger 

a. FUQ: How can adhering to the laws of warfare 

preclude escalation to uncontrollable death and 

destruction? 

Play game or get "nuked" 

b. FUQ: Why would it not be a good idea to 

bomb their cities to "bring them to their knees"? 

Sometimes unites enemy 

c. FUQ: What if I am ordered to disobey the laws 

of warfare, such as attack a civilian target...what 

are my choices? 

Refuse, but be right 

d. FUQ: How will adhering to the laws of warfare 

keep even the smallest war from resulting in the 

end of civilization, as we know it? 

"Civilized" warfare 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 441

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART III

TEST ITEMS

ITEM 1

LESSON OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST comprehend that adherence to laws of warfare prevents conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and destruction. 

SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR: Predict the effect on conflict if the US did not adhere to the laws of warfare. 

QUESTION: If the US elected NOT to adhere to the laws of war, what would be the MOST LIKELY 

effect? 

a. The US public would be behind us because "all is fair in love and war." 

b. There would be instant diplomatic, economic, and military reprisal by other nations. 

c. Our overseas trade would suffer because such action is not consistent with the principles of capitalism. 

KEY: b 

RATIONALE: Option b is correct because this answer covers all the areas of retribution open to other 

nations (consistent with text and discussion). Option b is incorrect because civilians could be killed under 

this rational. Option c is incorrect because overseas trade has nothing to do with the laws of war. 

ITEM 2

LESSON OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST comprehend that adherence to laws of warfare prevents conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and destruction. 

SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR: Justify why adhering to laws of warfare prevents conflicts from escalating 

to uncontrollable death and destruction. 

QUESTION: In 250 words or less, justify why adhering to laws of warfare prevents conflicts from escalating to uncontrollable death and destruction. Question is worth 40 points, and partial credit will be 

given. One point will be deducted for each spelling error. 

KEY: A complete answer must include: 

 Adherence to requirements governing the status of parties prevents the indiscriminate killing of 

combatants, noncombatants, and civilians. (10 points) 

 Adherence to rules of aerial bombardment prevents the indiscriminate bombing of possible targets in 

an enemy nation. (10 points) 

 Students should include discussion on enforcement power of the UCMJ (Court Martial), national and 

international law (war crime trials), and the expectation theory (what you would expect as a POW), 

escalating to uncontrollable death and destruction. (10 points) 

NOTE: Partial credit will be given with a maximum possible 40 points. 
442 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Attachment 9 

EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR DEMONSTRATION-PERFORMANCE METHOD 

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART I

COVER SHEET

LESSON TITLE: Tying a Trucker's Hitch Knot 

TEACHING METHOD: Demonstration-Performance 

REFERENCES: AETC Survival Training Guide 

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Sequential 

VISUAL AIDS/EQUIPMENT: Poster of task steps, rope for each student 

STUDENT PREPARATION/READING ASSIGNMENT: None 

PART IA

CRITERION-OBJECTIVE:

TASK STEPS:

1. Secure one end of the rope with any known knot. 

2. Tie slipknot 2 feet from secured end. 

3. Place locking loop over the slipknot. 

4. Route the rope around a second secure point or to an item to be secured. 

5. Route a loop partially through the locked slipknot. 

6. Route the free end of the rope through the loop. 

7. Pull the free end of the rope tight through the loop. 

8. Apply enough pressure to the free end to tighten and lock the hitch knot. 

9. Reverse the pressure to free the hitch knot. 

PERFORMANCE CONDITIONS STANDARDS 

Tie a trucker's hitch knot 1. Given: Trucker's hitch knot must: 

 a. Rope 1. Be tight 

 b. Tie-off 2. Lock 

2. Without: 3. Easily unlock 

 a. Instructor assistance 4. Be completed within 4 

 b. Task list minutes 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 443

AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: TOOTLIFEST respond in a positive manner to tying a trucker's hitch knot. 

AFFECTIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR:

1. Reads additional information on how to tie a trucker’s hitch knot. 

2. Helps others master the techniques needed to tie a trucker's hitch knot. 

3. Asks questions about the procedure for tying a trucker's hitch knot. 

PART IB

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Sequential 

STRATEGY: The demonstration-performance method is used in this lesson because I’m teaching a physical skill. For an attention step, I will use an example of living in tent city, and not being able to get the tent 

tight enough. As a motivator, I will explain that using a hitch knot helps to get those tents tight, as well as 

secure. In the overview, I will give details of what to expect in the lesson by telling the students I will 

explain and demonstrate how to tie a trucker’s hitch knot using the task steps. Then each student will have 

time to practice tying a trucker’s hitch knot under my supervision. The last practice will be under evaluation conditions, which will prepare them for their evaluation. I will state the task steps and the standard on 

which they will be evaluated. I will transition into MP1, Explanation/Demonstration. I will demonstrate 

the skill while explaining each task step shown on a visual aid to the students. Students who lack 

knot-tying experience will not be able to really understand the meaning of each task step without a visual 

reference and demonstration. I will carefully and precisely demonstrate the skill. This will ensure the students understand all task steps necessary to tie the trucker’s hitch knot. After I complete the explanation/

demonstration, I will give each student a length of rope and allow each student ample time to practice and 

ask questions. During MP2, Performance-Supervision, I will observe each student; if I notice anyone having difficulty, I will provide assistance so he or she will be able to correctly tie the trucker’ hitch knot. I 

will allow ample time for practice. This will ensure each student’s ability to correctly tie the trucker’s 

hitch knot. When everyone seems comfortable with the task, I will conduct the last practice under evaluation conditions by removing the task steps, providing no assistance, and allowing only 4 minutes to complete the task. This will give them a clear understanding of what the evaluation will be like and should 

decrease the students’ anxieties. Once everyone has completed the task, I will provide an interim summary by reviewing the task steps again, reemphasizing any areas the students were having problems with. 

Again, I will explain the standards they need to meet so everyone is aware of what it takes to pass this 

evaluation. I will then begin MP3, the evaluation. At the end of 4 minutes, I will evaluate each student’s 

performance, determining if the student mastered the skill or not according to the standard. I will use the 

performance evaluation sheet to the performance and provide positive feedback reemphasizing any weak 

areas demonstrated by the student. I will transition to the summary and review key areas in the Explanation/Demonstration for tying a trucker’s hitch knot. I will state key areas of their performance under my 

supervision. I will provide some positive point of the evaluation. I will remotivate the students by stating 

that the hitch knot can be used to tie the tent in a survival situation to manufacture shelter or as a tiedown 

when transporting items at work or at home. I will close by quoting the Boy Scout motto and by telling 

them that knowing this trucker’s hitch knot gives them just one more tool in their arsenal of preparation. 

LESSON OUTLINE:

MP1. Explanation/Demonstration 
444 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

MP2. Performance-Supervision 

MP3. Evaluation 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 445

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART II

TEACHING PLAN

Introduction

ATTENTION: Picture this . . . you've been deployed to Bosnia. You get to spend some time in a tent city. 

No matter how hard you try, you can't seem to be able to keep that tent upright and tight! If you only knew 

how to tie one of those COOL hitch knots they use at the survival school! 

MOTIVATION: If you have ever been in a situation where you needed a knot or hitch knot that could 

provide a GREAT deal of pressure and not slip on you, the trucker's hitch knot is for you. If you learn to 

tie a trucker's hitch knot, you will be able to tie down those tents that you may have the pleasure of living 

in, or you can use it to tie down equipment, supplies, or furniture. You can secure anything you need to 

from moving around in the wind or when moving it in a truck or on the back of a trailer. 

OVERVIEW: Today, I am going to teach you how to tie a trucker's hitch knot. First I'll explain the process to you while I demonstrate to you how it is tied. Once you have watched me tie the hitch knot, I will 

give each of you some rope and let you practice tying it at least two times, with your first attempt under 

my supervision. If you have problems, I will let you have several additional practices. Your last practice 

will be under evaluation conditions, which means no help from either the task list or me. You then will be 

evaluated on your ability to tie a trucker's hitch knot on your own. You must complete the hitch knot 

within 4 minutes. It has to be tight, and it must lock in place. It will also have to release (unlock) easily 

and correctly to get a satisfactory completion. During this lesson right up to the evaluation, I'll be more 

than happy to answer questions and help you with this task in any way, so please ask questions if you have 

any. 

TRANSITION: Now that you know WHAT we are going to do... let's get to doing it! 

Body

MP1. EXPLANATION/DEMONSTRATION: Explain what a trucker's hitch knot is and what it can 

be used for. Make sure all students have a clear view of the demonstration, and demonstrate each step 

while explaining why each step occurs. Put up the poster of the task steps, explaining each step as you 

demonstrate it. 

1. Secure one end of the rope with any known knot. (anchor) Let the student know that any method of 

securing the line is acceptable as long as it remains secure. This is so the base of the hitch knot remains 

secure but will not cause the student to spend unnecessary time on the anchor. Use a table leg or some 

secure part of the classroom. 

2. Tie slipknot 2 feet from secured end. (act as anchor for hitch knot) Demonstrate how and where to 

place the slipknot. Explain that the location will vary depending on the distance between the anchor and 

the second secure point. Be sure to explain that this must be done before attaching to the second anchor 

because slack is needed to tie the slipknot. 
446 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

3. Place locking loop over the slipknot. (lock down the slipknot) The locking loop prevents the slipknot 

from slipping. The slipknot loop will be the anchor for the self-locking hitch knot. 

4. Route the rope around a second secure point or to an item to be secured. (anchor) Explain that this 

is an anchor for the hitch knot—not for the rope. It is important to make this distinction because the rope 

is not actually tied off to the anchor, and you don't want to confuse the student. 

5. Route a loop partially through the locked slipknot. (lock for hitch knot) This loop will act as the 

locking mechanism for the hitch knot. 

6. Route the free end of the rope through the loop. (end of hitch knot)

7. Pull the free end of the rope tight through the loop. (hitch knot) Take the free end of the rope, feed 

it through the partial loop, and pull it tight. This completes the tying of the hitch knot. 

8. Apply enough pressure to the free end to tighten and lock the hitch. (lock) When I pull the hitch 

knot tight, the partial loop and the free end of the rope should tighten down, locking it in place. This 

should lock down the hitch knot. Explain to the students to take care when cinching this hitch knot 

because excessive force may break the legs on the table you are demonstrating on. 

9. Reverse the pressure to free the hitch knot. (unlock) Reverse the direction of your force to unlock 

the hitch knot. Explain to the students that locking and unlocking the hitch knot is part of their evaluations. Locking the loop will allow the students to continue other work without worrying about the hitch 

knot slipping. Also explain that when the work is done and the hitch knot is in place to stay, they can place 

a locking knot of some type on the hitch knot for added safety. 

TRANSITION: Now that you have seen one tied, it is your turn to practice a bit. 

MP2. PERFORMANCE-SUPERVISION: Review task steps and standards. Go over the warning 

again about making the hitch knot too tight. Hand out rope. Continue to encourage the students to ask 

questions. Monitor all students so you can identify and correct any potential problems. Allow students to 

practice as much as they need. The final practice will be a practice evaluation, performed under exactly

the same conditions as the actual evaluation. (Hide poster of task steps.) 

TRANSITION: I have demonstrated how to tie the trucker's hitch knot and you have tried it a couple of 

times. Before we begin the evaluation, I want to review the steps one more time. 

INTERIM SUMMARY: Before starting the evaluation, review the tasks once more and emphasize any 

problem areas. Review the standards. Make sure students are ready for the evaluation. 

TRANSITION: You all seem to have a grasp on how to tie it, so let's get ready for the evaluation. I'm 

sure you will all do just fine. 

MP3. EVALUATION: Review standards. Make sure the task list is not in use. Start the evaluation. Monitor each student. Record the results of each student's performance (see attached form) and make notes of 

any areas that need to be retaught due to student difficulty. Tactfully reveal any areas of difficulty if any 

students do not successfully complete the exercise. 

TRANSITION: I showed you how to tie a trucker's hitch knot, let you practice, and then tested you on it. 

Everyone did well. Now, let's take a look at how things went. 

Conclusion

SUMMARY: Review key points in explanation/demonstration, performance-supervision, and evaluation. 

Review the task steps, emphasizing any weak areas. State the standard, which they were evaluated 

against. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 447

REMOTIVATION: Today, you have learned to tie a trucker’s simple hitch knot. The simplicity, however, belies the usefulness of the hitch knot. With this knot, you can now tie those tents as tight as you 

desire. You can also use it to build a survival shelter should the need arise. In your work centers, if you 

need to transport items in the back of a truck or van, this hitch knot can be used as a tiedown. You can 

even use it to, dare I suggest it, tie up the kids! Just kidding, but you can see that this simple trucker’s hitch 

knot does have many uses. 

CLOSURE: The Boy Scouts have a motto, "Always be prepared." In mastering this hitch knot, you have 

added one more tool to your inventory of preparedness. 
448 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART III

EVALUATION INSTRUMENT

Evaluator: __________________________________

Place a check in each box in which the item was performed to standards. 

EVALUATOR COMMENTS (weak areas, things to reteach, etc.): 

Student Student Student Student Student Student Student

Standards #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7

Trucker’s hitch knot 

must:

 Be tight 

 Lock 

 Easily unlock 

 Be completed 

 within 4 minutes 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 449

Attachment 10 

EXAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 

LEARNING GAME

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART I

COVER SHEET

LESSON TITLE: Capture the Flag 

RESOURCE PERSON:

GAME: Experiential 

REFERENCES: AFI 36-1201, Discrimination Complaints

AIDS/HANDOUTS/NOTETAKERS: Game pieces, task sheets (to be cut into three strips), a red pen, 

USAF ISD Model handout and AI-763f, Designing Level of Learning Lessons, handout. 

READING ASSIGNMENT: None 

PRESENTATION TIME: 35 Minutes 

PART IA

COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to comprehend that discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

COGNITIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR:

1. Describe how discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

2. Given a scenario, predict how discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

3. Give examples of how discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to respond with interest to 

the idea that discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

AFFECTIVE SAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR:

1. Participates in discussion on how discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

2. Gives meaningful examples from experience on how discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

3. Assists others in understanding how discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 
450 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

PART 1B

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN: Topical 

STRATEGY: The lesson length is 30-37 minutes. The organizational pattern used for this game is 

sequential because of the step-by-step order of events. This experiential lesson is designed to be played by 

four to eight people. If there are extra persons in the seminar, appoint them as observers, task them to take 

notes on the group dynamics, and include their inputs as part of the debrief. This will keep them involved 

in the process and facilitate them meeting the lesson objective. The reason for the smaller group of players 

is to ensure clear, observable reactions from all the players. With more than eight people, some reactions 

may be masked or exaggerated and it could be difficult to control. This lesson will use the inductive 

approach because the students should have knowledge through experience on how discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. As such, introduce the game and review the rules (MP1). Execute the game 

(MP2). Discuss the game results (debrief), and last, draw a formal definition of discrimination and a final 

generalization as a conclusion to the activity (MP3). Therefore, ensure you do not tell the students the 

game is to focus on discrimination since this conclusion will be drawn during the debrief. Prior to the 

class, review the task sheets to ensure familiarity with them. The key to the game is the proper administration of the tasks to the participants. Each team will have three tasks to accomplish. Cut the two task sheets 

into the three strips required to issue them at the sequential times. The tasks are also listed in the body of 

the lesson to facilitate the instructor's control over the proceedings. One team will have to do the tasks 

under extremely constrained conditions (discriminatory). The other team will accomplish its tasks under 

conditions with more flexibility. Do not give the tasks out all at once. Each team will only work on one 

task at a time. After both teams have finished, or upon expiration of the time limit, the next task can be 

started. During the playing of the game be sensitive to student reactions to the scenarios because you will 

use this in the debrief. Record secretively if necessary. Following game play, do a thorough debrief. 

Include any observer's comments. Discuss student reactions to tasks. Some reactions may come from the 

"winning" side. By bringing out the feelings and results of the discrimination during the game, the students should be able to see how it negatively impacts everyone concerned. Once the students have comprehensively discussed the game and drawn the conclusion that discrimination was at work in the 

scenarios, you should then review the definition of discrimination. This ensures everyone is fully aware of 

what constitutes discrimination and how the Air Force defines it. As a conclusion to the debrief, ask students how discrimination negatively impacts their jobs, productivity, view of others, etc. This will 

develop the generalization stated in the lesson objective that discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

LESSON OUTLINE:

MP1. Introduce game and review rules. 

MP2. Execute "Capture the Flag" game. 

MP3. Game debrief, provide definition of discrimination, and discuss its negative impact on the workplace. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 451

PART II

INTRODUCTION

ATTENTION: How many of you like to play games? Great! You are going to get a chance to play one 

today. 

MOTIVATION: This little game is a lot of fun and should help you eventually do your job better as a 

supervisor and a leader. Just to add a little competition, the winning team is going to get 

__________________. (NOTE: There should be some type of appropriate reward for the winning team. 

It could be a jar of candy, etc. Initially give the prize only to the winners to emphasize the impact of discrimination. However, BOTH teams will receive the prize at the end of the lesson.) 

OVERVIEW: Our path today is simple. First, we're going to play the game. This game will require you 

to accomplish some activities following the directions I give. Follow the directions exactly or you will be 

penalized. I will be recording scoring information, so don't be concerned with any writing I may be doing. 

When we are done, we will discuss the actions that happened in the game. 

TRANSITION: Now that you know what we will be doing, let's go over the rules of the game and get 

started. 

MP1. Introduce Game and Review Rules.

The object of the game is to reach the summit of the hill and capture the flag. You will be divided into two 

teams of four people. (Can be two groups of three or four depending on class size. Appoint extra personnel as monitors/notetakers.) One team is the Red Team, the other is the Blue Team. There will be a designated leader in each team. Each team will be given instructions to complete a task. The instructions must 

be followed completely—"to the letter!" Each team will have similar, yet different (to some extent) rules 

of engagement. Do not concern yourself with what the other team is doing. Their actions have no bearing 

on your ability to accomplish your task. There are only three tasks to complete. I will give you the tasks 

one at a time. Completion of each task moves your team up the hill. The team who reaches the top of the 

hill first captures the flag and will receive the prize. Are there any questions? 

1. Select teams. 

2. Appoint leaders. 

3. When ready, hand out first instruction sheet to appropriate team. 

TRANSITION: Okay, now that you know what we are going to do and the game rules, let's get started. 

MP2. The Game: 

Task Sheet 1

Red 1. As a team, draw and label pictures of 30 items needed to construct a temporary living shelter. 

Draw and label as many as you can in the specified time. You have 5 minutes to complete this task. Do not 

speak! You may not ask the instructor for any assistance. If any member on your team speaks, it will constitute an automatic failure. 

Blue 1. Using a red pen, draw seven items you might need to construct a temporary living shelter. 
452 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

(NOTE: Have a red pen available for the Blue Team if they ask you for one.) You may quietly discuss 

your selections among yourselves and provide assistance to the person drawing. List as many items as you 

can in the specified time limit. You have 5 minutes to complete this task. You may ask your instructor for 

help if necessary. 

As each team completes a task, move its player game piece up the hill closer to the flag. 

Only the Blue Team will be able to complete all three tasks. Find some reason to fail the Red Team on one 

of the tasks. 

Task Sheet 2

Red 2. Without the use of any written materials or outside assistance, draw a replica of the USAF ISD 

model naming all functions, phases, and other labels as specified by AFMAN 36-2234, Section B. You 

have 5 minutes to complete this task. 

Blue 2. Draw a replica of the USAF ISD Model naming all functions, phases, and other labels as specified 

by AFMAN 36-2234, Section B. You may use handouts and manuals as provided by AIS. Do not speak 

loud enough for the Red Team to hear your answers. You have 7 minutes to complete this task. 

Have an ISD Model handout available for the Blue Team.

Task Sheet 3

Red 3. Without the use of any written materials, list the design elements in the design phase as taught in 

AIS lesson titled "Designing Level of Learning Lessons." You may discuss this quietly among yourselves. You have 2 minutes to complete this task. 

Blue 3. Using AI-763f Handout, Designing Level of Learning Lessons, list the design elements taught in 

that lesson. You may ask the instructor for assistance if necessary. Do not speak loud enough for the Red 

Team to hear your answers. You have 3 minutes to complete this task. 

Have AI-763f handout available for the students if they ask for one.

TRANSITION: When the Blue Team reaches the top, declare them the winners and award the prize. 

Then have the groups assemble together and do a debrief. 

MP3. Debrief/Summary:

Questions Anticipated Responses 

LOQ: Red Team, how did you feel as you Unfair 

went through each task? Other unit was getting advantages 

No apparent reason 

a. FUQ: What kinds of thoughts were you 

thinking about: 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 453

Let's look at the definition of discrimination: Webster defines it as "treatment or distinction not based on 

individual merit in favor of or against a person, group, etc." 

AFI 36-2706, Military Equal Opportunity and Treatment Program, refers to unlawful discrimination and 

defines it as: "...discrimination on the basis of color, national origin, race, religion, or sex that is not otherwise authorized by law or regulation." 

(1) task 1? Couldn't talk, other team could, no apparent 

reason. Not fair 

(2) task 2? Unfair, couldn't use outside materials and less 

time for no apparent reason 

(3) task 3? Unfair, couldn't ask for help, other team could, 

for no apparent reason 

b. FUQ: How did this affect your operations Made us less likely to try 

as a team? Demotivating 

LOQ: Blue Team, how did the rules of Made us less likely to try hard 

engagement (ROE) affect your team's Knew we couldn't lose 

operations?" Embarrassed 

a. FUQ: How did you feel about your Less than worthy or unearned 

achievements when it became obvious they Again, embarrassed 

were achieved under less than fair 

circumstances? 

b. FUQ: Ask for observations from any 

other students in the group. 

Questions Anticipated Responses

LOQ: How were the ROE of this game 

discriminatory? 

Gave favorable treatment to one group over the 

other and it was not based on merit 

a. FUQ: What do you think would be the Low morale 
454 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

TRANSITION: Well, that just about wraps up this exercise. Let's take a look at what we have done today. 

results in the work setting if these same type of Tension 

discriminatory practices were used? Dislike for the favored group 

Low productivity 

Have and have-nots 

Unfair promotion or advancement 

View that some are better than others at job 

b. FUQ: Based on these expected results, what is 

the logical conclusion we can draw 

Discrimination has a negative impact on the 

work place 

from this exercise? (When the students come up with this 

conclusion, display the lesson objective.) 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 455

CONCLUSION

SUMMARY: Today we had a chance to play a game that some would say was unfair. That is exactly what 

discrimination is—UNFAIR. It can either hold individuals or groups back or give recognition, advancement, advantage, profit, status, etc., to groups or individuals, not based on their merit, but based on who 

they are. We saw how discriminatory practices not only affect the ability of a group to succeed, but also 

the negative impact it has on everyone involved. (NOTE: Summarize observations students and you made 

during the debrief. Make a clear correlation between observations, testimony, and the lesson objective.) 

Winners and losers alike are really both losers in the game of discrimination. The individual, the group, 

the job, the Air Force, and society all suffer in this loss. We cannot afford discrimination—the cost is too 

great. 

REMOTIVATION: While discrimination isn't always as blatant as it was in this game, it will still have a 

negative impact on the attitudes and morale of military units and the individuals who make up the team. 

This exercise clearly demonstrated that fact. You have seen the effects yourselves and can understand the 

pain and embarrassment that can be caused. 

CLOSURE: So, the next time you have an opportunity to interact with someone, give him or her a fair 

shake. Also, if you think you are being discriminated against, respond positively to correct the situation. 

Discrimination is not fair to anyone; therefore, since we are all winners here, both teams get the prize. 

(Give the Red Team the same prize the Blue Team received.) 
456 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

TEAM TASKS

RED TEAM TASKS

Red 1. As a team, draw and label pictures of 30 items needed to construct a temporary living shelter. Draw

and label as many as you can in the specified time. You have 5 minutes to complete this task. Do not speak!

You may not ask the instructor for any assistance. If any member on your team speaks, it will constitute

an automatic failure. 

Red 2. Without the use of any written materials or outside assistance, draw a replica of the USAF ISD

model naming all functions, phases, and other labels as specified by AFMAN 36-2234, Section B. You

have 5 minutes to complete this task. 

Red 3. Without the use of any written materials, list the Design Elements in the design phase as taught

in AIS lesson titled "Designing Level of Learning Lessons." You may discuss this quietly. You have 2

minutes to complete this task. 

BLUE TEAM TASKS

Blue 1. Using a red pen, draw seven items you might need to construct a temporary living shelter. You

may quietly discuss your selections among yourselves and provide assistance to the person who is

drawing. List as many items as you can in the specified time limit. You have 5 minutes to complete this

task. You may ask your instructor for help if necessary. 

Blue 2. Draw a replica of the USAF ISD Model naming all functions, phases, and other labels as specified

by AFMAN 36-2234, Section B. You may use handouts and manuals as provided by AIS. Do not speak

loud enough for the Red unit to hear your answers. You have 7 minutes to complete this task. 

Blue 3. Using AI-763f Handout, Designing Level of Learning Lessons, list the design elements taught in

that lesson. You may ask the instructor for assistance if necessary. Do not speak loud enough for the Red

unit to hear your answers. You have 3 minutes to complete this task. 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 457

ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

PART III

TEST ITEM

LESSON OBJECTIVE: The objective of this lesson is for each student to comprehend that discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR: Describe how discrimination negatively impacts the workplace. 

TEST QUESTION: 

Which of the following BEST describes how discrimination negatively impacts the workplace? 

a. Decreases morale overall, but increases esprit in various organizations within the whole unit. 

b. Produces hostility and frustration because it lowers morale and productivity. 

c. Decreases esprit throughout the unit; however, it raises productivity in certain sectors. 

KEY: b 

RATIONALE: Option b is the correct response. Discrimination creates hostility and frustration in the 

affected individuals and may cause them to resent coworkers, thus adversely affecting the working relationship. Option a is incorrect because although it may decrease morale overall, it should not increase 

esprit anywhere in the unit. Option c is incorrect because although it will decrease esprit, it will not raise 

productivity. 
458 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Attachment 11 

FEEDBACK FOR STUDENT SPEAKING 

 ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

 Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

A11.1. Procedures for Giving Feedback. Make the presentation feedback session as effective as possible by adjusting to the communication transaction. For example, when giving a student feedback, consider as wide a range of variables as possible—the type of speech, the maturity of the student, the setting

for the session, etc. What works in one situation may not work in another. Taking a transactional approach

shows that you recognize the complexity of the feedback process. Specifically: 

A11.1.1. Adapt feedback to the student. Human beings are sensitive to comments made about them—

the person is always more important than the performance. A word of praise or a word of disapproval

will stay with the student for a long time. When reviewing a presentation, try to separate the performance from the individual. Instead of saying "what you did wrong was ...," say "what you might have

done to make the presentation better is to ...," or instead of "what you should have done is ...," say

"the next time you speak you might ... ." 

A11.1.2. Comment on both content and delivery. Often an instructor directs attention almost exclusively to delivery (focusing on such things as eye contact, movement, gestures, or voice) or on content

alone (focusing on such things as subject, main points, or supporting material). To help the student

develop totally as a speaker, be sure to consider both aspects. 

A11.1.3. Encourage self-evaluation. Evaluation is often thought of as one-way communication where

the instructor furnishes all the ideas—a kind of self-action. The best feedback is more of an interaction

or a transaction. Instead of saying to a student, "you did this," or "you didn't seem to pay any attention

to that," a better approach might be to ask, "what do you think of your performance?" Or "what could

you do to improve?" In this way, the student becomes involved with the instructor. If the student does

not respond, the instructor might ask if there is any particular problem the student would like

addressed. Remember, the first goal is to help the student—not merely to give advice. 

A11.1.4. Follow criticism with suggestions for improvement. It doesn't help students to tell them their

attention steps are ineffective or their organization is difficult to follow if a better approach is not suggested. Constructive feedback implies building, not tearing down. 

A11.1.5. Mention as many favorable factors as you honestly can. Candid approval opens the recipient's mind. Speaking in front of others is a terrifying experience for many people. Most people need

affirmation for things they did well. If many negative factors and few positive ones are mentioned, the

challenge to improve seems overwhelming. 

A11.1.6. End comments on a note of praise. Repeat any outstanding item in the performance. If it is

difficult to find items to praise, describe the progress the student is making. Undeserved praise makes

the instructor less credible with the class and the student being reviewed. 

A11.2. Common Traps. Make the presentation feedback as effective as possible by avoiding these common traps: 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 459

A11.2.1. Avoid abstract general approval (or disapproval). Instructors who say only "that was a good

presentation" are not doing their jobs. Adjectives such as "wonderful" or "interesting" may make the

student feel good for the moment, but they provide no motivation for growth or improvement. By the

same reasoning, abstract expressions of disapproval such as "terrible" or "bad" also fall short of the

objective as useful feedback. 

A11.2.2. Avoid summarizing the presentation. After a well-organized student has finished, the

instructor may be tempted to enumerate the main points and summarize the support. While such comments may be interesting and show that the instructor was listening, the result is simply a short speech

on a longer one. Summary is not feedback. 

A11.2.3. Resist the impulse to extend the presenter's subject. A student's topic may be so arresting or

controversial that you may want to take the floor yourself and present additional ideas. The student's

train of thought may legitimately stir up associated ideas, but free association is not feedback. 

A11.2.4. Avoid calling attention to minor faults that will correct themselves automatically. Suggestions to the student for improvement should help make the presentation better. For example, telling the

student to speed up, move around more, quit playing with the paper clip, or stop being so nervous have

limited usefulness. Keep trivialities in proportion. 

A11.2.5. Don't criticize something that can't be corrected. It does little good to criticize eye contact of

a student who has crossed eyes or the accent of a person from another part of the country. If the problem is not correctable or the correction is not worth the effort and expense is required, then don't mention it. 
460 AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003

Attachment 12 

GUIDELINES FOR PROVIDING FEEDBACK ON STUDENT WRITING 

 ACADEMIC INSTRUCTOR SCHOOL

 Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

A12.1. Always keep in mind the purpose in giving feedback—to improve the student's ability to write.

No matter how much you would like to edit or rewrite the whole piece, don't do it. There just isn't time,

and it is the student's job to revise from your clear clues. 

A12.2. Strive for maximum objectivity. If you think something is wrong but you can't put your finger on

the exact problem, don't bluff. Always try to be honest, fair, and unbiased. 

A12.3. Don't arbitrarily impose your own personal style or preference on the student. The comment, "I

like it better this way," is not adequate justification for downgrading a student's work. If you can follow

this comment with a reason or a reference to the Guide for AF Writing, you are on much firmer ground. If

what has been written communicates, but you wouldn't have said it that way, let it be. Judge the writing by

its merit alone. You can't measure the amount of effort or improvement. 

A12.4. Don't give undue emphasis to mechanical details such as punctuation, capitalization, and grammar. They are important, but less significant than the quality of the thought. Most mechanical details are

not vital to the communication process; they merely assist in it. When usage is divided about mechanics

or spelling, be flexible, but be sure the student has the same form throughout—encourage consistency. 

A12.5. Remember that good writing is hard work and that writers have a justifiable pride in their efforts.

Don't nit-pick, wordsmith, or find fault just to be finding fault. Your feedback must be constructive to be

acceptable. All writers have personal and social needs. If writing is loaded with errors, try to comment on

the most important ones and deal with the others at a later time. 

A12.6. Approach the feedback job systematically. 

A12.6.1. If you can physically separate the parts of the paper, do so. For ready reference, place the

table of contents or overview on one side and the notes on another. 

A12.6.2. Read the title or subject alone and see if you understand it. What expectation does the title

arouse in the reader? Does the title give direction and a clue to content? 

A12.6.3. On your first reading, attempt no corrections. Instead: 

A12.6.3.1. Try to get a feel for the writer's focus and direction, the organization of main points,

and the quality of the support. See if the conclusions or recommendations are justified. In other

words, see if the writing as a whole adds up before you worry too much about the mechanics.

Every time you spot a mechanical error, however, make a check in the margin. 

A12.6.3.2. Before you read the paper the second time, jot down your impression of the paper's

overall quality apart from mechanical deficiencies. Does the writing communicate? If so, why? If

not, what are the distracters? 
AFMAN36-2236 12 NOVEMBER 2003 461

A12.6.3.3. On the second reading, analyze why you made checkmarks and identify the errors in

the margin. Rewrite one or two items, if necessary, to show what you mean by the corrections, but

don't get in the habit of a complete edit. 

A12.7. In grading writing, use your pencil as carefully as a surgeon's scalpel. 

A12.7.1. Don't be sarcastic, cute, or cryptic. Don't try to impress the student; try to improve the performance. When marking out words, be careful you don't cross out something necessary to the writer's

meaning. 

A12.7.2. Make your comments meaningful. For instance: 

A12.7.2.1. The comment "wordy" is not enough. Circle the unnecessary words. 

A12.7.2.2. The comment "awkward" is not helpful. Be specific. Tell the student, for example, the

sentence is "awkward because of a dangling modifier or a misplaced adjective." 

A12.7.2.3. A question mark in the margin merely raises a question. If you find the sentence confusing or ambiguous, point out where the confusion exists by asking a specific question or by suggesting a way to eliminate the confusion. 

A12.8. Don't be so concerned with style that you ignore the quality of examples or support material.

Make sure, for instance, that the writer has transitioned smoothly into each quotation, using phrases like

the following: "As the Secretary of State wrote in Foreign Affairs in the spring of 1973... ," "In 1942, a

professor at Cornell summarized the problem as... ." 

A12.9. Use the standard proofreader's marks to avoid confusion. (See Figure A13.1.) 

Figure A12.1. Standard Proofreader's Marks.