DEFENSE INTELLIGENCE AGENCY

ADAPTING TO A CHANGING: 

ENVIRONMENT

Defense Intelligence Agency in the 1990s

Janet A. McDonnell

DIA Historical Research Division

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3
Defense Intelligence Agency

Historical Research Division

Washington, DC

2013

The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are 

solely the author’s, and do not reflect those of the Defense 

Intelligence Agency, the Department of Defense, or the 

United States Government.
Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

ADAPTING TO A CHANGING 

ENVIRONMENT: 

The Defense Intelligence Agency 

in the 1990s

Janet A. McDonnell

DIA Historical Research Division

i

Introduction

As the decade of the 1980s drew to a close, the structure of Defense intelligence was 

coming under increasing scrutiny. For decades Defense intelligence and the national 

intelligence community (IC) had spent much of their time and resources responding to 

threats emanating from the Soviet Union. With the end of the Cold War and the breakup 

of the Warsaw Pact, the U.S. faced a new array of security threats and potential conflicts. 

The Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) had to quickly retool and do this in the midst of 

declining resources, a process not without some pain. At the same time with Operation 

DESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM DIA’s role in support of operating forces was growing. 

The early 1990s then proved to be a pivotal period for Defense intelligence and for DIA. In 

a period marked by reform, consolidation, and streamlining in Defense intelligence, DIA 

undertook one of the most profound and extensive internal reorganizations in its history. 

Budget constraints, organizational change, and consolidation brought both challenges and 

opportunities to DIA. While the resource cuts made it increasingly difficult for the agency to 

meet its requirements and accomplish its missions, they also provided its leadership with 

an opportunity to re-conceptualize and re-configure the agency bureaucracy. In 1993 DIA’s 

director, Air Force Lieutenant General James R. Clapper, launched a major reorganization 

of the agency, built around the creation of three new functional centers. The changes in 

DIA’s organizational structure resulting from this reorganization had mixed results, but other 

reforms and initiatives from this period, such as the establishment of Joint Intelligence 

Centers and the consolidation of human intelligence (HUMINT) in the Defense HUMINT 

Service, prompted positive change both within DIA and in Defense intelligence. The 

agency’s role within Defense intelligence and within the national Intelligence Community 

grew with Clapper’s retooling of the Military Intelligence Board and other efforts designed 

to increase the level of support to the military forces. 

The experiences and challenges of the 1990s continue to resonate. The importance 

of approaching potential resource cuts with careful consideration of agency missions, 

context, the national security environment, and changes in strategic thinking becomes 

clear. While the implementation of the internal DIA reorganization revealed flaws, 

Clapper’s broader concept for DIA and for Defense intelligence provided a framework 

for some positive change. Under his leadership DIA assumed a stronger leadership 

role within the Defense intelligence community. The legacy of the Defense intelligence 

reforms and reorganizations of the early 1990s remains strong, and the lessons from that 

time take on new relevance in the current political and economic environment.
Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

Adapting to a Changing Environment

The first half of the 1990s proved to be a pivotal period for Defense intelligence, and for 

the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) in particular. Some of the challenges that the agency 

faced are similar to those it faces today, and there remains much to be learned from the 

agency’s response to those challenges. Placing the changes occurring in DIA recounted here 

in the context of broader reforms within Defense intelligence is critical. In a period marked 

by consolidation and streamlining in Defense intelligence, DIA experienced some of the 

most extensive and profound internal reorganization in its history. Much like the rest of the 

intelligence community (IC), the agency lost resources and experienced reduced capabilities. 

Budget constraints, organizational change, and consolidation brought both challenges and 

opportunities to DIA. While the resource cuts made it increasingly difficult for DIA to meet 

its requirements and accomplish its missions, they also provided its leadership with an 

opportunity to re-conceptualize and re-configure the agency bureaucracy. As we will see, 

the changes in DIA’s organizational structure resulting from this effort had mixed results, but 

there were other reforms and initiatives from this period that prompted positive change both 

within DIA and in the broader Defense intelligence community. The importance of approaching 

potential resource cuts with careful consideration of agency missions, context, the national 

security environment, and changes in strategic thinking becomes clear. 

As the decade of the 1980s drew to a close, the Defense intelligence structure was coming 

under increasing scrutiny. For decades the intelligence community had spent much of its 

time and resources responding to threats emanating from the 

Soviet Union. Although the Cold War was ending, the threat was 

not completely gone. The breakup of the Warsaw Pact brought its 

own challenges and the U.S. faced a new array of security threats 

and potential conflicts. The collapse of communism in the Soviet 

Union and Eastern Europe prompted DIA to refine its role as a 

military intelligence organization. Army Lieutenant General Harry E. 

Soyster, DIA director from 1988 to 1991, observed that the major 

focus of intelligence during the Cold War had been containing the 

Soviet Union and as that major effort declined it was not clear “who 

the enemy was going to be.” DIA would end up going into parts 

of the world such as the Balkans where it did not have the same 

level of expertise. “We had trained our analysts, Soviet and East 

European analysts, with the mindset about the strength, character, 

and purpose of the Soviet Union,” he explained, “and we had to 

change.” DIA had a number of analysts who knew the Soviets 

well and linguists who specialized in Russian, Czech, or Bulgarian 

languages, but these numbers would be greatly reduced in the 

early 1990s. Refocusing the agency, Soyster added, was “a very 

great challenge.”1

Two major themes or trends dominated Defense intelligence in the early 1990s: increasing 

pressure to cut resources and the need to respond to a radically changed national security Source: DIA Historical Collection.

LTG Harry E. Soyster, USA

Director, Defense Intelligence Agency 

1988 –1991. 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

environment. DIA in particular was called upon to respond to ongoing and emerging global 

challenges in the midst of downsizing and reshaping itself for the future. Since passage of 

the Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986, the agency had 

functioned as a combat support agency and as a major producer and management element 

in the Defense intelligence community, providing both operational forces and defense 

decision makers with comprehensive intelligence data. By the early 1990s, the focus of 

Defense intelligence was shifting from supporting decision makers and military planning 

to supporting operational forces. The 1991 Persian Gulf War demonstrated to Congress 

and to those throughout DoD the critical importance of intelligence to operational forces 

on the ground. At the same time it exposed shortfalls in the intelligence community’s and 

the military’s ability to support modern air campaigns. After the conflict, the White House, 

Congress, and the Pentagon resolved that battlefield commanders should have better 

intelligence support in the future.2

For Defense intelligence then, and 

particularly for DIA, the period was one 

not only of declining resources but also 

of increasing requirements. As noted, 

there was mounting pressure to reduce 

resources and downsize. At the same 

time, since becoming a combat support 

agency, more functions had been gradually 

coming to the agency. DIA responded to 

the collapse of communism in the Soviet 

Union and Eastern Europe by refining its 

role as a military intelligence organization. 

This reassessment, along with lessons from 

Operation DESERT STORM, led to one 

of the most profound reorganizations its 

history.

The broader national intelligence community was confronting similar challenges. In 1992 

Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) Robert Gates, who would later become secretary 

of defense, told a Joint Committee of Congress that there was the impression that the 

intelligence community had been focused entirely on the Soviet Union “and with its demise 

we are now searching for new missions to occupy ourselves.” Rather, he said, in 1980, at 

the high point of the U.S. commitment of resources to the Cold War, only 58 percent of the 

intelligence community’s resources were dedicated against the Soviet Union. The rest, over 40 

percent, were focused on a range of issues that remained significant, such as developments 

in the Third World, international arms sales, proliferation, terrorism, international economic 

issues, and international strategic resources. In short, the IC was never wholly preoccupied 

with the Soviet Union and had been dealing with other issues during the past decade. Gates 

also addressed the misperception that the IC had been sized to address the Cold War and 

must be significantly downsized and restructured. He pointed to the period 1967-1980 in 

which the IC lost 40 percent of its people and 50 percent of its funding. By the late 1970s Defense Visual Information Center

DIA analysts conducted battle damage assessments on Iraqi targets 

using overhead imagery and other methods.
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

Congress concluded that the cuts had been too severe and started rebuilding U.S. intelligence 

capabilities. Since 1980, he added, the IC had focused even more on non-Soviet issues.3

Some senior officials in Defense intelligence expressed their own concern about the growing 

pressure for resource cuts. DIA’s Deputy Director for Resources Michael Munson advocated 

a more cautious approach to the anticipated resource drawdowns. He maintained that their 

impact on DIA remained unclear. DIA senior Martin Hurwitz, who headed the General Defense 

Intelligence Program (GDIP) staff in the Pentagon as the 1990s began, called for caution in 

planning and executing the cuts. Like Gates, he took issue with the prevailing view that the 

Soviet threat went away with the fall of the Berlin Wall, so intelligence programs could take 

large cuts. While dramatic changes had made a major Soviet-U.S. war unlikely, he conceded, 

the intelligence problem in Europe had become even more difficult for a variety of reasons. 

First, the Soviet strategic capability continued to grow stronger and ethnic and national 

hostilities ran deep in Eastern Europe, the Soviet republics, and in Western Europe. In addition, 

the loss of a common enemy could weaken the NATO alliance and undermine the Treaty on 

Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, and Defense intelligence would lose its database on 

most Soviet air and ground forces. Officials had good intelligence on the Soviets because it 

had been watching them for over forty years. Under the treaty, the Soviets were reorganizing, 

relocating and restructuring their units. Defense intelligence, Hurwitz noted, would need new 

databases for the several thousand installations affected by this redeployment and would have 

to rebuild its ground and air order of battle.4

Hurwitz and others pointed out that the Soviet Union had been the only country with the 

capability to destroy the U.S. “While DoD did not ignore other threats,” he explained, “it did 

not need to talk about them to justify its budget.” However, the problems in the early 1990s 

were less about Europe and more about conflict among Third World nations. Drug lords 

threatened the sovereignty of our neighbors in South America, insurgencies continued in 

Southeast Asia, Central America, Chad, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Defense intelligence centers 

were feeding information to U.S. ground forces in Saudi Arabia. “We should be strengthening 

Defense intelligence programs to deal with instability and compensate for withdrawal,” 

Hurwitz wrote.5

 He pointed back to the 1970s when the department made across-the-board 

intelligence reductions without considering their impact. These reductions, he explained, 

protected expensive “vacuum cleaner” collection systems but “cut the people needed to use 

what they collected.” It gutted everything not focused on the Soviet Union. Now as Defense 

intelligence faced another drawdown, he said, there was a need for context to make better 

decisions. He acknowledged that the choices ahead for Defense intelligence were difficult. 

They involved more than choosing which low pay off systems to cut. “We have to choose also 

the necessary capabilities we will give up,” he explained, “so that we will be able to pay for 

essential capabilities.”6

It had taken the intelligence community more than a decade to recover most of the human 

source and analytical capabilities lost as a result of the drawdown of the 1970s. Events of 

the early 1990s demonstrated that the collapse of the Soviet Union had made the analytical 

database problems more difficult. The National Foreign Intelligence Program (NFIP) analytical 

manpower base gave the Pentagon scientific and technical (S&T) analysis for making prudent 

decisions about weapons acquisition; underpinned political and strategic decisions to commit 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

forces; provided indications of hostilities and warning of crises; was the primary basis for 

tactical decisions about force deployments; and was the essential basis for turning a massive 

volume of data collected each year into intelligence. Only the NFIP analytical database, 

Hurwitz emphasized, could give commanders the quality and quantity of information they 

needed to defeat the enemy. With a smaller force and fewer weapons than during the Cold 

War, forces would need an adequate NFIP to defeat “an increasing arsenal of technically 

sophisticated weapons in Third World hands.” Hurwitz concluded with a strong warning, “It 

would be imprudent to repeat blindly the mistakes of the 1970s.” DIA’s deputy director (1990-

1991), Rear Admiral Edward D. Sheafer, Jr., also cautioned against cutting too deeply. He 

emphasized the value of intelligence on the battlefield and pointed out that as the operational 

force structure shrinks, intelligence becomes even more important to the field commander.7

Defense Intelligence Reorganization—1991

Closely related to the pressure for resource reduction was the call for reform in Defense 

intelligence. Even before the Gulf War concluded, Secretary of Defense Richard Cheney 

had begun moving aggressively to reorganize Defense intelligence to address the rapidly 

changing nature of the worldwide military threat as well as the certainty of future DoD-wide 

budget cuts. In June 1989 the secretary submitted a report to president George W. Bush 

called Defense Management: Report to the President setting forth the plan that the president 

had requested for implementing the recommendations of the president’s 1986 Blue Ribbon 

Commission on Defense Management. The commission, headed by former Deputy Secretary 

of Defense David Packard, had focused on improving the management of the department 

and defense resources. Cheney assured the president that his department was prepared 

to begin implementing the plan immediately. Although the report did not deal specifically 

with the Defense intelligence function, it outlined fundamental changes underway within the 

department that would have a huge impact on Defense intelligence.8

In December 1989, Secretary Cheney directed his assistant secretary of defense for 

command, control, communications, and intelligence (ASD(C3I)), Duane Andrews, to conduct 

a review of Defense intelligence with a particular emphasis on restructuring. The goal of the 

restructuring would be to accommodate the changing world situation and modifications 

in the structure of the Armed Forces, improve management of intelligence resources, and 

eliminate duplicative intelligence activities. The review was also designed to alter the existing 

Cold War mindset. The secretary gave Andrews overall authority to oversee the changes 

resulting from the review. The assistant secretary’s main tasks were to identify and eliminate 

unnecessary functions and management layers and to consolidate those related functions 

where consolidation would promote greater effectiveness and efficiency. The deputy 

secretary of defense later provided additional guidance, directing Andrews to focus on 

efficiency, responsiveness, and effectiveness of Defense intelligence management activities in 

accordance with the 1989 Defense Management report. The ASD(C3I) completed his review, 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

referred to as “Defense intelligence in the 1990s,” with the assistance of military service, 

agency, unified and specified (U&S) command intelligence officials, and presented the results 

to the secretary, deputy secretary, and other senior Defense officials between September and 

December of 1990.9

Some of the ASD(C3I)’s initial conclusions were addressed in a 27 November 1990 

memorandum from the deputy secretary of defense that strengthened the role of the 

ASD(C3I) by specifying that he would report directly to the secretary and deputy secretary 

and by assigning the ASD responsibility for the exercise of “authority, direction and control” 

over DIA and the GDIP staff.10 Also a 14 December 1990 memorandum from the deputy 

secretary, “Strengthening Defense Intelligence Functions,” directed the ASD(C3I) to submit an 

implementation plan identifying other actions required to strengthen Defense intelligence.11

Meanwhile, Secretary Cheney pushed forward with intelligence reform, issuing a 15 March 

1991 memo titled “Strengthening Defense Intelligence: The Plan for Restructuring Defense 

Intelligence.” The secretary outlined specific areas for strengthening DoD’s performance 

of intelligence functions and centralizing management in response to a changing world 

environment and modifications in the structure of the Armed Forces. He directed the 

department to take the following steps: (1) strengthen intelligence support to the combatant 

commands (COCOMs) and enhance “jointness” through consolidation of existing command 

intelligence resources into Joint Intelligence Centers (JICs); (2) strengthen the role and 

performance of DIA as a combat support agency; and (3) increase efficiency in Defense 

intelligence by consolidating and streamlining functions and organizations to eliminate 

unnecessary duplication through the reduction of management overhead and unnecessary 

operating locations and intelligence units operating overseas.12

At the same time, Assistant Secretary Andrews published his Plan for Restructuring Defense 

Intelligence providing detailed guidance on the reorganization of Defense intelligence. To 

save money, increase efficiency, and improve support to military operations, he explained, 

the secretary had ordered a significant reorganization of Defense intelligence activities. 

Specifically, he directed the military services to consolidate their various intelligence 

organizations into a single command within each service, tasked the unified commands to 

create joint intelligence centers, ordered DIA to reorganize and streamline its operations, and 

called for DoD to reduce its overseas intelligence operating locations.13

Andrews went on to explain that by the end of the 1980s U.S. fiscal realities had reduced 

the growth of the intelligence budget and he expected this downward trend to continue 

throughout the 1990s. He also pointed to the “astonishing changes” in the global security 

environment in recent years. The recognition that the Soviet Union faced serious and 

potentially destabilizing internal pressures had replaced the initial euphoria generated by the 

end of the Cold War. Although the threat of a global war had diminished, he explained, Soviet 

strategic force modernization was likely to continue and remained a primary strategic threat 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

to the U.S. The threat of regional and Third World conflict continued. Even more instability 

was due to the proliferation of high technology weapons, including weapons of mass 

destruction. With the continued fiscal constraints in this period of rapid change, he added, 

the department needed to focus on improving its resource management and strengthening 

planning activities.14

Andrews explained that to strengthen intelligence support to the combatant commanders 

and to help bring costs down, Defense officials were combining analysis centers of the 

U&S commands and their components into joint intelligence centers under the control 

of designated U&S commanders. Under DIA leadership, intelligence production would 

be coordinated and integrated on a global scale. DIA would set quality standards for 

production and do quality assessments. DIA and the National Security Agency (NSA) 

also faced declining budgets and had to bring down costs by reducing overhead, cutting 

excess infrastructure and redundancy, and consolidating many common functions. They 

needed to reduce duplication in intelligence collection and production. At the same time 

the reorganization was designed to strengthen DIA’s role. It would also strengthen the DIA 

element dedicated to supporting the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS). To ensure 

more effective support, the office of the secretary of defense (OSD) would establish within 

DIA a dedicated Policy Issues Office with primary responsibility for supporting OSD and 

for focused responses to OSD-generated intelligence questions and issues. DIA would 

remain responsible within DoD for production management and oversight of basic database 

intelligence and distributed production. In addition, DIA would oversee defense collection, 

analytical, and production requirements and ensure that Defense intelligence products 

were accurate, timely, and responsive to customer needs. In coordination with the DCI and 

appropriate IC interagency groups, the assistant secretary added, the department would 

formally reorder Defense intelligence priorities to emphasize quality analysis and reporting of 

strategically important intelligence on a worldwide basis.15 

The ASD(C3I)’s plan included the following major recommendations: increase efficiency in 

Defense intelligence by reducing management overhead; reduce overseas operating locations; 

consolidate the various intelligence commands, agencies, and elements into a single 

command/agency within each service; establish single joint commands at signal intelligence 

field stations; strengthen DIA’s role and performance as a combat support agency; and 

improve the quality of Defense intelligence by streamlining and reconfiguring DIA.16

More specifically, the study recommended that the department: 

(1) Ensure the quality, relevance, and timeliness of Defense intelligence support to 

national and international security policies, plans and programs by establishing 

a Defense Intelligence Policy Council to assist the ASD(C3I) and the intelligence 

community.

(2) Strengthen intelligence support to the combatant commanders and enhance 

“jointness” by consolidating existing U&S command and component intelligence 

processing, analysis, and production activities into regional JICs, reshape combatant 

command and service component staffs into small, high quality groups that could 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

provide focused intelligence evaluations to combatant commanders; establish a dedicated 

element within DIA to serve as the focal point for all intelligence activities supporting OSD and 

the CJCS.

(3) Increase efficiency in Defense intelligence by consolidating, streamlining, and reducing management 

overhead, reducing operating locations, and consolidating various intelligence commands, agencies 

and elements into a single intelligence command or agency within each service.

(4) Strengthen the role of DIA as a combat support agency and improve the quality of Defense 

intelligence products by streamlining and reconfiguring DIA and emphasizing quality analysis and 

reporting of strategically important intelligence; and strengthen DIA management of intelligence 

production and management. 

(5) Ensure independent intelligence input into the acquisition process by establishing within DIA a 

capability to validate threat information and the procedures the service component intelligence 

commands or agencies will use in preparing system threat reports for acquisition programs.

(6) Strengthen DoD counterintelligence functions by consolidating counterintelligence and security 

activities with existing ASD(C3I) intelligence, security countermeasures, and telecommunications 

and information systems security activities.

It called for improving the department’s central management and integration of national and tactical 

intelligence by focusing ASD(C3I) staff responsibility for planning, policy development, congressional 

relations, functional management and budgeting, and centralizing Defense-wide intelligence policy and 

resource management. To consolidate the review of national and tactical programs and provide OSD staff 

with technical and program assistance, Andrews would establish an Intelligence Program Support Group 

(IPSG), through consolidation of existing DIA, GDIP, and ASD(C3I) staff elements. Michael Munson would 

head the new organization and later become DIA deputy director.17

As part of the 1991 Defense intelligence reorganization, Pentagon officials directed DIA leaders to 

“streamline and reconfigure” the agency to strengthen management and emphasize quality analysis, 

production, and reporting of “strategically important intelligence.” They called for a reduction of 

management overhead within DIA and an internal reconfiguration to minimize the number of deputy 

directors. At the same time, the agency received additional responsibilities for managing DoD-wide 

intelligence activities, principally in the areas of production, scientific and technical (S&T) intelligence, 

weapons, acquisition, and human intelligence (HUMINT).

DoD directed DIA to manage all Defense intelligence production worldwide, to operate a centralized 

current intelligence reporting system, to oversee a global indications and warning (I&W) system, and 

to develop standards for Defense intelligence automated data processing (ADP) and communications 

systems. Recall that these expanded responsibilities came at a time of increased fiscal constraint 

and would prompt DIA to shift assets into intelligence program management areas. Meanwhile, DIA’s 

executive director at the time, Dennis Nagy, cautioned that “these new responsibilities will strain DIA’s 

efforts to preserve the Agency’s traditional, primary focus on intelligence production.” To accommodate 

the changing environment, he said, DIA anticipated distributing more operational-level intelligence tasks 

to the new JICs at the unified and specified commands—for example, tasks associated with maintaining 

order of battle and facility databases and performing capabilities assessments of foreign military forces.18 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

As part of the 1991 Defense intelligence reorganization, the secretary directed that more intelligence 

management responsibilities be transferred to DIA. Cheney’s reorganization guidance gave DIA 

added responsibilities for managing DoD-wide intelligence activities, principally in production, S&T 

intelligence, weapons acquisition support, imagery activities, and HUMINT. DIA assumed responsibility 

for managing all Defense intelligence production worldwide, operating a centralized current intelligence 

reporting system, and overseeing a global I&W system. DIA began shifting its assets into intelligence 

management areas. In 1992 measures were underway to distribute increasing numbers of operationallevel intelligence production tasks to the new JICs and U&S commands. Even as DIA increased its 

oversight in this area, it continued to sharpen its focus on production of strategic-level assessments 

in support of national policy formulation and operational-level planning. DIA also began to assume an 

enhanced role in managing production at service-affiliated S&T centers and strengthened its support to 

the weapons acquisition process.19

As a first step in anticipation of the new tasks and responsibilities associated with the assistant 

secretary’s plan, Soyster and his staff conducted a top-to-bottom review of the agency’s mission, 

functions, and structure. This led directly to an internal reorganization.20 The primary objectives for 

DIA’s reorganization, Nagy explained, were to protect its workforce to the greatest extent possible; 

ensure continued high quality production; and maintain flexibility while assuming greater management 

responsibilities within Defense intelligence. Andrews approved Soyster’s reorganization plan on 19 

July 1991. This reorganization would convert the deputy director position, which had always been a 

military billet, into a civilian position, eliminate the executive director position, create a new civilian 

command element position for a chief of staff, reduce the number of directorates from eight to six, and 

rename three directorates. (The DIA chief of staff position had been a military position from 1961 until 

1985 when it was replaced by the executive director position.) The agency broke new ground with the 

appointment of Nagy as its first civilian deputy director on 29 July 1991. At the same time, the executive 

director position was eliminated and Nagy was appointed deputy director, the deputy director’s two-star 

authorization was transferred to what at that time was called the deputy director for current intelligence, 

Joint Staff and command support (JS), a director of DIA staff who provided support to the chairman 

of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and essentially served as the J2. Under Soyster, DIA also reduced 

the overall number of individual directorates by disestablishing the external relations directorate and 

transferring many of its functions to the new chief of staff’s office, and by folding many of the functions 

of the deputy director for command support and plans (CS) into the J2. One argument for this change 

was that CS programs in support of the combatant commanders could be run more efficiently by the J2, 

which had greater involvement in the on-going intelligence support to the combatant commanders. By 

the fall of 1991 DIA was in the final stages of its internal reorganization.21

Soyster later explained that Assistant Secretary Andrews wanted to civilianize the three-star DIA director 

position to ensure that the director would be a career intelligence professional. Andrews was concerned 

about the lack of intelligence expertise at the most senior level of the agency. The director resisted the 

assistant secretary’s plan but tried to address his concerns by transferring DIA’s deputy director twostar billet to the J2. Soyster was anxious to strengthen the J2 position. He could see the advantages of 

increasing the J2 from a one-star to a two-star billet and having an experienced intelligence officer dealing 

with the other three and four-stars on the Joint Staff. He also realized that transferring the two-star deputy 

billet to the Joint Staff would give him the opportunity to fill the deputy position with a civilian who was an 

experienced intelligence professional. This, he believed, would benefit the agency in two ways. It would 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

give the DIA director a substantive intelligence officer as his deputy and at the same time give DIA civilian 

employees a more senior promotion opportunity.22

The decision to make the deputy position a civilian position was related to several other issues as well. 

First, DIA was under some pressure to reduce flag and general officer billets. Yet, it also wanted to 

increase the rank of the military billet in the J2 to ensure the selection of the best talent. John M. (Mike) 

McConnell, who was heading DIA’s J2 office in the Pentagon at the time, was a frocked Rear Admiral, 

a very junior officer in comparison to the other seniors on the Joint Staff, so making him a two-star 

would give him greater authority. With strong backing from both Soyster and Nagy, McConnell was 

able to strengthen DIA’s support to the Joint Staff and established a close working relationship with 

Secretary Cheney and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell, USA.23 As for the 

deputy director position, the military services had been reluctant to provide a professional intelligence 

officer to be DIA’s deputy. In addition, there was a belief that the deputy director needed to be a longtime DIA person who could provide continuity given that most directors had little or no experience in 

DIA. That continuity concept, however, fell away when Mike Munson’s tenure as deputy director ended 

in 1996. Since that time, a number of DIA directors have had more experience with the agency than 

their deputies.24

When DIA was created in 1961, the secretary of defense had given the DIA director the responsibility to 

function as the J2 for the Joint Chiefs of Staff as a three-star officer. But as DIA grew and the agency 

director’s responsibilities expanded, it became more difficult for him to perform that role. Navy Rear 

Admiral Edward D. Sheafer, Jr., who had served as the deputy director for JCS support from 1988 to 1990 

and then as DIA deputy director from 1990 to 1991, found that the J2 function had become a 24-houra-day job. At one point Chairman Powell told Sheafer that he needed a flag officer to serve as the J2. 

However, as noted earlier, they had to find a way to do this without creating a new flag billet at DIA - a 

very difficult thing to do. Powell orchestrated moving the two-star billet that Sheafer was occupying as 

deputy director. Sheafer had already recommended to Powell that the DIA deputy director be a civilian 

with 20 years or more of experience in DIA. Then the two-star billet could shift to the J2.25

McConnell recommended that someone be identified to serve as J2 and let that person function using 

DIA assets, while the DIA director, as head of DIA and director of military intelligence, focused on the 

broader issues. The idea was not widely popular but General Powell liked the idea and designated 

McConnell as the J2. As the J2, McConnell found it easier to reach beyond DIA to the combatant 

commanders.26 By July 1992 the deputy director for JCS support (JS) had become the deputy director 

for current intelligence, joint staff and command support and then a year later, the deputy director for 

intelligence (J2). 

In a broader context, transferring the two-star billet to the Joint Staff served as a recognition of the 

increasingly important role that Defense intelligence and DIA specifically played and would continue to 

play in supporting military commanders and operations. The redesignation of the Joint Staff’s intelligence 

support staff as the J2 was one of the most important changes of the 1990s. The Gulf War had highlighted 

the importance of DIA elements located in the Pentagon functioning as the intelligence conduit for support 

to U.S. forces, and the designation of the J2 served as an acknowledgement of that fact.27 

With Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait starting in August 1990 DIA leadership and resources were focused on the 

Persian Gulf War well into 1991. This pushed any thoughts of a more significant reorganization, more than 

the measures just described, to the background.28 This would have to wait for the next director. 
1010

DEPUTY DIRECTOR FOR 

EXTERNAL RELATIONS (DI)

DEPUTY DIRECTOR FOR 

RESOURCES (RS)

DEPUTY DIRECTOR FOR 

INFORMATION SYSTEMS (DS)

COMMAND ELEMENT

DIRECTOR (DR)

LTG Gen. Harry E. Soyster, USA 

DEPUTY DIRECTOR (DD)

RADM Edward D. Sheafer, Jr. USN

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR (ED

Dennis M. Nagy

COMMAND SERGEANT 

MAJOR (CSM)

DEFENSE 

INTELLIGENCE 

COLLEGE (DIC)

ADVISORY BOARD OFFICE (AB)

DIRECTORATE FOR SECURITY 

AND COUNTERINTELLIGENCE 

(OSC)

COMPTROLLER (OC)

DEPUTY DIRECTOR FOR 

COLLECTION AND IMAGERY 

ACTIVITIES (CA)

COUNTERNARCOTICS 

INTELLIGENCE SUPPORT 

OFFICE (CN)

SECRETARIAT

CENTRAL ACTIONS OFFICE (CAO)

EXECUTIVE SUPPORT OFFICE (ESO)

ASSISTANT DEPUTY DIRECTOR 

FOR NATIONAL 

SYSTEMS (DN)

ASSISTANT DEPUTY DIRECTOR 

FOR IMAGERY 

MANAGEMENT (DM)

ASSISTANT DEPUTY DIRECTOR 

FOR IMAGERY EXPLOITATION 

(DX)

ASSISTANT DEPUTY DIRECTOR 

FOR COLLECTION (DC)

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3
11

DEPUTY DIRECTOR FOR 

COMMAND SUPPORT AND 

PLANS (CS)

DEPUTY DIRECTOR FOR JCS 

SUPPORT (JS)

Defense Intelligence Agency 

1990

DEFENSE ATTACHE OFFICES

GENERAL DEFENSE 

INTELLIGENCE PROGRAMS 

STAFF (D/GDIP)

DEPUTY DIRECTOR FOR 

ATTACHES AND 

OPERATIONS (DA)

INSPECTOR GENERAL (IG)

DEFENSE 

INTELLIGENCE 

OFFICERS (DIO)

GENERAL COUNSEL (GC)

DEPUTY DIRECTOR FOR 

FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE (VP)

ASSISTANT DEPUTY DIRECTOR 

FOR RESEARCH (DB)

ASSISTANT DEPUTY DIRECTOR 

FOR ESTIMATES (DE)

ASSISTANT DEPUTY DIRECTOR 

FOR SCIENTIFIC & TECHNICAL 

INTELLIGENCE (DT)

Administration and Logistics

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3
12

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

Congress: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 

1992/1993 

In the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War, Congress became more deeply involved in Defense department 

efforts to reform Defense intelligence. Hearings on the war convinced Congress that, despite better 

support to tactical operations by national intelligence assets than at any other time in our history, there 

was room for improvement. The Gulf War had revealed a lack of dedicated tactical reconnaissance 

assets, and severe problems disseminating information that made it difficult or impossible for tactical 

commanders to obtain critical intelligence. As Pentagon officials began implementing Secretary Cheney’s 

plan for restructuring Defense intelligence, Congress drafted legislation that provided a strong mandate 

for change in Defense intelligence and would expand DIA’s responsibilities. In December 1991 President 

Bush signed the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993, which acknowledged 

DIA’s role as “the nation’s preeminent producer of military intelligence.”29

At the initiative of the Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC), the National Defense Authorization Act 

for Fiscal Year 1991 directed the secretary of defense together with the director of central intelligence to 

conduct a joint review of intelligence and intelligence-related activities in order to eliminate redundancy, 

strengthen joint intelligence support to combatant commanders, improve threat assessments for 

acquisition programs, ensure that intelligence priorities reflected the changed security environment, and 

improve the responsiveness and utility of national intelligence systems and organizations to the needs of 

combatant commanders. The act also mandated an overall unallocated 25 percent manpower reduction 

in the National Foreign Intelligence Program (NFIP) and the Tactical Intelligence and Related Activities 

(TIARA) programs from 1992 to 1996.30 TIARA programs were those funded by a single military service 

that provided timely intelligence support primarily to the tactical operations of U.S. military forces. TIARA 

projects were those designed, built, and operated by the services.

Echoing this sentiment, the chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (SSCI), Senator 

David L. Boren, observed, “Our current intelligence structure was developed to respond to the 

challenges of a Cold War world that no longer exists. It is time to redefine the mission of intelligence 

and to change the structure of the intelligence community to enable it to meet the new challenges 

we face.” His counterpart, the chairman of the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence 

(HPSCI), Congressman David McCurdy (D-OK), also noted, “while there may not be agreement on 

all of the elements of an intelligence restructuring plan, there is a general consensus that some 

reorganization is necessary.”31

While the Senate Armed Services Committee supported most of the Pentagon’s 1991 intelligence 

reorganization plan, it strongly disagreed with the provisions concerning DIA’s role as a Defense agency 

and as a member of the NFIP. The intelligence management structure proposed in the current DoD 

plan, the committee noted, essentially made DIA a staff element of ASD(C3I). The premise for giving the 

assistant secretary more authority over DIA was that the various Defense intelligence agencies would 

have a harder time resisting direction from the assistant secretary than from the DIA director. However, the 

committee believed this approach was “unwise” and could ultimately harm both Defense intelligence and 

national intelligence. It worried that this element of the plan risked politicizing DIA intelligence support by 

placing it under the direct control of political appointees and could lead to poor management of DIA when 

the appointee in charge had little experience in intelligence. Moreover, it did nothing to solve DIA’s real 
13

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

problem—“a lack of authority to manage Defense intelligence”—something the committee had stressed 

in the earlier Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1991. Finally, the SASC observed, the provision 

conflicted with the 1986 Goldwater-Nichols Reorganization Act, which had exempted DIA and the 

National Security Agency (NSA) from the normal oversight process for Defense agencies.32

The department, the committee said, was “best served by giving DIA the authority necessary to manage 

certain aspects of Defense intelligence.” Intelligence had to be managed by intelligence professionals, 

people who had a working knowledge of the day-to-day problems facing Defense intelligence. Section 

911 of the proposed legislation would enhance the authority of the DIA director to ensure effective 

intelligence support to senior Defense officials, combatant commanders, and the DCI. It would codify 

in law the individuals the DIA director reported to and would ensure that he had access to and was 

responsible to the secretary of defense, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs, and the DCI. The committee 

acknowledged that ASD(C3I) had certain DoD-wide intelligence management functions primarily dealing 

with acquisition of collection systems and OSD guidance, oversight, and policy for intelligence matters. 

It endorsed the assistant secretary’s creation of an Intelligence Program Support Group (IPSG) to provide 

expertise in these areas. However, it also emphasized that the DIA director “should report directly to 

the most senior officials within the defense and intelligence establishments,” and retain his day-to-day 

management authority. Except for the IPSG, the ASD(C3I) would oversee DIA operations, the SASC 

added, “but shall not have direction, control, and authority.”33 

The SASC went on to clarify the relationship between ASD(C3I) and the DIA director. The assistant 

secretary, it said, should not exercise ongoing operational authority or have a role in conducting 

analysis, disseminating analysis, or in DIA civilian and military personnel actions. Rather its role should 

be to issue guidance and policy guidelines, audit DIA and the GDIP for problems, and review the GDIP 

budget to insure that it was properly integrated with TIARA.34 The committee concluded that Andrews 

had given himself too much authority over Defense intelligence operations and sought to take away 

some of that power. 

Specifically, the committee said that the Pentagon’s March 1991 plan to restructure Defense intelligence 

operations gave Andrews, a political appointee, control over DIA, which raised the risk of politicizing 

DIA intelligence support. To counter this, it put language in its version of the 1992/1993 Defense 

authorization legislation stating that the DIA director would remain in control of DIA and continue to 

report directly to the secretary, CJCS, and DCI. Section 921 of the final Defense authorization act (P.L. 

102-190) enacted in December of 1991 assigned the assistant secretary supervision of DIA but excluded 

him from day-to-day operational control. The DIA director would remain subject to the “authority, 

direction, and control” of the secretary. The law also directed an important change, specifically in the 

management of the GDIP. In Section 921 Congress restored management of this program to the DIA 

director. SASC members noted that until recently the DIA director had managed development of the 

GDIP budget but even then “his authority has never extended beyond recommending a budget to the 

DCI.” The DIA director had no program execution authority over the GDIP, though he was technically 

responsible for managing that program.35

Section 921 also strengthened the role of all DIA functional managers in providing management 

assistance to the DIA director. The legislation required the director to ensure that those functional 

managers had a “significant role” in the preparation, review, approval, and supervision of the overall 

execution of GDIP budgets and programs within their areas of responsibility. This meant that instead of 
14

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

organizing the GDIP along purely service and Defense agency lines as in the past, programs 

would be developed along functional lines.36

The GDIP restructuring process resulted in the functional manager concept with a functional 

manager for collection and infrastructure, and with a smaller, less powerful GDIP staff than 

in the past. Air Force Lieutenant General James R. Clapper, Jr., Soyster’s successor, was 

concerned that the GDIP staff director had become a very influential voice separate from the 

intelligence community—even separate from the DIA director who was in title at least the GDIP 

program manager. He wanted to restore the role of the director as the program manager.37

The defense authorization act enhanced DIA’s management responsibility for imagery 

exploitation, analysis, and dissemination on behalf of the Defense department. Finally, DIA 

received authority to consolidate the Washington, DC area military intelligence centers into a 

JIC that DIA would manage in its role supporting the JCS staff. Pursuant to the March 1991 

restructuring and the Defense authorization act for fiscal years 1992 and 1993, early in 1992 

Andrews announced that DIA and the military service current intelligence and indications 

and warning production had been consolidated into a single, jointly manned center (with 

representatives from NSA and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) within the National Military 

Intelligence Center (NMIC). To more accurately reflect the center’s enhanced capabilities it 

would be referred to as a National Military Joint Intelligence Center (NMJIC) effective 1 March 

1992.38

The legislation also significantly expanded DIA’s role in Defense science and technology 

matters. Specifically, Congress directed that the Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center 

(AFMIC), now the National Center for Medical Intelligence, and the Missile and Space Intelligence 

Center (MSIC) become DIA field production 

activities by 1 January 1992. Placing these 

organizations under DIA greatly increased 

its scope of responsibilities.39 MSIC, at the 

Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville, Alabama, 

had been associated with the Army for 

more than 40 years. Its mission was to 

provide all-source intelligence analysis of air 

defense missiles, theater ballistic missiles, 

anti-tank missiles and ground-based antisatellite weapons. AFMIC, associated with 

the Army for over 20 years, was located 

at Fort Detrick, Maryland, and maintained 

operations support personnel to provide 

timely finished medical intelligence in 

response to direct requests from consumers 

at the national, departmental or operational 

level. It produced finished, all-source 

medical intelligence in support of the department and its components, national policy officials, 

and other federal agencies. DIA’s enhanced management role contributed to the continuing 

effort to consolidate intelligence production and make it more efficient. DIA Historical Collection

Missile and Space Center (MSIC) became a field production element of 

DIA in January 1992.
15

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

DIA responsibilities increased even more as it became responsible for directing measurement 

and signature intelligence (MASINT) for the entire community. In 1992 as part of this general 

process of consolidation within Defense intelligence and the intelligence community, DIA was 

designated as the executive agent for the Central MASINT Office within the U.S. intelligence 

community. It became responsible for validating collection requirements, overseeing the 

development and acquisition of MASINT sensors, and defining the framework for tasking, 

collecting, and disseminating MASINT-derived information.40 The Central MASINT Office 

evaluated all MASINT collection requirements, 

processing and analysis, and tasking and operations. 

It also coordinated the community’s MASINT research 

and development to prevent duplication. 

Finally, Congress included language in the authorization 

act that reinforced DIA’s role as a combat support 

agency and conferred upon it a clear charter for 

leadership in Defense intelligence. Fulfilling this 

Congressional mandate while meeting the guidelines 

for reorganization in the secretary’s directive had, said 

Clapper, “become the centerpiece of my agenda my 

first year at DIA.” He added that in many ways the 

legislation was a “Goldwater-Nichols” for intelligence. 

Most important, it restated DIA’s charter to provide 

intelligence and intelligence support to the secretary, 

CJCS, combatant commanders, and DCI.41

DIA Reorganization—1993

Because of Congress’s decision to delay Air Force general officer promotions, General 

Clapper, Soyster’s designated successor, would have to wait longer than anticipated to receive 

his third star and become DIA director, the secretary approved the appointment of Deputy 

Director Dennis Nagy as acting director. Nagy was the first and still is the only civilian ever in 

that role. Clapper had been observing DIA for some time, particularly from his current position 

of Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence for the U.S. Air Force, and would come to the job 

with a great deal of experience and some thoughts about DIA. He knew DIA well from his work 

as director of intelligence for three major warfighting commands, U.S. Forces, Korea; U.S. 

Pacific Command (PACOM), and the Strategic Air Command (STRATCOM). Still, the waiting 

period of several months between the time Clapper was nominated and the time he was 

confirmed proved very useful. Clapper used the time to visit many DIA elements, talk to the 

workforce, and receive detailed orientation tours and briefings. DIA leaders had a welcomed 

opportunity to acquaint him with the agency’s operations and staff. These tours, briefings, 

meetings, and discussions made a lasting impression on him and, he believed, broadened his 

understanding of the agency’s capabilities. He came away from the experience with a greater 

appreciation for the many functions that DIA performed.42 Source: DIA Historical Collection

Lt Gen James R. Clapper, Jr., USAF 

Director, Defense Intelligence Agency 

1991–1995.
16

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

Lieutenant General Clapper formally began his tenure as DIA director on 18 November 

1991, determined to continue and expand the reorganization that Soyster had begun. From 

Clapper’s perspective, both the assistant secretary’s plan and the legislation explicitly gave 

DIA a significantly expanded role in the management and oversight of key Defense intelligence 

activities. Soon after taking office he told the workforce that DIA faced the challenges inherent 

in the ongoing reorganization of Defense intelligence, as well as the prospect of serious 

manpower and budget reductions. He noted that DIA’s organization was already different from 

the one that Soyster had taken over in 1988 and cautioned them that it was about to change 

even more. Without what had become the almost routine annual budget increases, Defense 

intelligence would now have to address the need for greater centralization in the management 

of intelligence functions, as directed in the 1991 Defense intelligence restructuring plan. For 

DIA, he explained, this meant shifting even more resources from intelligence production to 

program management, which would significantly affect the way DIA functioned in the future.43

Clapper viewed the secretary’s Defense intelligence plan and the Defense authorization 

legislation described earlier as a mandate for change, and he emphasized the importance of 

the agency’s continued intelligence support to the secretary, the CJCS, combatant command 

commanders, and the DCI. He explained to the workforce that DIA would have program 

management responsibility for the GDIP and would assign functional managers additional 

roles and authorities to guarantee their participation, review, approval, and supervision of 

GDIP budgets and programs in their functional areas. It would assume control of AFMIC 

and MSIC, making them DIA field operating activities and improve management of imagery 

exploitation, analysis and dissemination on behalf of DoD. Finally, it would consolidate 

existing single-service, Washington area, current intelligence centers into a DIA managed joint 

intelligence center.44 

The director explained that with the end of the Cold War and more recently the conclusion 

of the Gulf War, the military was under widespread pressure to reduce defense spending. 

The scope of reductions in DoD prompted a shift in focus from maintaining a large force to 

establishing a capability for rapid reconstitution when necessary. This approach relied heavily 

on military intelligence to identify and monitor emerging threats and placed a premium on 

reliable, timely forecasting. Yet the fundamental mission of military intelligence remained 

unchanged.45 “We should not be deluded, for even with these course adjustments for Defense 

intelligence, the task of providing support for force application is neither easier nor simpler 

than it was during the Cold War,” he explained. “In fact it is probably more difficult.” Defense 

intelligence faced a broad spectrum of global geopolitical changes that required supporting 

new and increasingly complex missions.46

Clapper saw his tenure as a transitional period for the agency. He immediately felt the 

pressure to reap what he and others had been calling the “peace dividend” — the resource 

savings expected with the end of the Cold War. He also understood that the world was moving 

from a single security threat to more diverse regional concerns. “The U.S.,” he explained, 

“now faces an international security environment marked by diverse regional crises and 

contingencies, many of which were being inflamed by nationalism, ethnicity, ideology and 

resource scarcity.”47 Much like the rest of the national intelligence community, DIA was 

directed to reduce its workforce by over 20 percent. The director and his senior staff wanted 
17

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

to avoid laying off individual employees, so they offered early retirements, buy-outs, and other 

mechanisms to reduce the size of the workforce. The goal of agency leaders was to reduce 

the workforce as much as possible through attrition. Years later Clapper observed, “We had to 

do a lot of what at the time was kind of painful but necessary things in order to accommodate 

the new reality of becoming smaller.”48 In such a turbulent environment, Clapper made 

maintaining a dialogue with the DIA workforce one of his highest priorities. Early on he initiated 

two management/employee communications programs: town hall meetings and director’s 

dialogue programs.49

As he reflected on how best to shape the next phase of reorganization, Clapper’s priorities 

were clear. He maintained that the ultimate purpose of intelligence was to reduce uncertainty 

for decision makers, whether that was the president or a soldier in the field, so agency leaders 

first needed to identify the functions required to perform that mission. Clapper believed 

the functions were collection, production, and a body to run the enterprise that he called 

“Infrastructure.” Next, leaders must identify the best structure to support those functions and 

ultimately the mission itself. The director concluded that DIA’s current organizational structure 

was not particularly well suited to support those functions. So he advocated what he referred 

to as radical restructuring. As director of intelligence for three major commands, Clapper 

explained, he had marveled at the different perspectives provided by the various DIA elements 

such as the directorates for estimates (DE), scientific & technical intelligence (DT), or research 

(DB), but as a director faced with declining resources, he knew this was not sustainable. DIA 

would have to consolidate.50

DIA’s senior staff were also keenly aware of the pressure for change. In 1991, Assistant Deputy 

Director for Research (DB) Patrick Duecy observed that there was a sense in Congress that 

the Soviet problem had gone away and that those resources should be shifted to Third World 

issues or functional areas such as counternarcotics. The staff and resources devoted to the 

Cold War were viewed as a peace dividend that could enable DIA to turn its attention to 

other things. Early on Duecy met with managers and analysts to let them know that DIA was 

in the midst of a series of resource reductions and there would be no increases to address 

the new missions. “The name of the game,” he explained, “was going to be responsiveness 

and flexibility.” He pointed to the 1991 Defense intelligence reorganization initiative currently 

underway that would affect DIA. It was in this climate, Duecy noted, that DIA was trying “to 

balance efficiency and effectiveness.” Duecy concluded that DIA could still remain highly 

effective by compressing its production organization.51

At an off-site meeting in late 1992, Clapper put his senior leaders to the task of developing 

a plan for reorganizing. Duecy, by now vice deputy director for general military intelligence 

(DI), Deputy Director for Scientific and Technical Intelligence (DT) John Berbrich, and Deputy 

Director for Current Intelligence, Joint Staff, and Command Support (DJ2) Brigadier General 

Chuck Thomas provided the director with their concept and Duecy offered to brief him on a 

plan for a National Military Intelligence Production Center (NMIPC). Clapper acknowledged 

their work, stating that it had helped him clarify in his own mind “that production

consolidation is exactly where I want to go.” The only aspect of consolidating production 

that Clapper remained unsure about was how to integrate scientific and technical intelligence 
18

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

into the NMIPC. He asked Berbrich to determine those functions and personnel who were 

responsible for managing the S&T intelligence community production process.

52

The director was less satisfied with the response from other senior staff members — 

Deputy Director for Collection and Imagery Activities (DC) Jeff Langsam, Deputy Director 

for Attachés and Operations (DO) Major General Jack Leide, and Director of the Central 

MASINT Office (CMO) Dewey Lopes, who proposed the creation of a board as an alternative 

to consolidation. After reviewing their response, he responded, “I don’t find a compelling 

argument not to consolidate.” He went on to explain, “I want an integrated collection structure 

that accommodates our distinct collection missions — operating a collection system like 

the [Defense Attaché Service] DAS, executing DIA’s collection requirements management 

responsibilities on behalf of all DoD, and functionally managing the GDIP HUMINT and 

technical collection programs and their overlap with other programs.” Clapper asked the 

three leaders, Langsam, Leide, and Lopes, to come up with an implementation concept that 

showed how DIA could integrate collection requirements and operations management into 

one organization and gave General Leide the lead for this.53

As DIA continued to seek ways to strengthen its management of intelligence production and 

analysis and improve the quality of its products, its leaders developed a draft strategy in 

November 1993. The strategy called for the functional integration of all military intelligence 

activities along the lines of collection, production, and infrastructure. However, the focus 

of the strategy was limited in that it defined military intelligence activities as “DIA, the 

intelligence organizations of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and the intelligence elements of the 

combatant commands.” It failed to address some important aspects of Defense intelligence, 

including the operations of the National Security Agency and the National Reconnaissance 

Office. Later, a 1995 General Accounting Office (now the Government Accountability Office) 

study would criticize the draft strategy, referring to it as the “Director of Military Intelligence 

Strategy” prepared by the DIA director in his self-appointed role of Director of Military 

Intelligence (DMI). GAO pointed out that neither the plan nor the role of DMI had been 

approved by the secretary of defense. 54

The final concept for restructuring resulted in large part from Clapper’s years of experience in 

Defense intelligence, his view of DIA, his understanding of the current budget environment, 

and his vision for the future of both. He tasked the heads of the directorates involved with 

the implementation of his plan and tasked his chief of staff, A. Denis Clift, with overseeing 

that implementation. Clapper characterized the reorganization effort as going “back 

to basics.” “We conceived at the top but built from the bottom,” he explained, a new 

organization based on traditional intelligence pillars of construction of collection, production, 

and infrastructure. In what he called the most profound reorganization in the DIA’s thirty year 

history, the director sought to push authority down the management chain to the lowest 

level and shifted DIA’s previous analytic orientation from a regional to a functional basis. 

He recognized that many of his new military intelligence support concepts involved “the 

exploration of uncharted waters.” 55

Thus in 1993 DIA went through a sweeping reorganization, streamlining production and 

management in order to meet expanding requirements with fewer resources. Clapper 
19

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

formed a team of talented senior officials to translate his broad concepts into a blueprint for 

reorganization but, as one senior pointed out, there was no one to challenge those concepts 

or evaluate the soundness of the structures the team devised, or to project unintended 

consequences. The restructuring cut the number of supervisors by roughly 30 percent and 

reduced the organizational layering. The agency also reduced its high grade structure. DIA’s 

senior executive corps would shrink by 17.5 percent, GG-15s by 20 percent, and GG-14s by 

17 percent. Also 45 percent of DIA’s senior officials shifted to new jobs. DIA would lose 25 

percent of its uniformed force due to recent military service reductions. The restructuring was 

designed to help DIA absorb the impact of those cuts. The cuts would also prompt the agency 

to rely more on the military services’ production organizations and the JICs for substantial 

military intelligence production.56

At the core of the reorganization, the director consolidated five of DIA’s previous nine 

directorate-sized elements plus several other subordinate offices into three centers: the 

National Military Intelligence Collection Center (NMICC), the National Military Intelligence 

Production Center (NMIPC), and the National Military Intelligence Systems Center (NMISC). 

Replacing directorates with “centers” reflected Clapper’s desire to reduce the layers of 

management and drive decision-making authority to the lowest level feasible. He saw the 

projected manpower cuts as an opportunity to streamline DIA bureaucracy.57 Also reflecting 

the broader mandate to promote consolidation in Defense intelligence, these centers would 

manage efforts related to the various intelligence functions throughout the military intelligence 

community. The reorganization also included the creation of the Joint Military Attaché School. 

The department of Attaché Training was separated from the Defense Intelligence College and 

subordinated to the NMICC. 

The NMIPC, headed by John Berbrich, produced or managed the production of military 

intelligence for DoD and non-DoD agencies and prepared all-source finished intelligence 

concerning transnational military threats, regional defense, combat support issues, 

weaponry, and other issues. AFMIC and MSIC, which had recently come under DIA, were 

part of this center. It directed, analyzed, and produced all DoD military intelligence activities 

for the secretary, JCS, unified commands, the services and department, and the National 

Command Authority. The NMIPC would integrate all peacetime, crisis, contingency, and 

combat intelligence production within the recently established DoD Intelligence Production 

Program (DoDIPP). DIA was in the forefront in exploring the challenges of irregular warfare and 

established an irregular warfare cell within the NMIPC.58

The NMISC, initially under Martin Hurwitz, served as the computer and automated data 

processing (ADP) center for DIA. Hurwitz quickly set about reorganizing the directorate 

for information systems (DS) into the NMISC, bringing in Barbara Sanderson to direct all 

infrastructure program and budget activities. He formed an informal DS reorganization team 

with well respected, but not necessarily senior, representatives from each major DS element 

to design the new functional center. Hurwitz directed the team to cut out two layers of 

management, just as Clapper had directed for the agency, and to identify ways to improve 

efficiency. The DS team reviewed, evaluated, and commented on every change proposed by 

those leading the broader DIA reorganization. Though Hurwitz conceded this occasionally 
20

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

INTELLIGENCE 

PLANNING 

SUPPORT GROUP 

(PSG)

ORGANIZATIONS 

SUPPORTED

CENTRAL 

IMAGERY OFFICE 

(CIO)

EXECUTIVE SECRETARIAT 

(ES)

ENLISTED ADVISOR 

(EA)

DEFENSE INTELLIGENCE 

OFFICERS 

(DIOs)

NATIONAL MILITARY JOINT 

INTELLIGENCE CENTER 

(NMJIC)

NATIONAL MILITARY

INTELLIGENCE SYSTEMS 

CENTER

(SC)

CENTRAL MASINT OFFICE 

(CMO)

ARMED FORCES MEDICAL

INTELLIGENCE CENTER 

(MIC)

MISSILE & SPACE

INTELLIGENCE CENTER 

(MSC)

NATIONAL MILITARY

INTELLIGENCE PRODUCTION 

CENTER

NATIONAL MILITARY

INTELLIGENCE COLLECTION 

CENTER

(CC) 

CL-1432 (703) 284-1201

DIRECTOR OF MILITARY 

INTELLIGENCE STAFF 

(DM)

COMPTROLLER 

(OC)

INSPECTOR GENERAL 

(IG)

COMMAND ELEMENT

DIRECTOR (DR) 

Lt Gen James R. Clapper, Jr., USAF

DEPUTY DIRECTOR (DD) 

Mr. Dennis M. Nagy

CHIEF OF STAFF (CS) 

Mr. A. Denis Clift

JOINT MILITARY 

INTELLIGENCE COLLEGE 

(MC)

DIRECTORATE FOR 

ADMINISTRATION 

(DA)

DIRECTORATE FOR 

INTELLIGENCE 

(J2)

DIRECTORATE FOR 

POLICY SUPPORT 

(PS)

Defense Intelligence Agency

1994

DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT 

(MD)

GENERAL COUNSEL 

(GC)

DIA PLANNING & 

PROGRAMMING STAFF 

(DP)
21

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

caused some conflict, the Systems Center ultimately ended up with a structure essentially 

designed by its own members and supported by many, though not all, DS seniors.59

The center provided information services and related support to DIA and other agencies in the 

national intelligence community, including ADP support, information systems security, imagery 

and photo processing and publication of intelligence reference products. It led the Defense 

intelligence community in establishing standards for and implementation of information 

systems, intelligence processing and application of commercial technology. It established the 

architecture, communication, and information technology standards, operated JWICS, and 

established standards for printing, publishing and disseminating intelligence.60

NMICC would manage DIA’s collection resources, as well as the military service intelligence 

collectors. Initially led by General Leide, NMICC managed all-source intelligence collection 

for DoD. It acquired and applied collection resources to satisfy DoD requirements; managed 

the Defense department’s HUMINT and MASINT programs, and controlled the Defense 

Attaché System. The Collection Center had a Functional Management Office, an Operations 

and Administrative Support Office, and two directorates—Defense HUMINT (which provided 

HUMINT information and support to the National Command Authority, secretary of defense, 

CJCS, U&S commands, military services, other federal agencies, and national-level decisionmakers) and Defense Collection (which coordinated and validated collection requirements, 

developed collection strategies, policies and procedures, evaluated collection activities, and 

developed and maintained collection requirements databases and associated management 

systems). 

The NMIPC included three directorates: Military Assessments, Operations, and Combat 

Support. Among other functions, the Military Assessments directorate managed the 

production of all-source, finished military intelligence assessments, basic intelligence, current 

intelligence, force projections, estimates, and scientific and technical intelligence products 

on the world’s missiles and aircraft systems, maritime forces, and foreign ground forces. 

The Combat Support directorate provided finished all-source intelligence information to 

the headquarters and operational forces of the services, U&S commands and in support 

of U.S. government policymakers. This support included intelligence information on 

transnational issues such as counterterrorism, counterintelligence, low-intensity conflict, and 

counternarcotics.

The NMISC had four directorates: Functional Management, Operations, Systems, and 

Services. It established and published DoD’s standards for intelligence imagery processing, 

handling and identification, provided centralized imagery processing and reproduction, 

managed the department’s GDIP intelligence dissemination program, established the 

DoD Intelligence Information System (DoDIIS) information processing standards, provided 

automated information services, and performed other functions. 

The implementation of reorganization proved challenging and sometimes flawed. This is 

perhaps best illustrated with the establishment of the NMIPC, the first center to be organized. 

The two other center heads, Hurwitz and Leide, would have the benefit of the production 

Center’s experience and as a result encounter fewer problems. Production was reorganized 

to change the structure from regional to functional, a concept that many could support, but 

other factors came into play. The NMIPC reorganization team looked only at the organizational 
22

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

structure and either ignored or did not fully understand the informal relationships required to 

get things done. The architecture the team devised disrupted those relationships and in effect 

hampered collaboration. Also the Production Center implemented the team’s architecture 

without advise from the senior staff, many of whom had little faith in the feasibility of a 

functional production structure and thus little interest in making it work. Finally, the NMIPC was 

not given enough time to succeed. As Hurwitz pointed out, it takes several years after a major 

reorganization for the changes to settle in and the new relationships to be institutionalized. The 

Production Center would go through another reorganization before the first one had enough 

time to take shape. Although the other two centers also faced the same challenge of having 

enough time, the negative impact of the reorganization was greatest on the Production Center 

because it faced the most dramatic changes.61

Joint Intelligence Center (JIC)/Joint Analysis Center (JAC)

DIA’s internal reorganization occurred within the context of broader changes in the way the 

Defense intelligence community was organized and functioned and was affected by those 

changes. One of the successful initiatives coming out of the Gulf War was the establishment 

of a forward-based Joint Intelligence Center (JIC) at U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) that 

operated as a clearinghouse for intelligence requirements and as a collection manager for 

theater-based intelligence assets. In 1990 DIA had established a JIC at CENTCOM to integrate 

Defense intelligence produced by various collocated intelligence community assets to support 

the command’s warfighting requirements. Its mission was to provide all-source intelligence 

for the National Command Authority, CENTCOM, and the supporting U&S commands. It 

combined tactically oriented analysts from the military services with strategically oriented 

analysts with area and tactical skills from DIA and NSA. As noted earlier, with the March 1991 

Defense intelligence reorganization Secretary Cheney ordered all the combatant commands 

to create JICs similar to the one in CENTCOM recognizing the military’s ongoing need for 

intelligence support at the theater or operational level. 

The 1991 plan directed the unified commands to consolidate their intelligence assets into 

JICs, based on the PACOM model. The purpose of the consolidation was to provide primary 

intelligence support for operating forces and allow those forces to rely on the JIC as a single 

point of entry into the DoD intelligence structure. Centralizing intelligence support on a 

theater basis was expected to eliminate duplication and reduce the size of intelligence staffs 

of the unified commands and the military departments.62 The JIC prototype at PACOM in 

Hawaii would be adopted at the other military commands. Similar to this prototype was the 

CENTCOM JIC referenced earlier, which was already active in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The 

PACOM experiment saw the merger of Navy and Air Force operations and Joint Services into 

a single organization. This resulted in a reported 30 to 40 percent cut in command personnel 

and the elimination of duplication in communications centers, data processing offices, and 

photo labs.63

OSD and the Joint Staff directed DIA to study and recommend the reallocation and distribution 

of command billets among the JICs. DIA was to determine which billets could be transferred 

from one command to another to improve their intelligence capabilities. In essence, DIA was 

to determine which billets in the “have” commands could be redistributed to the “have not” 
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commands so as to improve their intelligence capabilities. Chairman Powell recognized the 

difficulty of DIA’s task and supported the recommendations for redistributing U&S command 

billets that DIA had briefed to a conference of combatant commanders at the National Defense 

College in Washington. 

As part of its efforts to reduce funding for the Defense department and the intelligence 

community, in 1991 Congress directed the disestablishment of what had been the GDIP staff. At 

one time it had 50 people; now it was to be reduced to no more than 20 and the billets would be 

redistributed. This occurred just as DIA was struggling to identify the cuts that the office of the 

secretary of defense had mandated. Clapper had to determine how best to distribute these cuts 

equitably across the community and how to carry out his GDIP program manager responsibilities 

without a supporting staff and organization. Roughly 25 percent of the GDIP resources were 

located in the nine U&S commands and carried under the category of production resources. 

In 1992 representatives of all the Defense intelligence GDIP resources were summoned to 

DIA to see if they could reach consensus on which command and activities needed to give up 

resources and which needed more. They reached no consensus.64

DIA thus led what was described as the “groundbreaking” 1992 study called “Intelligence 

Support to Warfighters: Responding to a Changing Environment,” commonly referred to as 

the “JIC/JAC study,” on restructuring most of the service intelligence organizations supporting 

the unified commands and services into Joint Intelligence Centers (JICs). As part of this 

study, it issued two reports. The first report coming out of the study, Intelligence Support to 

Warfighters: Responding to a Changing Environment, Phase 1: Assessment of Joint Intelligence 

Center Functions, 20 July 1992, identified the nature of the intelligence support that the JICs 

and the military department intelligence organizations provided. It also identified the specific 

intelligence shortfalls and deficiencies in resources and capabilities of the various intelligence 

organizations. The second report, Intelligence Support to Warfighters: Responding to a 

Changing Environment, Phase 2: Building the Military Intelligence Base Force, October 1992, 

recommended consolidating and reallocating JIC resources to remedy shortfalls in intelligence 

requirements among the unified commands. The Joint Chiefs of Staff concurred with the report 

recommendation to reallocate JIC resources among the unified commands. 

DIA’s JIC/JAC study referred to the Joint Intelligence Centers as the “central node for providing 

intelligence support to military operations.” The JICs were formed from various service 

component organizations in order to streamline and downsize intelligence force structure 

and provide for the first time a framework for joint intelligence support to the combatant 

commanders. Many organic service intelligence functions and organizations were absorbed into 

the JICs with the understanding that the JICs would continue to provide the needed support to 

theater components. In the first few years there were only small scale adjustments to the initial 

allocation of manpower resources made in 1992, but world events and mission changes would 

affect individual JICs and the function of the JICs overall. 

By 1995 the Joint Intelligence Centers for U.S. Atlantic Command, U.S. Pacific Command, 

U.S. Space Command, and U.S. Strategic Command would be fully operational. The JICs for 

CENTCOM, U.S. European Command, U.S. Southern Command, U.S. Special Operations 
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Command and U.S. Transportation Command were scheduled to be operational by 1997. One 

anticipated benefit from establishing the JICs was to allow reductions in Defense intelligence 

billets commensurate with reductions in the supported forces. According to the Congressional 

Budget Justification Books for Fiscal Year 1994 and Fiscal Year 1995, these reductions did in 

fact occur. A DoD Inspector General (IG) audit of the JICs in 1995 found a net decrease of 18 

percent in intelligence billet authorizations for the GDIP since Fiscal Year 1992.65 

The 1995 DoD IG audit concluded that the unified commands were generally satisfied with 

the support these centers provided and that the number of intelligence billets had been 

successfully reduced after the establishment of the JICs. The JIC concept, it explained, was 

still in its early phase and there remained some issues that needed to be addressed. DIA, 

it said, had allocated additional staff to those JICs that were not fully operational to correct 

staffing inequities among the JICs. The DoD IG report also referenced the fact that DIA had 

issued the capstone document for the DoD Intelligence Production Program to identify 

intelligence products and producers. These actions would help customers determine available 

intelligence products and minimize duplication among intelligence producers. However, the 

report noted, DIA had not correlated JIC staffing to JIC missions or established an optimum 

mix of military and civilian personnel in the JICs.66

General Clapper took issue with some of the DoD IG’s findings, particularly with its conclusion 

that the JICs were not equitably staffed and that the JIC staffing was not adequately correlated 

to JIC missions. He called the establishment of the JICs at the commands “one of the most 

important steps in the development of theater intelligence capabilities and the integration of 

the military intelligence community.” Though the IG report was a generally positive appraisal, 

the director worried that the report could be used “to disrupt a highly successful and 

effective program.” He went on to provide a detailed account of DIA’s responses to specific 

IG comments and specific actions it was taking to address them. DIA took issue with the 

recommendation for an 18 percent cut in GDIP billets. General Clapper countered that GDIP 

billets at the J2/JICs had been protected since the implementation of the JIC study and the 

only reductions to them had been those programmed during the implementation of the JIC 

study and those mandated by Congress and by the JCS. The latter two reductions had, in 

many instances, been backfilled to ensure that the authorized JIC levels remained constant. 

The JIC study, he argued, reduced the overall GDIP billets by a modest 5 percent through the 

year 1997, not the 18 percent recommended in the report.67

DoD Intelligence Production Program (DoDIPP) 

The Joint Intelligence Centers were responsible not only for providing intelligence support 

to the combatant commanders and deployed forces in theater, but also for producing basic 

intelligence on their area of operations as part of the DoD Intelligence Production Program 

(DoDIPP). DIA established DoDIPP as a management tool to make the intelligence production 

community more efficient and responsive to the needs of all DoD consumers. Before DoDIPP, 

the Defense department had more than 67 intelligence production elements, and there was 

heavy dependence on closed-loop data bases and slow, cumbersome communications. 

The ASD(C3I) 1991 memo “Strengthening Defense Intelligence” and the Defense drawdown 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

in the past Cold War era were an impetus for change, as was the 1992 JIC/JAC Study. The 

DoDIPP, established 1 June 1993, became fully operational on 1 January 1995. The goal 

was to integrate General Military Intelligence (GMI) and scientific and technical intelligence 

analysis and make the “expert” available to the DoD intelligence community and to minimize 

duplication in production. The idea was to centralize management of intelligence and 

decentralize execution. The principal members of DoDIPP included DIA, the unified command 

JICs/JAC, Service Production Centers, and Commonwealth Allies (Australia, Canada, and 

Great Britain). Over time, participation in the DoDIPP expanded to include non-traditional 

producers such as the CIA and the State Department.68

DIA’s responsibility for coordinating and managing the department’s intelligence production 

became increasingly important in the early 1990s. To better meet this requirement, DIA 

and other Defense intelligence community members together developed a DoDIPP-based 

process for shared production responsibilities. Procedures for entering and processing 

formal intelligence requirements within DoD were codified in the DoDIPP. Validating the 

needs and requirements of the services, the military command, and DIA ensured that the 

requesting organization had a legitimate need and that no production was currently scheduled 

or available that could meet those needs. The DoDIPP ultimately proved to be an efficient 

process that required minimal management and oversight.69

The DoDIPP covered intelligence production that DoD components used for planning 

purposes and became a critical mechanism for intelligence production within DoD that 

established policies, procedures, and relationships for the DoD intelligence production 

community to ensure the best quality intelligence support to the warfighter in the most 

complete, responsive, and effective manner. DoDIPP also required that all production plans 

and products be reported to the Defense intelligence production functional manager. It was 

designed to keep the intelligence community informed of intelligence producers and products 

and to minimize duplication of intelligence data among the producers. The DoDIPP would 

make the components aware of available JIC products.70

In a broader sense, DIA’s implementation of the DoDIPP represented all the “Reinvention” 

themes laid out in the September 1996 National Performance Review Report on the 

Department of Defense, specifically the themes of sponsoring a corporate atmosphere, 

linking new policies with technological advances, focusing on the customer, cutting red tape, 

getting back to the basics, and empowering individual analysts and production elements. 

The National Performance Review noted that DoDIPP empowered individual intelligence 

analysts and production centers to interact directly with the consumers of their reports. Also 

quality control procedures eliminated layered management reviews of intelligence products. 

Based on the individual center’s ability to provide unique intelligence production on the 

topic, each production center was designated the primary or collaborative producer for 

specific intelligence analytic functional or substantive areas. The DoD intelligence community 

was able to permit each unified command, military service, and DIA staff to directly assign 

validated intelligence requests. They were allowed to take action without other bureaucratic or 

administrative overhead.71

The DoDIPP initiative systematically revised Defense intelligence production by leveraging the 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

analytic strengths and unique expertise of seventeen production organizations (nine unified 

command joint intelligence centers, four military intelligence centers, and four DIA production 

centers) to create a “corporate” atmosphere and process. It would move beyond the original 

seventeen to encompass new centers of expertise. 

One of the DoDIPP program’s major accomplishments was the introduction of Community 

On-Line Intelligence System for End Users and Managers (COLISEUM), a community 

intelligence requirements management system that allows users to enhance, oversee, and 

manage intelligence production requirements. COLISEUM became fully operational in July 

1995. COLISEUM was the DoDIPP program’s single automated production management 

tool. It provided the automated mechanism for assigning production requirements, 

scheduling, deconflicting, assigning production, tracking and managing overall production 

activities. Praised by the DCI, it provided a readily accessible automated capability to track 

and manage overall production activities. DoDIPP became more customer focused by 

producing tailored reporting responding to documented requests for specific intelligence 

rather than intelligence generated by individual production element interests. This greatly 

decreased unnecessary production. It reduced red tape by establishing “single stop 

shopping” for intelligence customers, clarifying and streamlining the production processes, 

and eliminating several layers of bureaucratic review. It provided centralized oversight and 

decentralized execution of the requirement and production processes. As a result, the 

number of policy and procedures directives and publications dropped by more than 50 

percent. DIA also pursued Intelink, an internet link that became operational in the mid 1990s, 

as the strategic direction for disseminating intelligence. Intelink used public domain internet 

technology to “publish” classified multimedia intelligence products and allowed users to 

access data as needed. Operational and national planners and consumers would have 

access to COLISEUM through Intelink and thus have immediate access to information on 

the status of production requests and the resulting intelligence products.72 By 1996 DoDIIP 

was moving toward a virtual production environment to improve battlespace awareness and 

timely tailored products for warfighting.73

Consolidation of Defense Human Intelligence (HUMINT)

Just as the various elements of Defense intelligence organization, production, and 

dissemination underwent consolidation and change, so did the human intelligence function. 

The planning for a centralized defense HUMINT organization in the early 1990s took place in 

the context of a broader effort to reorganize Defense intelligence. A key theme of Assistant 

Secretary Duane Andrews’ review of Defense intelligence in 1989 was the need to improve the 

department’s joint approach and its support to the combatant commanders. He recognized 

that DIA and the other Defense intelligence agencies were faced with declining budgets and 

needed to bring down costs. In early 1991, Andrews instructed General Soyster to develop 

a plan to further centralize the DoD HUMINT system. The move toward the consolidation of 

defense HUMINT, underway since the 1980s, suddenly intensified.74

During Soyster’s tenure, DIA conducted a study of defense HUMINT to bring more HUMINT 

control into DIA. The Services resisted, fearing that they would lose some of their HUMINT 

responsibilities and resources. The study eventually led to consolidation and the establishment 
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of the Defense HUMINT Service (DHS). HUMINT was one of the more difficult intelligence 

disciplines to refocus after the Cold War because the new environment and new threats 

required individuals with different backgrounds, language skills, and cultural knowledge.75

In the early 1990s defense HUMINT was divided between DIA and the services. There was 

discussion and Congressional concern about duplication of effort and inefficiencies.76

In June 1991, Soyster sent a memo to Andrews referencing the assistant secretary’s March 

1991 plan and presented his own concept for restructuring and centralizing DoD HUMINT 

management. The cornerstone of the director’s plan was a stronger role for a DoD HUMINT 

central manager in DIA. Although the services were reluctant to release a portion of their 

control to DIA, they ultimately concurred with DIA’s concept. Intrigued by Soyster’s concept 

plan, on 6 August 1991, Andrews returned it to the DIA director and asked him to submit a 

complete implementation plan, following specific guidelines. DIA delivered its final plan to 

the assistant secretary on 18 September 1991. This plan was then forwarded to the service 

secretaries for concurrence.77

DIA and the services eventually agreed to new rules related to defense HUMINT, which were 

codified in DoD Directive 5200.37, “Centralized Management of DoD Human Intelligence 

Operations,” issued on 18 December 1992. This directive created a centralized decisionmaking process under the DoD HUMINT manager, introduced the concept of HUMINT 

Support Elements at the combatant commands, authorized the establishment of operating 

bases, and required the consolidation of HUMINT support services. It formed the outline of the 

plan that would later come to be known as the Defense HUMINT System.78

When Clapper succeeded Soyster, he would play a key role in the consolidation effort in his 

role as DoD HUMINT manager. On 11 June 1993, he presented a proposal for the creation of 

a Defense HUMINT Service at an annual Joint Review of Intelligence Programs, once again 

highlighting plans for a consolidated DoD HUMINT program. This Joint Review of Intelligence 

Programs by Deputy Secretary William J. Perry and Director of Central Intelligence R. James 

Woolsey made it clear that DoD HUMINT would not be spared the anticipated force reductions 

and budget cuts. Soon after, Perry directed Assistant Secretary Andrews to prepare a proposal 

for the creation of a Defense HUMINT Service, consolidating the GDIP HUMINT resources 

of DIA and the military services into a single field activity under the supervision of the DoD 

HUMINT manager.79 

In response the assistant secretary asked the DIA director, as the DoD HUMINT manager, 

to provide him with detailed recommendations concerning the creation of a consolidated 

HUMINT joint field operating activity. The result was a proposal called “Plan for Consolidation 

of Defense HUMINT,” which planners believed would allow DoD to preserve its ability to 

manage HUMINT effectively in the face of declining resources. Perry approved the “Plan 

for Consolidation of Defense HUMINT” on 2 November 1993.80 The service secretaries, 

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Chiefs, and the DCI all concurred in the 1993 

“Plan for Consolidation of Defense HUMINT,” commonly referred to as the Perry Plan, which 

would create a DIA joint field operating activity named the Defense HUMINT Service (DHS). 

Acceptance of the plan represented the culmination of three decades of working toward 
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greater centralization in DoD’s human intelligence activities. It was the result of lessons 

learned, budget cuts, and the reality of ongoing and changing threats in the world. Though full 

implementation of the plan would take several years, its impact was immediate. 

As with the larger DIA reorganization, the goal of the plan was to replace the separate 

management entities of the Services and DIA with a single organizational structure, thus 

producing savings in management overhead. The consolidation was intended to preserve 

the department’s ability to manage HUMINT effectively within the constraints of diminishing 

resources and to more rapidly and efficiently focus defense HUMINT elements on high priority 

targets around the world. It was designed to reduce the cost of maintaining four separate 

service HUMINT organizations and to improve coordination. The plan replaced separate 

service and DIA management structures with a single organization, which advocates argued 

would allow significant cuts in management overhead, while at the same time preserving field 

collection capabilities. General Leide, the head of DIA’s National Military Intelligence Collection 

Center, became the first director of the new Defense HUMINT Service.81

The plan for the Defense HUMINT Service would be implemented in several phases over 

a two-year period by a transition team composed of service, DIA, and other intelligence 

community personnel. The formal process of forming the Defense HUMINT service began with 

the establishment of the DHS Transition Team on 1 December 1993. As DIA and the services 

began to consolidate their collection assets under the new DHS, some contentious issues had 

to be resolved. Some officials in DIA, in the services, and at the CIA remained skeptical. There 

were early challenges to the DHS concept from some within the intelligence community who 

were concerned about the ability of the new organization to execute its clandestine mission. 

The HUMINT Service achieved its initial operating capability on 1 October 1995 when most 

civilian strategic HUMINT collectors became DIA employees and the appropriate military 

authorizations were transferred from their respective military services’ HUMINT activities to 

DIA. All individuals assigned to GDIP HUMINT billets would become DIA employees and 

subject to DIA regulations. DHS served as a field operating activity of DIA and encompassed 

all service GDIP HUMINT activities. DHS consolidated and DIA GDIP HUMINT resources into a 

single DHS budget. 

By October 1995, the Defense HUMINT Service had over 2,000 personnel stationed at 

more than one hundred locations. The young organization supported the unified commands, 

the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Chiefs, the military services, and national 

policymakers. DHS had deployed HUMINT Support Elements (HSE) with headquarters 

of the commanders of each unified command and sub-unified command. These support 

elements helped the commands develop and process their HUMINT collection requirements 

and facilitated planning and coordination of DoD HUMINT support to operational 

commands. DHS also managed the Defense Attaché System worldwide.82 The transition 

process culminated in DHS reaching full operating capability on 1 October 1996, the original 

deadline set by the Perry Plan.
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Military Intelligence Board (MIB)/Director of Military 

Intelligence (DMI)

In the midst of the budget cuts and reorganization in the early to mid 1990s, both Soyster 

and Clapper sought to transform the Military Intelligence Board (MIB) to enhance its role 

as a decisionmaking body for warfigher support. The MIB, established in 1961 and chaired 

by the DIA director with service representatives, was originally conceived to help the DIA 

director establish his agency and on occasion act as his advisory body. The MIB served as 

a committee to address DoD-wide intelligence issues with the primary function of reviewing 

national intelligence estimates. In the decades since the MIB’s establishment, oversight and 

management of military intelligence activities became increasingly complex.83 Pentagon 

officials now found that the continued downsizing of the intelligence community, both in 

budget and personnel, and the uncertain international security environment had prompted 

increased interaction among Defense intelligence components and required a greater role for 

the DIA director.84

With Operation DESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM in the Persian Gulf, DIA’s role in supporting 

military operations grew significantly in scale and complexity and the role of the board became 

increasingly important. During his tenure, Soyster made a concerted effort to reenergize the 

MIB with some success. He added representation from NSA Director Vice Admiral William O. 

Studeman, NRO, and non-voting representatives from the J6 of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and 

the Defense Support Program Office. Soyster frequently turned to the board to help resolve 

problems associated with supporting current operations, to include improving support to the 

Joint Intelligence Center that had been set up in the CENTCOM area of operations. Under 

Soyster’s leadership, the MIB became a strong decisionmaking body and played an important 

role in coordinating the deployment of personnel, equipment and systems to the Persian Gulf, 

addressing shortfalls in theater, and other tasks. From his vantage point as deputy director for 

JCS support (J2) under both Soyster and Clapper, Vice Admiral McConnell observed that the 

MIB “came of age” during this period and became a more dynamic, coordinated group.85 

Much like Soyster, one of Clapper’s goals was also to strengthen the MIB. As Air Force 

Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence, Clapper had been a regular member of the MIB 

and had closely observed its operations. He viewed it as a collegial problem solving body 

and once he became director planned to continue this role, but he also viewed it as an 

instrument to help him carry out his responsibilities as director of military intelligence. 

The director wanted to use the MIB as a joint board of directors to integrate collection, 

production and infrastructure throughout DoD. He quickly had to deal with controversy 

related to the extent of DIA’s responsibilities and authorities and an attempt to define both 

the official role and ex officio roles that the DIA director played. Clapper for example served 

as GDIP manager, chairman of the MIB, and ex officio Director of Military Intelligence (DMI), 

a position examined below.86 Clapper made significant changes in the role of the MIB. 

Prior to Operation DESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM, the MIB had been used largely as 

an information sharing and coordination body, particularly for intelligence estimates and 

major intelligence papers. Clapper began using the board as a decisionmaking body and 

as an action arm of DIA. The service intelligence chiefs and other senior officials began 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

to attend the MIB meetings. The DCI began sending a representative and the J2 became an 

active participant. At Clapper’s direction, the MIB assumed a larger role in directing intelligence 

activities in support of military operations. The MIB became what one former senior Defense 

intelligence official called “a very successful instrument.”87

The director was not alone in his goals for the MIB. Some senior Pentagon officials also sought 

to strengthen the role of the MIB, give it added responsibilities, and formalize the role of the DIA 

director as MIB chairman.88 Clapper would find the MIB to be “invaluable” during his internal 

restructuring efforts and in enhancing his role within the Defense intelligence community. It was 

at the first MIB meeting that he chaired after becoming director that Clapper advocated the 

concept of a “director of military intelligence” (DMI) and suggested trying it as an experiment for 

six months. He indicated that as DMI he would step back and try to separate himself from DIA 

so that he could remain objective. He would seek to do what was best for the community as a 

whole and leave the DIA deputy director to represent DIA’s interests. As DMI, Clapper envisioned 

empowering military service intelligence chiefs as deputy DMIs and authorizing them to assist in 

managing military intelligence as an integrated community. The recent reorganization initiatives, 

he explained, were aimed at “improving the flow of intelligence to the community’s customers, 

particularly the warfighting commands.” The MIB operated this way for six months, with Clapper 

using the title Director of Military Intelligence unofficially. The MIB provided the organizational 

structure and, he believed the title allowed him to distinguish between his role chairing the MIB 

and his role as director of DIA. He enlisted the deputy director of the GDIP staff, Joan Dempsey, 

to direct the DMI staff.89

Clapper sought to formalize the title Director of Military Intelligence, adding it to his designation 

as DIA director. As head of DIA, he found himself charged with a number of DoD-wide 

responsibilities that went beyond managing DIA. He saw that role as analogous to the role of 

the director of central intelligence within the intelligence community. Clapper began using the 

title director of military intelligence in fulfilling these responsibilities and continued to argue that 

he could function more effectively if the designation were formalized. In a memorandum to the 

deputy secretary, he argued that the various intelligence related problems in the department 

would get greater visibility and “would be attacked more coherently and systematically” by 

formally instituting a senior military officer as the department’s DMI.90

However, the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence questioned Clapper’s use of the title at 

least until the secretary approved it. The committee argued that civilian DoD leaders should 

determine, possibly with the help of Congress, the proper designations of positions and 

responsibilities for senior DoD intelligence officials. To satisfy that concern, in the summer of 

1993 the office of the ASD(C3I) drafted several memorandums to secure formal approval of 

the new title. Pentagon officials argued that this was needed to better address the ongoing 

need to improve coordination and cooperation among the various DoD intelligence entities. 

They did admit that the title was not necessary and promised that the existing authorities of the 

military service secretaries and the DCI would not be compromised. The ASD(C3I) envisioned 

23 responsibilities coming under the new DMI title, the principal ones being development of the 

GDIP, advising senior OSD and JCS officials, and chairmanship of the Military Intelligence Board. 

ASD(C3I) officials did not believe the title challenged the ASD(C3I)’s authority. Nor did they 

propose elevating the rank of the officer appointed DMI.
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Clapper met with DCI Woolsey to discuss the issue and secure his support, but Woolsey’s 

opposition remained strong. Woolsey did not object to Clapper’s current role in the Defense 

intelligence community but objected to the DMI title. Woolsey saw the formal title as a 

potential challenge to his own role within the intelligence community and raised his concerns 

with Deputy Secretary Perry. However, Woolsey reportedly indicated to Perry that he might 

be willing to go along with a different title, such as “Director of Military Service Intelligence.” 

The ASD(C3I) position was that the DMI title would not give Clapper any additional authorities 

beyond those already delegated to him by the secretary and, in intelligence community 

matters, by the DCI. The matter was internal to DoD and did not infringe on the prerogatives of 

the DCI. In September 1993, ASD(C3I) Paige asked the service secretaries, CJCS, OSD GC, 

and OSD Director for Administration and Management to review his plan to establish DMI as 

an added title for the director of DIA. Ultimately, DoD did not adopt the new title. Senior OSD 

officials saw little to gain from the proposal particularly when faced with strong objections from 

the DCI. The issue was fundamentally symbolic but it related to the broader issue of concern 

in the early 1990s—how to improve intelligence support to military operations.91

Thus, despite repeated efforts during the mid 1990s, neither the deputy nor secretary formally 

approved the title “Director of Military Intelligence.” The formal DMI designation, wrote one 

DIA member, was “more a political vice operational issue.”92 Efforts to come up with an official 

charter for the MIB and to get the secretary’s formal approval of the title director of military 

intelligence ultimately failed. When a revised DIA charter was issued in 1997 it referenced the 

DIA director’s role as chair of the MIB, but did not designate him (or even reference) “Director 

of Military Intelligence.”93

Shrinking Resources

Throughout the 1990s, most intelligence agencies and organizations faced significant cuts 

in military intelligence manpower, reductions in civilian intelligence billets, and constrained 

hiring to meet the Congressionally-mandated personnel reductions. Since so much of the 

annual budgets of these agencies was tied up in personnel, the reductions left less money for 

modernization, development of new capabilities, or infrastructure improvement.94

In the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993, Congress mandated a 17.5 

percent reduction in the number of civilian personnel in three agencies within the National 

Foreign Intelligence Program: DIA, NSA, and CIA. It directed that the agencies achieve the 

mandated reductions by the end of Fiscal Year 1997. These reductions reflected a change of 

perspective in the intelligence community and in the House Permanent Select Committee on 

Intelligence on the mix of personnel skills needed to address what the committee called “a 

radically different threat.” The committee also expressed hope that these cuts would make 

funds available for critically needed capital investment and permit the hiring of “fresh talent.” 

Congress authorized the use of voluntary separation incentives to meet this goal.95

The Congressional Budget Justification Book for Fiscal Years 1994 and 1995 showed a 

reduction of 905 GDIP billets in the unified commands, reflecting a drop from 4,998 billets 

in 1992 to 4,093 in 1995. The reductions represented an 18 percent decrease in intelligence 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

billet authorizations for the GDIP since Fiscal Year 1992.96 At DIA, the personnel cuts were 

accomplished as much as possible through attrition mechanisms, such as buy-outs and 

retirements. But Defense intelligence agencies also froze recruitment. This increased the 

average grade of the workforce while cutting the intelligence community off from a critical 

source of innovation. It created what a 2011 report would call a “youth gap.” Youth, the 

report explained, was critical for innovation and their quick grasp and acceptance of new 

technologies.97

****

With the budget and personnel cuts of the early and mid 1990s, the agency lost a great deal of 

experience and expertise in its workforce. Some argue that the attrition of the 1990s would not 

really end until the September 11th attacks. Some contend there was a significant degradation 

of its intelligence capability. As Michael Munson explained, “The brain drain of the community 

in the 1990s was so severe that there were just less people, but more important less people 

that had been around a long time to actually do the job.” He made a direct link between the 

drawdown and the Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) failure a decade later. The technical 

fields, such as science and technology and research and development, were among the 

most affected. They took disproportionate cuts in relation to their importance, resulting in a 

significant decline in DIA’s S&T capability.98

In addition, the dramatic and sweeping reorganization had a highly disruptive and unsettling 

effect on the workforce. As one former DIA senior explained, Clapper “turned over the tea 

service.” By one estimate 80 percent of the analysts—approximately 2,000 people—had 

to physically move within the DIA headquarters building in a relatively short period of time. 

A. Denis Clift, who as DIA chief of staff at the time was responsible for implementing the 

reorganization, conceded that there were “a lot of unhappy and uncomfortable campers.” 

But he quickly noted that there is often resistance to change in the status quo in any 

bureaucracy.99

For all of the turmoil and disruption, Clapper’s tenure marked a significant milestone in the 

agency’s history. For some more important than the reorganization was Clapper’s strong 

emphasis on the fact that DIA was part of a larger intelligence community. As we have 

seen, Clapper commissioned a JIC/JAC study, designated himself as the Director of Military 

intelligence, and implemented the DoDIIP—a concept revolutionary in its time, which remains 

valid. During Clapper’s era, JICs were established in the commands and Clapper led a broader 

Defense intelligence community in his role as GDIP manager.“It was really the beginning of 

a new era for DIA,” a former DIA chief of staff observed. Clapper, he added, changed DIA in 

some profound ways.100

Clapper was proud of the new organization he and his team had built based on the traditional 

intelligence constructions of collection, production, and infrastructure. He maintained that the 

reorganization, along with a “rethinking” of the way Defense intelligence did business, fit well 

with the emerging military environment of regional contingencies. He had created functional 

stovepipes where analysts were organized by their specialties, replacing the geographical 

approach. Martin Hurwitz supported the concept of centers organized by function and gave 
33

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

Clapper credit for his vision and his desire to strengthen DIA’s position within the national 

intelligence community and internationally. Others complained that some of the functional 

alignments made little sense. The organizational “boxes” were moved around but the same 

people were left in charge. The functional approach, some argue, was less than successful. 

A number of veteran country and regional experts left the agency. Some contend that the 

changes hampered DIA’s ability to conduct regional/country analysis. Critics point out that 

the way Clapper organized the agency in 1993 did not correspond to the way other Defense 

intelligence agencies were organized. This meant that DIA sometimes had to send more than 

one representative to meetings with its counterparts. Some contend that while that approach 

might have been beneficial for the warfighter, it did not help DIA’s primary day-to-day 

customer—the office of the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Not long after 

Clapper’s departure, the agency would reestablish regional offices and go back to a quasiregional structure.101

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell pointed to the significant reforms 

in Defense intelligence in his February 1993 Report on the Roles, Missions and Functions of 

the Armed Forces. Looking back, he observed that despite the overall intelligence success 

in the Gulf War some theater and tactical level commanders had complained about the lack 

of coordination and timeliness in dissemination of intelligence collected at the national level. 

However, a major intelligence success, he continued, was the creation of a forward based JIC 

and explained that as a result of the secretary’s 1991 Defense intelligence reorganization it 

was currently being institutionalized for all the combatant commands. Another advance was 

the creation of the NMJIC in the Pentagon to coordinate current intelligence resources in the 

Washington area. In a letter to Clapper at the end of his DIA tenure, General Powell wrote, 

“You’ve engineered a true revolution in the joint intelligence business that, frankly, no one else 

could have pulled off.”102

As we have seen, in the midst of the downsizing and restructuring, DIA continued to 

respond to immediate global challenges. It continued to provide operational forces, defense 

leaders, and the U.S. weapons development community with comprehensive intelligence 

data. As DIA moved toward institutionalizing the process underlying the reorganization, it 

became clear that the restructuring had already improved the level of integration among 

DIA, the military services, and the COCOMs. Despite the declining resources, the agency 

supported contingency crises in Somalia, operations in the former Republic of Yugoslavia, 

UN inspections and monitoring in Iraq, and peacekeeping in Haiti. In 1994 the secretary of 

defense would present DIA with its third Joint Meritorious Unit Award for its support to the 

department and the nation in responding to a number of crises between 1992 and 1994. The 

agency provided timely intelligence information on enemy capabilities and intentions for the 

planning and conduct of military operations under U.S., NATO, and UN auspices.103

In 1996, the Commission on the Roles and Responsibilities of the United States Intelligence 

Community (known as the Aspin-Brown Commission) concluded that DIA had made 

“substantial progress” toward reducing duplication in military analysis and production, which 

had long been considered a major problem. Its National Military Intelligence Production 

Center, the report noted, assigned responsibility for analysis to the analytical components 

in the military services and the JICs and then monitored production to prevent overlap. “Yet 
34

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

problems in military analysis and production remain,” the report added. The commission 

was concerned about the large size of the service intelligence elements and their apparent 

tendency to exceed their core missions. “The dividing line between DIA’s analytical 

responsibilities and those of the military departments,” it explained, “remains blurred despite 

the agreed-on production process.” The commission found that some analytical elements in 

the commands were collecting and analyzing information on political and economic topics that 

appeared beyond the scope of their missions. Dissemination systems were not fully adequate 

to support deployed forces.104

Air Force Lieutenant General Kenneth A. Minihan succeeded Clapper in September 1995. He 

found what he called “the intelligence apparatus” in “a substantial downturn.” The agency 

was having difficulty supporting policymakers because of limited resources. His predecessors 

had focused on preserving the workforce and to a great extent had succeeded in doing 

this, Minihan explained, but because of the financial constraints they did not have enough 

resources left to build critical systems and infrastructure. This left the agency unprepared to 

robustly support combat operations in places like Bosnia when they occurred in 1995 and 

1996. He estimated that the national intelligence capability had been reduced by a third in 

the early to mid 1990s, just as the terrorist threat was growing and new technologies were 

evolving. He bluntly concluded, “...the nation wanted something for nothing and it was getting 

what it paid for.”105

Minihan was only at DIA for a few months before taking over as director of the National 

Security Agency. Army Lieutenant General Patrick M. Hughes, who succeeded Minihan as 

DIA director in February 1996, had been closely watching the changes unfold at DIA from 

his vantage point as the J2. When Hughes became director he pulled back from Clapper’s 

ambitious organizational change. He found the morale of the workforce at its “nadir” and that 

there were not enough people to fully support the agency’s mission and operations. Within 

days of taking office, Hughes called a meeting in his 

conference room in the Pentagon with his principal 

staff. He asked the group to name the one thing that 

he should not do. His staff uniformly told him not to 

reorganize and Hughes promised he would not do so. 

His senior civilians told him that they had been through 

six to eight years of major organizational change, some 

of it damaging, and pleaded for a halt to unnecessary 

change. Specialists were in the wrong place 

organizationally due to the Clapper reorganization, they 

said. In response, Hughes decided to give the agency 

a period of stability and only make changes when he 

deemed them absolutely necessary. He and his deputy 

Jeremy Clark decided to give the agency more time to 

adapt to the Clapper reorganization—though they did 

shift some resources. Some missions would shift or 

be transferred to other places such as the imagery 

analysis mission going to NIMA (now the National 

Source: DIA Historical Collection

LTG Patrick M. Hughes, USA 

Director, Defense Intelligence Agency 

1996 – 1999.
35

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

Geospatial-Intelligence Agency), which helped with the manpower shortage by freeing up 

some employees.106

In May 1996, Hughes directed what he stressed as a “realignment” not a “reorganization” of 

several DIA elements, perhaps sensing that the workforce was weary of reorganization. The 

new structure, he explained, would better reflect the “way we do business in DIA,” consolidate 

liaison with the command element, and provide a separate Directorate for Counterintelligence 

(DC). It provided for a deputy director for intelligence production (DI), paralleling similar 

organizations in the CIA and NSA. Also, the change eliminated what he called the “confusion” 

of having “Centers” report to “Centers.” Except for the new DC, he assured the workforce, 

elements and functions would not change, people would not move, and in many instances 

organization title and symbols would remain the same. He concluded simply by saying 

“Internal adjustment is minimal.” Hughes set 10 June 1996 as the target for implementation. 

Thus, by mid 1996 the organizational structure consisting of three national military intelligence 

centers focused on function was gone. The functional centers had been replaced by four 

major directorates: Policy Support (DP), Intelligence Operations (DO), Intelligence Production 

(DI), and Intelligence, Joint Staff (J2). 107

As DIA leaders grappled with the aftermath of the early 1990s reorganizations, in 1995 

Pentagon officials reported on the ongoing need for and the growing importance of DIA. 

They referenced the previous five years of steady downsizing that was expected to continue 

through Fiscal Year 1999. They also noted that the absorption by the analysis and production 

corps of nearly half of all Defense intelligence personnel reductions had forced the Defense 

intelligence community “to make hard choices between maintaining proven programs that are 

essential to supporting an increasingly active military around the globe and investing in new 

capabilities that will allow future reductions of personnel and structure.” Recent successes 

with joint warfighting and communications interoperability had altered the structure that 

military intelligence had to support. Pentagon officials reported that budget and personnel 

reductions continued to force the Defense intelligence community to find efficiencies in order 

to maintain capabilities. One of the chief ways of doing this was to manage resources centrally 

to maximize effectiveness and minimize duplication. “DIA,” they concluded, “occupies 

that unique position that can best coordinate and manage the intelligence resources of the 

department while ensuring the military intelligence perspective is presented to the national 

levels of Government.”108

There is no doubt that the 1990s marked a milestone in DIA’s history. Dempsey, who as noted 

earlier headed the DMI staff under General Clapper, called his reorganization “a watershed 

event for DIA.” With the end of the Cold War and beginning of the post-Cold War period, DIA 

had to quickly retool and do this in the midst of declining resources, a process not without 

some pain. During that period, 17 percent of the overall national intelligence capability 

was cut. With the end of the Cold War there was no longer a common, unified view of the 

geopolitical world. In the 1980s DIA had been to a large extent focused on military planning, 

with the services providing the tactical intelligence support. Operation DESERT SHIELD/

DESERT STORM changed all this. DIA came to the forefront in supporting the operating 

forces. The agency’s role within Defense intelligence and within the national intelligence 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

community grew with Clapper’s retooling of the MIB, the establishment of the JICs, and other 

efforts promoted support to the military forces. In many ways DIA’s operational support role can 

be traced to the end of the Cold War and introduction of a new post-Cold War era.109

The experiences and challenges of the 1990s for DIA and for Defense intelligence continue to 

resonate. Clapper, now Director of National Intelligence, occasionally references the challenges 

of the 1990s and acknowledges his effort to profit from that experience in laying out a strategy 

for dealing with the current budget environment. In recent testimony on Capitol Hill, he referred 

to the profound cuts in the intelligence community in the early 1990s and conceded that he and 

others “didn’t do it very well.”110 While the implementation of the internal DIA reorganization had 

flaws, Clapper’s broader concept for DIA and for Defense intelligence also promoted positive 

change. Under his leadership DIA assume a stronger role within Defense intelligence. The legacy 

of the Defense intelligence reforms and reorganizations of the early 1990s remain strong, and the 

lessons from that time take on new relevance in the current political and economic environment.
37

The author would like to thank all those who provided supporting documentation for 

this study, particularly Lieutenant General Patrick Hughes, USA (Ret.), Dennis Nagy, and 

Martin Hurwitz for their invaluable contributions to this history. Unless otherwise noted, all 

references can be found in the office files of the DIA Historical Research Division.

1 Janet McDonnell, Oral history interview with Lieutenant General Harry E. Soyster, USA, (Ret.), 25 Jan 2010, 

12, 22-23. 

2 Michael Warner and J. Kenneth McDonald, “U.S. Intelligence Community Studies Since 1947,” Washington, 

D.C.: Center for Studies in Intelligence, Apr 2005, 31. 

3 Robert Gates, “Statement on Changes in the Intelligence Community” before the Joint Committee Hearing, 

Intelligence Committees, Congress, 1 Apr 1992.

4 Martin Hurwitz, “Perspectives for the 1990’s,” n.d., 1, Martin Hurwitz papers, file: 1990s; Oral history 

interview with Michael F. Munson, 31 Jan 1990.

5 Hurwitz., “Perspectives for the 1990’s,” 2. 

6 Ibid., 4.

7 Martin Hurwitz, “Information Topic: Intelligence Manpower,” draft 15 Jan 1993, Hurwitz files: TRANSMPR; 

Oral history interview with Rear Admiral Edward D. Sheafer, Jr., USN, 1991, 6. 

8 Lieutenant General James Clapper, USA, “Defense Intelligence Reorganization and Challenges,” Defense 

Intelligence Journal, 1 (1992): 11; memo, Richard Cheney to the President, 12 Jun 1989, Secretary of Defense 

Richard Cheney, Defense Management: Report to the President, July 1989.

9 ASD(C3I), “Plan for Restructuring Defense Intelligence,” 15 Mar 1991, 1; DoD News Release, “Pentagon 

Restructures Defense Intelligence,” 20 Mar 1991, Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) Historical Office 

Files, V.F.; “Intelligence Establishment Faces Cuts, Consolidation,” Signal, (Jun 1991): 76.

10 Duane Andrews transferred responsibility for managing the GDIP to DIA effective 16 December 1991.The 

Principal Deputy for Intelligence, working through the Intelligence Program Support Group, would provide 

oversight and supervision as he did for all other Defense intelligence programs and would assist as necessary 

in the transfer of the program management function. (ASD(C3I)) Duane P. Andrews, Memorandum for the 

Director, DIA, subj: GDIP Management, 13 Dec 1991). The GDIP had been established in 1970 with the DIA 

director as the “functional manager.” In the 1970s, GDIP management went back and forth between DIA and 

OSD. DoD directive 3305.5, “General Defense Intelligence Program (GDIP) Management,” 9 May 1986, 

formally designated the DIA director as program manager of the GDIP and established a GDIP staff to support 

him. This directive superseded a 1977 memo that had placed the GDIP under the ASD(C3I).

11 ASD(C3I), “Plan for Restructuring Defense Intelligence,” 15 Mar 1991, 1.

12 “Intelligence” n.d., cover note Joan Dempsey to James R. Clapper, Lieutenant General James R. Clapper 

papers.

13 ASD(C3I), “Plan for Restructuring Defense Intelligence,” 15 Mar 1991, 1.

Endnotes
38

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

14 Duane P. Andrews, ASD(C3I), “Restructuring Defense Intelligence,” American Intelligence Journal, (Autumn 

1991): 5. 

15 Ibid., 6-7.

16 Inside the Pentagon, “Cheney Approves Plan to Restructure DoD’s Intelligence Apparatus,” 28 Mar 1991, 

OSD Historical Office Files, V.F.

17 Excerpts from Senate Armed Services Committee, “Report on Department of Defense Organization and 

Management, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993,” American Intelligence 

Journal, (Autumn 1991): 15-16; Andrews, ASD(C3I), “Restructuring Defense Intelligence,” 9; Inside the Pentagon, 

“Cheney Approves Plan to Restructure DoD’s Intelligence Apparatus,” 28 Mar 1991, OSD Historical Office Files, 

V.F.

18 Dennis M. Nagy, “Defense Intelligence Agency Reorganization,” American Intelligence Journal, (Autumn 

1991): 11.

19 Clapper, “Defense Intelligence Reorganization and Challenges,” Defense Intelligence Journal, 1 (1992): 

12-13.

20 Ibid. 

21 Nagy, “Defense Intelligence Agency Reorganization,” 1, 11, 12; “Defense Intelligence Crisis Response 

Procedures and the Gulf War,” www.dia.ic.gov/homepage/aboutdia/History/shorthistories/crisisresponse.html 

accessed 11 Jan 2007; Charles Francis Scanlon, In Defense of the Nation, DIA at Forty Years, 2001, 210; Oral 

history interview with Vice Admiral John M. McConnell, USN, 26 Sep 1995.

22 McDonnell, Soyster interview, 67, 75.

23 John M. (Mike) McConnell was a captain (promotable) when he assumed his position as JS just days before 

the invasion of Kuwait. He had made the promotion list to rear admiral but had to wait for his sequence number 

to be reached before he could be formally promoted. He was “frocked” to one-star rank soon after the invasion. 

This meant he could wear the rank he had been promoted to, but still received the pay and privileges of a 

captain. Within nine months he would go from a one-star to a three-star rank. See Oral history interview with 

Vice Admiral John McConnell, USN, 26 Sep 1995, 1-5.

24 Dennis Nagy written comments to Janet McDonnell, 12 Jan 2012, 3; Oral history interview with Rear Admiral 

Edward C. Sheafer, Jr., USN, 1991, 5.

25 DIA, Interview with Rear Admiral Edward D. Sheafer, Jr., USN, 2011, 24-26.

26 Oral history interview with Vice Admiral John M. McConnell, USN, 26 Sep 1995, 1.

27 Nagy written comments, 12 Jan 2012, 1.

28 Ibid.

29 “1991: A Year of Transition and Review,” www.pacom.ic.gov/~cincpac...; James Clapper, “Defense 

Intelligence Reorganization and Challenges,” Defense Intelligence Journal, 1 (1992): 3.

30 Excerpts from SASC, “Report on Department of Defense Organization and Management, National Defense 

Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993,” 15. 

31 “102nd Congress—2d Session, S. 2198 and H.R. 4165,” American Intelligence Journal, (Winter/Spring 

1992): 7.

32 Excerpts from SASC, “Report on Department of Defense Organization and Management, National Defense 

Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993,” 16.

33 Ibid., 17.
39

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

34 Ibid., 18.

35 Richard Lardner, Inside the Pentagon, “Lawmakers call for GDIP to be Returned to DIA,” 1 Aug 1991, 

OSD Historical Office Files, V. F.; Excerpts from SASC, “Report on Department of Defense Organization and 

Management, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993,” 16-17;. National Defense 

Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993, 102nd Congress, HR 2100 (PL 102-190, 5 Dec 1991), sec. 

921(b). 

36 Clapper, “Defense Intelligence Reorganization and Challenges,” Defense Intelligence Journal, 1 (1992): 14; 

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993, 102nd Congress, HR 2100 (PL 102-190, 5 

Dec 1991), sec. 921(b). 

37 Oral history interview with Lieutenant General James R. Clapper, USAF, n.d., 6. 

38 Ibid., 14; National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993, 102nd Congress, HR 2100, 

sec. 922; ASD(C3I) Duane P. Andrews, Memorandum For Secretaries of Military Departments et al., 7 Feb 

1992, OSD Historical Office Files.

39 Clapper, “Defense Intelligence Reorganization and Challenges,” 14; National Defense Authorization Act for 

Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993, 102nd Congress, HR 2100 (PL102-190, 5 Dec 1991), sec. 921(c).

40 Department of Defense Instruction 5105.58, “Management of Measures and Signals Intelligence,” 9 Feb 

1993.

41 Clapper, “Defense Intelligence Reorganization and Challenges,” 13.

42 According to one source the SASC had some grievances against the U.S. Air Force at the time and in 

response temporarily froze all Air Force general officer promotions. (See Judith Bellafaire, Oral history interview 

with A. Denis Clift, 5 May 2011, 77).

43 Nagy written comments, 3; “New Director Appointed,” Communique, v. 3., no. 23, 9 Dec 1991, 1; Clapper, 

“Defense Intelligence Reorganization and Challenges,” Defense Intelligence Journal, 1 (1992):3.

44 “Lieutenant General Clapper’s Message—Agency Facing Change, New Challenges,” Communique, v. 3., no. 

23, 9 Dec 1991, 1-4.

45 Clapper, “Reorganization of DIA and Defense Intelligence Activities,” American Intelligence Journal, (Autumn/

Winter, 93/94): 9-10. 

46 Clapper, “Changing Joint Military Intelligence,” Joint Forces Quarterly, (Spring 1994): 94-95.

47 Clapper, “Reorganization of DIA and Defense Intelligence Activities,” 9-10.

48 DIA, Interview with Lieutenant General James Clapper, USA, (Ret.), 2011, 1-3, 4.

49 “DIA: A Three-Year Update,” draft, Communique, Oct 1994. 

50 Clapper interview, 8-9. 

51 Oral history interview with Patrick Duecy, 1991. 

52 Note, LTG James R. Clapper, Jr., to Pat Duecy, DI, John T. Berbrich, DT, and Brigadier General Chuck Thomas, 

DJ2, 29 Dec 1992, Clapper papers. Emphasis in original.

53 Note, James Clapper to Jeff Langsam, DC, Major General Jack Leide, DO, and Dewey Lopes, CMO, 29 Dec 

1992, Clapper papers. Emphasis in original.

54 U.S. General Accounting Office, Report to Congressional Requester, “Defense Intelligence: Efforts to 

Reorganize Defense Intelligence and Support to Military Operations,” Mar 1995.
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

55 Clapper, “Changing Joint Military Intelligence,” Joint Forces Quarterly, (Spring 1994): 98; Clapper, 

“Reorganization of DIA and Defense Intelligence Activities,” American Intelligence Journal, Autumn/Winter, 

93/94, 13, 16; Judith Bellafaire, notes from oral history interview with A. Denis Clift. 

56 Email, Martin Hurwitz to McDonnell, 30 Mar 2012; Clapper, “Reorganization of DIA and Defense 

Intelligence Activities,” 14. 

57 Ibid., 15; Hurwitz email; Charles Francis Scanlon, In Defense of the Nation: DIA at Forty Years (Defense 

Intelligence Agency, 2001), 190; “DIA in the Nineties...So Far,” Communique, 20 Dec 1994, vol. 6, no. 12, 3.

58 Clapper, “Reorganization of DIA and Defense Intelligence Activities,” 14-15; see Clapper, “Changing Joint 

Military Intelligence, 98; DIA, Interview with Joan Dempsey, 2011. 

59 Email, Hurwitz to McDonnell, 30 Mar 2012.

60 Clapper, “Reorganization of DIA and Defense Intelligence Activities,” 14-15; email, Hurwitz to McDonnell, 30 

Mar 2012; see Clapper, “Changing Joint Military Intelligence,” Joint Forces Quarterly, 98.

61 Email, Hurwitz to McDonnell, 30 Mar 2012.

62 DoD Inspector General, Audit Report No. 95-163, “Joint Intelligence Centers’ Support for Operating Forces,” 

31 Mar 1995, 4. 

63 Signal, Jun 1991, 76. 

64 Scanlon, 218, 221.

65 DoD Inspector General, Audit Report No. 95-163, “Joint Intelligence Centers’ Support for Operating Forces,” 

4, 8.

66 Ibid., 8-9.

67 Ibid., Enclosure #4, 22-23.

68 Defense Intelligence Production Functional Manager, slide presentation, n.d., “Department of Defense 

Intelligence Production Program (DoDIPP) 101, n.d.

69 Office of the Secretary of Defense, Director, Administration and Management, “Biennial Review of the Defense 

Agencies and DoD Field Activities,” Nov 1995, H-7. 

70 DoD Inspector General, Audit Report No. 95-163, 6.

71 National Performance Review Report on Reinventing the Department of Defense September 1996, www.fas.

org/man/docs/npr/dia.html, accessed 15 Jun 2011.

72 Ibid.; OSD, Director, Administration and Management, “Biennial Review of the Defense Agencies and DoD 

Field Activities,” Nov 1995, H-4, H-7.

73 Paper, “Defense Intelligence Agency,” 22 Mar 1996, Hughes papers, folder GDIP.

74 Andrews, “Restructuring Defense Intelligence,” 5-6 ; Major General John A. Leide, USA, “Defense HUMINT: A 

Challenge for the 90’s,” American Intelligence Journal, (Autumn/Winter, 1992/1993): 15.

75 McDonnell, Soyster interview, 39, 41.

76 DIA, Interview with William Huntington, 2011, 25.

77 LTG Harry E. Soyster, Memorandum for Assistant Secretary of Defense (Command, Control, Communications, 

and Intelligence), subj: Strengthening Defense intelligence, 20 June 1991, file: 1991 Restructuring of HUMINT; 

Assistant Secretary of Defense, Memo for Director, Defense Intelligence Agency, subj: Strengthening Defense 

Intelligence—DIA HUMINT Plan, 6 Aug 1991, ibid.; Jeffrey T. Richelson, “From MONARCH EAGLE to MODERN 
41

Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

AGE: The Consolidation of U.S. Defense HUMINT,” Intelligence and Counterintelligence, v. 10, no. 2, 139-141; 

Major General John A. Leide, USA, “Defense HUMINT: A Challenge for the 90s,” American Intelligence Journal, 

(Autumn/Winter, 1992/1993): 15.

78 DoD Directive 5200.37, “Centralized Management of the Department of Defense Human Intelligence 

(HUMINT) Operations,” 18 Dec 1992. Service HUMINT resources were essentially left under the control of the 

parent Services, but DIA assumed greater operational control. See Scanlon, 236. 

79 Richelson, “From Monarch Eagle to Modern Age: The Consolidation of U.S. Defense HUMINT,” 144. 

80 Deputy Secretary of Defense William J. Perry, Memo for Secretaries of the Military Departments, CJCS, all 

Under Secretaries of Defense, all Assistant Secretaries of Defense, Comptroller, General Counsel, Inspector 

General, and Director of Administration and Management, “Consolidation of Defense HUMINT,” 2 Nov 1993. 

81 Scanlon, 237.

82 “DHS Stands Up,” Communiqué, Oct 1995, V. 7, no. 10, 1-2.

83 Emmett Paige, Jr., ASD(C3I), Executive Summary, Memorandum for Deputy Secretary of Defense, n.d. 

84 Deputy SECDEF, Memorandum for Secretaries of Military Departments, et. Al., subj: Establishment of a Revised 

Military Intelligence Board Charter and creation of the Chairman MIB Position, n.d.

85 McDonnell, Soyster interview, 27-28; Nagy written comments, 2; Oral history interview with Vice Admiral 

J.M. McConnell, 26 Sep 1995, 3, 8. 

86 Scanlon, 221; Oral history interview with Lieutenant General James R. Clapper, n.d., 5.

87 DIA, Dempsey interview, 2011; email, Hurwitz to McDonnell, 30 Mar 2012.

88 Jeremy C. Clark, Principal Deputy Director ASD(C3I), letter for Admiral William O. Studeman, USN, DD, CIA, 

17 Nov 1994.

89 Clapper interview, n.d., 4-5; Clapper, “Reorganization of DIA and Defense Intelligence Activities,” 15. 

90 Central Intelligence Agency, Directors of Central Intelligence as Leaders of the U.S. intelligence community, 

1946-2005, (2005), 226-227.

91 Emmett Paige, Memorandum for Secretary of Defense, Executive Summary, subj: Establishment of Director of 

Military Intelligence, n.d.; Directors of Central Intelligence as Leaders of the U.S. intelligence community, 1946-

2005, 226-227; DASD(I) Keith R. Hall, Memorandum for Mr. Paige, subj: Establishment of Director of Military 

Intelligence, n.d.; Emmett Paige, Jr., Memorandum for Secretary of the Army et al, subj: Establishment of Director 

of Military Intelligence as an added title for the Director, Defense Intelligence Agency, 13 Sep 1993.

92 “Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA).” 22 Mar 1996, Hughes files, GDIP folder. When a revised DIA charter 

was issued in 1997 it referenced the DIA Director’s role as chair of the MIB but did not designate him (or even 

reference) “Director of Military Intelligence.” (DODD 5105.21, “Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), 18 Feb 

1997).

93 DODD 5105.21, “Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA),” 18 Feb 1997.

94 Intelligence and National Security Alliance, Smart Change Task Force, Smart Change, May 2011, 6; DoDD 

5105.21, 18 Feb 1997.

95 House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, HR 104-138 Pt 1, “Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal 

Year 1996,” 14 Jun 1995, 13. 

96 GAO Audit JIC/JAC, 8. 

97 Janet McDonnell, phone interview with Lieutenant General Patrick Hughes, USA, (Ret.), 6 Feb 2012; Smart 

Change, 8. 
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

98 DIA, Interview with Michael Munson and Margaret Munson, 2011, 46, 57, 58; Smart Change, 9, 16; 

Scanlon, 218; DIA, Dempsey interview.

99 Janet McDonnell, Oral history interview with Louis Andre, 2007, 25; Dempsey interview; Bellafaire, Clift 

interview, 80, 83.

100 Andre interview, 2007, 25.

101 Clapper, “Changing Joint Military Intelligence,” 98-99; Judith Bellafaire, Oral history interview with Martin 

Hurwitz; Andre interview, 2007, 25; Jeff Stein, “Former Analysts Rip Clapper’s Leadership,” http://voices.

washingtonpost.com/spy-talk/2010/05/former_dia_analysts_rip_clappe.html, accessed 16 Feb 2012; Judith 

Bellafaire, Oral history interview with Sharon Houy, 18 Apr 2011, 33.

102 CJCS Colin Powell, 1993 Report on the Roles, Missions and Functions of the Armed Forces, 12 Feb 1993, 

www.fas.org/man/docs/corm93/index.html, accessed 12 Aug 2011; Copy of memo in “DIA: A Three-Year 

Update,” draft Communique, Oct 1994.

103 1996 Annual Defense Report, http://www.dod.gov/execsec/adr96/toc.html, accessed 27 Oct 2011. 

104 Commission on the Roles and Responsibilities of the United States Intelligence Community, Preparing for the 

21st Century: An Appraisal of U.S. Intelligence, 1 Mar 1996, www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/report.html, accessed 

15 Nov 2007.

105 DIA, Interview with Lieutenant General Kenneth A. Minihan, USAF, (Ret.), 2011. 

106 McDonnell, phone interview with Hughes; DIA, Interview with Lieutenant General Patrick Hughes, USA, 

(Ret.), 2011, 26; DIA, Interview with Jeffrey Clark, 2011, 23.

107 Memorandum, LTG Patrick M. Hughes to DISTRIBUTION D, subj: DIA Realignment, 19 May 1996, in DIA 

November 1996 Telephone Directory; DIA organization chart, 20 Jun 1996.

108 OSD, Director, Administration and Management, “Biennial Review of the Defense Agencies and DoD Field 

Activities,” Nov 1995, H-4, H-6.

109 Dempsey interview. 

110 ODNI, “ Remarks and Q and A by DNI Mr. James Clapper, 2010 Geospatial Intelligence Symposium,” 2 

Nov 2010, 5; ODNI James R. Clapper Congressional Testimony, 16 Feb 2012. 
43

ADP Automated Data Processing

AFMIC Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center

ASD Assistant Secretary of Defense

ASD(C3I) Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, 

 Communications and Intelligence

CENTCOM U.S. Central Command

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

CJCS Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff

COCOM Combatant Command

COLISEUM Community On-Line Intelligence System for End Users and Managers

DAS Defense Attaché System

DCI Director of Central Intelligence

DHS Defense HUMINT Service

DIA Defense Intelligence Agency

DMI Director of Military Intelligence

DoD Department of Defense

DoDIPP Department of Defense Intelligence Production Program

DoDIIS Department of Defense Intelligence Information System

GAO General Accounting Office

GDIP General Defense Intelligence Program

HPSCI House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence

HUMINT Human Intelligence

Acronyms
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Defense Intelligence Historical Perspectives, Number 3

IC Intelligence Community

IPSG Intelligence Program Support Group

I&W Indications and Warning

JIC/JAC Joint Intelligence Center/Joint Analysis Center

MASINT Measurement and Signature Intelligence

MIB Military Intelligence Board

MSIC Missile and Space Intelligence Center

NRO National Reconnaissance Office

NSA National Security Agency

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NFIP National Foreign Intelligence Program

NMIC National Military Intelligence Center

NMICC National Military Intelligence Collection Center

NMIPC National Military Intelligence Production Center

NMISC National Military Intelligence Systems Center

OSD Office of the Secretary of Defense

PACOM U.S. Pacific Command

SASC Senate Armed Services Committee

S&T Scientific and Technical 

TIARA Tactical Intelligence and Related Activities

U&S Unified and Specified
Janet A. McDonnell is a senior historian with the 

DIA Historical Research Division. She holds a Ph.D. 

from Marquette University and served first as a 

historian with the headquarters of the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers and later as the Bureau Historian 

for the National Park Service. Her publications 

include a number of scholarly articles and reports, 

as well as books on a variety of historical subjects 

to include Responding to the September 11 Terrorist 

Attacks; After Desert Storm: the U.S. Army and the 

Reconstruction of Kuwait; Supporting the Troops: The 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in the Persian Gulf War; 

and The Dispossession of the American Indian: Indian 

Land Policy, 1887-1934. 

About the Author

The DIA Historical Research Division

The Defense Intelligence Agency Historical Research 

Division develops and preserves the institutional memory of 

DIA, conducts historical research and analysis in support of 

the DIA mission, and promotes historical awareness among 

the DIA workforce.
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