UGANDA

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide

Kampala

Masaka

Arua

Gulu

Lira

Mbale

Mbarara

Uganda
This guide is designed to help prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and successfully achieve 

mission objectives. The fundamental information it contains will 

help you understand the decisive cultural dimension of your 

assigned location and gain necessary skills to achieve mission 

success.

The guide consists of 

two parts: 

Part 1: Introduces 

“Culture General,” the 

foundational knowledge 

you need to operate

effectively in any global

environment (Photos a 

courtesy of Pro Quest 

2011). 

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” Uganda, focusing on 

unique cultural features of Ugandan society and is designed to 

complement other predeployment training. It 

applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase 

your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment 

location.

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC) website at 

https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or contact AFCLC’s Region 

Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

ECFG Uganda
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story –

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture.

Social Behaviors Across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, 

all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian 

societies generally produce

their own food for limited 

consumption using very 

basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized 

nations have more 

sophisticated market economies, producing foodstuffs for 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
universal consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and 

tradition, although they represent these concepts through a 

variety of unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world 

religions share the belief in one God, their worship practices 

vary with their traditional historical development. Similarly, in 

many kin-based cultures where familial bonds are foundational 

to social identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
This collective perspective forms our worldview– how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

GENE

CULTURE 

RAL
deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations 

GENERAL

CULTURE 

CULTURAL DOMAINS
and ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles. 

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing 

most of what was 

traditional and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form 

of bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed 

for several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo a courtesy of Wikimedia).

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

GENER

CULTURE 

AL
particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults 

or peers.

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life.

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual.

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection 

and widespread poverty 

caused by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions.

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as 

civil war, disease, 

poverty, and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational 

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Ugandan society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Historical Overview

The history of Uganda is a story of complex rivalries between 

regions, religions, and ethnic groups. Due in part to colonial 

policies which aggravated those rivalries, Uganda experienced 

extreme violence during the 

second half of the 20th century.

Early Uganda

Based on evidence discovered 

at Stone Age sites in Uganda, 

humans inhabited the region as 

early as 150,000 years ago. 

About 3,000 years ago, huntergatherers who resembled the Khoe-San of southern Africa in 

culture and appearance began migrating to present-day 

Uganda from the Congo. Beginning around the same time and 

continuing until the early centuries AD, Bantu-speakers from 

the Niger Delta slowly filtered into the region, bringing 

agriculture and Iron Age technology with them.

Early Political Structures

Small, kinship-based societies were the first political structures 

to emerge in present-day Uganda. Although these societies 

were conducive to resolving disputes and performing religious 

rites, they were ill-suited to govern the large numbers who had 

settled in the Lake Victoria region by 1000 AD. Consequently, 

larger political units began to develop in southern Uganda.

Bunyoro: Based in present-day western Uganda, Bunyoro was 

probably the first kingdom in the region. Oral tradition suggests 

that the Batembuzi, the first dynasty, came to power around 

1100 AD. Although Bunyoro was populated by Bantu-speakers,

its rulers probably migrated from present-day Ethiopia, Sudan, 

and South Sudan and later adopted local language and culture. 

Most modern Ugandans with royal lineage still claim descent 

from the mythic Bacwezi, the second dynasty to rule Bunyoro.

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

HISTORY &

MYTH
Later Kingdoms

During the late 15th century the Luo ethnic group of presentday South Sudan migrated into what is now northern Uganda. 

Some of the Luo continued south to Bunyoro and brought an 

end to the Bacwezi dynasty, although it is not clear whether

they used force. During the same period, 3 additional kingdoms 

emerged in present-day Uganda.

Buganda: Originally founded by a breakaway contingent of the 

first Luo dynasty to rule Bunyoro, Buganda remained small until 

the mid-17th century. Because Buganda was located on fertile 

land north of Lake Victoria, agriculture dominated its economy.

The Origin of Death in Buganda

In ancient times, African legends and myths 

developed as oral traditions used to preserve history 

and wisdom across generations, teach moral 

lessons, and entertain. According to Baganda lore, 

Kintu, the first Kabaka (King) of Buganda, traveled 

on a rainbow to Ggulu (Heaven), where he fell in love 

with Nambi, Ggulu’s daughter. Ggulu blessed the 

union but warned the couple to return to earth quickly 

and not to return for anything, lest they attract the 

attention of Walumbe (Death), Nambi’s evil brother.

On the way, Nambi realized that she had forgotten to 

bring millet for her chickens and decided to retrieve 

some from Ggulu against Kintu’s wishes. By the time 

Nambi made it back to Ggulu, Walumbe emerged 

and insisted on following his sister back to earth.

Walumbe soon caused mayhem on earth. He 

particularly enjoyed kidnapping Nambi’s children or 

causing them to fall ill. A distraught Ggulu decided to 

send Kaikuuzi, another of Nambi’s brothers, to take 

Walumbe away from the earth. However, Kaikuuzi 

soon grew dispirited as Walumbe repeatedly hid in 

the underworld. Kaikuuzi eventually relented and 

returned to Ggulu, but not before promising to return 

to earth one day and exile Walumbe for good.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Busoga: Based in the land immediately east of Buganda, the 

Busoga have a similar culture and language to their neighbor. 

However, Busoga is unique among the traditional kingdoms of 

Uganda for claiming no link to the old dynasties of Bunyoro. 

Indeed, as a federation of 11 tiny hereditary chiefdoms, Busoga 

was not even considered a “kingdom” until 1918. 

Ankole: According to oral tradition, Ankole was founded by 

Ruhinda, a son of Ndahura, the first Bacwezi ruler of Bunyoro.

This fact explains the traditional Ankole emphasis on Bacwezi 

traditions. Like their Rwandan neighbors, the people of Ankole 

emphasized cattle ownership, which distinguished the pastoral 

Bahima class from the agricultural Bairu class.

Shifting Balance of Power

The balance of power began to 

shift about two centuries after the 

arrival of the Luo, when a plague 

decimated the cattle of Bunyoro. 

In order to replenish his herds, 

the Omukama (King) of Bunyoro 

invaded neighboring Ankole and 

then continued on to Rwanda, 

where he was killed in battle. The

Kabaka (King) of Buganda took 

advantage of the disarray which 

followed by seizing several 

territories belonging to Bunyoro. The power of Bunyoro 

declined further over the next 200 years, especially in the 

1830s, when an internal territory known as the Toro Kingdom

seceded from Bunyoro. Buganda was the most powerful 

kingdom by the late 18th century, and Bunyoro was just a 

quarter of its former size by the mid-19th century.

Outside the Kingdoms

While the societies of the Lake Victoria region developed into 

centralized, hierarchical kingdoms, the societies of present-day 

northern Uganda remained small and kinship-based. Although 

larger political structures occasionally emerged, they inevitably 

turned out to be temporary, as the harsh northern climate 

forced both agriculturalists and pastoralists to move frequently 

in search of fertile land. The same factors also contributed to 

frequent lethal conflict among early northern societies.

HISTORY &

MYTH
In contrast to the southern kingdoms, early northern societies 

were not hierarchical: the only social distinction was between 

elders and non-elders, and even elders did not receive special 

privileges. Although elders were trusted to serve on councils 

and select clan leaders, most decisions ultimately were made 

by consensus. Some of the best-known northern societies 

include the Iteso, Lango, Acholi, Lugbara, Alur, Bagwere, and 

Karamojong (see Political and Social Relations).

Arrival of Outsiders

While Uganda had little contact with the wider world for much of 

its history, this isolation came to an end with the arrival of Arab 

slave traders and European explorers in the mid-19th century.

Bunyoro and Baker: Kamurasi, the Omukama of Bunyoro in 

the mid-19th century, initially welcomed these outsiders in the 

hope that their support would revive his flagging kingdom.

However, one of the Europeans began to threaten an invasion 

of Bunyoro soon after Kamurasi was succeeded in 1869 by a 

highly effective military leader named Kabalega.

The problematic European was Samuel 

Baker (pictured), a British explorer who 

arrived in 1864 and spent one year living in 

Bunyoro. He returned to the region in 1872 

after the Khedive (Viceroy) of Egypt 

dispatched him to conquer the kingdom. 

Kabalega responded to Baker’s invasion by 

attacking one of Baker’s forts, compelling 

him to retreat northwards. Humiliated by 

the episode, Baker took his revenge by 

disparaging Kabalega and the people of Bunyoro in a widely 

read book. This petty gesture contributed to a bias against 

Bunyoro among future colonial administrators.

The Scramble for Buganda: It was not long before Buganda 

faced similar problems with outsiders. Slave traders from 

Zanzibar, an archipelago off the coast of present-day Tanzania, 

were the first to arrive. Their Islamic faith took hold in Buganda 

and won converts without displacing local religious beliefs. 

French Catholic and British Protestant missionaries arrived

soon after and won converts of their own, leading to a religious 

divide in Buganda (see Religion and Spirituality).

HISTORY &

MYTH
After failing to leverage this religious divide for his own benefit, 

Mwanga, the Kabaka of Buganda, decided in 1887 to side with 

those who had not converted to any foreign faith, prompting the 

Muslim and Christian factions to unite and topple Mwanga in 

1888. However, war broke out between the Muslims and the 

Christians just 1 year later after Mwanga’s Muslim-supported 

successors began persecuting Christians. The Christians won 

a swift victory and reinstated Mwanga as Kabaka of Buganda.

The Christian alliance split soon after the defeat of the Muslims,

with the Catholics favoring an independent Buganda and the 

Protestants favoring British control. Mwanga sided with the 

Catholics, forming an alliance which made some early progress 

but was ultimately outmuscled by British troops armed with an 

early form of the machine gun. By 1893 Mwanga was left with 

little choice but to yield most of his sovereignty to the British 

and allow Buganda to become the basis of a newly created 

colonial political structure known as the Uganda Protectorate.

The letter “B” was dropped from “Buganda” when used as the 

name of the new Protectorate because the British originally 

hired Swahili-speaking guides. In both Swahili and Luganda, 

the language of Buganda (see Language and Communication), 

related words can be formed by attaching different prefixes to 

one root word. However, Swahili uses the prefix u- to denote 

“land of,” while Luganda uses the prefix 

bu-. 

The Uganda Protectorate

As the British angled for power in the

Buganda Kingdom, they also sought to 

extend their control into the other

kingdoms. Bunyoro was the most 

challenging kingdom to conquer because 

it was still ruled in the early 1890s by the 

militaristic and highly competent Kabalega, who had 

expansionist ambitions of his own. In 1893 these ambitions led 

Kabalega to invade Toro in an attempt to recapture territory 

which had once been part of Bunyoro. British forces dispatched 

from Buganda, including 20,000 Baganda (refers to “people of” 

Buganda – see Political and Social Relations) soldiers, repelled 

the invasion, and pursued Kabalega back into Bunyoro,

prompting the king to burn his capital and launch a guerilla war. 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Although this campaign saw some success, Kabalega was 

weak enough by 1896 that the British were able to incorporate 

Bunyoro into the Protectorate. In 1898 Britain further extended 

its control into Ankole, which had been weakened by infectious 

diseases. During the early 20th century, the Protectorate also 

came to include Busoga and parts of today’s northern Uganda.

British Rule

Britain ran the Protectorate (flag 

pictured – the crane is the 

national symbol of Uganda) 

using both direct and indirect 

rule. In northern Uganda where 

there were no large political structures for the British to co-opt,

British officials ruled colonial subjects directly. By contrast, the 

kingdoms of southern Uganda provided a convenient structure 

for implementing indirect rule, where Britain implemented 

colonial policy through indigenous African authorities.

In acknowledgement of Buganda’s support in the war against 

Kabalega, Britain exercised its indirect rule in southern Uganda 

exclusively through the traditional authorities of Buganda. The

other regions, especially Bunyoro which was administered as 

“enemy territory,” resented taking orders from Buganda’s

authorities. 

The Lost Counties: One of the most controversial examples of 

special treatment of Buganda is the issue of the Lost Counties 

of Bunyoro. In order to reward Buganda and punish Kabalega, 

Britain in 1900 transferred to Buganda 6 counties which had 

formerly belonged to Bunyoro and which contained many sites 

of traditional importance to the people of Bunyoro. This action 

sparked great resentment in Bunyoro and remained a source of 

internal discord in Uganda even after independence.

The Neglected North: British rule also helped to create a large 

socioeconomic gap between northern and southern Ugandans 

that compounded cultural differences between those groups 

(see Political and Social Relations). Because Britain developed 

neither reliable transit links nor an adequate education system

in the North, many northerners migrated south. Many of these 

migrants joined the military or police at very low wages.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Benefits of British Rule: Although British rule set the stage for 

the sustained internal strife that has plagued modern Uganda, 

it also had some positive effects. For example, because the 

British discouraged white settlement in Uganda, it was mainly 

indigenous Africans who benefited from the creation of a cotton 

export industry. Indirect rule also gave some Ugandans greater 

autonomy than most Africans living under colonial rule.

Nationalism and Independence

Both the positive and negative 

aspects of British rule helped delay 

calls for independence in Uganda. 

The negative aspects, such as the 

British insistence on ruling people 

separately according to ethnicity, 

promoted factionalism and thereby 

delayed the development of 

national unity. The positive aspects 

mitigated in Uganda many of the 

grievances which led to calls for independence in other 

colonies: the British interfered little with local government, there 

was no entrenched class of white settlers, and cotton exports 

ensured that Ugandans were well-off relative to residents of 

other African colonies (Photo: The Coat of Arms of Uganda).

Political Parties: Motivated more by post-World War II trends 

toward decolonization than by pressure from Ugandans, Britain 

began to prepare Uganda for independence in the late 1940s. 

This decision prompted a flurry of political activity as various 

internal factions tried to secure positions of power in the postcolonial era. The first elections in which Africans were elected 

to the national government were held in 1958.

In order to select a set of rulers who could provide a basis for 

self-government, further elections were scheduled for October 

1961. On the eve of these elections there were 3 major political 

parties: the pro-Buganda Kabaka Yekka (KY), the pro-Catholic 

Democratic Party (DP), and the Uganda People’s Congress 

(UPC), which enjoyed support from a variety of groups. Despite 

having little support beyond its Catholic base, the DP won a 

majority after voters in Buganda boycotted the election to 

protest British plans which would strip Buganda of its 

preferential treatment in the post-colonial era.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Uganda gained full internal selfgovernment on March 1, 1962. A 

second set of elections was held 

the following month as part of the 

final preparations for full 

independence. In order not to 

repeat the DP’s upset victory, the 

UPC (pictured: the UPC flag) and the KY formed a coalition 

based more on political expedience than on shared ideology.

The new alliance won easily, and UPC leader Milton Obote 

became Prime Minister. Uganda attained full independence on 

October 9, 1962.

The First Obote Era

Less than two years after taking power, Obote addressed the 

issue of the Lost Counties by holding a referendum in those

counties. Nearly 80% of voters favored returning them to

Bunyoro. Obote complied which opened a permanent rift 

between the UPC and the pro-Buganda KY. While the outcome 

of the Lost Counties referendum severely weakened the KY, it 

also caused factions to emerge within the UPC which no longer 

faced the unifying pressure of strong KY opposition.

Those UPC factions took center stage in early 1966, when 

several UPC ministers tried to remove Obote from power after

evidence emerged that he had ordered secret, for-profit military 

operations in neighboring countries. Obote responded by 

arresting the ministers, voiding the constitution, and forcing 

Parliament to pass a new constitution that expanded the Prime 

Minister’s powers and stripped the kingdoms of federal status.

Mutesa, the king of Buganda, rejected the new constitution. 

Obote responded by ordering Idi Amin, the commander of the 

army, to attack Mutesa’s palace, an action that forced Mutesa 

to flee. The Baganda who defended the palace were later 

taken to the countryside and killed alongside other members.

In 1967 Obote unveiled yet another constitution that eliminated 

the kingdoms entirely, divided Buganda into four districts, and 

granted the government powers of preventive detention during 

states of emergency, as defined by the government. These 

powers were employed immediately in Buganda, which was 

ruled under martial law in the years after the 1967 constitution.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Fall of Obote: Although Obote needed Amin to retain his grip 

on power, he did not trust his military commander and planned 

to arrest him on charges of embezzlement and complicity in a 

murder. Amin learned of these plans and decided to preempt 

them by staging a military coup on January 25, 1971, while 

Obote was in Singapore for a Commonwealth Conference.

Idi Amin

Despite the fact that Amin played a key role 

in many of Obote’s worst excesses, many

Ugandans welcomed the coup, probably 

assuming that things could not possibly get

any worse. Amin soon proved them wrong.

During his 8-year reign, Amin gained global 

notoriety both for his erratic behavior, such as 

insisting on being called “Big Daddy,” and his

inhuman atrocities which resulted in an

estimated 100,000 deaths.

Amin initially kept his crimes targeted and quiet as he gradually 

purged the military and cabinet of those whom he thought were 

loyal to Obote. Amin’s true nature became more evident when 

he ordered the murders of DP leader Benedicto Kiwanuka and 

the Vice Chancellor of the prestigious Makerere University. By 

1974 Amin had extended his purge to the entire population, 

often relying upon an outfit known as the State Research 

Bureau to torture and interrogate suspects.

Fall of Amin: One of the few African leaders to condemn Amin 

was President Julius Nyerere of Tanzania. Nyerere harbored 

many of Amin’s highest-profile opponents, including Obote and 

Yoweri Museveni, the current President of Uganda. Hoping to 

unify Uganda, Amin declared war on Tanzania in 1978. 

Tanzanian forces and exiled Ugandan rebels responded by 

invading Uganda and forcing Amin into exile in April 1979.

The Second Obote Era

After the fall of Amin, an alliance of 22 Ugandan groups chose 

Yusuf Lule, an academic, as interim President. Accused of 

being too pro-Buganda, Lule was replaced after just 90 days 

with Godfrey Binaisa, who had been an official under Obote. 

Binaisa lasted almost a year before being deposed in a military 

coup orchestrated by Paulo Muwango, Obote’s right-hand man.

HISTORY &

MYTH
An election was eventually scheduled for December 1980. The 

main contenders were the DP, led by Paul Ssemogerere, the 

UPC, still led by Obote, and the Uganda Patriotic Movement 

(UPM), led by Museveni. Although there was evidence of 

election fraud, the UPC emerged victorious and Obote again 

became President.

National Resistance Movement: Disturbed by what he saw as 

a denial of democracy and the start of another reign of terror, 

Museveni formed a rebel guerrilla group known as the National 

Resistance Army (NRA). Operating out of the Luwero Triangle 

north of Kampala, the NRA attracted Obote’s attention with a 

series of guerilla attacks. Obote soon launched a ruthless total 

war in order to eradicate the NRA. Lasting from 1981-1986, the 

war between the NRA and Obote’s forces claimed the lives of 

an estimated 500,000 people.

Despite the pleas of his commanders, Obote refused to stop 

prosecuting the war, prompting Tito Okello, the commander of 

his army, to depose Obote in a military coup on July 27, 1985. 

After failing to reach an agreement with the NRA, Okello was 

himself deposed just 6 months later when the NRA entered 

Kampala and Museveni was sworn in as President.

Uganda under President Museveni

Museveni (pictured with President 

George W. Bush) began picking up 

the pieces of his shattered nation by 

reinstating basic liberties and the rule 

of law, appointing a national unity 

government, and encouraging the 

return of exiles. He also put in place 

pragmatic economic policies in an 

effort to begin undoing decades of 

damage. In 1993 he also permitted 

kingdoms to form once again on the 

condition that they stay out of 

politics. Although Museveni’s leadership and policies have 

guided Uganda into a new era and forged for the first time a 

genuine sense of national unity, some commentators have 

criticized Museveni for refusing to retire after several decades 

in power (see Political and Social Relations).

HISTORY &

MYTH
Official Name

Republic of Uganda

Political Borders

South Sudan: 270 mi

Kenya: 580 mi

Tanzania: 246 mi

Rwanda: 105 mi

Democratic Republic of the

Congo (DRC): 475 mi

Capital

Kampala

Demographics

Uganda’s population of 34.6 million is growing about 3.6% per 

year – the 3rd highest rate in the world. Uganda is also among

the most densely populated countries in Africa, despite the fact 

that only about 13% of the population lives in cities. About half 

of the country is under age 14, and Ugandan women give birth 

to more than 6 children on average. The United Nations (UN)

estimates that Uganda’s population will top 90 million by 2050.

Flag

The flag contains six alternating 

horizontal bands of black, yellow, 

and red. Black signifies the African 

people, yellow symbolizes vitality 

and sunshine, and red represents 

African brotherhood. In the center 

of the flag is an inward-facing crane superimposed on a white 

disk. The crane is the national symbol of Uganda and traces its 

roots to the military badge worn by colonial Ugandan soldiers.

Geography

The Republic of Uganda has a total area of just over 93,000 sq 

mi, which is about the same size as Oregon. Although Uganda 

is landlocked, nearly 1/5 of its total area consists of open water. 

Major lakes include Victoria, Albert, Edward, and Kyoga, while 

the major river is the Nile. Uganda is located on the equator.

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Topographical features include a large plateau covered with 

woodland and savannah in the center of the country, dense 

rainforests in the South, arid semi-desert in the Northeast, and 

mountain ranges along both the eastern and western borders. 

Elevations range from just over 2,000 ft on the shores of Lake 

Albert to 16,765 ft at Margherita Peak on Mount Stanley. About 

12% of Ugandan territory is reserved for natural parks. 

Climate

Due to the fact that Uganda is both located on the equator and 

has a high elevation, temperatures are generally warm but not 

sweltering, ranging from about 60°F in the mountains of the 

Southwest to around 85°F in the semi-desert of the Northeast. 

Kampala falls between these extremes, with an average low of 

63°F and an average high of 80°F.

Uganda is rainy for most of the year, although there are two dry 

seasons from December-February and June-August. The 

South is generally wetter than the North with some areas near 

Lake Victoria getting up to 80 inches of rain each year. The 

Northeast sees a more modest 20 inches while Kampala falls 

between the extremes with about 46 inches of annual rainfall.

Environmental Challenges

Despite Uganda’s ample rainfall, 

the country still experiences 

periodic droughts which 

constrain agricultural production

and threaten domestic food 

supplies. Similarly, insufficient

rainfall near Lake Victoria in 

recent years has reduced the 

water table in that region to some of its lowest levels ever 

recorded. Human activities such as grazing livestock and 

draining wetlands for agricultural use have amplified droughtrelated problems.

Government

The Republic of Uganda consists of 4 main regions (Northern, 

Eastern, Central, and Western) which collectively comprise 112 

districts. Uganda’s current constitution came into effect on 

October 8, 1995, and the country has held multiparty elections 

since a referendum on July 28, 2005.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Executive Branch

The President, currently Yoweri Museveni 

(pictured), is head-of-government, head-ofstate, and commander-in-chief of the armed 

forces. The President is elected by popular 

vote to serve a 5-year term, and there are no

longer any term limits. In addition to selecting 

a Cabinet, the President appoints the Vice 

President, the Prime Minister, and all judges 

for the High Court, Court of Appeal, and 

Supreme Court. These appointments are all 

subject to approval by Parliament.

Legislative Branch

Uganda has a one-chamber Parliament composed of 388

Members of Parliament (MPs) serving 5-year terms, including:

• 238 MPs elected to represent single constituencies

• 112 female MPs directly elected by each district

• 10 MPs chosen by elected MPs to represent the Uganda 

People’s Defence Force (UPDF – see “Defense”)

• 15 members chosen by elected MPs to represent in equal 

measure disabled persons, workers, and youths

• 13 non-voting MPs (Cabinet) appointed by the President

President Museveni’s party, the National Resistance Movement 

(NRM), currently enjoys a large majority in Parliament with 263 

MPs. Independents form the next largest group with 44 MPs, 

while the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC) is close behind 

with 34 MPs. Five other parties have 12 MPs or fewer.

Judicial Branch

Uganda’s legal system is based on British common law and 

incorporates some aspects of customary law, which includes 

the legal practices of indigenous ethnic groups. Uganda has 

four types of courts. The Supreme Court, which consists of a 

chief justice and at least six other justices, deals only with 

appeals from lower courts. The Court of Appeal, which consists

of a deputy chief justice and at least seven other justices, is 

responsible for both High Court appeals and constitutional 

questions. The High Court, which is composed of a 

headquarters in Kampala and seven circuit courts, deals with 

appeals from the lowest-level Magistrates’ Courts.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Political Climate

Shortly after taking power in 1986, President Museveni banned 

political parties and suspended elections in an attempt to unify 

a country divided along ethnic, regional, and religious lines. As 

their country was emerging from a quarter-century of brutal rule 

partly based on factionalism (see History and Myth), many 

Ugandans accepted Museveni’s “no-party system” in 1986.

Since then, Museveni has continued to find novel ways to 

retain power. For example, he allowed multiparty politics in the 

early 2000s, but only after he had secured a constitutional 

amendment eliminating term limits. These sorts of actions have 

led many Ugandans to question whether the open-ended 

tenure of Museveni and the NRM has outlived its usefulness.

Although Museveni and the NRM won a commanding victory in 

the 2011 elections, there are indications that Museveni’s days 

may be numbered, including widespread allegations of election 

fraud, pressure from foreign donors to democratize internal 

politics, and weakening loyalty among younger members of the 

Uganda People’s Defence Force (UPDF). In addition, violent 

protests over rising prices have rocked Kampala, Gulu, and 

other cities in Uganda since April 2011. Museveni’s position 

nevertheless appears to be secure for the time being, as world 

leaders are eager for the UPDF to continue its role in Somalia 

(see “Peacekeeping”) and the advantages of incumbency still 

appear to outweigh mounting domestic dissent.

Defense

The UPDF traces its roots to the 

National Resistance Army (NRA), 

the guerilla force which took 

power under the command of 

President Museveni in 1986. This

pedigree is evident in the UPDF’s 

tactics, which emphasize mobility 

and light weaponry. With 51,000 

active-duty troops and 30,000 reserves, the UPDF is one of the 

largest militaries in Central Africa. Consisting of an Army and 

Air Force, the UPDF is charged with national defense, national 

development, disaster relief, and the improvement of relations 

between civilians and the military. Currently, the main focus is 

on operations against insurgent groups (see “Security Issues”).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Army: Comprising about 50,000 troops, the Army is by far the 

largest service within the UPDF. Although the Army’s tactics 

and strategy continue to resemble those of the NRA, Uganda’s 

land forces are poised to undergo a transformation after an 

internal report published in 2004 recommended that the UPDF 

adopt a more conventional structure by bolstering its airborne, 

artillery, and mechanized capabilities.

Marine Unit: Uganda has no Navy. Instead, the country’s lakes

and rivers are patrolled by a Marine unit which falls under the 

command of the Army. Composed of about 200 personnel, the 

Marine unit has a small fleet of aluminum- and fiberglass-hulled 

patrol boats outfitted with small machine guns.

Air Force: Deriving from the 

Army in 2004, the Air Force 

comprises about 800 personnel 

and a small fleet of fighter jets, 

transport aircraft, and attack 

helicopters. Allegedly, some of 

Uganda’s aircraft, such as its half 

dozen or so MiG 21s, are 

operated by Russian contractors. The primary duty of the Air 

Force is to support Army counterinsurgency operations against 

the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA – see “Security Issues”). 

Peacekeeping: The UPDF plays an active peacekeeping role 

by participating in UN and African Union (AU) missions across 

Africa. At the end of 2010, Ugandan personnel were deployed 

in Somalia, Sudan, and Cote d’Ivoire. Uganda also contributes 

to the East African Standby Force, part of the African Standby 

Force overseen by the AU. Uganda has garnered particular 

praise for being an early and sustained contributor to the AU 

Mission in Somalia (AMISOM).

Security Issues

Most instability in modern Uganda results from the activities of 

rebel organizations which operate along the country’s eastern 

and western borders. Organized crime, petty crime, and Islamic 

extremism have also become important concerns in recent 

years. Political instability in neighboring South Sudan and the 

DRC continues to affect the entire region.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA): Operating in Uganda, South 

Sudan, the DRC, and the Central African Republic (CAR), the 

LRA is an extremist paramilitary organization seeking to 

replace the Museveni government with a regime based on the 

Ten Commandments. Although the LRA claims to be the 

protector of northern Ugandans, the group 

rampaged through northern Uganda for 

much of the 1990s in a brutal campaign of 

murder, assault, rape, and child abduction. 

With Sudanese support, the UPDF in 2002 

launched Operation Iron Fist in an effort to 

eliminate the LRA, prompting the LRA to 

resume and intensify its attacks in northern 

Uganda. The Ugandan government 

responded by placing about 1.8 million civilians into protective 

refugee camps over the next few years, despite the fact that 

many civilians did not want to be relocated (Photo: Ugandan 

civilians in a refugee camp). In 2005 the International Criminal 

Court issued arrest warrants for LRA leader Joseph Kony and 

four of his commanders. This move, along with a general

deterioration of LRA strength after years of UPDF military 

pressure, prompted the LRA to relocate to the DRC and 

effectively end its permanent presence in Uganda.

Peace talks between the LRA and the Museveni government 

commenced in 2006, and it appeared that an agreement was in 

place by 2008. This agreement was derailed when Kony failed 

to attend the signing ceremony and the LRA carried out further 

attacks in Sudan and the DRC. Those governments responded 

by joining with Uganda in late 2008 to launch a renewed 

offensive against the LRA and its bases in eastern DRC.

Although these operations probably have reduced the number 

of core LRA fighters, the group has compensated by abducting 

civilians and forcing them into service. In early 2009 the UN 

reported that the LRA had dispersed across present-day South

Sudan, the CAR, and the DRC in 7-10 groups of about 100 

fighters apiece. In late 2011 the US announced that it would

deploy 100 special operations personnel to help Uganda track 

down the remnants of the LRA. These troops were deployed in 

a strictly advisory capacity and were not authorized to engage 

the LRA.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS 
Karamojong Warriors: Although 

they are not a serious threat to 

the national government, warriors 

from the Karamojong ethnic group

(pictured) are a destabilizing force 

in eastern Uganda. Karamojong

warriors are known for resolving 

feuds with small arms and for 

conducting violent cattle raids in adjacent regions during times 

of drought. As the LRA insurgency began to weaken in 2004, 

the UPDF shifted its focus to disarming the warriors. Disdainful 

of the national government, the warriors resisted violently and 

thereby gave birth to a continuing pattern of low-level conflict

with the UPDF.

Allied Democratic Forces (ADF): Consisting of both Ugandan 

Islamic extremists and troops from a variety of defunct regional 

militias, the ADF is a paramilitary organization which in the late 

1990s carried out a series of attacks against mostly civilian 

targets in southwestern Uganda. Although the group is thought 

to be largely defeated, it is speculated that some elements still 

operate in eastern DRC. Since 2001 an outfit of about 2,000 

UPDF troops called the “Mountain Brigade” has patrolled the 

Rwenzori Mountains on Uganda’s western frontier.

Terrorism: Al-Shabaab, an Islamic extremist group which aims 

to overthrow the Somali government, carried out two bombings 

in Kampala in July 2010 in retaliation for Uganda’s role in 

AMISOM (see “Peacekeeping”). These attacks were the first to 

be conducted by al-Shabaab outside Somalia.

Trafficking: Like many of its East African neighbors, Uganda is

an emerging hub for smuggling routes linking heroin producers 

in Southwest Asia with European markets. Traffickers either 

connect through Entebbe Airport en route from hubs in the 

Middle East or smuggle their contraband by land through East 

Africa and depart for Europe from Entebbe.

In addition to narcotics trafficking, Uganda is home to an illegal 

arms trade along its borders with South Sudan and Kenya. 

Although the region’s many conflicts translate into a large and 

persistent demand for illicit weapons, Uganda’s efforts to curtail

the arms trade have reportedly led to significant price spikes.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS 
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Diplomatic Relations

Uganda’s diplomatic relations with neighboring countries are 

both difficult and important because most threats to Uganda’s 

internal security come from mobile paramilitary groups which 

cross borders easily. Consequently, Uganda has experienced

diplomatic setbacks with its neighbors in recent years, although 

the country now maintains cordial relations with all of them.

Uganda bolsters its regional relations by participating in 

multilateral organizations such as the 20-member Common 

Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and the 5-

member East African Community (EAC). Consisting of Burundi, 

Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda; the EAC formed a 

customs union in 2005 and intends to form a political federation 

by 2015, although these plans appear to be remote.

Uganda’s relations with countries farther afield are complex. 

Although Uganda seeks good relations with Western powers, it 

also has strong ties with countries such as China, Iran, and 

North Korea. In addition, Uganda has a strong relationship with 

Israel based on trade and military assistance.

US-Uganda Relations: Since coming to 

power in 1986, the Museveni government 

has enjoyed strong bilateral relations with 

the US (Photo: President Museveni with 

President Obama). Although relations were 

strained in the late 1990s when the UPDF 

was accused of human rights abuses 

during an intervention in the Second 

Congo War, Uganda’s strong cooperation 

in the War on Terror has done much to 

repair the damage. Uganda was one of 

only five African nations to support the US 

invasion of Iraq, and the militaries of the 

two countries share a close working 

relationship.

The US is one of Uganda’s most important donors, providing 

aid through several channels (see Economics and Resources).

The US participates in a variety of cultural exchange programs 

with Uganda, such as sponsoring American Fulbright scholars 

and sending Peace Corps volunteers.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Uganda is home to more than

40 ethnic groups, each of 

which belongs to one of the 

country’s 3 linguistic groups: 

Bantu, Nilotic, and Sudanic. 

These groups mostly live in 

separate parts of Uganda, with 

Lake Kyoga in central Uganda 

serving as a rough dividing line between the Bantu-speakers of 

the South and the Nilotic- and Sudanic-speakers of the North.

Note: Bantu languages indicate relationships between people, 

language, and place by attaching prefixes to a root word. The 

prefix bu- means “land of,” the prefix ba- means “people of,” 

and the prefix lu- means “language of.” When attached to the 

root word -ganda, these prefixes allow one to say, for example, 

that the Baganda live in Buganda and speak Luganda.

Bantu

Important Note: “Bantu” is a linguistic classification. Speakers 

of Bantu languages should never be referred to as “Bantus.”

Bantu-speaking ethnic groups comprise the largest of the three

linguistic groups and primarily live in the South and Southwest. 

Ugandan Bantu-speakers are sometimes divided into Eastern 

Lacustrine, including the Baganda and Basoga, and Western 

Lacustrine, including the Batoro and Banyankole.

The largest Bantu-speaking ethnic groups are the Baganda 

(18% of the population), Banyankole (10%), Bakiga (8.4%), 

and Basoga (8.3%). Although generally there is little correlation 

between religion and ethnicity in Uganda, Muslims are 

represented among the Baganda, Banyankole, and Basoga. 

Modes of subsistence vary: although most Bantu-speakers are

agriculturalists, some Banyankole are pastoralists.

Bantu-speakers traditionally have enjoyed privileged status in 

Ugandan society. This arrangement traces its roots to the 

colonial era when British administrators favored the Baganda 

over peoples of the North (see History and Myth). The privilege 

of Bantu-speakers endures mainly due to the dominance of 

President Museveni and his Bantu-based NRM.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Nilotic

Mainly living in the North and Northeast, Nilotic-speakers 

comprise the second largest of Uganda’s linguistic groups. 

Ugandan Nilotic-speakers subdivide into the Luo peoples

(includes the Acholi, Langi, and Alur, and Paranilotic subgroups. The latter sub-divides into the Iteso and Karamojong). 

The largest Nilotic-speaking groups are the Iteso (6.1% of the 

population), Langi (5.9%), Acholi (4.5%), Alur (2.5%), and 

Karamojong (2.2%). Large concentrations of Muslims exist

among the Alur and Kakwa (Photo: Acholi children in a camp 

for internally displaced persons).

Nilotic-speaking northerners had a 

major impact on Ugandan politics 

from 1962-1986 through the rule 

of Idi Amin, a Kakwa; Milton 

Obote, a Langi; and Tito Okello, 

an Acholi (see History and Myth). 

The accession of Yoweri

Museveni, a Munyankole (member of Ankole), restored the 

supremacy of Bantu-speaking southerners. Some 

commentators suggest that the emergence of groups like the 

Acholi-based LRA may be a reaction to the changing political 

fortunes of northern Ugandans.

Sudanic

Living mainly in dense settlements in far northwestern Uganda, 

Sudanic-speakers constitute the smallest of Uganda’s linguistic 

groups. Sudanic-speaking ethnic groups include the LugbaraAringa (4.8%), the Okebu (1.2%), and the Madi (1.1%). 

Sudanic-speaking ethnic groups in Uganda share similar 

characteristics, with the Lugbara-Aringa and the Madi being 

especially similar in language and culture.

Social Relations

Due to language and ethnic diversity, it is difficult to establish 

more than a few accurate generalizations about Ugandan 

social relations. Overall, Ugandan society tends to be centered 

on the community, with emphasis on the extended family. 

Participation in community events such as weddings is 

considered both an enjoyable experience and an important 

means of maintaining social standing. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ugandan culture traditionally places a strong emphasis on oral 

expression. In modern Uganda, face-to-face communication 

helps to bridge the gap between Ugandans with different levels 

of education because literacy is not a prerequisite for oral 

dialogue. Oral expression also serves to maintain communal 

ties within a diverse and changing society where exposure to 

Western influences has altered some traditions. For example, 

urban living is better suited to smaller single-family structures.

Indicators of Social Status

Ugandans typically show the greatest respect to the elderly, the 

wealthy, and the educated. For example, Ugandans who speak 

English fluently, have traveled abroad, and own automobiles or 

other expensive imported goods are treated with great respect. 

Ugandans generally stand when someone of high status enters 

a room and often greet them with gestures of deference (see 

Language and Communication). Baganda women, for example, 

often kneel when a high-status male enters a room.

Visits and Gifts

Ugandans often make unannounced visits to the 

homes of family and friends. Their hosts usually do 

not mind these impromptu visits because Ugandans 

consider it socially desirable to have lots of visitors.

A typical visit begins with the guest removing his 

shoes at the door and exchanging greetings with the 

host (see Language and Communication). The host 

then offers food or tea, which the guest is obligated at 

least to sample. If the guest stays overnight, the host 

often sleeps at the home of a neighbor so that the 

guest can use his bed.

As a courtesy to their hosts, guests often bring 

household items like soap or staple foodstuffs such 

as bread, vegetables, or meat. Flowers are generally 

not an appropriate gift for simple visits because they 

are more closely associated with convalescence. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

Uganda’s constitution guarantees religious freedom, and, as in 

many other African countries, the population is generally very 

religious. In a recent survey, about 83% of Ugandans identified 

themselves as Christian and around 12% as Muslim. Only 

about 3% claimed to practice the other religions followed in 

Uganda, such as traditional beliefs, Hinduism, Judaism, or the 

Baha’i faith, a monotheistic religion founded in 19th century 

Persia (Photo: Army 

chaplain praying with

schoolchildren).

Although most Ugandans 

identify themselves as

Muslim or Christian, 

about 1/5 of the 

population also holds 

beliefs about the power 

of witchcraft, traditional 

herbal healers, and sacrifices to spiritual beings (see 

Sustenance and Health). There nevertheless are very few 

Ugandans who hold traditional beliefs exclusively: children are 

now socialized largely in modern educational institutions and 

have no opportunity to learn indigenous religious practices. 

Traditional Beliefs

Traditional African religious beliefs vary in Uganda even within 

single ethno-linguistic groups. Generally, they revolve around 

ensuring human well-being in the present as opposed to 

offering salvation in a future world.

Supreme Being: Almost all followers of traditional religions 

believe in a remote supreme being who created all things. 

Although this creator presides over life, he does not exercise

much influence over daily events. Instead, he manifests himself 

in natural forces such as the sun, the moon, rain, rainbows, 

thunder, and lightning. Certain trees and rock formations are 

considered evidence of his might and may serve as places of 

worship or sacrifice.

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Subordinate Spirits: Subordinate spirits such as deceased 

ancestors are deeply concerned with daily events and influence 

them in both positive and negative ways. Individuals can 

communicate with these spirits either through dreams and

visions or through specialists trained to make contact. Some 

people honor and seek to placate these spirits through libations 

(liquid poured on the ground as an offering) or other rituals 

performed under the supervision of family heads, chiefs, and 

healers. Among the Baganda, for example, the role of the 

Kabaka or king (see History and Myth) is partly religious, as he 

is responsible for protecting the kingdom from evil spiritual 

forces.

Social Order: Traditionally, Ugandans use oral lessons and 

myths to explain the 

creation and order of the 

world. People who 

neglect their familial and 

social responsibilities are 

believed to bring hardship 

and suffering upon 

themselves and their 

communities, although

illness and bad fortune 

can also be the result of 

witches practicing evil 

magic. Religious specialists such as healers and diviners may 

be called upon to diagnose the root causes of illness and 

hardship and may prescribe rituals or medicines to restore 

social order or counteract the workings of witches. 

Witchcraft Today: Although the Witchcraft Act of 1957 

rendered witchcraft illegal in Uganda, many Ugandans still

believe in evil spirits or witchcraft. The media occasionally

report cases of alleged witches killed by their supposed victims

as well as cases of children allegedly killed by witches for body 

parts to be used in rituals. Although allegations of witchcraft are 

brought before courts in some cases, evidence is difficult to 

obtain and most cases are dropped. The government’s AntiHuman Sacrifice Task Force suggests that most cases of ritual 

human sacrifice are related to the increasingly popular belief 

that witchcraft can help people get rich quickly.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Islam

Origins of Islam: Islam dates to the 6th century when God’s 

final Prophet, Muhammad, was born in Mecca in what is today

Saudi Arabia. Muslims believe that while Muhammad was 

meditating in the desert, the Archangel Gabriel visited him over 

a 23-year period, revealing the Qur’an, or the “Holy Book,” to 

guide their everyday life and shape their lifelong values.

Meaning of Islam: Islam is more than a religion to its 

adherents – it is a way of life. The term Islam literally means 

submission, and a Muslim is “a person who submits to God.”

Muslim Sects: Islam is divided into two sects: Sunni and Shi’a. 

Sunni, the largest grouping in the world, are distinguished by 

their belief that the leader (Caliph) of the Muslim community

(Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, members of the Shi’a 

sect believe the Muslim leader should be a direct descendant 

of the Prophet Muhammad.

Five Pillars of Islam: There are five basic principles of the 

Islamic faith that all Muslims accept and follow; these are 

commonly known as “The Five Pillars of Islam.”

• Shahada (Faith): “There is no god but God and Muhammad 

is His Messenger.”

Ramadan

Each year Muslims participate in this month-long ritual 

involving inner reflection, self-control, and God. The 

objective of Ramadan is to subdue life’s passions and 

draw oneself nearer to God by purifying the body and 

studying the Qur’an. Because the Islamic calendar is 

based on the moon’s appearance, Ramadan occurs at 

a different date each year on the Western calendar. 

When it occurs during the summer, keeping Ramadan 

requires great focus and endurance because people 

will not hydrate for up to 18 hours. It is common for 

Muslims to break their fast at sunset with a light meal 

followed by sunset prayer and then dinner.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
• Salat (Prayer): Pray five times a day.

• Zakat (Charity): Donate alms to the poor.

• Sawm (Fasting): Abstain from food, drink, and sexual 

relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of 

Ramadan.

• Hajj (Pilgrimage): Pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia if 

possible at least once in a lifetime.

Introduction of Islam to Uganda

Islam was the first non-indigenous religion to reach Uganda 

when Arab traders from Zanzibar (an archipelago off the coast 

of Tanzania) began to move inland in their search for ivory and 

slaves around 1848. In 1856 they arrived at the court of 

Kabaka Mutesa I of Buganda, who then converted to Islam and 

began to build mosques, observe Ramadan, and teach the 

Qur’an. Mutesa I himself never seriously took to the religion, 

however, and did not pressure his subjects to convert to Islam. 

Consequently, two state religions – traditional religion and 

Islam – coexisted in Buganda for almost 2 decades. When 

Christian missionaries arrived at 

Mutesa’s court in the 1870s (see 

“Christianity”), they won converts of 

their own, prompting followers of the 

three religions to jostle for dominance.

Mutesa’s successor, Mwanga, tried to 

use this religious divide to his benefit, 

ordering the torture and murder of 

several Christians (see “The Uganda 

Martyrs” below). Despite this attempt, 

Mwanga was overthrown in the conflict 

that followed, and the Muslim faction 

installed a new Kabaka in 1886. For 

the next few years, Islam flourished in 

Buganda while Christians underwent further persecution. 

Eventually, the Christians regrouped and rallied behind their 

former enemy Mwanga, returning him to the throne in 1889.

In addition to reaching Buganda by way of Zanzibari traders, 

Islam penetrated the Alur and Kakwa communities of northern 

Uganda during the 1870s (see Political and Social Relations). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Christianity

Introduction of Christianity to Uganda

Protestant missionaries from the Church Missionary Society of 

London arrived at the court of Kabaka Mutesa I in 1877

following a newspaper appeal by Henry Morgan Stanley, who 

had visited the king while seeking the source of the Nile with 

David Livingstone. French Roman Catholics from the Society of 

Missionaries of Africa (White Fathers) arrived 2 years later.

Mutesa initially welcomed the Christians as a counterweight to

Muslim influence, but neither he nor his successor Mwanga 

fully supported any of the outside religions. Political instability 

and civil war between factions supporting the Muslims, 

Protestants, and Catholics continued for many years.

Most of the conflict in this period arose not between Christians 

and Muslims, but from the rivalry between French Roman 

Catholics and British Protestants. Mwanga eventually sided 

with Catholics favoring an independent Buganda, and hostilities 

continued until the British defeat of Mwanga and his Catholic 

faction and the formal initiation of the British Uganda 

Protectorate in 1893 (see History and Myth). British colonial

rule ended open hostilities and set the stage for the rapid 

expansion of Christianity throughout the country. By 1901 

Protestants had established more than 200 churches, and 

Catholics had established 17 mission stations and erected a 

stone cathedral in Kampala.

The Uganda Martyrs

Kabaka Mutesa I invited Christian missionaries to 

Buganda, and his court attendants were among 

the first to convert. His successor Mwanga began 

to regret the foreign presence, however, and 

between 1885 and 1887 he hacked, speared, or 

burned to death 22 court attendants who refused 

to renounce Christianity. All 22 were canonized by 

Pope Paul VI in 1969, and a shrine to the martyrs 

was dedicated in 1975 at Namugongo.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religion Today

Both Christianity and Islam are flourishing in modern Uganda. 

In most other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, neither faith is 

expanding at the expense of the other, but a recent survey in 

Uganda indicates that about 1/3 of respondents who were 

raised Muslim now identify as Christians, while far fewer 

Ugandans who were raised Christian now describe themselves 

as Muslim. Within Christian churches, there also appears to be 

a significant number of Ugandans who, after being raised in a 

Protestant church, converted to Catholicism later in life.

Christianity: Ugandan

Christians (83% of the 

population) divide fairly 

evenly between Protestant 

(46%) and Catholic (53%) 

denominations. There are 

more Catholics in southern 

Uganda than in northern 

Uganda. The Anglican 

Church has the largest 

membership (22% of all Christians) among Protestant 

denominations, followed by the Pentecostal, Seventh-day 

Adventist, and Baptist churches. Smaller communities of 

Methodists, Lutherans, Mormons, and Jehovah’s Witnesses

also live in Uganda (Photo: Religious leaders in the Acholi

region).

Islam: Most of Uganda’s Muslims (12% of the population) are 

members of the Sunni branch of Islam, but there are also small 

numbers of Shi’a and Ahmadiyya Muslims. Founded in India in 

the late 19th century, Ahmadiyya Islam is considered heretical 

by most Muslims. Muslims generally set themselves apart from 

Ugandans of other religions by the long, loose, and modest 

dress worn by both male and female Muslims. Iganga District 

has the largest percentage of Muslims.

Recently, Muslim groups have promoted the passage of the 

Muslim Personal Law Bill. The proposed law would grant 

Islamic, or Kadhi, courts jurisdiction over matters of marriage, 

divorce, and inheritance for Muslims. Members of the Ugandan 

Joint Christian Council are pressing Parliament to reject the bill.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Abayudaya Jewish Congregation: The Abayudaya Jewish 

Congregation was founded in the early 20th century by a local 

tribal leader named Semei Kakungulu. Disenchanted with 

Christian missionaries, Kakungulu converted to Judaism in 

1919, having himself and his male followers circumcised. This

emerging Jewish community was largely self-taught until 1926, 

when a visitor from the Middle East began to provide rabbinical 

and Hebrew instruction. In recent years, the community has 

enjoyed much support from 

American and Israeli Jewish 

congregations and is now 

led by a trained rabbi 

(Photo: Navy chaplain 

visiting the Abayudaya 

Moses synagogue outside 

of Mbale).

Religion and Politics:

Religion and politics have been enmeshed since before 

modern Uganda’s founding. Although British colonial 

authorities took no official stance of preferring one religion over 

another, they required each Kabaka in Buganda to become a 

member of the Anglican Church, and in the rest of the country, 

they recruited primarily Protestant chiefs to rule at the county 

and sub-county levels. The British thus created a political and 

religious hierarchy – Protestantism first, Catholicism second, 

and Islam third – which remained in place for the remainder of 

the colonial period. 

Religion and politics continued to be intertwined through the 

formation of the first independent political parties (see History 

and Myth). When Idi Amin overthrew Milton Obote in 1971 (see 

History and Myth), many Ugandan Muslims welcomed his rise 

to power. Although he elevated some Muslims to positions of 

power in government and industry, he was nevertheless a poor 

Muslim role model who flouted Islamic law and tradition and 

persecuted and executed Muslims and non-Muslims alike.

With Amin’s fall from power in 1979, there was a general antiMuslim backlash, and many Muslims went into exile. Recently, 

the Ugandan government passed the Political Organizations 

Act of 2002, a law that continues to restrict the formation of 

religious political parties.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Although Uganda has a wide variety of ethnic groups with their 

own unique traditions (see Political and Social Relations), the 

extended family provides for the economic, political, and social 

support of its members, extending across ethnic boundaries. 

Ugandans generally share a deeply ingrained collective 

mindset in which the triumphs and failures of the individual

belong to the entire group. In recent years, modern trends such 

as urbanization and exposure to Western culture have begun 

to disrupt traditional forms of social organization (see Political 

and Social Relations).

Family Structure

Specific family structures vary across ethnicities, although

nearly all Ugandan ethnic groups are patriarchal: men hold the 

power in politics and family life (see Sex and Gender) and 

patrilineal: descent is traced from father to son. In addition, 

most Ugandans place primary emphasis on the clan, which is a 

form of extended family. It includes all the descendants of a 

single (sometimes mythical) male ancestor, rather than the 

nuclear family, which consists only of two parents and their 

children. In many ethnic groups, clans are further divided into 

lineages, which are defined by shared descent from a more 

recent male ancestor.

Clans and lineages are important in Ugandan society because 

they give individuals a sense of identity and a framework of 

mutual support and shared 

resources. For example, 

among ethnic groups such 

as the Baganda and the 

Karamojong, members of 

the same lineage often live 

together in a single village 

or homestead (pictured) 

and rely upon one another 

in times of need. Because 

the clan plays such an important role, many Ugandans 

consider social standing within the clan to be more important 

than esteem within the nuclear family.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP
Residence

Typical Ugandan residences differ between the countryside 

and the city. Rural homes are usually round structures with 

mud walls and a thatched roof. Some ethnic groups in northern 

and eastern Uganda finish the floor 

by using stones to flatten and 

harden a mixture of earth and cow 

manure. Rural residences rarely 

have amenities such as electricity or 

running water.

Urban homes are larger than rural 

homes and usually have cement 

walls and a corrugated metal roof. They also have access to 

amenities like toilets, bathing facilities, gas stoves, and water 

taps, although these amenities often are located outdoors.

Traditional Marriage

In traditional Ugandan culture marriage signifies the union not 

just of two people but also of two families, lineages, and clans. 

Consequently, marriage is an important social custom in which 

the entire extended family plays a role. Although spouses were 

chosen traditionally with heavy input from the extended family, 

young Ugandans, especially those living in urban areas, are 

increasingly free to select their own spouses. Modern courtship 

often involves couples meeting at school, church, or festivals.

Bridewealth: In most Ugandan ethnic groups, a newly married 

woman is formally transferred from her father’s lineage to her 

husband’s lineage. Consequently, the groom pays bridewealth 

to the bride’s father’s family in order to compensate for the loss 

of her labor and presence. Although bridewealth traditionally 

consists of livestock or farm equipment, the realities of modern 

life have encouraged the use of other assets such as cash.

Polygyny: Polygyny, a practice in which men have more than 

one wife at a time, was once both common and highly valued in 

Uganda. Men were encouraged to marry as many women as 

they could afford. Polygyny was popular because it allowed a 

higher proportion of the female population to marry and thereby 

gain social respect. The popularity of polygyny has declined in 

modern Uganda for two main reasons. First, the rising cost of 

living has made it increasingly unaffordable for men to support 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
multiple women. Second, the spread of HIV (see Sustenance 

and Health) has increased the dangers of having multiple 

sexual partners.

Modern Marriage

Many rural Ugandans continue to prefer marriages conducted

according to indigenous customs. Although each ethnic group 

has its own unique traditions, most groups follow a similar 

pattern of family-mediated courtship followed by the transfer of 

bridewealth and a wedding. In urban areas, many Ugandans 

opt for religious or civil marriages. Some of these marriages

may be blended with aspects of traditional marriage. 

Religious: Many Ugandans converted to Christianity or Islam

during the 19th century (see History and Myth and Religion and 

Spirituality). Consequently, marriages conducted according to 

Christian or Islamic traditions are common, especially among 

urban Ugandans. Both Christian and Islamic weddings in 

Uganda generally incorporate some indigenous traditions.

Civil: Civil marriages are executed by government officials and 

can be as simple as signing the marriage certificate, although 

they are often conducted alongside traditional and religious 

marriages in order to establish legal legitimacy. Civil marriage 

is popular with urban couples who lack their parents’ blessing.

Children

Ugandans eagerly welcome children to 

the world because having a large 

family is seen as a sign of wealth. No 

marriage is considered complete in 

Uganda until it has produced children.

Consequently, childless couples seek 

help from both doctors and traditional 

medicine men (see Sustenance and 

Health) in order to address any 

barriers to conception.

Birth: Especially in rural areas, Ugandan children historically

have been delivered at home with the help of midwives, also 

known as traditional birthing attendants (TBAs). The Ugandan 

government banned this practice in 2009 because too many 

TBAs lacked necessary training. Although practices vary widely

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
across ethnicities, most ethnic groups have their own unique 

customs and timetable for naming newborn infants. These 

traditions sometimes include elaborate ceremonies.

Development: Apart from their symbolic importance, Ugandan 

children are employed as family laborers as early as age 3. As 

children get older, they learn tasks specific to their gender by 

working alongside their parents. Girls tend gardens and 

supervise younger siblings while boys perform field tasks such 

as tending livestock and planting crops.

Death

As with other major life events, each Ugandan ethnic group has 

its own traditional outlook and rituals surrounding death (for 

example, see “Death in Buganda”). Generally, the body of the 

deceased is displayed at the home of a relative prior to burial. 

Although Ugandans grieve openly during this period, it is not 

considered appropriate to continue showing outward signs of 

mourning once the deceased has been buried. If the deceased 

passed away under suspicious circumstances, family members 

will sometimes consult a diviner in order to determine who was 

responsible for the death (see Religion and Spirituality). 

Death in Buganda

The Baganda were known traditionally for having an 

intense fear of death, while they apparently also were 

afraid of being buried alive. To verify that those who 

appeared to have died had in fact passed away, the 

Baganda allowed corpses to remain untouched for five 

days prior to burial. 

Funerals were followed traditionally by a one-month 

period of mourning and, if the deceased was a head of 

household, included the rites of Okwabya Olumbe. 

These rites represented the transfer of duties from the 

deceased to his heir and were meant to remove the 

disturbance created by the death. Okwabya Olumbe 

was a festive series of rites which involved food, 

beverages, and unrestrained sexual relations.

FAMILY &

KINSHIP
Overview

Gender inequality is both substantial and pervasive in Uganda.

Because they are viewed as inferior to men, women must work 

long hours for little or no pay. They also have limited access to 

resources, such as land and education, which might help them 

to improve their position in society. Women are also subject to 

alarmingly high levels of gender-based violence.

Gender Roles and Work

Ugandan men traditionally are 

responsible for tasks outside the 

home, such as hunting, fishing, and 

tending livestock. In addition, some 

men cultivate cash crops and sell 

them at the market. Ugandan 

women traditionally are responsible 

for all other tasks, such as cooking, 

cleaning, cultivating staple foods, 

raising children, caring for elders, gathering firewood, and 

fetching water. Some women generate additional income by 

selling domestic handicrafts.

Unpaid Labor: This traditional division of labor generally still 

holds, especially in less Westernized rural areas. Women make 

up over half of the labor force, but only 12% are engaged in 

wage labor because women are responsible for domestic work 

and subsistence agriculture. According to one study, unpaid 

domestic labor explains why Ugandan women work 15 hoursper-day on average while men work an average of 9 hours.

Wage Labor: About half of the Ugandan women who perform 

wage labor work in the three lowest-wage sectors: domestic, 

mining, and agriculture. Female domestic workers and miners 

receive at most half the average male wage in those fields.

Education: Unequal access to education is a major barrier to 

advancement for Ugandan women: more than 2/3 of the female 

labor force did not finish primary school, and more than 1/3 are

illiterate. Consequently, women hold only a small share of highlevel positions in business and government.

SEX &

GENDER

5. SEX AND GENDER
Gender and Politics

Holding 120 of 388 seats, women make up about 1/3 of 

Parliament (see Political and Social Relations) – almost twice 

the proportion of women in the US House of Representatives. 

Of those seats 112 were created specifically to increase female 

representation. Women account for 10 of 29 cabinet ministers

primarily in the areas of Education, Finance, Health, Internal 

Affairs, Trade and Industry, and Energy and Minerals.

Gender and the Law

Although most of Uganda’s legislation

extend equal protection to both genders, 

customary law (see Political and Social 

Relations) tends to favor men, especially 

in family law matters like divorce and 

inheritance (see Family and Kinship). For 

example, statutory law dictates that 

widows and widowers are equally entitled 

to inherit at least 15% of their late 

spouse’s property. However, due to the enduring influence of 

customary law, widows are often prevented both from inheriting 

their late husband’s property and from retaining custody of any 

children who resulted from the marriage. 

Rape and Gender-Based Violence (GBV)

Rape and GBV are major problems in Uganda. According to 

the 2006 Demographic and Health Survey, 60% of women had

experienced physical violence since age 15, and over half of 

those women had experienced it in the year prior to the survey.

In addition, 24% of women reported having lost their virginity 

unwillingly. School-age girls appear to be especially vulnerable: 

according to one 2008 report, 8% of girls age 16-17 reported 

having had sexual relations with a teacher.

Although there are laws which prohibit assault, there are no

laws which specifically prohibit marital rape or GBV. In addition, 

many clearly illegal rapes are never reported because there is 

a strong stigma associated with being a rape victim, especially 

if one contracts HIV. Those victims who do come forward face 

an extremely high standard of proof in the courts. Although 

greater numbers of victims have chosen to prosecute in recent 

years, it is still rare for those who commit rape to be punished.

SEX &

GENDER
Sex and Procreation

Most Ugandan ethnic groups espouse 

conservative views on sexual relations: 

neither public displays-of-affection nor 

open talk of sex is socially appropriate. 

Although all ethnic groups in Uganda 

have stiff injunctions against premarital 

pregnancy, responses to premarital sex 

differ. For example, some ethnic groups 

in southwest Uganda historically have 

punished premarital sex by bringing the 

offending girl to a deserted forest and 

leaving her to die. This practice has declined in recent years. In 

contrast, the Karamojong allow premarital sex as long as it 

does not result in premarital pregnancy, which historically 

necessitated a shotgun wedding and 30-cattle fine for the man.

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

FGM is a form of circumcision which involves modifying the 

female sex organ in order to decrease a woman’s ability to 

experience sexual pleasure. A controversial practice in Africa 

and around the world, FGM was legal in Uganda until 2009. 

Perpetrators now risk a sentence of 10 years in prison, or life in 

prison if the procedure results in the death of the victim.

Although less than 1% of Ugandan women undergo FGM, the 

practice is very common in northeastern Uganda, where some 

ethnic groups subject up to 90% of their women to FGM. In 

addition, some studies imply that FGM is far more common 

than the standard statistics suggest: according to one survey, 

15% of Ugandan Christians and 6% of Muslims report that at 

least one daughter has been circumcised.

Homosexuality

Homosexuality is illegal under Ugandan law, and since 2009 

Parliament has been debating a controversial new bill that 

would increase to life imprisonment the punishment for certain 

homosexual behaviors. These include homosexual acts with a 

minor, disabled person, or HIV-positive person. The bill enjoys 

broad support in Uganda, where homosexuality is widely seen 

as an immoral lifestyle choice: according to a poll conducted in 

2007, 95% of Ugandans oppose legalizing homosexuality.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Like many African countries, Uganda is linguistically diverse. 

There are 30 major languages spoken in Uganda, and all but 2

of them are associated with a particular indigenous ethnic 

group (see Political and Social Relations). For most Ugandans, 

these indigenous ethnic languages are their primary means of 

verbal communication. Many people 

also speak a regional tongue such as

Swahili, and most educated Ugandans

also speak English. 

Ethnic Languages

Nearly all Ugandans speak their ethnic 

language in the home, even when they 

speak English or Swahili in external 

settings. Uganda is home to more than 

40 indigenous ethnic languages and 

numerous dialects. Although Ugandans 

who speak similar dialects often can 

understand one another, they generally disagree on standard 

spellings and pronunciation.

The geographical distribution of languages in Uganda 

corresponds almost exactly to that of ethnic groups (see 

“Ethnic Groups” in Political and Social Relations): Bantu 

languages predominate in the South while Nilotic languages 

prevail in the North. The most widely spoken ethnic languages 

are Luganda, Nyankole, Lusoga, Rukiga, Ateso, Langi, Acholi, 

and Lugisu, all of which were spoken by at least 4% of the 

population as of 2002.

Luganda: Luganda, a Bantu language spoken by the Baganda

people (see Political and Social Relations), is the most widely 

spoken ethnic language in Uganda. As of the 2002 census, 

about 17% of Ugandans spoke Luganda in the home, and

about half as many spoke Lusoga, a closely related language. 

Luganda is a common lingua franca for Ugandans of different 

ethnic groups and is one of the primary languages used for 

sermons, television, radio, and newspapers. Dialects of 

Luganda include Diopa, Kooki, Sese, and Vuma.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
English

Introduced by British colonists in 

the mid-19th century (see History 

and Myth), English is the official 

language used for government, 

business, and higher education. 

Despite its British roots, Ugandan 

English is a distinct dialect which 

clearly reveals the influences of 

both Swahili and indigenous ethnic languages. Englishlanguage content accounts for about half of the Ugandan 

media, and shop and street signs are commonly written in 

English. Despite this high level of usage, less than 5% of the 

Ugandans speak English proficiently, and most of that small 

group lives in urban areas.

Swahili

Swahili, or Kiswahili, belongs to the Bantu branch of the NigerCongo language family and is written in the Latin alphabet. An 

important language in East Africa and the continent as a whole, 

Swahili is one of six working languages of the African Union 

and is the most widely spoken language in Africa after Arabic.

Swahili plays a complex role in Uganda’s linguistic landscape. 

The government promotes Swahili because it is widely spoken 

in East Africa and has the potential to serve as a lingua franca 

that is both native to Africa (unlike English) and free of ethnic 

ties (unlike Luganda). However, many Ugandans view Swahili 

with suspicion because it was spoken by the security forces of 

Milton Obote and Idi Amin (see History and Myth). In 2009/10 

the Ministry of Education and Sports began implementing plans 

to phase in Swahili as a compulsory subject starting in 2012.

Communication Overview

Communicating competently in Uganda requires not only

knowledge of Swahili or ethnic languages, but also the ability to 

interact effectively using those languages. This broad notion of 

competence includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, 

intonation), nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, 

gestures), and interaction management (conversation initiation,

turn-taking, and termination). When used properly, these forms

of communication ensure that statements are interpreted as the 

speaker intends.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Undignified Syllables

Some Ugandans follow verbal taboos which limit their 

ability to communicate effectively in foreign languages. 

One notable group is the Batoro (see Political and 

Social Relations), who prefer not to utter syllables 

which make the face appear undignified. For example, 

the syllable jaw is avoided because it distorts the 

mouth and leaves it open at the end of the syllable. 

This taboo often forces the Batoro to think of alternate 

words on the fly while speaking foreign languages, a 

practice which may make them appear deceptive. 

Communication Style

Although Ugandans tend to be hospitable, their characteristic 

emotional reserve may seem to indicate otherwise. The best 

way to penetrate this reserve and foster relationships is by 

finding mutual interests rather than following specific rules for 

social interaction. Yet, acquiring a basic knowledge of those 

rules is a good point of departure.

Unlike Africans from other countries, Ugandans are generally 

open, frank, and direct communicators. However, they tend to 

avoid confrontation and prefer to keep personal disagreements 

private. Although Ugandans are usually not as concerned with 

maintaining face as other Africans, constructive criticism is best 

delivered privately to the individual concerned. 

The Communication Process

A leisurely approach to communication, especially while 

exchanging greetings (see “Greetings” below), is essential to 

building alliances in Uganda. Patience and politeness are also 

important to listening and speaking effectively. Rather than 

demonstrating politeness through verbal cues such as “please,” 

“thank you,” or their equivalents in other languages; Ugandans 

pace their conversations carefully by devoting close attention to 

those with whom they are speaking. Ugandans are fairly 

consistent in using a moderate, reserved tone of voice and 

speaking at a relaxed pace, conversational volume varies.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Gender

Social contact between people of different genders is 

inappropriate in many parts of Uganda, particularly in traditional 

rural areas. Men must be careful when conversing with women, 

as even casual remarks can be construed as a romantic 

invitation. Consequently, male acquaintances often address 

women through male companions rather than speaking to them 

directly. A notable exception is with regards to female foreign 

nationals who should be prepared to receive direct 

communication from Ugandan men: especially if they have a 

light complexion, female tourists are often the target of catcalls, 

stares, and even physical 

contact.

Greetings

Greetings are an essential part of 

social interaction in Uganda and 

are appropriate in most contexts, 

including conversations with large 

groups or strangers on public 

transit. A typical greeting is a handshake, fist bump, or hug 

along with verbal salutations and inquiries about wellbeing. 

Since the physical aspects of this greeting are generally not 

acceptable between Ugandans of different genders, 

consequently women often kneel or bow when greeting males.

Specific verbal greetings (see “Useful Translations” below) vary 

by ethnicity, the time of day, the nature of the occasion, and the 

social status of the people involved in the greeting. Ugandans 

often introduce foreign nationals who happen to be 

accompanying them. Even if they do not, other Ugandans are 

usually anxious to greet foreign nationals, often by shouting 

mzungu, a Swahili term which means “wanderer” or “traveler.” 

Forms of Address

Because Uganda is a status-conscious society (see Political 

and Social Relations), using titles is common and expected, 

although the actual forms of address vary. Some superiors 

prefer to be addressed with the term Mr., Ms., or Mrs. and their 

last name, while others wish to be called Sir or Madame. Still 

others prefer a title such as Director. Even non-relatives often 

address elders as Uncle or Auntie. Mothers are often referred 

to as Mama followed by the name of their child.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Empaakos: Used only among the Banyoro and Batoro (see 

Political and Social Relations), empaakos are nicknames and 

terms of endearment. Apart from Okaali, which is reserved for 

the king, there are 11 empaakos: Abbala, Abbooki, Abwooli, 

Acaali, Adyeeri, Akiiki, Amooti, Apuuli, Araali, Ateenyi, and 

Atwooki. Empaakos convey respect and positive regard.

Conversational Topics

Ugandans are friendly toward visitors and often engage foreign 

nationals in conversation. When conversing with Ugandans, 

foreign nationals should expect extensive personal questions, 

especially about their spouses and children. Other acceptable 

topics include homes, occupations, soccer (see Aesthetics and 

Recreation), and favorable impressions of Uganda.

Foreign nationals should avoid discussing their income or living 

standards. Although Ugandans have a good sense of humor, 

foreign nationals should keep their humor straightforward –

sarcasm often translates poorly across cultural and language

boundaries. It is best for outsiders in Uganda to withhold 

judgment or opinion regarding sensitive topics like religion or 

politics, particularly as they pertain to Ugandan society.

Gestures

Ugandans use many gestures in 

familiar conversation, such as raised 

eyebrows to indicate agreement or 

crossed arms to display insolence. 

Ugandans may also use gestures to 

start a conversation. For example, 

one can summon others in Uganda 

by extending the right arm with the 

palm down and then quickly closing 

and opening the fingers. Ugandans 

never point with a single finger, instead thrusting their lips or an 

entire hand in the appropriate direction. Although gestures are 

relatively common in Uganda, excessive use is considered to 

be strange behavior.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English Swahili Luganda

Do you speak 

English?

Unasema 

Kiingereza? Omanyi

Hello/Hello to all Hujambo/

Hamjambo

Oli otya?/Muli 

mutya?

How are you? Habari? Oli otya?

What’s up today? Umeshindaje leo? Ki Kati?

I am fine Sijambo Mulungi/Bulungi/

Belungi

Good morning Habari za asubuhi? Wasuze otya nno?

Good evening Habari za jioni? or 

Salama za jioni? Osiibye otya nno?

Good night Usiku mwema Sula bulungi

Please Tafadhali Mwattu

Thank you (very 

much) Asante (sana) Webale (nnyo)

Welcome/Welcome 

to all!

Karibu! Tukusanyukidde!/

Tubasanyukidde!

Attention! Samahani! Wulira!

Yes/no Ndiyo/Hapana Ye/Nedda

OK Sawa/Mzuri/Poa Kale

Sorry/Sorry to all Pole Munsonyiwe/

Nsonyiwa

What is your name? Jina lako nani? Erinnya lyo ggwe 

ani?

My name is ___ Jina langu ni ___ Erinnya lyange nze.

See you 

later/Goodbye

Kesho/Kwaheri Tunaalabagana/

Weraba

Who? Nani? Ani?

What? Nini? Kiki?

When? Lini? Ddi?

Where? Wapi? Wa?

Why? Kwa nini? Lwaaki?

Calm down Tulia Téka!

Stop! Ngoja!/Simama!/

Kuacha! Yimilira!

Help! Saidia!/ Msaada! Nnyamba!

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 66.8%

• Male: 76.8%

• Female: 57.7% (2002 census)

Traditional Education

Although traditional educational 

methods varied across ethnicities, 

the universal purpose of education 

was to help young people adapt to 

their physical and social contexts

by passing on values, beliefs, and 

skills. This process took place 

during childhood and adolescence 

and continued into adulthood. Many lessons related to family

life were taught during initiation ceremonies which marked the 

transition to adulthood.

The core of the traditional curriculum consisted of values (such 

as cooperation, discipline, hard work, honesty, and respect for 

elders) and beliefs (such as those about clan relations, cultural 

taboos, and spirituality). These values and beliefs were often 

taught through parables, riddles, and songs.

The traditional curriculum also included skills training in animal 

husbandry, agriculture, hunting, and healing. Training for some 

skills was gender-specific: while boys learned blacksmithing, 

divination, and rainmaking; girls learned pottery and basketry. 

Children often learned these gender-specific skills by working 

alongside their parent of the same sex.

Introduction of Formal Education

In 1886 the Church Mission Society of London (see Religion 

and Spirituality) established the first formal, Western-style 

school in present-day Uganda. Eager to compete for converts, 

other mission societies arrived shortly thereafter and built their 

own schools, focusing on reading, writing, and religion. The 

mission societies willingly bore the expense of establishing and 

running these schools because they felt that demonstrating the 

benefits of Christianity would attract Ugandan converts.

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education in the Uganda Protectorate

Mission societies maintained a monopoly on formal education 

in Uganda until well into the 20th century. Despite controlling 

most of Uganda by the end of the 19th century, the British 

colonial administration (see History and Myth) was wary of 

establishing its own schools from fear of creating a class of 

educated Africans who would demand equal rights.

A growing need for skilled labor eventually forced the colonial

administration to revise this position. After establishing a small 

technical college in 1922, the colonial administration founded a 

secondary school in 1924. Although other schools funded by 

the colonial government soon followed, mission societies still 

controlled 47 of 53 secondary schools in Uganda in 1950. 

Makerere University: The most enduring contribution that the 

British colonial administration made to the education system of 

Uganda is probably Makerere University, which grew out of the 

technical college founded in 1922. In 1949 Makerere joined the 

University College London system, meaning that its graduates 

earned general degrees from the British institution. Makerere 

joined the universities of Nairobi and Dar es Salaam to form the 

University of East Africa system in 1963 before becoming an 

independent university in 1970.

Education in Independent Uganda

After independence in 1962 (see 

History and Myth), many villages were 

awarded government assistance to 

establish schools and hire teachers. 

During the same period, the Ugandan

government began to develop national 

standards and certifying examinations. 

The education system appeared to be 

on a positive track until the late 1960s, when the young nation 

began to descend into violence (see History and Myth).

Although the education system still functioned and enrollments 

even increased during the reigns of Idi Amin and Milton Obote, 

educational quality suffered in every respect: school buildings 

were poorly maintained or damaged by armed conflict, many 

teachers were demoralized by constant upheaval and low pay, 

while other teachers fled Uganda to more peaceful countries.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
When President Museveni took power in 1986, he implemented 

a plan designed to reverse two decades of educational decline. 

Museveni’s plan focused both on capacity, by rebuilding the 

physical infrastructure of the education system, and on quality, 

by improving teacher training and revising curricula. This plan 

laid the groundwork for significant improvements to education 

in Uganda, but resource constraints continue to limit quality.

Modern Education System

Consistent with its colonial history, 

Uganda closely follows the British 

educational model. Students begin 

schooling at age 6, and then have 

7 years of primary school, 4 years 

of secondary school, 2 years of 

senior secondary school, and then 

3-5 years of university education, 

depending on the degree program. 

Although English is the preferred language of instruction at all 

levels, a lack of English-speaking teachers means that regional 

languages are often used during primary school. Students are 

evaluated based on a single essay examination given at the 

end of the school year, which runs from January to December.

Primary: Primary school is free but not compulsory in Uganda.

Primary school enrollment increased dramatically following the 

introduction of universal primary education in 1997, and as of 

2006 there were about 7.4 million Ugandan children enrolled in 

primary school. Primary schools are close to evenly distributed 

between cities and rural areas, and in 2006 there were nearly

18,000 primary schools registered with the government.

The core primary school curriculum includes reading, writing, 

arithmetic, natural science, religion, health, physical education, 

and agriculture. Additional subjects include history, geography, 

foreign language, arts, and crafts.

Secondary: Although only a small fraction of the students who 

complete primary school continue on to secondary school, the 

situation has improved since universal secondary education 

was introduced in 2007. However, school uniforms and other 

associated expenses remain prohibitive for some families.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
As of 2006 about 800,000 students were enrolled in secondary 

school, a larger share of males (55%) than females (45%). In 

the same year the government recorded more than 4,000 

secondary schools, of which more than 80% were neither 

operated nor funded by the government. Because they are 

located far from student homes, secondary schools in Uganda 

are usually operated as same-sex boarding schools.

The core secondary school curriculum includes mathematics, 

literature, history, politics, religion, physics, chemistry, biology, 

geography, business, English, and French. Some schools have 

also introduced courses in practical disciplines such as metal 

fabrication, woodworking, agriculture, and domestic skills.

Tertiary: As of 2006 there were about 90,000 students enrolled 

in Uganda’s 23 universities, of which 5 are public and 18 are 

private. Makerere University is a public institution which 

singularly accounts for about 1/3 of all students, while private 

universities collectively claimed about 40%. A bachelor’s 

degree takes 3 years to complete in Uganda, while an 

engineering degree takes 4 and a medical or dental degree 5. 

Some of the most popular degree tracks include architecture, 

dentistry, and medicine.

Religious Education: Religious organizations run a variety of 

schools in Uganda which traditionally catered to European and 

South Asian minorities. There are about 200 Islamic schools in 

Uganda as well as about 1,000 schools 

each run by the Roman Catholic Church 

and the Anglican Church of Uganda.

HIV/AIDS Education

Public education has played a major role in 

Uganda’s response to the HIV/AIDS crisis 

(see Sustenance and Health), first through 

the “abstain, be faithful, use condoms” 

(ABC campaign) and later through the 

Presidential Initiative on AIDS Strategy for 

Communication to. PIASCY was designed to teach primary 

school children beginning in 3rd grade about issues related to 

HIV/AIDS. Schools were encouraged to discuss HIV/AIDS at 

least once a week in order to compensate for a cultural taboo 

which prevents parents from discussing sex with their children.

LEARNING &

KNOWLEDGE
Concept of Time

Like most Africans, Ugandans take a more relaxed view of time 

than people from Western countries. The rhythm of life is based 

much more on the sun and the seasons than on calendars and 

clocks. Ugandans see few things as urgent and consistently 

emphasize people and relationships over tasks and schedules.

Time and Work

Although working hours vary, 

businesses and government 

offices usually open at 

8:30am and close at 4:30pm5:30pm, with banks closing 

earlier at 3:00pm-4:00pm. 

Some banks, shops, and post 

offices on Saturdays usually 

between 8:30am and 1:00pm. It is customary for Ugandans to 

take long lunch breaks; therefore, many businesses usually 

close from 12:00pm-2:00pm. Businesses in heavily Islamic 

areas sometimes close on Friday (Muslim worship day) 

afternoons to allow employees to attend prayer services.

When Ugandans entertain guests in the home, a snack along 

with coffee or tea is often served around 4:00pm. Those who 

are able to often relax or take a nap in the afternoon, during the 

hottest part of the day. Later in the evening, many Ugandans 

light kerosene lamps and use the time to socialize. 

Swahili Time: “Swahili Time” is a method of timekeeping that

divides the day into two 12-hour periods, marked by “midnight,” 

which occurs at dawn, and “noon,” which occurs at dusk. 

Because dawn occurs around 6:00am, Swahili Time is 6 hours 

ahead of UTC+3, the time zone in which Uganda is located.

Lunar Islamic Calendar: Ugandan Muslims use the Islamic 

calendar for spiritual purposes. Because it is based on lunar 

phases, each date of the Islamic calendar falls 11 days earlier 

each year according to the Western calendar. There are 12 

months in the Islamic calendar, all of which have 30 days or 

fewer. Weeks in the Islamic calendar begin at sunset on 

Saturday.

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Punctuality: Ugandans tend not to be punctual in the Western 

sense, and it is generally acceptable if individuals arrive within 

1-2 hours of their appointed time. Although punctuality is more 

common in professional contexts, foreign nationals should still 

expect to be kept waiting for appointments, particularly when 

with a person of high-status. To demonstrate impatience when 

encountering this sort of inconvenience is usually 

counterproductive and reflects 

poorly on the foreign national.

Negotiations: Negotiations can 

be time-consuming primarily 

because Ugandans prefer to 

establish trust by building a 

personal relationship prior to 

conducting business. In addition, decisions often depend on 

the approval of many different stakeholders. Foreign nationals 

negotiating with Ugandans are advised to show patience and 

foster a trusting partnership through face-to-face 

communication.

Concept of Space

Although proximity, eye contact, and touching are common and 

acceptable in Uganda; there are important cultural boundaries 

regarding their use, especially with relation to gender.

Personal Space

Most Ugandans neither expect 

nor require a large amount of 

personal space: conversations 

are generally conducted within 

an arm’s length of space, and 

Ugandans entering a sparsely 

occupied public space will generally sit or stand next to others 

rather than choosing a spot away from them. 

Eye Contact: Ugandans generally prefer indirect eye contact. 

Although direct eye contact is not taboo, it is often perceived as 

hostile, especially if directed by a man at a woman. Ugandans 

consider it polite to acknowledge people on the street when 

eye contact is established. Female foreign nationals should be 

circumspect about making eye contact with male Ugandans –

SPACE

TIME &
depending on the context, such eye contact may be construed 

as a romantic invitation.

Touch: Ugandans are usually comfortable with a moderate 

degree of touching. Handshakes typically start a conversation

followed by light touches to the 

shoulders and arms while speaking, 

and handholding, which sometimes 

extends for the duration of an 

interaction. Ugandans almost never 

touch members of the opposite sex 

in public, and they consider it 

offensive to touch the head of an 

elder or a Muslim. 

Handshakes: Although Ugandans 

of opposite genders do not 

generally touch in public (see Language and Communication), 

some Ugandan women, with the notable exception of Muslims, 

do shake hands with men. The best way for male foreign 

nationals to respect a woman’s preferences is to wait for her to 

offer her hand before shaking hands with her.

For greetings between men, however, the handshake remains 

the greeting of choice. The Ugandan version of the handshake 

is enthusiastic although soft and gentle, as many Ugandans 

feel that this style is humble and considerate. It is appropriate 

for foreign nationals to display an added measure of respect by 

placing their left hand under their right elbow during a 

handshake. 

Left Hand: The left hand should not be used in Uganda for any 

purpose other than personal hygiene. Foreign nationals should 

use the right hand to give and receive items. If a handshake is 

offered and the right hand is occupied or dirty, the right wrist or 

elbow – not the left hand – should be presented as a substitute.

Photographs: Due to heightened regional security concerns, 

foreign nationals should not photograph property or locations 

associated with the government or military. In addition, foreign 

nationals should always seek permission before photographing 

local nationals and should be aware that they may expect 

payment for being photographed.

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

The aesthetics and recreation of Uganda represent a powerful 

blend of beauty and utility: performing arts both entertain and 

educate while arts and crafts are both attractive and functional. 

This careful balance may explain at least in part why Ugandan 

culture has proven so resilient to outside influences.

Dress

Apart from the Karamojong (see 

Political and Social Relations), 

who prefer traditional dress, 

Ugandans generally wear 

conservative, Western-style attire. 

Because Ugandans place a high 

premium on looking neat and tidy, 

clothing is usually neatly pressed 

and dress shoes polished. Ugandans consider it embarrassing 

to wear flip-flops in public. Although recently it has become 

more common in urban areas, revealing clothing is considered

disgraceful.

Men: The traditional male garment is the kanzu or boubou, an 

embroidered, floor-length white gown which is often worn with 

a jacket and shoes. Ugandan men usually wear this outfit on 

special occasions. The most common daily outfit is a shirt or tshirt with pants or shorts, although office workers tend to dress 

formally. Minimum business dress is a long-sleeved, collared 

shirt with dress pants, although many businessmen wear suits.

Women: Designed by European missionaries who felt that precolonial dress was too revealing, the traditional female garment 

in Uganda is the gomesi or busuti, a full-length wraparound 

dress. The textiles used to make the gomesi are quite colorful 

and often feature patterns with flowers or African wildlife.

Modern Ugandan women generally reserve the heavy gomesi 

for ceremonies or special occasions, relying on blouses with 

dresses or knee-length skirts for daily wear. Although they are 

becoming more common in cities, pants are not traditionally 

considered acceptable attire for women.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Recreation

Ugandans generally do not have a large amount of free time 

because most people are subsistence farmers (see Economics 

and Resources) who cultivate year-round due to the country’s 

favorable climate. Those Ugandans who find themselves with 

surplus time often enjoy sports, games, music, and dance.

In addition, socializing over beers in the afternoon is popular 

among men. Many Ugandans, especially Muslims, also enjoy 

chewing miraa or khat, a mildly narcotic leaf which acts as a 

stimulant. Stopping by a sauna before coming home after work

is becoming increasingly popular among middle-class men.

Soccer: Known locally as “football,” 

soccer is the most popular sport in 

Uganda. Ugandans of every social 

class love to watch and play in

matches, both formal and informal. 

Although Uganda has a professional 

soccer league, it enjoys only limited 

appeal. Many Ugandans instead 

follow the English Premier League, 

especially teams such as Arsenal, 

Chelsea, Liverpool, and Manchester United. Uganda also has a 

national soccer team known as the Crested Cranes which has 

seen little success in international play.

Other Sports: Because most Ugandans are poor by global 

standards, recreational equipment is a luxury. Consequently, in 

addition to soccer, Ugandans prefer sports which require little 

or no equipment, such as track and field, simple weightlifting, 

basketball, and netball (a variant of basketball played mostly by 

women). Sports such as golf, tennis, swimming, squash, rugby, 

and cricket are popular among wealthier Ugandans who can 

afford equipment and club dues.

Games: Ugandans of all ages enjoy Omweso, a traditional 2-

player board game in which players try to capture each other’s 

seeds on a board with 32 pits. Omweso is rarely a silent affair, 

and players often chat about village news, events, and gossip 

during the game. Ugandans also play a game in which adults 

hide seeds in piles of dirt and have children look for them.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Music and Dance

Music and dance play an important role in the work, recreation, 

and religious rituals of Ugandans. Prior to the colonial era (see 

History and Myth), Ugandan music consisted entirely of styles 

developed by indigenous ethnic groups, and there was little 

overlap between these styles. In contrast, modern Ugandans 

embrace genres which fuse traditions from all around the world.

Traditional Music: Traditional music has multiple purposes in 

Ugandan culture. As in many societies, Ugandan traditional 

music is used for communication, entertainment, and emotional 

solace. In addition, traditional music is used to regulate social 

behavior by teaching young people about proper gender roles, 

announcing the time for specific rituals, and promoting behavior 

which harmonizes with traditional values. Song topics overlap 

with those of other styles of music: love, family, and myths.

Based on a five-note scale, traditional instrumental music is 

loud, rhythmic, and usually accompanied by vocals. 

Instruments vary across ethnic groups, but drums dominate in 

every traditional style. Instruments used across Uganda include 

the amadina (xylophone), the endigidi (tube fiddle), and the 

endeere (flute).

Traditional Dance: Although dance styles 

also vary across ethnic groups, there are 

notable regional similarities: dances from 

the North feature movements of the neck, 

arms, and feet; dances from the South are 

characterized by fast hip movements; and 

dances from the Southwest and Northeast 

are known for leaping and stomping. In all 

styles of traditional dance, minute 

variations can change entirely the meaning of a given routine. 

Although traditional dance is open to both genders, some 

dances are specifically intended for a single gender.

Modern: Uganda is home to a popular and thriving music 

industry based in Kampala, although Ugandans also enjoy a 

wide variety of foreign styles from Africa, Europe, the US, the 

Middle East, and the Caribbean. International music is common 

on the radio and in nightclubs and bars, and some of the most 

popular genres blend African music with international genres.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
For example, many Ugandans enjoy Afrobeat, a genre which 

mixes standard or Ugandan-style pop music with African folk 

music. Ugandans historically also have been fans of Lingala or 

soukous, an African take on the rumba which originated in the 

Democratic Republic of the Congo. Lingala has declined in 

popularity as Ugandan styles have matured. One such native 

genre is Kadongo Kamu, which pairs traditional drum music 

with narrative lyrics and a single bass guitar.

Despite the popularity of these 

hybrid genres, Ugandans also 

enjoy music from common genres 

such as gospel, jazz, R&B, 

reggae, and hip-hop. These styles 

are usually adapted to the 

Ugandan context. For example, 

some local hip-hop artists create 

“gospel rap” about their religious 

beliefs or rap in local languages such as Luganda and Swahili 

(see Language and Communication).

Theater

Like music, theater serves as both a form of entertainment and 

a key means of socialization. Although limited public funding 

means that most performances are staged by amateurs, the 

dramatic arts take a variety of forms in Uganda, ranging from 

acrobatics and puppetry to musicals and political plays. Many 

performances in Uganda are unscripted, a fact as much due to 

painful memories of artist persecution during the Idi Amin era 

(see History and Myth) as to Uganda’s widespread illiteracy.

Literature

Literature is a key part of Ugandan culture because storytelling, 

like music and theater, has the ability to impart cultural values.

The total amount of literature in indigenous ethnic languages is 

massive, but little has been converted into written form.

Few modern Ugandan authors write in indigenous ethnic 

languages, instead preferring English. The notable exception to 

this rule is Okot p’Bitek, a Ugandan author who wrote in his 

native Acholi language (see Language and Communication).

His most famous works are Lak Tar Miyo Kinyero Wi Lobo and 

Song of Lawino.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Arts and Crafts

Arts and crafts traditionally are considered the purest form of 

expression in Uganda, and each ethnic group made its own 

distinctive handicrafts as symbols of prestige and power. In 

modern Uganda, art serves as a substitute for written literature 

because it transcends the barriers of language and literacy.

The most common arts and crafts in Uganda are those which 

blend form and function; such as ceramics, textiles, musical 

instruments and household items like baskets and pots. Many 

forms and colors mirror the African landscape and way of life.

Holidays

Christmas is the most important religious holiday in Uganda. 

The standard Christmas greeting is Mukulike Okutuuka Ku 

Mazaalibwa, an expression that conveys one’s happiness that 

his friends and family have lived to see another Christmas.

Ugandans celebrate Christmas by feasting and drinking with 

loved ones. The most significant political holiday is 

Independence Day, which marks the day Uganda achieved 

independence from Britain with speeches, parades, singing, 

and dancing.

Public Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• January 26: Liberation Day

• March 8: International Women’s Day

• March – April: Good Friday

• March – April: Easter Monday

• May 1: International Labor Day

• May 13: Ascension Day

• June 9: National Heroes’ Day

• July 3: Martyrs’ Day

• October 9: Independence Day

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 26: Boxing Day

• Variable: Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan)

• Variable: Eid al-Adha (Feast of the Sacrifice)

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dining Customs

Especially in rural areas, Ugandans generally eat their meals 

outdoors, either under a tree or on a porch. Although women 

are responsible for preparing meals in most ethnic groups, men 

usually are served first and allowed to eat their fill. Women and 

children must wait until men are done, and often they also must 

eat separately on a mat rather than at the main table.

Except for some urbanites who 

use cutlery, Ugandans generally 

eat with the right hand (see Time 

and Space). Consequently, it is 

customary in Uganda to wash 

one’s hands in a basin prior to 

eating. Although rural Ugandans

generally eat family-style from 

shared bowls and platters, many 

urban Ugandans who have been exposed to Western culture 

now use separate plates. Ugandans rarely talk during meals, a 

practice which is supposed to help prevent choking.

Traditional Diet

The traditional Ugandan diet consists of foods which Ugandan 

farmers historically have cultivated successfully; such as corn, 

rice, sweet potatoes, bananas, peanuts, beans, fruit, and green 

vegetables. Due to its many lakes and rivers, Uganda also has 

a supply of fish such as Nile perch, tilapia, and mudfish. Many 

Ugandans also hunt wild game or raise livestock such as cattle, 

chickens, sheep, and goats.

The emphasis placed upon each of these foods varies across 

ethnic groups. The Bantu-speaking groups of southern Uganda 

traditionally have emphasized crop cultivation and supplements 

of meat obtained through hunting or livestock husbandry. In 

contrast, the Nilotic-speaking groups of northern Uganda rely 

upon staples such as cassava, millet, sorghum, and sesame.

The exception to this general division is the Nilotic-speaking

Karamojong ethnic group, which derives most of its nutrition 

from cattle; however, the Karamojong also grow crops and 

trade occasionally for staples with neighboring agriculturalists.

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Typical Meals: Depending on the resources available to them, 

Ugandans typically eat 2-3 meals per day. Breakfast generally 

consists of corn porridge, sometimes with bananas, and coffee 

or tea for those who can afford it. Lunch usually consists of a 

starch (often bananas) along with boiled sweet potatoes and a 

sauce made of beans, peanuts, or meat. Dinner is more or less 

the same as lunch, although wealthy Ugandans sometimes eat 

meat and rice stew.

Popular Dishes: Because Uganda has 

so many different ethnic groups, there is 

no universally popular dish. Matooke, a 

dish made from mashed green bananas, 

is probably the most popular. Although 

matooke is typically served with peanut 

sauce, Ugandans also enjoy eating the 

dish with the more expensive luwombo, 

a stew made with beef, chicken, or goat, 

when financial circumstances allow.

Despite the popularity of matooke, many city-dwellers prefer a 

corn porridge known variously as posho, nsima, or ugali. Corn 

porridge is popular because it is less expensive than matooke 

and is a closer substitute for cassava and millet, staples which 

many Ugandans grew up eating. Corn porridge is often served 

with sauce made from beans or meat. Ugandans also eat both 

matooke and corn porridge with fried or stewed fish, and often 

snack on white ants, termites, or nsenene (grasshoppers).

Urban Ugandans have access to a greater variety of cuisine 

imported from abroad. Some of the most popular imports are 

rice, wheat bread, and mandazi, a type of donut from the East 

African coast. South Asian foods such as samosas (fried meat 

or vegetable pies) and chapati (flatbread) are also popular. 

Beverages

All Ugandans drink water at meals, and adult Ugandan males 

drink a variety of alcoholic beverages. Bananas seem to be the 

most popular ingredient in alcoholic beverages, appearing in 

marwa and pombe (banana beers) as well as waragi (banana 

gin), the most popular drink in Uganda. Ugandans who do not 

drink alcohol – mostly women and children – also enjoy juice, 

soda, and milk.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Traditional Medicine

The term “traditional medicine” refers to the range of methods 

used to protect and restore health in a particular region prior to 

the introduction of Western-style medicine. More than 60% of 

Ugandans still rely upon traditional health practitioners, who 

use an approach which considers physical, mental, and social 

factors to treat a range of diseases such as malaria, respiratory 

problems, skin ailments, and toothaches.

Traditional health practitioners are popular for several reasons. 

First, they are inexpensive. Second, they are accessible: there 

is a traditional health practitioner for every 200-400 Ugandans, 

while the ratio for Western-trained doctors is closer to 1:27,000. 

Third, they are trusted members of the community who share a 

cultural background with their patients.

An estimated 95% of Africa’s traditional health practitioners are 

herbalists who use herbal medicines to treat illness. Scientific 

studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of some Ugandan 

herbal medicines against HIV/AIDS and malaria. Based on

these findings, the Ugandan government and the World Health 

Organization (WHO) have funded further scientific studies 

about traditional medicines.

Modern Healthcare System

The Ugandan healthcare system 

was devastated by domestic strife 

during the 1970s and 1980s (see 

History and Myth), not only by the 

direct effects of conflict but also by 

the mass exodus of medical 

practitioners from Uganda. There 

is still a severe shortage of medical personnel: Uganda had 

only 15 medical professionals for every 10,000 people in 2010, 

a figure well below the ratio of 23:10,000 recommended by the 

WHO. Fewer than half (44%) of the positions for doctors at 

public hospitals were filled in 2010. 

Uganda has over 140 hospitals – about 15 are private for profit, 

60 are private not for profit, and 65 are public. The government 

runs a well-equipped General Hospital in each of Uganda’s 4 

regions (see Political and Social Relations) and over 10 smaller 

Regional Referral Hospitals located throughout Uganda. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Village Health Teams (VHTs): Since the early 2000s, Uganda 

has used a system of VHTs to provide healthcare guidance at 

the local level. VHTs are composed of 4-5 community members 

who are trained by the Ministry of Health and are expected to 

communicate basic information about the healthcare system to 

their neighbors and refer people to 

the proper facilities when care is 

required. There are VHTs in 72% of 

Uganda’s villages.

Health Challenges

Having one of the world’s lowest life 

expectancies at just 53.2 years, 

Uganda faces many serious health 

challenges ranging from communicable diseases such as 

malaria and HIV/AIDS and social problems such as alcohol 

abuse and domestic violence (see Sex and Gender).

HIV/AIDS: With a prevalence of 6.5% among adults age 15-49, 

Uganda has the 10th highest rate of HIV infection in both Africa 

and the world. Although this statistic is bleak, it represents 

notable improvement over the early 1990s when Uganda’s HIV 

prevalence topped 10%. The Ugandan government has been 

praised for its response to the virus, which involved a massive 

public education campaign (see Learning and Knowledge).

Malaria and Tuberculosis: Malaria is endemic in all but 5% of 

Uganda, with the area near Lake Kyoga bearing an especially 

heavy burden. The disease caused the largest percentage of 

both new cases of illness (36%) and hospital-based deaths

(27%) in Uganda in 2010. Tuberculosis (TB) is also a problem: 

with an estimated 193 infections per 100,000 people, Uganda 

had the world’s 17th highest TB burden in 2010. Not counting 

TB-caused deaths of HIV-positive individuals (which count as 

HIV deaths), TB killed an estimated 5,000 Ugandans in 2010.

Other Challenges: The most common health issues are colds, 

diarrhea, headaches, skin infections, alcohol abuse, and dental 

problems. Uganda has an infant mortality rate of 62 deaths per 

1,000 live births (10 times the US rate) and a maternal mortality 

rate of 430 deaths per 100,000 live births (18 times the US 

rate). Mainly due to malnutrition, 38% of children were too short 

and 16% were underweight for their age groups in 2006.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

The Ugandan economy has experienced uninterrupted growth 

averaging 6.8% per year since 1987, the year after President 

Museveni came to power (see History and Myth). During the 

same year the International Monetary Fund (IMF) implemented 

economic reforms which deregulated agriculture, devalued the 

shilling (see “Currency”), and privatized state-owned firms. This 

growth has been sustained mostly by profitable agricultural 

exports and large inflows of foreign aid and investment.

Despite this strong growth, Uganda 

remains a poor country in which 

about 40% of the population lives 

on less than $1.25 per day. In

addition, Uganda has a high level of 

income inequality: while the richest 

10% of Ugandans controls 36.1% 

of household income, the poorest 

10% controls less than 3%.

With its fertile soil, abundant rainfall, and recently discovered oil

and mineral reserves; Uganda has the potential for substantial 

economic growth. However, Uganda first must reckon with high 

energy costs, widespread corruption, weak infrastructure, and 

internal instability (see Political and Social Relations). 

Services

Accounting for over half (51%) of GDP and 29% of the labor 

force, services comprise the largest sector of the economy. The 

Ugandan government purchases about half of services sector 

output. The largest subsectors are retail trade (mostly petty 

trade) and transport and communications (see Technology and 

Material), which is dominated by the mobile phone industry. 

Tourism: Tourism, an industry which involves many services 

sector inputs, is growing quickly in Uganda due to attractions 

such as the mountain gorillas of the Southwest, the islands of 

Lake Victoria, and Bujagali Falls, which is famous for Nile River 

rafting. Nevertheless, Uganda’s tourism industry still lags 

behind its counterparts in Kenya and Tanzania due to setbacks 

caused by years of civil strife (see History and Myth).

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Industry

Industry accounts for 27% of GDP and 6% of the labor force. 

Most industrial activity is concentrated in the construction and 

manufacturing subsectors, each of which added 9% of GDP in 

2007. Foods, drinks, and tobacco products account for the bulk 

of Ugandan manufacturing, although construction materials are 

also important. Much manufacturing, such as ginning cotton or 

curing coffee, involves preparing local raw materials for export. 

Mining: Although at times the Ugandan mining industry has 

been known mainly as a proxy for minerals extracted illegally in 

the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Uganda began 

exporting copper and small amounts of other minerals as early 

as the colonial era. Found mainly in the Rwenzori Mountains, 

copper remains an important export, along with cobalt, gold, 

and phosphate. Deposits of several other minerals have been 

located in recent years in southwestern Uganda.

Oil: Extractable oil was first found in Uganda at the Kingfisher 

well in western Uganda in October 2006. Originally estimated 

at 300 million barrels, Uganda’s oil reserves are now believed 

to total 2 billion barrels, of which 800 million barrels is thought 

to be extractable. Further exploration continues at Lake Albert. 

Agriculture

Although the agriculture sector

accounts for only 22% of GDP, 

making it the smallest sector of 

Uganda’s economy, it employs 

almost 2/3 of the labor force. The 

agriculture sector produces both 

cash crops for export and staples 

for domestic consumption. Cash crops, which account for about

30% of export earnings, include coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco, 

and cocoa. The most important staples are bananas, cassava, 

corn, millet, and potatoes.

In addition to food crops, Ugandan farmers also cultivate and 

export cut flowers. This industry has grown in recent years as 

infrastructure advances and shared industry standards have 

helped to boost quality. Fishing is also an important part of the 

agricultural sector, although the industry currently faces threats 

such as overfishing.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency

The official currency of Uganda is

the Ugandan shilling (USh), which is 

issued in five banknotes (USh 1,000, 

5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000) and 

four coins (USh 50, 100, 200, 500).

Due to high inflation in Uganda, the 

exchange rate between the shilling 

and the US dollar fluctuates. As a 

general guide, $1 has been worth 

anywhere from USh 1,560-2,885 over the period of 2001-2011 

and stood at about USh 2,500 in late 2011.

Foreign Trade

Uganda’s imports, which totaled $4.3 billion in 2010, primarily 

consisted of cereal grains, machinery, medical supplies, oil, 

and vehicles purchased from Kenya (17.1%), the United Arab 

Emirates (UAE) (14.1%), China (8.5%), India (8.2%), South 

Africa (6.2%), Japan (5.9%), and Germany (4.3%).

Uganda’s exports, which totaled $2.3 billion in 2010, mainly

consisted of coffee, tea, gold, cotton, fish, fish products, and 

horticultural products like flowers sold to Sudan (15.3%), Kenya 

(10.2%), Rwanda (8.5%), the Democratic Republic of the 

Congo (7.8%), the UAE (7.7%), the Netherlands (6.4%),

Germany (5.4%), and Belgium (4.1%).

Foreign Aid

Although foreign aid comprised more than 1/3 of the Ugandan 

government budget in FY2009/10, aid inflows have declined in

recent years. Some of this drop may be due to donor frustration 

with widespread bureaucratic corruption and high levels of 

military spending. Some donors have also threatened to cut aid 

to Uganda if its Parliament passes a controversial bill regarding 

homosexuality (see Sex and Gender).

US Assistance: The US provided about $526 million in aid to 

Uganda during FY2010, of which about half went to the 

President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief in the form of

technical assistance to 15 African countries. The US also 

provided funding to fight infectious disease, promote trade and 

investment, protect the environment, resolve conflicts, and 

increase government transparency.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Uganda has an underdeveloped physical infrastructure which 

does not yet allow for quick, safe, and inexpensive movement 

of people and goods. However, the spread of mobile telephony

in recent years has improved communications in Uganda.

Transportation

Vehicles: Motorized vehicles 

are the most common form of 

passenger travel in Uganda. 

Coach-style buses, which are 

usually the fastest and safest 

form of motorized transport, 

make regular trips along all of 

the major routes. Minibuses 

(also known as “taxis”) travel a broader range of routes, 

although they depart only when at max capacity rather than in 

accordance with a fixed schedule. The most common choice 

for suburban transport is the boda-boda, a bicycle taxi 

sometimes powered by a small engine.

Roadways: Uganda had 43,960 miles of roadways in 2003, of 

which 23% were paved. Highways, which are generally in fair 

condition, link Kampala with secondary urban centers such as 

Gulu in the North, Tororo in the East, Masaka and Mbarara in 

the Southwest, and Fort Portal in the West. Although Kampala 

is the major hub of the road network, traffic in the capital region 

has eased considerably since the opening of a bypass on the 

northern side of the city in 2008. Because most regional roads 

are unpaved, they can become impassable after heavy rains.

Railways: Uganda has a total of 773 miles of railways. Since 

2006 a South African group called Rift Valley Railways has run 

the integrated and formerly state-owned rail networks of Kenya 

and Uganda. The Ugandan part of this network forks into two 

branches just after the Kenyan border, with one branch running 

northwest to Gulu while the other runs southwest to Port Bell 

(see “Waterways and Ports”). Although Rift Valley Railways 

announced plans to offer passenger service beginning in early 

2012, those plans were delayed by a licensing issue.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Waterways and Ports: Despite being landlocked and having 

few navigable stretches of river, Uganda has access to several 

lakes which support commercial traffic. The most important is 

Lake Victoria, which connects Uganda’s Port Bell with Kisumu 

in Kenya and Mwanza in Tanzania. Located outside Kampala, 

Port Bell is the only port in Uganda that can accommodate 

large ferries. Smaller-scale commerce flows through Jinja on 

Lake Victoria, Masindi Port on Lake Kyoga in Central Uganda, 

and Butiaba on Lake Albert in northwest Uganda.

Airways: Uganda has a total of 

46 airports and airstrips, of which 

5 have paved runways. Located 

21 miles southwest of Kampala, 

Entebbe International Airport is 

the country’s primary airport.

The national airline is Air Uganda, which operates a fleet of 4 

small- and medium-sized airliners out of Entebbe. In addition to 

several flights per day to Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, and Juba; Air 

Uganda offers several flights per week to regional destinations 

such as Bujumbura, Kigali, Mombasa, and Zanzibar. Smaller 

private and charter airlines offer service within Uganda.

Regional carriers such as Ethiopian Airways, Kenya Airways, 

and Precision Air (Tanzania) provide service to many other 

cities within Africa, while international carriers such as British 

Airways, Emirates, and KLM Royal Dutch Airlines link Uganda 

with destinations in Europe and the Middle East.

Energy

Electricity in Uganda is expensive, unreliable, and inaccessible

for most people. Only 3% of rural Ugandans have access to 

electricity, and about half of that electricity comes from car 

batteries, solar cells, or small diesel generators rather than the 

electrical grid. Most Ugandans continue to rely upon wood fuel.

Uganda gets most of its electricity from the Nalubaale and Kiira 

Hydroelectric Power Stations, both of which are located at Jinja 

on the Victoria Nile. Because these stations alone are only able 

to meet about 80% of Uganda’s peak electricity demand, 3 new 

diesel-powered plants were built in 2005. Located just north of 

Jinja, the Bujagali Hydro Power Plant also came online in 2012.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media and Telecommunications

Although the Ugandan constitution guarantees freedom of the 

press, the government has shown itself willing to sidestep this

guarantee whenever it senses organized political opposition.

Private media nevertheless have thrived since controls were 

relaxed as part of broader reforms in the early 1990s.

Radio and TV: The Uganda Broadcasting Corporation (UBC), 

Uganda’s national broadcaster, operates 6 radio stations and 1 

TV station, all of which focus on informational and educational 

programming. Although UBC TV broadcasts mostly in English, 

UBC radio stations broadcast in various regionally appropriate 

mixes of 23 different languages.

Private radio and TV stations focus mainly on entertainment. 

Private radio plays music ranging from indigenous music to 

Western pop, while private TV broadcasts a variety of foreign 

genres including Latin American telenovelas. The linguistic 

profile of private broadcast media is similar to that of the UBC. 

Paid satellite services such as MultiChoice are also available.

Print Media: Daily newspapers such as New Vision (public) 

and the Monitor (private) compete with news magazines such 

as the weekly Independent and the semiweekly Observer. Due 

to high newsstand prices, daily circulation of all newspapers is 

estimated to be less than 100,000. It is thought that an average 

of 10 Ugandans share each newspaper in order to lower costs.

Telephones: Although fixed-line telephony 

remains inadequate, mobile service has now 

been extended to the entire population, and 

prices are falling quickly due to competition 

between carriers. Mobile subscriptions leapt 

from just 0.5 per 100 inhabitants in 2000 to 

38.4 per 100 inhabitants in 2010.

Internet: Mobile phones are used to access 

the Internet for most Ugandans. The 

percentage of the population accessing the 

Internet increased from 0.2% to 12.5%

between 2000 and 2010. Although they are 

not yet widespread, both broadband and 3G 

services are available in Uganda.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
ThisFieldGuideisbroughttoyoubytheUSAirForceCultureand

LanguageCenter(AFCLC).TheAFCLCispartofacommunityof

DepartmentofDefenseCultureandLanguageCentersthat

endeavortoprovideSoldiers,Sailors,AirmenandMarineswith

Culture-GeneralandCulture-Speciåcinformation.TheseCenters

include:TheUSArmyTrainingandDoctrineCommand(TRADOC),

USNavyCenterforLanguage,RegionalExpertiseandCulture

(CLREC),andtheUSMarineCorpsCenterforAdvanced

OperationalCultureLearning(CAOCL).

Anelectronicversionofthisguideisavailableat:

https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc/EST/ESTmaps.html

FormoreinformationonUnitedStatesAirForcesEuropevisit:

http://www.usafe.af.mil/

https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc/EST

http://culture.af.mil

VisitExpeditionarySkillsTrainingformoreresources: