United Nations Environment Programme 

Caribbean Environment Programme 

Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife — 

Regional Activity Center 

International Coral Reef Initiative 

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Reef Environmental and Educational Foundation 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 
INVASIVE LIONFISH: 

A Guide to Control and Management 

Editor 

James A. Morris, Jr.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

 

Format & Graphics 

LeRoy Creswell

Florida Sea Grant

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc.

 

Publishing Consultant 

Ann Boese

Laughing Gull, Inc.

Savannah, Georgia, United States

 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 

Special Publication Series, Number 1 

 

 

 

 

 

Marathon, Florida, United States
Suggested Citation Formats 

Entire Book 

Morris, J.A., Jr. (Ed.). 2012. Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management. 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Special Publication Series Number 

1, Marathon, Florida, USA. 113 pp.

Chapters Within the Book 

Akins, J.L. 2012. Education and outreach: Building support and expertise. Pages 15-

23 in: J.A. Morris Jr. (ed.) Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and 

Management. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Special Publication 

Series Number 1, Marathon, Florida, USA. 113 pp.

This Publication Is Available From: 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc.

2796 Overseas Highway, Suite 119

Marathon, Florida 33050 USA

http://www.gcfi.org

or

NOAA Central Library

http://www2.coastalscience.noaa.gov/publications/

© 2012 by the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published 2012

ISBN: 978-0-615-69974-5 

Library of Congress Catalog Number 2012949444 

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written 

permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication, or any 

portion thereof, for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited. The advice and strategies contained herein may 

not be suitable for every situation. If professional assistance is required, the services of a competent professional 

should be sought. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. That fact that an 

organization or website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not 

mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet websites listed in this work may have changed or 

disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.
CONTENTS 

Authors i

Contributors ii

Foreword International Coral Reef Initiative iii

UNEP–Caribbean Environment Programme iv

Preface v

Acknowledgments vi

Acronyms vii

Chapter 1 The Lionfish Invasion: Past, Present, and Future 

James A. Morris, Jr. 

A Rapid, Widespread Invasion

Broad Diet and General Habitat

Cascading Impacts

Local Intervention Is Critical 

1 

1

1

2

2

Chapter 2 Lionfish Research: Current Findings and Remaining Questions 

James A. Morris, Jr. and Stephanie J. Green 

Research Findings to Date

Remaining Questions

Research Resources 

3 

3

12

14

Chapter 3 Education and Outreach: Building Support and Expertise 

J. Lad Akins 

The Earlier, The Better

E&O to Support Control Plans

Developing Communication Strategies

Challenges 

Measuring Success

15 

15

16

16

22

23

Chapter 4 Control Strategies: Tools and Techniques for Local Control 

J. Lad Akins 

Local Removals Can Be Effective

Collection and Handling

Training

Removal Incentives

24 

24

28

45

47

Chapter 5 Monitoring: An Essential Action 

Stephanie J. Green 

Monitoring Local Lionfish Populations

Monitoring Ecological Impacts

Organismal Monitoring Through Dissection 

Monitoring Socioeconomic Impacts: Fishing, Tourism, and Human Health

51 

52

59

67

68

Chapter 6 Legal and Regulatory Considerations for Lionfish Management 

Dayne St. A. Buddo 

Consideration for Legal and Regulatory Instruments

Review of Existing Legislation, Policies, and Plans

72 

72

75

Chapter 7 Resources, Partnerships, and Sustainable Funding 

Ricardo Gómez Lozano 

Human Resources

Financial Resources 

78 

78

81

Appendix 84 

Literature Cited 108 
AUTHORS 

James A. Morris, Jr. (Editor),

Ecologist

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science 

National Ocean Service, NOAA

Beaufort, North Carolina, United States

james.morris@noaa.gov

J. Lad Akins

Director of Special Projects

Reef Environmental Education Foundation

Key Largo, Florida, United States

lad@reef.org

Dayne St. A. Buddo

Marine Ecologist, Lecturer, and Academic 

 Coordinator

Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory

University of the West Indies, Jamaica

dayne.buddo@uwimona.edu.jm

Stephanie J. Green

Simon Fraser University

Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

steph.j.green@gmail.com

Ricardo Gómez Lozano

Director, Parque Nacional Arrecifes de Cozumel 

Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales 

Protegidas de México

Cozumel, México

rglozano@conanp.gob.mx

i
CONTRIBUTORS 

 

The strategies and practices provided herein were developed during the 2010 

International Coral Reef Initiative–Caribbean Regional Lionfish Workshop in 

Cancun, with participants from the following organizations: 

Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas, México 

University of the West Indies, Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory, Jamaica

Department of Natural and Environmental Resources, Puerto Rico, United States

U.S. Department of State

U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Marine Protected Areas, Belize

Department of Marine Resources, Bahamas

Department of Environment, Cayman Islands

Bermuda Aquarium, Museum, and Zoo

CSI-ICRI Coral Reef Enforcement and Investigation

Environment State Service, Martinique, French West Indies

Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife–Regional Activity Center 

The Nature Conservancy

National Environment Centre, Turks and Caicos

CORALINA, Columbia

Centre for Agricultural Biosciences International 

Acuariología, Acuario Nacional, Cuba

Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Mexico

Nature Foundation, St. Maarten, The Netherlands 

Ictiología, Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad La Salle, Venezuela

Bonaire National Marine Park, Bonaire, Caribbean Netherlands

Reef Check Dominican Republic

Reef Environmental Education Foundation

International Coral Reef Initiative

Seatone Consultants

ii
FOREWORD 

From the International Coral Reef Initiative 

 

The proliferation of lionfish in the Caribbean over the last ten years is a real and 

growing threat to the ecology of tropical and sub-tropical marine areas in that part 

of the world. Addressing this issue requires a collaborative approach at a regional, 

national, and local scale. 

The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), as an informal collective, is well placed 

to provide a mechanism for cooperation on the lionfish issue. The facilitation of the 

Caribbean Regional Lionfish Workshop with key Caribbean players in 2010, and the 

establishment of an ad-hoc Committee on Caribbean Regional Response to the 

Lionfish Invasion later that year -— now referred to as the Regional Lionfish Committee -— are practical examples of the support that ICRI has provided to assist in 

addressing the lionfish issue. 

 

Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management is an important step on an 

urgent and challenging journey. The International Coral Reef Initiative is happy to be 

involved and will continue to support important actions, such as the publication of 

this guide. 

The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is an informal partnership of like-minded 

governments and organizations seeking to build and sustain the capacity of countries and 

regions to achieve effective management and sustainable use of coral reefs and related 

environments. While the ICRI supports actions from the Regional Lionfish Committee, 

including the publication of this manual, the ICRI makes no representation about the content 

and suitability of this information for any purpose. Inclusion in this document of any specific 

action doesn't represent a specific endorsement from ICRI of that strategy. 

iii

Margaret Johnson 

Co-chair, ICRI Secretariat 

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 

Australia 

Beverly Wade 

Co-chair, ICRI Secretariat 

Belize Fisheries Department 

Belize 
From UNEP–Caribbean Environment Programme 

The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in 

the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) (Cartagena Convention) is the only legally binding 

regional environmental treaty for the Region, and together with its supporting 

Protocols, constitute a legal commitment by these countries to protect and manage 

their common coastal and marine resources individually, jointly, and in a sustainable 

manner. One out of the three protocols of the Cartagena Convention, the Protocol on 

Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) was adopted in 1990 and entered into 

force in 2000. Sixteen countries are currently Parties to the Protocol, the newest 

ones being Guyana in 2010 and Grenada and The Bahamas in 2012. UNEP’s 

Regional Coordinating Unit for the Caribbean serves as Secretariat to the Convention 

and its Protocols, and its Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP) provides the 

technical support to Governments to meet their obligations. 

The objectives of the SPAW Protocol are to protect, preserve, and manage in a 

sustainable way: 1) areas and ecosystems that require protection to safeguard their 

special value, 2) threatened or endangered species of flora and fauna and their 

habitats, and 3) species, with the objective of preventing them from becoming 

endangered or threatened. The SPAW Protocol stresses the importance of protecting 

habitats as an effective method of protecting the species. Protection is focused on 

fragile and vulnerable ecosystems as a whole, rather than on individual species. In 

that context, invasive alien species are of particular concern for the SPAW Protocol 

and its Programme of Work. The current SPAW Workplan, adopted in October 2010 

by the 6th Conference of the Parties to the SPAW Protocol, includes support to 

regional initiatives for prevention and mitigation of the impacts of invasive species, 

in particular to the lionfish.

UNEP-CEP and its SPAW Regional Activity Center (SPAW-RAC), hosted by the Government of France in Guadeloupe, have in that context joined efforts with ICRI and 

numerous partners to address the lionfish issue in the Caribbean. We are grateful for 

the efforts and dedication of the writing team, of its leader James Morris, and of all 

the authors that devoted time and skills for the preparation of the various chapters 

that compose the manual, Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management is 

now available. We believe this guide will prove to be a crucial tool for managers and 

practitioners in the Wider Caribbean Region, and we hope it will help them better 

control the lionfish invasion and its impacts by providing practical solutions and 

recommendations. The translation of the guide into Spanish, supported by the SPAW

-RAC, will facilitate its use by practitioners in all Caribbean countries and territories.

We look forward to the wide use of the Invasive Lionfish guide in all countries of the 

region and to the successful control of this marine invasive species.

 

 

 

 

Nelson Andrade Colmenares, Coordinator

UNEP–Caribbean Environment Programme 

iv
PREFACE 

The countries of the Wider Caribbean with their vibrant coral reefs are major tourist 

destinations, bringing billions of dollars to the Caribbean annually. The importance 

of reef resources is invaluable to local economies and cultures. Invasive Alien 

Species (IAS) are considered one of the major threats to native species and habitats 

in the Caribbean. Recognizing the urgency of the lionfish invasion and the need to 

develop clear recommendations for local control, a special workshop was organized 

by an international team, including the International Coral Reef Initiative, REEF, 

NOAA, and SPAW-RAC, and it took place in August 2010 in Cancun, Mexico. With 47 

participants representing over 25 organizations from 20 countries and territories of 

the Wider Caribbean, the ICRI Regional Lionfish Workshop identified many of the 

best strategies for addressing the lionfish invasion. 

The intent of this publication, Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management, is to provide a reference for resource managers, policy makers, field workers, 

outreach coordinators, researchers, fishers, divers, and the general public — who 

are actively engaged in learning about lionfish and developing local control strategies. The strategies recommended herein are based upon best available science 

and practice, which in time will change as new approaches and the effectiveness 

levels of existing approaches emerge. Resource managers are encouraged to use 

the information in this guide to develop local management plans. 

 

 

 

 

 

James A. Morris, Jr. 

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, NOAA

v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This publication, Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management, would not 

have been possible without the dedicated support of the many contributors and 

project team members, who assisted in the early conceptualization of the strategies 

provided herein. The authors are especially grateful to Christy Loper (NOAA Coral 

Reef Conservation Program), Catherine Toline (U.S. National Park Service), Isabelle 

Côté (Simon Fraser University), and Mark Albins (Oregon State University) for their 

insights into the monitoring chapter. 

The authors also thank the many reviewers of the original Cancun Lionfish Working 

Group for their helpful comments, and Patti Marraro (NOAA), Jeff Govoni (NOAA), 

Paula Whitfield (NOAA), Pam Schofield (USGS), Nancy Brown-Peterson (University of 

Southern Mississippi), and David Johnson (NOAA), whose comments also greatly 

improved this manuscript. 

We especially thank Dr. Mark Hixon and his doctoral students at Oregon State 

University, all of whom are studying the lionfish invasion, including Mark Albins, 

Cassandra Benkwitt, Kurt Ingeman, Tye Kindinger, Timothy Pusack, and Lillian 

Tuttle, for their careful review. Lastly, we thank Nancy Daves and the NOAA National 

Marine Fisheries Service Office of International Affairs for providing the funding for 

this work. — James A. Morris, Jr.

vi

Project team members pictured with Alfredo Arellano Guillermo, Director General de 

Conservacion para el Desarrollo CONANP, Mexico, who called for implementation of the 

lionfish management strategies provided in this guide at the 64th Gulf and Caribbean 

Fisheries Institute in Puerto Morelos, Mexico, October 31–November 4, 2011. (From left to 

right) Scot Frew (NOAA), Dayne St. A. Buddo (University of the West Indies), J. Lad Akins 

(REEF), James A. Morris, Jr. (NOAA), Alfredo Arellano Guillermo (CONANP), Nancy Daves 

(NOAA), Ricardo Gómez Lozano (CONANP), and Franck Gourdin (SPAW–RAC).
ACRONYMS 

AGRRA Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment 

CABI Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild 

Flora and Fauna 

COB-MESI The College of the Bahamas Marine and Environmental Institute 

CONANP Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas

CORAL Coral Reef Alliance 

CORE Caribbean Oceanic and Restoration and Education Foundation 

E&O Education and Outreach

FKNMS Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

IAS Invasive Alien Species 

ICRI International Coral Reef Initiative 

IMCC International Marine Conservation Congress 

ISSG Invasive Species Specialist Group

MTIASIC Mitigating the Threats of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular 

Caribbean 

NLRP National Lionfish Response Plan

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOS National Ocean Service

REEF Reef Environmental Education Foundation

SPAW-RAC Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife–Regional Activity Center

STINAPA Stichting Nationale Parken (Bonaire Marine Park)

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme 

UPRM University of Puerto Rico–at Mayagüez

USGS United States Geological Survey 

vii
 Best Strategies and Practices for Invasive Lionfish 1 

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 1 

 

THE LIONFISH INVASION THE LIONFISH INVASION: 

Past, Present, and Future Past, Present, and Future 

 

James A. Morris, Jr. 

The invasion of lionfish (Pterois miles and P. volitans) may prove to be one of the 

greatest threats of this century to warm temperate and tropical Atlantic reefs and 

associated habitats. As the first marine reef fish invasive species to this region, 

lionfish are changing the culture of how reef managers view invasive species, the 

regional connectivity of marine reefs, and their vulnerability to marine invasions. 

The term “lionfish” is now as notorious as the other major invaders of the last 

century, such as Asian carp, kudzu, zebra mussels, and sea lamprey. Originally 

imported into the United States as a popular aquarium fish, the lionfish is now one 

of the most abundant top-level predators of many reefs. Lionfish pose a threat to 

the integrity of the reef food web and are capable of impacting commercial fisheries, tourism, and overall coral reef health. 

Viewed in context with other reef stressors — such as land-based pollution, climate 

change, and overfishing — the lionfish invasion is distinguished by two obvious 

characteristics. 

A RAPID, WIDESPREAD INVASION A RAPID, WIDESPREAD INVASION 

The first outstanding characteristic of the lionfish invasion is that it has occurred 

rapidly across a wide geographic area. The initial confirmed lionfish sighting in the 

United States occurred in 1985, off Dania Beach, Florida. Some 15 years later, in 

2000–2001, lionfish were identified as an established invader in the offshore 

waters of North Carolina, United States. At the time of this writing in 2012, lionfish 

are fully established throughout the Southeast United States, the Caribbean Sea, 

and much of the Gulf of Mexico. Lionfish are expected to reach the warm temperate 

reefs of South America soon. 

BROAD DIET AND GENERAL HABITAT BROAD DIET AND GENERAL HABITAT AL HABITAT 

 

The second pronounced characteristic of lionfish is their broad diet and general 

habitat preferences. Because of these factors, lionfish have the potential to affect 

the structure and function of many Atlantic marine communities — from the sea 

surface to depths exceeding 300 meters, and across habitats ranging from coral 

and hardbottom to artificial reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds. For example, the 

high densities of lionfish observed in locations such as the Bahamas may be 

causing an abrupt change to the biodiversity and community structure of reef fish 

communities, and could constitute the most significant change since the beginning

of industrialized fishing (Albins and Hixon 2011). 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc. 

2012 
 2 The Lionfish Invasion: Past, Present, and Future

CASCADING IMPACTS CASCADING IMPACTS 

Alarmingly, lionfish may trigger cascading impacts through their disruption of the 

food web. For example, the lionfish consumption of herbivorous fishes could reduce 

the functional role of herbivores in keeping algae in check, a process known to be 

important for the health of coral reefs. Lionfish may also compete for resources — 

principally food and space — with economically important species, such as snapper 

(Lutjanids) and grouper (Epinephelids). It is uncertain if stock-rebuilding efforts will 

be able to return reef fish stocks to pre-lionfish abundance levels. 

Lionfish could also affect the recovery of species of concern, such as the Nassau 

grouper (Epinephelus striatus), Warsaw grouper (E. nigritus), and speckled hind (E. 

drummondhayi). These species are critically low in abundance and might not 

recover quickly under the additional predation mortality imposed by lionfish. 

Lastly, it is the interaction of the lionfish invasion with existing reef stressors that 

poses the greatest concern. Coral reefs of the Atlantic are already highly stressed 

from bleaching events, climate change, ocean acidification, overfishing, and 

pollution. The additional stress of this invasive species could accelerate and 

compound the degradation of coral reef ecosystem health in profound and unexpected ways. 

LOCAL INTERVENTION IS CRITICAL LOCAL INTERVENTION IS CRITICAL S CRITICAL 

 

Local control efforts are critical for mitigating the effects of lionfish on key marine 

habitats. These efforts are invaluable for supporting other conservation initiatives, 

such as management of marine protected areas and fisheries stock rebuilding. The 

re-colonization of lionfish from remote and unmanaged habitats will continue to 

inflict constant stress on Atlantic marine communities. Until new technologies and 

approaches are developed for controlling lionfish populations, managers must be 

prepared for long-term intervention. 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 

CHAPTER 2 

 

LIONFISH RESEARCH: 

Current Findings and Remaining Questions 

James A. Morris, Jr. and Stephanie J. Green

Our understanding of lionfish biology and ecology has come primarily from scientific 

research activities. Both published literature and direct communications with 

researchers are included in this synopsis on the state of knowledge of lionfish 

distribution, biology, and ecology in their invaded and native ranges. Many new 

questions will emerge capable of teaching us not only about lionfish biology and 

ecology, but also about how Atlantic reef systems are responding to the invasion. As 

the invasion continues to intensify and spread to new locations, so does the 

demand for new research to inform management decisions. 

Research is an investigation using the scientific method to generate new information about a subject or develop novel approaches to solve problems. Research 

findings can inform resource management by: 

i) Providing the best possible information upon which to base decisions, and

ii) Uncovering new approaches to persistent problems. 

 

It’s important to note that research differs from monitoring in its purpose, though 

both use similar quantitative methods to collect information. Monitoring (see 

Chapter 5) is the process of collecting specific information that describes trends on 

the status of a subject for which there is already some knowledge, but for which 

management guidance is needed. Within research, however, the pursuit of information can be hypothesis driven or descriptive, and it ultimately results in learning 

something new about the subject matter itself. For example, lionfish stomach 

content analysis can provide new information on lionfish diet (i.e., research), but it 

can also be used to track changes in diet composition and impacts at a local scale 

(i.e., monitoring).

Research priorities for management will vary across space and time depending on 

the amount of resources available and the urgency of the information the research 

activity provides. Managers who support lionfish research in their local area 

increase the chances that new approaches will be developed to control lionfish. 

RESEARCH FINDINGS TO DATE 

Distribution and Densities

Geographic distribution

Sightings and collection reports indicate that lionfish are established in the offshore 

waters of the Southeast United States and throughout most of the Caribbean, and 

are presently invading the Gulf of Mexico and parts of South America (Figure 2.1) 

(Schofield 2009, 2010, Schofield et al. 2012). Lionfish are expected to invade the 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute

2012
 4 Lionfish Research

remainder of the Caribbean and to continue the southward expansion along the 

coast of South America until water temperatures below the lionfish thermal 

tolerance limit continued expansion (Figure 2.2) (Morris and Whitfield 2009). 

Lionfish have been reported from all major marine seafloor and substrate types 

within the invaded Atlantic, and they occupy a range of depths — from shoreline to 

>300 m depth — as recorded in the USGS Invasive Species Sightings Database. 

While the majority of research on the invasion has taken place on coral reefs and 

hardbottom habitats, lionfish also occupy mangrove (Barbour et al. 2010), estuary 

(Jud et al. 2011), seagrass, and artificial structures (Smith 2010).

Figure 2.1 Reports of lionfish as of 

June 2012.

Figure 2.2 Potential future distribution of 

lionfish, assuming sea surface temperature will be the only limiting factor.
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 5 

Invasion status

The population growth of many invasive species follows a predictable trajectory, 

including a lag phase, followed by a period of exponential growth, an invasion peak, 

and then equilibrium. For many invasive species, population densities at the 

invasion peak can exceed the carrying capacity of the new system (Figure 2.3). 

Equilibrium is reached when populations of the invasive species are limited by 

factors such as competition with native species or themselves for food or space, 

predation (including cannibalism), parasitism and disease, and abiotic factors such 

as temperature. 

Invasive lionfish populations across the Atlantic appear to be following this general 

course. The earliest sighting of lionfish in the Atlantic dates to 1985 off the southeastern coast of Florida (Morris and Akins 2009). Over the next 15 years, lionfish 

were observed sporadically along the Florida coast. In 2000, multiple individuals 

were sighted off North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; and from 2000 to the 

present, lionfish densities have continued to increase rapidly (Morris and Whitfield 

2009, Green et al. 2012a). Some locations have reported decreases in lionfish 

densities, though it is difficult to disentangle the effect of removal from natural 

processes in controlling lionfish abundance at a local scale. Given that lionfish have 

only recently established in the Gulf of Mexico and southern Caribbean, increases in 

abundance in these habitats are expected. 

Long-term, systematic monitoring of lionfish densities is required to construct 

population growth curves for lionfish across the invaded region (see Chapter 3). The 

implementation of such programs early in the invasion stage will provide critical 

information to managers on the speed of the invasion and the effectiveness of 

control. This information will aid in allocating management resources over space 

and time (see Chapter 4). Rigorous indices of abundance, similar to those developed for monitoring native fishes, are also needed to assess annual changes in 

lionfish densities and to determine whether densities are increasing, decreasing, or 

remaining constant throughout the invaded range. Unfortunately, few monitoring 

efforts of this type are presently underway.

Figure 2.3 Theoretical line-plot depicting a simplified population growth curve 

for invasive species. Line depicts a smoothed curve as marine fish population 

dynamics can exhibit wide variation in annual recruitment. 
 6 Lionfish Research

Biology and Ecology

Taxonomy and genetics

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA indicates that two species, the devil firefish (Pterois 

miles) and the red lionfish (P. volitans), were introduced into the Atlantic (Hammer 

et al. 2007, Freshwater et al. 2009). These two species are identical morphologically in the Atlantic (Hammer et al. 2007), but in their native range they can be 

distinguished with meristics; P. volitans exhibit one higher count of dorsal and anal 

fin rays when compared to P. miles (Schultz 1986). Devil firefish is normally found 

in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean (excluding Western Australia) and 

red lionfish is found in the Western and Central Pacific and Western Australia 

(Schultz 1986). In the Atlantic, P. volitans is documented throughout the Southeast 

United States and Caribbean with P. miles only documented along the Southeast 

United States and the Bahamas (J. Morris, Unpublished data).

As the lionfish invasion continues, genetic research will become a powerful tool for 

assessing various dispersion pathways, divergence of sub-populations, expression 

of phenotypes that are driving invasiveness, and possibly detection of new introduction events. Freshwater et al. (2009) provided the first such comparison and 

reported high similarity between lionfish captured in North Carolina and the 

Bahamas. This result, coupled with information on oceanographic current patterns, 

suggests that Bahamian lionfish may have originated from the East Coast of the 

United States. Subsequent study has revealed a secondary founder effect with the 

continued dispersal of lionfish into the Caribbean and also that the invasion’s 

progression supports hypotheses of connectivity for tropical western Atlantic marine 

organisms (Betancur-R. et al. 2011). The development of high-resolution lionfish 

genetic markers will allow a more thorough investigation of this invasion and 

provide a better understanding of invasion genetics and the region’s marine 

phylogeography.

Diet and foraging behavior

Through stomach contents analysis, Morris and Akins (2009) described lionfish as 

generalist carnivores that feed on a wide variety of fishes and crustaceans. Visual 

observations of lionfish on invaded reefs indicate that lionfish consume prey at high 

rates, largely during crepuscular periods (Green et al. 2011). Daily patterns of 

lionfish behavior appear to be consistent with reports from the native range, with 

the species most active and foraging out over habitat during low-light crepuscular 

periods during dawn and dusk (Green et al. 2011). Though consistent with lionfish 

behavior in the native Indo-Pacific, their hunting strategy is largely unique among 

fish predators in the Caribbean. Lionfish hover motionless over prey with their large 

pectoral fins extended and are able to approach their prey closely before making a 

rapid strike. Sometimes, lionfish extrude water jets to orient the prey towards the 

mouth before striking (Albins and Lyons 2012). Prey are typically consumed whole. 

During the day, lionfish are often found resting and sheltered under ledges and 

overhangs, associated with large high-relief structures within the habitat (Green et 

al. 2011, Darling et al. 2011). Ambient light levels may significantly affect temporal 

patterns of lionfish behavior. Observations of lionfish under variable weather 

conditions found that activity levels and predation rates during the day were 

significantly higher during overcast times, when light levels may simulate those of 

crepuscular dawn and dusk periods (Côté and Maljkovic 2010).
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 7 

Local densities

Lionfish densities in the Atlantic are reported to be much higher than observed in 

their native range (Kulbicki et al. 2012). The first assessment of lionfish densities 

was provided by Whitfield et al. (2007), who reported an average of 21 invasive 

lionfish ha-1 across 17 locations off North Carolina in 2004. By 2008, the maximum 

lionfish densities observed off North Carolina were approximately 450 lionfish ha-1 , 

with mean densities around 150 lionfish ha-1 (Morris and Whitfield 2009). Green 

and Côté (2009) reported higher lionfish densities in the Bahamas in 2008, with 

mean lionfish densities of 393 ha-1 across three sites off New Providence. Similarly 

high densities have been reported by other studies in the Bahamas (Albins and 

Hixon 2011).

These densities are much higher than reported in the native range with Fishelson 

(1997) reporting ~80 lionfish ha-1 (assuming a mean search width of 10 m along 

the 1 km reef stretch), and also much higher than the density of P. miles located 

along the Kenyan coast (Darling et al. 2010). Grubich et al. (2009) reported less 

than 14 lionfish ha-1, including all species of the Pterois and Dendrochirus on reefs 

of the Palau Archipelago. A regional assessment of Pterois spp. density from across 

the native Indo-Pacific region reports a maximum density of 26 individuals ha-1

(Kulbicki et al. 2012). 

Reproduction

The pteroines, including P. miles and P. volitans, are gonochoristic (separate 

genders from birth) with males and females exhibiting minor sexual dimorphism 

during spawning (Fishelson 1975). The two genders are morphologically identical 

and thus cannot be distinguished visually. Males typically grow larger than females 

with the largest male lionfish recorded as 476 mm total length (J. Morris, Unpublished data).

Courtship has been described for the pygmy lionfish, Dendrochirus brachypteru, 

(Fishelson 1975) and zebra turkeyfish, Dendrochirus zebra, (Moyer and Zaiser 

1981), a closely related genus to Pterois. Fishelson (1975) reported that courtship 

behaviors for Pterois spp. are similar to Dendrochirus brachyopterus in that the 

male and female circle each other, side-wind, follow, and lead one another beginning shortly before dark and extending well into nighttime hours. Following courtship, the female releases two buoyant egg masses that are fertilized by the male 

and ascend to the surface. Each egg mass contains approximately 10,000–20,000 

eggs, depending on female size (Morris 2009). The eggs and later embryos are 

bound in adhesive mucus that disintegrates within a few days, after which the 

embryos and larvae become free floating (Morris et al. 2011). 

Moyer and Zaiser (1981) reported that lionfish egg masses may be chemically 

defended based on observations of avoidance by some egg predators in aquaria. In 

contrast, a single sergeant major Abudefduf saxatilis, a common egg predator of 

the Atlantic, was observed feeding on a lionfish egg mass in the laboratory (J. 

Morris, Unpublished data). The seasonality of lionfish reproduction throughout their 

native range is unknown. Collections off North Carolina and in the Bahamas 

suggest that lionfish reproduce in all seasons of the year, approximately every 3–4 

days (Morris 2009).
 8 Lionfish Research

Early life history 

Lionfish embryos hatch at the surface from a buoyant egg mass. Complete stage 

descriptions of P. miles and P. volitans larvae are not available. A few larval lionfish 

have been described, including five P. volitans larvae collected off northwestern 

Australia (Imamura and Yabe 1996) and one postflexion larvae collected off 

Cancun, Mexico (Vásquez-Yeomans et al. 2011). Developmental progression, 

typical of fishes that release pelagic eggs, includes larval dispersal at the surface or 

within the water column until settlement to the reef as juveniles.

Scorpaenid larvae exhibit two morphologically distinct groups characterized as 

“morph A” and “morph B” by Leis and Rennis (2000). Pteroine larvae are grouped 

among the “morph B” morphotypes, whose traits include: large head, relatively long 

and triangular snout, long and serrated head spines, robust pelvic spine, pigment 

confined to the pectoral fins (Leis and Rennis 2000), and postanal ventral and 

dorsal midlines (Washington et al. 1984). Pterois sp. meristic characters are 

reported as 12–13 dorsal spines, 9–12 dorsal rays, 3 anal spines, 5–8 anal rays, 

12–18 pectoral rays, 1 pelvic spine, 5 pelvic rays, and 24 vertebrae (Imamura and 

Yabe 1996, Leis and Rennis 2000). 

The size of P. miles or P. volitans larvae at hatching is unmeasured, but is likely to 

be approximately 1.5 mm as seen for P. lunulata (Mito and Uchida 1958, Mito 

1963). The settlement age of lionfish in the Atlantic is estimated to be between 20–

35 days with a mean of 26.2 days (Ahrenholz and Morris 2010). 

Dispersal 

Lionfish larvae and eggs are capable of dispersing great distances (Ahrenholz and 

Morris 2010, Vásquez-Yeomans et al. 2011). As a result, lionfish that recruit to any 

locale could be the result of spawning afar. Lionfish recruitment is expected to vary 

across marine habitats in response to variable physical oceanography and local 

environmental variation in habitat quality and resource availability. Long distance 

dispersal of lionfish occurs primarily during the pelagic larval phase, during which 

geostrophic and wind-driven currents transport the larvae. For example, lionfish 

eggs released in the Bahamas are capable of dispersing to New England via the 

Gulf Stream. 

Larval connectivity models for reef fishes (e.g., Cowen et al. 2006) provide insight 

into lionfish larval dispersal and may be valuable for predicting the spread of 

lionfish, as evidenced by the recent establishment of lionfish in the Caribbean and 

Gulf of Mexico. Recent efforts by Vásquez-Yeomans et al. (2011) demonstrated the 

use of oceanographic models to hindcast dispersal pathways for lionfish larvae in 

the Caribbean. Although it is currently unknown whether lionfish recruit to specific 

habitat types or respond to environmental cues for settlement, recruits and adults 

have been observed in similar habitats in both shallow and deep water. Looking 

ahead, larval recruitment dynamics may be affected by regional stressors such as 

climate warming, which could result in a shorter larval duration stage and increased 

local recruitment (Côté and Green 2012). 

Venomology

All lionfish spines, with the exception of caudal spines, contain apocrine-type venom 

glands. Each spine is encased in an integumentary sheath or skin and contains two 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 9 

grooves of glandular epithelium that comprises the venom-producing tissue. 

Glandular tissue extends approximately three-quarters the distance from the base 

of the spine towards the tip (Halstead et al. 1955). The 13 dorsal spines, 3 anal 

spines, and 2 pelvic spines are capable of causing envenomation (Figure 2.4). 

Lionfish envenomation occurs when the spine’s integumentary sheath is depressed 

as it enters the victim. This process tears the glandular tissue allowing the venom 

to diffuse into the puncture wound (Saunders and Taylor 1959). The toxin in lionfish 

venom contains acetylcholine and a neurotoxin that affects neuromuscular 

transmission (Cohen and Olek 1989). Lionfish venom has been found to cause 

cardiovascular, neuromuscular, and cytolytic effects ranging from mild reactions, 

including swelling, to extreme pain and paralysis in upper and lower extremities 

(Kizer et al. 1985, Badillo et al. 2012). Antivenom of the related stonefish 

(Synanceia spp.) is highly effective in neutralizing lionfish venom activity (Shiomi et 

al. 1989, Church and Hodgson 2002).

Figure 2.4 Graphic describing the lionfish sting morphology and mechanics. 
 10 Lionfish Research

The severity of reaction to a sting depends on several factors: the amount of venom 

delivered, the immune system of the victim, and the location of the sting. Records 

of home aquarists stung by lionfish provide a comprehensive assessment of how 

lionfish stings affect humans (Kizer et al. 1985, Vetrano et al. 2002, Badillo et al. 

2012). The probability of lionfish envenomation is higher when handling smallersized lionfish, because the venom glandular tissue is closer to the tip of the spine 

and the spine tip is smaller and sharper (Halstead et al. 1955). 

The effectiveness of lionfish venom as a defense in their invaded range is in 

question. Many species of top-level reef predators in the Atlantic have been 

observed to feed upon lionfish, however, no studies have correlated predation on 

lionfish with lower local densities. Maljković et al. (2008) reported that lionfish were 

found in the stomachs of groupers, however, this observation provides no assessment of the frequency of lionfish consumption by grouper. Laboratory behavioral 

experiments suggest that black sea bass and groupers (Serranidae) actively avoid 

lionfish, even during periods of extreme starvation (Morris 2009). Additional 

research is needed towards understanding predatory interactions between lionfish 

and native predators during all life stages of lionfish.

Work by Sri Balasubashini et al. (2006a, 2006b) indicated that lionfish (P. volitans) 

venom contains antitumor, hepatoprotective, and antimetastatic effects in mice, 

suggesting a promising application for cancer research. Depending on the outcome 

of this research and the subsequent demand for lionfish venom, bioprospecting of 

venom from invasive lionfish could assist with fishery development.

Invasion Impacts

Ecological impacts

The ecological impacts of lionfish on invaded habitats will vary in space and time. 

Factors such as the density of lionfish, habitat type, the assemblage of native 

species within the community, abundance of top level predators, and the effects of 

oceanographic conditions on colonization rates and recruitment dynamics can all 

play a significant role in the impacts of lionfish on the reef. 

Direct impacts of predation and competition

Albins and Hixon (2008) provided the first evidence for the impacts of predation by 

invasive lionfish, reporting a 79% reduction in fish recruitment on experimental 

patch reefs in the Bahamas during a five-week observation period in the presence 

of a single small lionfish. These experimental effects of predation appear to scale 

up to reef-level impacts. Sharp declines in prey biomass have been observed on 

natural Bahamian coral reefs, with prey biomass reduced by an average of 65% 

over a two-year-period (Green et al. 2012a). 

Lionfish predation has been shown to affect fish species composition, with variable 

impacts realized across species and size groups (Albins 2012). The work of Lesser 

and Slattery (2011) also indicated ecological effects to fish communities on deep 

mesophotic coral reef in the Bahamas, which may have resulted in a phase shift to 

an algal dominated coral community at mesophotic depths, a result thought to be 

due to lionfish over-consumption of herbivores. 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 11 

Lionfish occupy similar habitats and consume similar prey to many species of 

native fish predators (Morris and Akins 2009, Green et al. 2012a) and macroinvertebrates. Competition with lionfish may affect the behavior, distribution, 

growth, survival, and, ultimately, population size of these ecologically similar native 

species. An experiment on coral reefs found that lionfish grow significantly more 

quickly and consume prey at rate far faster than the native predator Coney grouper 

(Cephalopholis fulva), which raises concerns that lionfish could outcompete some 

native predators for food resources on invaded habitats (Albins 2012). 

Indirect effects on marine community structure and resilience

The overall ecological impacts of lionfish can be framed in the context of impacts to 

biodiversity and community composition and function, and thus resilience of reef 

systems. Whether Atlantic systems are biotically resilient, or even resistant, to the 

effects of lionfish is not known, but this will vary by location in relation to the 

composition of the biotic community and physical oceanographic features of each 

location. Albins and Hixon (2011) provided a summary of worst-case scenarios for 

the lionfish invasion, which highlighted the many life history and ecological traits 

that make lionfish highly invasive (Morris and Whitfield 2009). The direct effects of 

lionfish on native fish and invertebrate communities (i.e., through predation and 

competition) may indirectly affect the base of marine food webs, if the species 

consumed or outcompeted by lionfish influence the diversity and biomass of 

benthic communities. In actuality, the direct and indirect impacts are likely to be 

exacerbated by the degraded condition of Atlantic reefs, owing largely to overfishing, pollution, and climate change. For example, the effect of predation by lionfish 

on their prey base is predicted to worsen with future climate warming in the region 

(Côté and Green 2012). 

Socioeconomic impacts

The socioeconomic impacts of lionfish remain largely unquantified, but have the 

potential to be severe. Vulnerable sectors include fishing and tourism economies, 

which are critically important to many Caribbean and Atlantic nations. For example, 

lionfish predation on economically important species, such as juvenile serranids 

(Morris and Akins 2009), could cause a decrease in landings, hamper stock 

rebuilding efforts, and slow conservation-based initiatives. 

Further, lionfish impacts on tourist recreational activities have been observed. 

Some locations have posted warning signs (Figure 2.5) advising of the potential for 

lionfish envenomation. As lionfish densities increase, so too does the risk of 

envenomations. It is unknown whether increasing lionfish densities will reduce 

recreational activities and cause economic hardship. This is likely to be dependent 

on factors such as the local density of lionfish, the rate of human encounters with 

lionfish, and the effectiveness of education and outreach. Research that monitors 

lionfish socioeconomic impacts on the fishing and tourism economies is needed.

 
 12 Lionfish Research

Figure 2.5. Lionfish warning sign on a beach in the Bahamas.

REMAINING QUESTIONS

Research priorities for lionfish are likely to differ with the specific needs of each 

locale and the stewardship responsibilities of each organization. Further, the need 

for research coordination on lionfish is crucial. Sharing of new ideas, approaches, 

successes, and failures is critical to development of regional standards for lionfish 

control. 

A number of research priorities were identified during the 2010 Cancun Lionfish 

Workshop. These included:

i) Quantify the socioeconomic impacts of the lionfish invasion,

ii) Model projected expansion of the invasion, including larval dispersal,

iii) Conduct applied research on lionfish bycatch,

iv) Conduct applied research to target lionfish effectively in deep water,

v) Standardize research methods,

vi) Determine the effectiveness of removals,

vii) Highlight the risk, or lack thereof, from ciguatera associated with lionfish,

viii) Explore lionfish connectivity,

ix) Conduct spatial monitoring of lionfish, 

x) Investigate sterilization as a potential control method, and

xi) Investigate invasive and native species interactions.

L. GERNER
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 13 

In May 2011, a focus group was organized to identify knowledge gaps and coordinate research to inform the management of invasive lionfish in the western Atlantic 

at the 2nd International Marine Conservation Congress (IMCC), in Victoria, British 

Columbia. This focus group developed additional priorities with finer detail, including the following:

i) Biotic resistance to the invasion: 

 Is there evidence that some marine communities in the Atlantic are 

resistant to invasion by lionfish? 

 If so, what species interactions promote resistance and what is the 

frequency of these interactions across the region? 

 Are ecologically “intact” communities more resistant to the lionfish 

invasion? 

 Can native predators be trained to eat live lionfish and would this 

predation be ecologically significant? 

ii) Do biotic interactions limit lionfish populations in their native range? 

iii) Which stage of lionfish life history most limits population size?

iv) Which species, if any, consume larval and post larval lionfishes in their 

native range? If so, do similar species inhabit the Atlantic and what is the 

potential for them to consume lionfish? 

v) How does the fitness and survival of invasive and native lionfish populations compare, and is there a genetic basis for differences between the 

two? 

vi) What habitats are lionfish larvae recruiting to? Are there specific environmental and biotic cues for settlement? 

vii) How quickly do lionfish populations increase after first colonizing an area, 

and what factors affect the rate? 

viii) What is the density and distribution of lionfish in mangrove, seagrass, 

estuary, hardbottom, and deep-sea habitats? 

ix) What is the ecological impact of lionfish on native marine communities in 

mangroves, seagrass, estuary, hardbottom, and deep-sea habitats in the 

Atlantic? 

x) What is the effect of lionfish predation in fish nursery areas on adult fish 

populations? 

xi) Will lionfish population increases ever level off? Is there density dependence? 

xii) The costs and benefits of fishing lionfish in the Atlantic: 

 At what scale is lionfish fishing currently occurring? 

 Is fishing lionfish a viable option for population control? 

 What are the socioeconomic effects of promoting lionfish fisheries? 

xiii) What is the effect of lionfish predation on benthic communities? 

xiv) Where do lionfish spawn? What environmental factors influence reproductive activity? 

xv) Are there source and sink populations of lionfish, and how can we use this 

information to direct local control efforts? 

 

 

 

 
 14 Lionfish Research

RESEARCH RESOURCES 

Resources are available for researchers looking to answer questions relating to the 

lionfish invasion. Well over 30 peer-reviewed journal articles have been published 

on the lionfish invasion, covering biology, ecology, control, and distribution. As with 

most research topics, researchers new to lionfish should be wary of Internet sources 

and other non-peer-reviewed media (including listservs), as these sources contain 

much misinformation. Careful researchers should make it a practice to always 

check sources of information.

Lionfish research symposia have been held yearly since 2008 during the annual 

conference of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. Proceedings from these 

symposia can be found at: http://www.gcfi.org/Lionfish/Lionfish.html.

During an International Marine Conservation Congress Focus Group Session in 

2011, a list of researchers and topics was compiled to promote coordination among 

researchers. Information about this session can be found by contacting Stephanie 

Green at: stephanie.j.green@gmail.com.

A Lionfish Web Portal (see http://www.GCFI.org) is presently being developed and 

will serve as a clearinghouse for information on lionfish in the Caribbean. Additional 

online resources are provided below:

NOAA Lionfish Website:

http://www.ccfhr.noaa.gov/stressors/lionfish.aspx

USGS Lionfish Factsheet:

http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?speciesid=963

REEF Lionfish Research Program:

http://www.reef.org/programs/exotic/lionfish

Oregon State University, Hixon Laboratory:

http://hixon.science.oregonstate.edu/content/highlight-lionfish-invasion
 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc. 

2012 

CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3 

 

EDUCATION AND OUTREACH EDUCATION AND OUTREACH: 

Building Support and Expertise 

J. Lad Akins 

Successful Education and Outreach (E&O) programs can help shape public perception, enhance constituent involvement, and secure government support and 

funding. Because effective lionfish control programs encompass all of these 

components, they will benefit greatly from well thought-out and designed E&O 

activities. In general, the earlier appropriate E&O activities are implemented, the 

more broadly they are supported. 

This chapter provides information on E&O strategies aimed at increasing support for 

programs addressing the lionfish invasion. Topics include developing E&O priorities, 

key messages, program considerations, communication strategies, and examples of 

messaging and outlets. 

 

THE EARLIER, THE BETTER THE EARLIER, THE BETTER 

 

By forming and implementing an E&O program before a lionfish invasion, managers 

can greatly aid their efforts to manage the problem. In two successful examples — 

the Bonaire Marine Park (Stichting Nationale Parken Bonaire/STINAPA) and the 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) — education and outreach 

activities were initiated prior to lionfish colonizing their waters. These management 

organizations targeted their proactive outreach activities to the general public, dive 

industry, health and medical industries, educational institutions, and the media. 

They developed outreach materials, including posters and stickers, and control 

plans; and they held workshops in advance of the invasion (Figure 3.1). 

The STINAPA and FKNMS activities 

ensured that all user groups in 

each respective location were 

equipped with accurate information and were aware of protocols for responding to lionfish 

sightings. Because of these 

advance efforts, community 

awareness in both locations was 

relatively high and misconceptions 

were addressed prior to the 

invasion. As lionfish began to 

colonize local areas, the respective 

communities supported removal 

activities. They continue to be 

among the most supportive 

communities in the region. 

Figure 3.1 Sticker used by the Florida Keys Figure 3.1 

National Marine Sanctuary to encourage reporting 

of sightings. 
16 Education and Outreach Education and Outreach

E&O TO SUPPORT CONTROL PLANS E&O TO SUPPORT CONTROL PLANS OL PLANS 

 

The primary mission of most lionfish control plans is to minimize the impacts of the 

invasion. Impacts can take many forms, including disruptions to marine communities (environmental), fishing and tourism activities (economic), and the safety of 

those encountering or collecting lionfish (human health). 

The level of E&O effort depends on the specific goals and objectives of the program. 

For instance, managers who dedicate time to developing solid mission statements, 

goals, objectives, and strategies will strengthen their E&O efforts and help facilitate 

a stronger overall program. What’s more, those who involve stakeholders from 

broad sectors (e.g., media, education, research, management, political office) will 

also help their programs by identifying key audiences and strategic methods for 

reaching them. 

Some examples of outreach goals for minimizing 

lionfish impacts are: 

i) Increase removals of lionfish to reduce 

local populations, 

ii) Increase public awareness of lionfish 

impacts to generate support for 

effective management, 

iii) Maximize efficiency in utilizing human 

and fiscal resources, 

iv) Increase political support for lionfish 

management and control, 

v) Minimize health risks to the general 

public and those handling or collecting 

lionfish, 

vi) Link lionfish research to management 

strategies, and 

vii) Prevent future introductions of additional lionfish or other non-native species. 

 

 

DEVELOPING COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES DEVELOPING COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES TION STRATEGIES 

In developing communication strategies, managers might find it helpful to first 

identify what they want the E&O activity to accomplish. Ask the question: “What 

would successful communication look like or result in?” If the answer is “increasing 

the number of people who realize lionfish are a threat to native marine systems or 

economies” or “increased reports to the reporting hotline” or “more people eating 

lionfish,” the manager should select target audience(s) and messages to achieve 

that desired outcome. Once the target audiences have been identified — e.g., 

fishers, divers, politicians, the general public, and/or businesses — then messages 

can be developed that are specific to that target group. It is important to select 

broad overarching messages aimed at the groups. See Figure 3.2 for an example of 

how to determine target audiences and Appendix 1 for a list of some lionfishspecific strategies currently in use. 

Who Owns the Lionfish Who Owns the Lionfish 

Problem? Problem? 

 

Everyone! The impacts of the 

lionfish invasion are likely to be 

broad, spreading across many 

intricately linked sectors. The 

effects are also likely to be long 

term in nature and will require a 

deep understanding of how 

working together can provide the 

strongest benefit. 

No one person or office has the 

capacity to deal effectively with 

the broad impacts of this 

invasion. Like a fire burning at 

the edge of town, the invasion 

requires that everyone chips in 

to address the threat, as they 

are able. 
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 17 t 17

Figure 3.2 Example of a decision-tree approach for Figure 3.2 developing a communication 

strategy. 

Developing an E&O Program Developing an E&O Program 

The following steps may be useful for creating an E&O program for local or regional 

lionfish control efforts: 

i) Identify your E&O goals; e.g., to increase the number of divers proactively 

removing lionfish. 

ii) Prioritize your E&O goals according to your overall program objectives. 

iii) Identify your audience(s) for each goal. 

iv) Craft goal-specific messages appropriately to each audience. 

v) Identify communication tools and audience specific messages; e.g., social 

media outlets could work well for certain audiences, but might not be 

effective at reaching others without Internet access. 

Importance of clear and credible messaging 

When developing messaging for outreach efforts, managers should remember that 

not all outlets are equal. Messaging should be tailored to suit both the media outlet 

and target audience. Print, radio, television, documentaries, and public and political 

forums are all key messaging venues or “tools,” but each one has its differences 

and limitations in format, content, style, and length. Different versions of the same 

general message can be used for different groups; however, it remains important to 

remember that the audience and the desired behavioral change will dictate which 

of the many messages are relevant. 

It is also important that managers and programs stay “on message,” especially 

when working with the media or in public forums. It is easy to get sidetracked by a 

question or comment, but it is important to come back to the main message. 

What do I want to achieve? 

(e.g., Increase awareness about lionfish 

impacts on marine life.) 

Who is my audience? 

(e.g., Business, divers.) 

What is my message? 

(Divers – predatory lionfish are 

depleting marine life, which 

affects the health of the reef.)

What is my message? 

(Businesses – predatory lionfish will 

affect fish catch because they are 

eating commercial species 

as juveniles.) 
18 Education and Outreach Education and Outreach

Key messages 

Most people have fairly short attention spans. While managers may want to convey 

every known piece of information about lionfish and the invasion, it is important to 

distill and refine the material into a subset of key messages. These key messages 

should be designed to elicit the changes in perception and behavior necessary to 

support program goals. It is important that all partners are consistent with messages delivered in their E&O activities. 

It is also important to remember that key messages will vary by audience and may 

change over time in response to various control strategies. Effective programs will 

periodically re-evaluate and update these messages. 

 

Vetting information 

The information to be disseminated through E&O activities must be accurate. In this 

age of mass communication and public media, messages are sometimes disseminated before their accuracy is verified. Misinformation or exaggeration through 

hyperbole can damage the credibility of E&O programs and hinder the success of 

management. It often takes only one small piece of incorrect information for an 

entire message or outreach campaign to lose credibility. Managers should take the 

utmost care to properly verify all information used or distributed in outreach efforts. 

Sources of credible information 

Accurate information on lionfish and the lionfish invasion is widely available. 

Examples of credible information sources include peer-reviewed scientific publications, direct quotes, and the websites of peer-reviewed researchers. When in doubt, 

managers should be sure to verify the messages with a second opinion or outside 

source — prior to distribution. (For more information on credible sources of information, see Chapter 7.) 

Outreach Outlets Outreach Outlets 

Standard media venues — such as print, 

radio, television, film documentaries, and 

public and political forums — are all key 

messaging outlets or “tools.” Managers 

can also think beyond these standard 

formats to come up with ideas that will 

work specifically for their management 

program, their community, and their 

target audience(s). 

In an example of outreach to a younger 

audience, the Acuario Nacional de Cuba 

has developed a series of educational 

pamphlets entitled Conozcamos El Mar, 

focusing on marine organisms and 

related issues and targeting school-age 

audiences (Figure 3.3). The pamphlets 

run about 25 pages and include relevant 

information presented in audienceFigure 3.3 Pamphlet produced and Figure 3.3 

distributed in Cuba to educate primary 

school children about lionfish. 
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 19 t 19

Lionfish are an invasive species and are 

detrimental to native systems. detrimental to native systems. 

Lionfish are not native to western Atlantic 

waters and are capable of causing negative 

impacts to native marine life, ecosystems, 

economies, and human health. 

 

Aquarium releases as source of the invasion. Aquarium releases as source of the invasion. 

Genetic research and monitoring of lionfish 

distribution suggest that the source of 

introduction is likely to have been multiple 

releases of aquarium specimens off the coast 

of southeast Florida. 

Eggs and larvae are transported via ocean 

currents. currents. 

Lionfish are distributed to new areas via 

dispersal of their eggs and larvae by ocean 

currents. 

Invasion progresses rapidly. Invasion progresses rapidly. 

Even though initial sightings of lionfish in a new 

area can be sporadic over time and space, the 

invasion progresses rapidly. Most countries 

have experienced invasion progression from 

the first sighting to multiple lionfish occurring 

on most sites in less than two to three years. 

Impacts may be severe. Impacts may be severe. 

Recent research indicates that lionfish impacts 

can be severe and cross broad spectrums of 

the environment, including economically 

important species like juvenile grouper and 

snapper and ecologically important species like 

grazers and cleaners (e.g., parrotfish, cleaner 

shrimp and fish). 

Natural predation is not controlling. Natural predation is not controlling. 

While some incidental predation or conditioned 

feeding on captured lionfish may occur, it 

appears that there are no controlling predators 

of lionfish in this region. 

 

Community involvement is necessary. Community involvement is necessary. 

To effectively address the lionfish invasion, we 

must develop wide-scale support and the 

involvement of the local communities. 

We can make a difference: Local control can be 

effective. effective. 

Local control efforts, including adopt-a-reef type 

programs and the development of food-fish 

markets are showing success. Areas that 

promote and conduct regular removals are 

showing fewer lionfish than non-removal areas, 

though removals will need to be long-term in 

nature due to recruitment of lionfish from 

upstream populations (see eggs and larvae 

message above). 

Lionfish are edible. Lionfish are edible. 

In their native range, lionfish are considered a 

delicacy and are consumed regularly. Close 

relatives of the lionfish, such as rockfish 

(Sebastes spp.) and the blackbelly rosefish 

(Helicolenus dactylopterus) — which are also 

scorpaenid fishes — are harvested commercially. 

Human health concerns associated with eating 

fish, such as ciguatera and mercury levels, have 

not been determined for all locations, though 

some lionfish have been found to carry the 

ciguatera toxin in known hotspot locations. 

Managers should implement the same caution 

for lionfish as they do for other reef fish. 

Venom does NOT equal poison. Venom does NOT equal poison. 

Lionfish possess venomous dorsal, anal, and 

pelvic spines for defense. The meat of lionfish 

does not contain poison. 

 

Eradication is not likely. Eradication is not likely. 

Under current technologies and considering the 

spatial extent and severity of the invasion, 

eradication is not a likely outcome. Honest 

dialogue regarding this issue is important in 

developing accurate and achievable outcomes 

and subsequent strategies. Additionally, 

statements regarding the possible eradication or 

prevention of lionfish establishment will set up a 

situation of distrust and damage credibility as 

these goals are unmet. 

Key Lionfish Messages 

appropriate methods — cartoons, puzzles, characters, etc. They are distributed to 

public schools throughout the country. Volume 12 of the series focuses specifically 

on lionfish.

By prioritizing media outlets according to the key audiences they reach and the 

return on their investment — namely, the time and money spent — managers can 

maximize efforts. Creative venues can often reach traditionally underserved 

audiences; however, the investment should be weighed in relation to the benefit of 

reaching those audiences. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 describe the costs and benefits of 

various media outlets. 
20 Education and Outreach Education and Outreach Table 3.1 Examples of outreach outlets are provided below with samples of targeted audiences, message type, advantages/disadvantages, and development times for each. Outlet/tool Audience Message types Advantages Disadvantages Development time TV, radio General public New information Events Free Large audience Can be visual Live interviews offer little chance for review Low control over message Short segments Little repeat viewership Short Documentaries Select audience according to interest Detailed information Managers can often help direct message or story Significant delays between filming and broadcast Very long Magazines, newspapers General public New information Events Free Audience size (varies) Opportunity for review Multiple readership Text-based format requires focused attention of reader Short Printed out- reach (flyers, stickers, pamphlets) Targeted audience (depending on distribution) Ongoing messages Long-lived Select distribution can target specific audience or locations Can contain detailed information Limited audience Can be defaced Difficult to modify with updated information Long Websites Select audience according to interest Ongoing Can provide wealth of information (links) High maintenance May require specific expertise Very long (to develop initially) E-mail Select 

subscribers

UpdatesEvents

Short message lengthText based

Can be easily discarded without reading Short

Public forums Select audience 

according to interest or venue

Detailed information

Opportunity to engage public in Q&A

Misinterpretation of informationOpens forum to special interests

Moderate

Social media Select audience 

according to subscription

Very brief info bytes

Rapid and frequentCan provide links to detailed infoEasily circulated

May get lost in high volume mediaLow longevity

Very short

Listservs Select audience

according tosubscription

Detailed professional briefings

Can provide links to detailed infoEasily circulatedOften archived for later searches

May get lost in high volume Short
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 21 t 21 Table 3.2 Sample outreach outlets matched with media type, number of people reached, and relevance of the audience. Readers may consider using this table to prioritize messaging by matching outlet with importance of audience and number of persons reached. Outlet Media type commonly utilized Number of persons reached Relative importance of audience reached Private Resorts Printed materials Forums High Low Low Low Tour/dive operators Printed materials Forums Med Med High High Commercial fishers Printed materials Forums Low Med High High Recreational fishers Printed materials Forums Med Med Low Low Restaurants Printed materials Med High Aquaria Printed materials, forums, videos Low Med Cruise lines Printed materials, video High Low Pet trade Printed materials Low Med Physicians/medical personnel Printed material,s forums Low High Citizens Printed materials, media, forums High Med Chambers of Commerce Printed materials Low High Funders Forums Low High Government Political leaders Printed materials, forums Low High Enforcement Printed materials, forums Low Med Resource managers Printed materials, forums, listservs, web Low High Health Printed materials, forums Low Med Tourism Printed materials Low Med Customs Printed materials Low Low Social/Civil/NGO Educators and students Printed materials, forums High High University researchers Forums Low High Churches Forums Med Med Conservation NGOs Printed materials, forums Med High Clubs Forums Low Med

Philanthropic foundations Printed materials, forums Low High
22 Education and Outreach Education and Outreach

CHALLENGES CHALLENGES 

Accurate information and a thorough plan 

are the foundations of a solid E&O 

program, but even a good outreach plan 

can be de-railed by a few minor issues. 

Some easily avoidable pitfalls are described below. 

Lack of coordination among points of 

contact 

Designate one or two people for each 

media release to be the primary contacts. 

If possible, utilize the same contacts for all 

messaging. These contacts typically field 

general questions and direct media to the 

appropriate person for more information. 

Unsustainable (static) messaging 

Avoid sending the same (or similar) media 

releases repeatedly to the same outlets. 

Be creative and come up with new angles 

or elements. 

Unbalanced messaging 

Avoid unbalanced messaging between 

human health and ecological impacts. For 

example, human health risk may differ in 

priority compared to ecological impacts; 

therefore, it is important to note these 

differences. 

Similarly, unbalanced messaging regarding human consumption can quickly de-rail 

local control efforts. For example, while the risks of ciguatera from consuming 

lionfish may be worth noting, there is little information on the relative risk compared 

to that posed by consuming native species. Therefore, the message should be 

balanced, and provide similar caution for ciguatera in lionfish as is provided for 

ciguatera in native reef fish. 

Inaccurate information 

Be sure to validate and verify information before passing it along. Common inaccuracies, such as the source of the lionfish introduction or location of venomous 

spines can confuse audiences and can place people at risk. 

 

Inappropriate visual aids 

Use images that support the message. For example, when describing lionfish 

impacts managers should use images depicting the significance of the invasion, 

such as a picture showing high densities of lionfish or degraded fish communities. A 

beautiful image of lionfish in its native range could create an affinity for lionfish 

 

Hurricane Andrew Hurricane Andrew 

Aquarium Release Story Aquarium Release Story 

In 1995, a brief in an American 

Fisheries Society newsletter, based on 

third-hand information, reported that a 

bayfront aquarium had been destroyed 

during Hurricane Andrew three years 

earlier, releasing several lionfish into 

Biscayne Bay. At the time, this brief 

generated little attention. As the lionfish 

invasion progressed, however, media 

began to circulate this story, citing the 

single-storm event as the source of the 

invasion. The author has since 

commented that the information was 

never intended to document the source 

of the invasion and has never been 

verified. Recent genetic work has also 

disproven this single-release theory and 

points to multiple release events that 

have included at least 10 lionfish 

(Freshwater et al. 2009, Betancur - R. 

et al. 2011). 

Read more about the lionfish-hurricane 

story in Science Insider at: 

http://news.sciencemag.org/

scienceinsider/2010/04/mystery-ofthe-lionfish-don’t-bla.html?ref=hp 
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 23 t 23

among some viewers. Also, as there are many different species of lionfish in the 

native range, the use of incorrect species when describing the invasion may cause 

confusion. 

MEASURING SUCCESS MEASURING SUCCESS 

Measuring changes in public perception and the effectiveness of messaging is 

difficult. Feedback is important in determining the direction for increasing success. 

There are a few simple tools that managers can use to determine how well their 

outreach programs are working. They include: 

 

i) Tracking — Responses to e-mails, calls, or personal feedback can be 

tracked and summarized to determine where the respondent heard about 

the issue. A simple notepad next to the phone will often suffice. 

ii) Participation — Keep track of how many people attend specific events or 

public forums, and relate that back to the outlet and messaging used. 

iii) Short questionnaires — Questionnaires and/or surveys can be useful tools, 

though special training or skills may be required to provide valid results. 

Administering questionnaires through face-to-face contact or via e-mail can 

provide valuable information on how the perceptions and behaviors of 

target audiences are changing in response to E&O efforts. Be cautious 

about survey length and in the use of questions that may lead the respondent towards a specific answer. 
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute

2012

CHAPTER 4 

 

CONTROL STRATEGIES: 

Tools and Techniques for Local Control 

J. Lad Akins

The source of the lionfish invasion will never be completely understood, but the fact 

that lionfish are threatening a vast portion of the tropical and subtropical western 

Atlantic is clearly evident. The impacts of lionfish are likely to resonate through 

economies, human health, and tourism, and they will include both direct and 

indirect ecological components over the long term. The goal of any control program 

will focus on minimizing impacts. 

Whether through developing new technologies, buying time for natural control to 

evolve, or reducing the severity of impacts, virtually all of the strategies described in 

this chapter focus on reducing the size of lionfish populations and their corresponding impacts. It is going to be up to all stakeholders to work together to address the 

invasion. Activities supporting that goal are numerous, but the approach is simple: 

increase awareness, enact effective removals, and maximize efficiency. 

This chapter identifies and discusses many different strategies with examples of 

how to effectively accomplish these objectives, including a framework for developing a control plan, tools, techniques, spatial scales and frequencies for control, and 

methods for maximizing efficiency.

LOCAL REMOVALS CAN BE EFFECTIVE 

 

While region-wide eradication and prevention are unlikely scenarios, recent 

research and anecdotal information indicate local control efforts can be highly 

successful in managing lionfish densities and minimizing impacts. Development 

and support of removal efforts not only reduce effects on native populations, they 

also buy time for development of new technologies and may allow for natural 

control mechanisms to evolve. It is important to remember that for every lionfish 

removed from the water, a reduction in predation on native species is realized. In 

already stressed marine systems, even a small level of decreased impact could 

result in significant long-term benefits.

Local removal efforts can reduce lionfish numbers, but resources generally limit the 

geographical scope of a management area. That’s why it is important to identify and 

prioritize sites for removal. Key areas such as marine protected areas (MPAs), high 

visitation or tourism areas, spawning aggregation sites, vulnerable nursery sites, 

and/or other areas may be deemed high priority for removal efforts. Removal plans 

should consider these priority areas in relation to available resources.

 
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 25 

Taking Advantage of Resources 

While fisheries or resource managers are likely to be those charged with organizing 

and directing lionfish control programs, many resources outside of the government 

are available. Working in partnership with resource users, stakeholders, nongovernmental organizations, and neighboring countries, managers can add 

significant capacity to control efforts. Many partners are eager to assist and can 

enhance and broaden government-led programs. By working together, programs not 

only increase their removal efforts, but they also form valuable partnerships that 

may benefit other programs and issues. These partnerships — including those that 

involve volunteers — are important for removal success. Effective partnerships, 

however, do not run by themselves. They require dedicated coordination and 

communication. 

An Overview of Control Plans 

Advantages of having a plan

Many countries in the lionfish-invaded region have already developed plans for 

lionfish control. The strategies, tools, and techniques used by each region depend 

on factors such as local environmental conditions, regulatory and societal structure, 

and human and financial resources. Common themes run among most plans, yet 

consideration of new, alternative, and/or non-traditional activities may be beneficial 

— even in already developed control plans. 

It is easy to recognize the challenges facing marine resource managers and 

government officials. For instance, addressing the new threat of invasive lionfish 

has not been in the long-term strategic plans of most locations, and it places new 

burdens on thinly stretched resources. Nonetheless, developing plans for how to 

address the persistent lionfish issue is as important as plans for addressing other 

threats to economies and environments. Many of the same elements employed in 

other conservation issues can be used in developing lionfish control plans, and 

effective lionfish control strategies often dovetail with existing management and 

conservation activities.

Some advantages of developing a lionfish control plan:

i) Provides direction for pro-active (as opposed to re-active) management,

ii) Facilitates partnership building,

iii) Provides provisions for public involvement and enhances public perception 

of management efforts,

How Many Lionfish Should Be Removed? 

Recent publications by Morris et al. 2011 and Barbour et al. 2011 indicate that large 

numbers of lionfish (27% of the adult population per month in the Morris model and 

between 15–65% each year in the Barbour model) would need to be removed regularly to 

elicit a decrease in the overall population. Large-scale removal efforts with this goal are 

simply not feasible with current technology, but recent efforts in the Bahamas, Mexico, 

Cayman Islands, and the Florida Keys indicate that locally directed control at specific sites 

can be successful in keeping lionfish densities low in removal locations.
 26 Control Strategies 

iv) Outlines effective allocation of resources,

v) Enhances understanding of invasion impacts by defining research priorities, and 

vi) Increases coordination and communication among stakeholders (reduction 

in stakeholder conflicts).

Considerations for plan development

Good control plans should clearly define roles and responsibilities, provide regulatory mechanisms for implementation or modification of new and existing laws and 

policies, and offer adaptive management frameworks. See Chapter 6 for additional 

framework, roles and responsibilities, and regulatory descriptions.

Designating leadership and responsibilities

Leadership designation is a key component of successful control plans. A strong 

lionfish control plan will outline who is in charge and where other groups and 

stakeholders fit into the organizational structure. Organizational trees (Figure 4.1) 

can be effective at identifying key roles and responsibilities. Resource managers will 

commonly experience a divergence of opinions on how to approach the lionfish 

invasion, and having a well-understood and transparent chain of command will 

facilitate coordination and inclusion of key stakeholders and user groups.

Developing priorities

Another component of control plans is to develop clearly defined priorities. Priorities 

may be best accomplished by including a diverse group of stakeholders, with 

differing areas of expertise, to capture broad-scale community interests. Identifying 

and understanding available resources — including human, fiscal, and logistical — is 

critical in developing priorities. Efforts to better understand resource vulnerability to 

lionfish impacts and to identify priority locations for lionfish control can then be 

used to match available resources and capacity.

Figure 4.1 Sample organizational tree describing one possible 

organizational structure of a lionfish control program.
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 27 

Developing control strategies 

When developing control strategies, resource managers will discover a few considerations that will go a long way in helping to implement realistic and effective 

efforts. Some of these include:

i) Working within existing capabilities,

ii) Tailoring strategies for local needs,

iii) Consideration of outside influences (recruitment variables such as water 

circulation, seasonality of spawning, year-class strength variability, nearby 

densities, benefits from neighboring control efforts, invasion equilibrium 

dynamics), and

iv) Working within existing regulatory frameworks.

• Defining lionfish within existing regulations

• Modification of existing regulations

• Enacting new regulatory measures

Measuring success 

In any control plan, an honest evaluation of successes and challenges is important. 

Building in review processes, setting realistic goals and expectations, and evaluating how well objectives were met are often overlooked — but critically important —

components of successful plans. Resources managers should identify early in their 

planning how they will measure success. Some benchmarks may include: the 

number of lionfish removed, the number of lionfish remaining, the number of areas 

cleaned of lionfish, and/or the condition of the reef system. For more information 

on measuring success through monitoring, see Chapter 5.

Control Plan Components 

Reporting and documentation

Reporting is an important component of any control plan as it helps to direct 

removal efforts and gauge the effectiveness of control programs. Reporting and 

documentation strategies can vary widely across regions and organizations; 

however, a single entity or contact is best to prevent confusion and duplication of 

effort. Obtaining reports during the initial phase of an invasion can occur with little 

relative effort, as the general public is typically excited and willing to assist. As the 

invasion progresses, however, the public can become desensitized and report less 

often. This may occur as the result of overwhelming lionfish densities or the public’s 

rationalization and acceptance of the problem. Thus, outreach on the importance of 

reporting may become increasingly necessary during the later stages of the 

invasion. Without accurate reporting, resource managers can find it difficult to 

determine the effectiveness of control. Conversely, during advanced stages of the 

invasion, reporting can aid in focusing removal efforts on high priority areas.

Standardizing reporting

Standardized reporting mechanisms can be most effective for encouraging continued and accurate reporting. Phone, e-mail, and Internet should all be considered 

and consensus reached among agencies and partners on reporting protocols. The 

reporting format can be designed to follow regional protocols, and local reports can 

then be forwarded to regional nodes for display and dissemination. Additionally, 

user-based reporting tools can be developed to encourage and direct removal 

efforts on a real-time basis.
 28 Control Strategies 

USGS maintains an international database of non-indigenous aquatic species that 

includes factsheets, distribution maps, and early notification of sightings. This 

database has been the primary repository of lionfish sightings and continues to be 

one of the most widely used tools in depicting the timing and scale of the invasion. 

Lionfish sightings should be reported to http://nas.er.usgs.gov/. For additional 

reporting forms see http://www.reef.org/programs/exotic/report — or http://

nas.er.usgs.gov/sightingreport.aspx.

Follow-up actions

During the initial stages of the invasion, early detection/rapid response (ED/RR) is 

widely used to refer to the process of reporting and removal. It is important not only 

to encourage removals, but also to provide feedback on the response effort, to 

acknowledge the responders and provide further incentives, and to highlight the 

successes of these removals. These efforts will help build strong partnerships and 

pathways for future removal efforts. 

Reporting considerations

i) Align reporting criteria with research needs and priorities. 

ii) Maintain national and regional nodes for reporting, including a centralized 

database and single sources for information. 

iii) Develop appropriate reporting and data management frameworks to 

incorporate different reporting methods and levels of informational detail.

iv) Simplify the reporting approach/method for volunteers and others.

v) Link collection to reporting for research needs.

vi) Link reporting to education (locally, nationally, and regionally).

COLLECTION AND HANDLING 

 

The collecting and handling section of a control plan should be explicit in outlining 

who, what, when, where, and how removals are to take place. Through detailed and 

thoughtful design, programs can avoid ambiguity in allowable activities, policies, 

and procedures, and can facilitate effective removal efforts. There are many 

different methods of collecting and handling lionfish (Appendix 2), as well as myriad 

logistical considerations. The information below provides an overview of the most 

commonly used tools and techniques.

Defining personnel

A first consideration in designing control programs includes assessing available 

personnel. There is often strong interest, across many sectors, in aiding with 

lionfish removals. Identifying appropriate removal personnel and protocols for each 

sector will aid in a more organized and effective removal effort.

Government agencies

Government agencies often have a role in responding to environmental issues. 

Assigning a point person in the appropriate agency to represent the government 

and manage the overall response program is important. In addition to any lionfishspecific programs that are developed, there may be other agency activities that 

could easily incorporate a lionfish component without significant additional resources. Identifying who is doing what and defining what activities can be undertaken by government staff can be an effective way of providing leadership in addressing the invasion.
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 29 

Professionals

Many projects are undertaken in coastal marine waters that involve underwater 

professionals and researchers. The professionals undertaking these projects may 

be an excellent source for both reporting and assisting with lionfish removals, 

during their normal activities. It is important to remember, however, that even minor 

removal efforts can expend resources and shift effort away from the core focus of 

their work. Solid communication with researchers should include discussions on 

what, if any, contributions they may be able to make to control efforts.

Partners — NGOs

Many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are organized specifically to aid in 

issues affecting social or environmental sectors. Inviting and encouraging their 

participation in addressing the lionfish invasion may prove to be one of the most 

beneficial plan components in terms of human and fiscal resources. Care should be 

taken to provide solid direction, however, and to clearly define roles and responsibilities. Most NGO partners will also include large numbers of volunteers; therefore,

defining a clear mission and role for the NGO is critical to partnership success.

Stakeholders — divers, fishers

In many areas, the group of stakeholders most affected by the invasion includes 

fishers and divers. Often, they are the first to encounter lionfish and the most 

capable of providing removal support. Key elements for engaging these stakeholders include education and outreach, training, and the provision of incentives for 

removal efforts. It is important to remember that not all incentives are monetary. 

Many stakeholders can be motivated to aid in removal efforts after learning the 

negative effect lionfish may have on their livelihoods and the integrity of their reefs.

Volunteers

While many volunteers will come forward under the leadership of NGO partners, 

there may also be significant volunteer interest by unaffiliated individuals. These 

may include visitors, tourists, concerned members of the public, individual members of government, and fishers and/or divers (acting outside of their normal work 

time). Managing and directing this interest can be a time-consuming and personnelheavy undertaking; however, these individuals may also be some of the best 

supporters of lionfish control plans. If unaffiliated volunteers are going to be aiding 

in control efforts, proper training and supervision may be required and caution 

exercised around sensitive habitats. Further, responsible parties should consider 

liability concerns associated with handling venomous fish.

 

Collection Strategies 

There are many methods currently used for removing lionfish from invaded waters. 

Based on wide-scale input from around the region and expert opinion from those 

who have considerable experience in removals, some methods seem to be more 

prevalent and effective than others. Managers should consider all methods and 

select the most effective and appropriate approach for their location. The information below provides a description of various methods.

Natural control

One of the most common questions about the lionfish invasion is what controls 

lionfish population growth in their native range and what may control them in the 
 30 Control Strategies 

Atlantic. Although it is clear that lionfish are rare-to-uncommon throughout their 

native range (Kulbicki et al. 2012), at this time, the mechanisms that control 

lionfish in their native range are not understood. Much attention has been given to 

the potential predation on juvenile and early adult lionfish by grouper and other toplevel predators as a mechanism for population control in the Atlantic. It is unclear if 

predation on juvenile or adult lionfish may have a significant effect on controlling 

their population. 

A recent report by Mumby et al. (2011) identified lower lionfish densities in the 

Exuma Land and Sea Park, Bahamas, compared to areas outside the park. Grouper 

densities were higher inside the park and were hypothesized to have contributed to 

the reduced abundance. There had been substantial lionfish culling efforts in the 

park prior to this study and no direct observations of the rate of predation by 

grouper were provided. Observations and experiments by other researchers have 

found that grouper seldom attack lionfish. More information is needed to better 

support this correlation. 

For most species, mortality is highest during the egg and larval stages and diminishes with increasing age and size. It is unknown whether incidental predation on 

lionfish will increase over time, but it is anticipated that any predation pressure 

significant enough to control lionfish densities will be slow to emerge.

Other natural controlling factors could include competition, parasites, diseases, 

and/or genetic disorders. To date, parasites on lionfish in the invaded range have 

been found only rarely as compared to levels of parasites on native range lionfish 

or on other native species in the invaded range. Genetic deformities have been 

observed in lionfish in the invaded range, but surprisingly, these fish have been 

adults and were able to survive even with fin and/or other potentially inhibiting 

deformities. Disease is a potential controlling factor that is being examined at the 

time of this publication.

Teaching Top Predators to Control Lionfish? 

Divers in some parts of the Atlantic have attempted to 

entice top predators (sharks, barracudas, grouper, 

snapper, and eels) to consume captured lionfish in the 

hopes that predators will learn to hunt and prey upon 

lionfish naturally. To date, there is no conclusive evidence 

that native predators are learning to prey upon lionfish 

through this practice. Unexpected effects of fish-feeding 

activities include aggressive changes in predator behavior 

during encounters with divers. Recent incidents include 

severe injury to a lionfish collector’s hand from a barracuda bite (Figure 4.2) and harassment of other collectors by 

sharks and large groupers. These developments have 

proven the practice of feeding lionfish to predators as 

dangerous and counter-productive. In addition to serious 

human injury, the practice could also lead to injuries of top 

predators through diver responses to attack and/or 

increase in the ease of capture of predators that are 

conditioned to associate humans with food. 

Figure 4.2 This collection 

diver’s finger was nearly 

severed by a barracuda that 

had been conditioned by 

other divers to take speared 

lionfish. The puncture-proof 

glove (top right) provided 

minimal protection against 

barracuda teeth.

REEF 
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 31 

Physical Removal 

 

In the absence of natural controlling mechanisms, physical human removal of 

lionfish can buy time and protect key resources while new technologies are 

developed and natural controlling mechanisms emerge.

Where and when to find lionfish

Lionfish are generalists when it comes to habitat requirements. They have been 

found along shallow shorelines to depths over 300 m and in a variety of habitats, 

including mangroves, hardbottom, canals, artificial structures, loosely organized 

debris, coral reefs, ledges, sand holes in seagrass, and rocky shorelines. Lionfish 

will most often be associated with structures that provide cover, but occasionally 

they can be observed hovering in the open. 

During the mid-day hours, lionfish are commonly found resting under ledges or in 

sheltered bottom areas. They are most active in the low light periods of dusk and 

dawn. Divers searching for lionfish during mid-day hours should carefully explore 

overhangs, crevices, and any nook or cranny that could provide lionfish shelter. 

Swimming over habitat may not be sufficient to detect the majority of sheltered 

lionfish. Detailed searches — including slow swimming and careful observations —

are needed to accurately detect sheltering lionfish. Timing removal events with low 

light periods around dawn and dusk may facilitate increased detection. Selecting 

the best equipment for any given situation can improve success (Table 4.1)

Removal Tools 

Markers

During the initial stages of the invasions, managers in some areas of the Caribbean 

used lionfish markers to assist with early detection and rapid response (Figures 4.3 

and 4.4). Lionfish can exhibit site fidelity, and marking locations can help minimize 

search time during subsequent removal efforts. This approach, however, requires 

planned follow-up actions to remove lionfish and markers. Delayed return to 

marked sites may provide enough time for lionfish to move to another location. 

Over time, abandoned markers can accumulate in the environment, decreasing 

aesthetics and harming marine life. 

Nets

Lionfish removals by divers using hand nets have become the standard for many 

locations, especially in areas that restrict spearfishing. Nets are also more effective 

for fish that are too small to spear efficiently. Frequently used nets include those 

used by professional marine life collectors — typically deep-bellied nets constructed 

with an aluminum frame and clear vinyl netting (Figure 4.5) or an acrylic frame with 

monofilament netting (Figure 4.6) — or shallow-bellied mesh bait nets (Figure 4.7).

Since most divers and fishers are not experienced marine life collectors, significant 

training is often needed in order to teach safe and efficient lionfish capture 

techniques, including proper net speed, positioning, movements, and handling. Net 

collection of lionfish may be accomplished solo or in pairs, with each diver using 

two nets (Figure 4.8).
 32 Control Strategies Table 4.1 Pros and cons of various gear types for collecting lionfish. Gear type User Cost Benefits Limitations Notes Vinyl hand net Divers and marine life collectors Initial expense high Highly effective for naïve fish and smaller fish, when used properly does not scare fish. Bulky to carry, fish must be accessible, successful use takes practice, slower captures. Mesh hand net Divers and marine life collectors Initial expense high Effective for naïve and smaller fish, when used properly does not scare fish. Entanglement common, takes practice, slower captures. Plastic container (mask box, plastic bag) Divers Low Commonly available. Places user in close proximity to spines, only useful for very small fish. Polespear Divers and spearfishers Low Effective for larger fish, rapid captures, keeps fish at distance from collector. Misses are common, potential damage to resource, potential abuse, too large for most smaller fish. Spearing devices may be prohibited or restricted in use to freediving only. Hawaiian sling Divers and spearfishers Low Effective for larger fish, rapid captures. Spear leaves direct control of collector, misses are common, potential damage to resource, potential abuse, fish may slide toward collector, too large for most smaller fish. Spearing devices may be prohibited or restricted in use to freediving only. Speargun Divers and spearfishers High Powerful enough for the largest fish. Spear leaves direct control of collector, overkill for most lionfish, reloading and removal of fish is lengthy process. Spearing devices may be prohibited or restricted in use to freediving only.

Specialty spearing devices

Divers and spearfishers

Varies, often high

Usually designed for ease of use, small enough to carry.

Depending on the device: may require two hands, may be shorter than traditional devices, may not secure fish following spearing, may require specialty parts for repair.

Specialty devices vary in their design and application.Spearing devices may be prohibited or restricted to freediving only.

Traps Commercial 

fishers

Low Already in use for other 

targeted species.

Bycatch is high. Lionfish have been reported as 

common bycatch in some lobster and fish traps. However, no lionfish specific trap has yet been developed.

Hook and line

Commercial and recreational fishers

Low Already in use for other 

targeted species.

Reported to be effective only in deepwater (300–600 ft), bycatch may be high.

Squid as cut-bait has been reported as successful lionfish bait.
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 33 

Lionfish Marker Programs 

The Bonaire Marine Park and the Caribbean Oceanic and Restoration and Education Foundation (CORE) in St Croix, U.S. 

Virgin Islands, have both implemented 

programs to manufacture and furnish 

divers with lionfish markers (Figure 4.3). 

These markers are made of a metal washer (the anchor) and a strip of surveyor’s 

plastic flagging tape, held suspended 

from the anchor by a cork. 

When lionfish are sighted, the markers 

are deployed (Figure 4.4) and sighting 

information is reported to the appropriate 

managing organization. 

While the marking of lionfish may be helpful in the early stages of local invasions, 

the manpower and management of recovery may soon overwhelm capacity. Some 

divers in areas using markers have complained of the lack of response to marked 

fish and the negative aesthetics associated with seeing a dozen lionfish markers 

on a single dive site. 

Figure 4.3 Lionfish marker made with a metal washer, flagging tape, and cork.

Figure 4.4 Lionfish marker deployed on the 

reef to mark sighting. 

Figure 4.6 Clear mesh net used for capturing 

lionfish. 

Figure 4.5 Vinyl hand nets can be highly 

effective tools for removal, especially for 

smaller lionfish and in areas where spearfishing is prohibited.

REEF STINAPA WWW.AQUATICECO.COM

WWW.STUARTCOVE.COM
 34 Control Strategies 

After successful capture, transfer the lionfish to either an appropriate underwater 

storage container (deep captures) or to a storage container at the surface (shallow 

captures). Care should be taken to exercise proper buoyancy control during captures 

and to avoid damage to sensitive marine life or habitats.

Spears

Spearing lionfish may be the most 

effective method for removing large 

numbers in the least amount of time 

(Figure 4.9). Lionfish are often sedentary 

and bold, allowing a close approach with 

a spearing device. It is important to 

remember, however, that lionfish are 

stalking-and-ambush predators and have 

quick escape reflexes. Even at a very 

close distance, experienced spearfishers 

often miss lionfish because of their quick 

movements. Smaller lionfish can be more 

difficult to spear than larger lionfish given 

their smaller target size and ability to 

seek shelter in small crevices. Despite 

these challenges, spearing can be a fast 

and effective method of removal for 

lionfish in confined spaces that may not 

be conducive to net capture. 

The initial step in netting lionfish is to 

plan the capture strategy. First, assess 

the habitat and potential escape routes. 

Next, determine net placement to 

prevent movement of the fish to an 

inaccessible area of the reef. Once the 

strategy has been decided upon and net 

placement communicated among team 

members, slowly position the nets to 

block potential escape routes. Then 

maneuver nets slowly to surround the 

fish until it either swims into a net or is 

trapped between the nets. 

Always avoid chasing, poking, prodding, 

or scaring the target fish into the net. 

Lionfish are adept learners and, once 

harassed, they exhibit avoidance to 

divers. If target fish move away from 

nets, it is better to pause the collection 

effort and allow the fish to re-settle. 

Unsuccessful lionfish captures in which 

the fish is harassed extensively can 

make subsequent collection attempts 

much more difficult. 

Figure 4.8 Divers with nets work in a team 

to capture lionfish.

Figure 4.7 Smaller mesh bait nets can be 

cost-effective and provide access to smaller 

spaces.

Figure 4.9 Diver with lionfish captured 

using Hawaiian sling.

WWW.STUARTCOVE.COM WWW.STUARTCOVE.COM WWW.PROMARNETS.COM
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 35 

As with other removal methods, training should be provided to novice collectors to 

ensure the greatest safety and success. When learning to use spearing devices, 

divers should take care to emphasize safety over success. Special training courses 

have been developed to teach safe spearfishing techniques. 

Specific lessons include: 

i) Safety first, considering other divers and marine structures and organisms.

ii) Approach target fish slowly and as closely as possible, without causing the 

fish to move. 

iii) Avoid shooting a lionfish that is facing away from the diver.

iv) Aim for the area immediately behind the head of the fish, as lionfish heads 

are bony and difficult to penetrate with a spear.

v) Exercise careful handling and positioning of the fish after spearing. Lionfish 

are seldom incapacitated by a single spearing event and may often escape 

from spears held in open water.

vi) When swimming in open water or handing speared fish up to a vessel, be 

aware of opportunities for the fish to either flip off the spear or slide down 

the spear toward the diver.

vii) Be aware of potential predators attracted by spearing activity and do not 

decapitate or gut lionfish in the immediate area, which may attract unwanted predators.

viii) Obey all spearfishing rules and regulations, including area restrictions and 

gear types. 

Containment

Many different types of containment are being used in lionfish removal efforts, and 

a few key elements should be considered when choosing which containment type is 

best suited for the task. Safety should be the priority. Avoid any container that 

allows spines to freely penetrate or extend beyond its walls. Containment equipment should provide ease of introducing fish and a secure method for storing them. 

During spearfishing activities, divers may also want to consider the ability of 

containers to retain the blood and scents of speared fish to avoid encounters with 

predators. Fish should be kept in whole condition (with the exception of optional 

spine clipping) to reduce blood and fish particles in the water and to facilitate data 

collection on the captured specimens.

Commonly used storage containers include clear dry bags (Figure 4.11) and buckets 

(Figure 4.12) or tubes with perforated lids (Figure 4.13). Dry bags are effective at 

containing the scent of speared fish and the clear vinyl material offers excellent 

visibility when transferring additional fish to the bag. Lionfish spines are capable of 

penetrating vinyl, although this occurrence is infrequent. Gentle handling of a bag 

filled with lionfish reduces the risk of spine penetration through the vinyl. 

Bucket- and tube-type containers can be constructed of commonly found supplies, 

including PVC pipes or hard plastic buckets with secure lids. Simple star pattern 

cuts along the bottom or lid of a bucket provide a trap door and the ability to easily 

remove the lionfish from the spear. Specialty lids can also be constructed of flexible 

materials, such as thick neoprene or rubber, to prevent deformation of entry points.
 36 Control Strategies 

Some dive operators have chosen to include lionfish collecting in their regular dive 

activities by indirectly involving their customers. Following a detailed briefing on the 

boat, divers are encouraged to search for lionfish during their dive and notify the inwater divemasters upon locating a fish. Divers are given opportunities to photograph and watch the fish, and then the divemasters collect the fish using hand nets. 

Following the collection the fish is placed in a clear dry bag, which can then be 

passed around underwater for the divers to closely observe the fish and engage in 

photo opportunities. Rather than excluding their clients from lionfish collections, 

these operators engage their divers and often receive comments that the collection 

was the highlight of their diving trip.

Clipping Spines 

 

Some divers clip lionfish spines immediately 

after capture to reduce the potential of sting 

encounters. Others simply introduce the 

captured lionfish directly into a storage 

container. Clipping of spines is not difficult, 

but it does introduce additional handling of 

the fish and may not be approved by some 

governments or universities’ animal-welfare 

committees. 

To clip spines, hold the fish securely by the 

head and use a pair of sea snips or heavy 

kitchen shears to sever the spines close to 

the base (Figure 4.10). Dorsal spines are best 

cut by starting at the rear of the fish and 

working forward to prevent the spines from 

lying flat along the back. Clipping of pelvic 

and anal fins needs only to include the first 

spine of each pelvic fin and the first three of 

the anal fin (the rest are rays and are not 

venomous). It is not necessary to clip tail or 

pectoral fins.

Figure 4.10 Lionfish with dorsal spines 

removed.

Figure 4.11 Lionfish in clear dry bag. Figure 4.12 Lionfish collection container 

made using a plastic bucket.

REEF 

WWW.STUARTCOVE.COM

NICHOLAS BACH, ROATAN MARINE PARK
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 37 

Alternative removal equipment

While many lionfish removal devices 

are commercially manufactured and 

available on-line or through local 

retailers, inventiveness and creativity 

in local and personal devices should 

not be dismissed. Often, less 

expensive and user customized 

equipment can be assembled using 

locally found parts and materials and 

creativity. Consideration for safety 

and effectiveness should always be 

exercised in the manufacture of 

personal devices. 

Often, commercially available 

designs, which have been proven in 

their effectiveness, can be modified 

to incorporate novel uses of readily 

available and inexpensive local 

materials (Figure 4.14). Additionally, 

many new tools and devices will 

appear on the market and in 

personal removal toolkits that may 

prove more effective and less costly 

than those currently available.

In Cozumel, for example, creative divers have developed their own locally designed 

version of polespears, using readily available and inexpensive materials. Spear 

shafts are made from discarded PVC or fiberglass rods; rubber bands are recycled or 

made from punctured bicycle innertubes; and paralyzer tips are fashioned from 

broken bicycle spokes or wire from discarded boat steering cables.

Figure 4.13 Lionfish collection using a 

customized PVC tube.

Steps for Dry Bag Captures 

 

When introducing lionfish into dry bags, divers following these key steps will minimize 

escape of captured fish and risk of stings:

i) Place the bag on the bottom as mid-water transfers often allow lionfish to escape,

ii) Hold the fish securely (with protective, puncture-resistant gloves) by the head,

iii) Introduce the fish as far into the bag as possible,

iv) Close the bag securely around the arm of the diver holding the fish,

v) After communicating all is ready, let go of the fish,

vi) As the fish moves to the bottom of the bag, block potential escape by placing a 

protected arm or device (spear, net, etc.) across the bag to prevent the lionfish 

from moving toward the opening,

vii) Remove the diver’s arm from the bag, and

viii) Roll the bag closed and secure by clipping.

Figure 4.14 Locally made and relatively 

inexpensive lionfish spearing device.

ALLIE ELHAGE, ZOOKEEPER RICARDO LOZANO, CONANP
 38 Control Strategies 

In some instances, collection activities may be restricted to snorkeling and 

freediving owing to obstacles such as regulatory gear restrictions or lack of 

available equipment. Collection of lionfish while freediving can be a very effective 

means of removal in certain conditions. While the majority of collecting tools and 

techniques are similar to those used with scuba, a few additional considerations 

are worth noting. First, surface support can allow collected fish to be handed over 

directly to shore or surface vessel personnel for containment, eliminating the need 

for in-water storage containers. Fish are simply passed up to surface support in the 

nets or on the spear and deposited in the on-board storage container. In situations 

where surface support is not readily available, divers should take care when placing 

fish into inwater containment, especially noting the ability of the fish to escape 

through the open entrance of a containment device (Figure 4.15). Additional safety 

measures and considerations should be addressed during freediving activities, 

such as increased pace of individual capture, freediving skill level of collectors, and 

adherence to proper freediving safety procedures. 

Traps

While spearing and netting lionfish are 

active removal techniques, trapping 

provides a passive method. In areas with 

trap fisheries, lionfish bycatch frequently 

occurs, especially at deeper depths. To 

date, no successful “lionfish only” traps 

have been developed, and bycatch of 

native species is high in relation to numbers of lionfish captured. Future gear 

development efforts could result in more 

effective trap designs, baiting types, and 

deployment schemes.

Hook and line

Lionfish stalk and consume their prey 

whole and feed on a wide variety of fish 

and crustaceans. Even aquarists undergo 

considerable effort to acclimate captive 

lionfish to take dead food items. Hook-andline catches of lionfish on shallow reefs are 

rare; however, there are some reports of 

incidental captures in deepwater (150–200 

m) snapper and tilefish fisheries and 

infrequent catches in shallow water by 

recreational fishers (Figure 4.16). 

It is unknown what factors influence these 

captures, but it is possible that hook-andline catch from deepwater can be a 

removal tool. Further information is needed 

to quantify the effectiveness of lionfish 

bycatch for local control. 

Figure 4.15 Snorkelers contain lionfish in 

nets before transferring the fish into a 

storage device at the surface.

Figure 4.16 Angler with lionfish captured 

on hook and line. 

REEF RICARDO LOZANO, CONANP
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 39 

Safety

Success in capture should never take precedence over safety. One of the possible 

reasons lionfish have become so invasive in Atlantic waters could be related to their 

venomous defense. Venomous spines provide a powerful deterrent to predation 

and can also provide a significant sting to would-be collectors. Puncture-resistant 

gloves are one of the most important tools in a lionfish collector’s toolkit (Figures 

4.17 and 4.18). In contrast to standard working gloves, or even KevlarTM gloves, 

which are designed to protect against cuts, specially designed and manufactured 

puncture-resistant gloves provide an added measure of protection against extremely sharp lionfish spines. While not 100% foolproof, use of these gloves will minimize 

stings and provide safer handling of fish during collection, handling, and in preparing the fish for end-use.

Figure 4.17 HexArmor® puncture-resistant 

gloves.

Figure 4.18 TurtleSkin® punctureresistant gloves.

Safe diving and storage practices should also be incorporated into local lionfish 

collecting protocols. There are no documented cases of deaths attributed to lionfish 

envenomation, however, a rapid ascent during diving as a result of a lionfish sting 

could prove debilitating or fatal, if undertaken as a result of panic following a sting. 

Improper storage of lionfish on the collecting vessel or in the lab could also provide 

the opportunity for severe stings. Storing fish in a well-marked and puncture-proof 

container can help reduce these unnecessary risks.

Envenomation and first aid 

A lionfish sting can be a painful and scary experience. For most stings, simple and 

rapid first aid treatment can be very effective at relieving pain and reducing effects 

of the venom. Since the venom is a proteinaceous neurotoxin, heat will denature 

the venom quickly. First aid includes application of heat as hot as one can stand 

without scalding. The sooner a sting victim receives first aid, the better, as this 

treatment relieves the pain and begins to denature the venom, possibly reducing 

more severe effects or complications. Lionfish spines are very sharp, but are not 

brittle like urchin spines. They tend to enter and exit very quickly, and it is rare for 

spines to break off. As with any wound, the area should be cleaned, checked for 

possible debris, and treated by a qualified medical professional. REEF 

WWW.TURTLESKIN.COM
 40 Control Strategies 

Locations and Frequencies of Removals 

Prioritizing locations for lionfish removal

When resources are limited, the most effective method of maximizing results is to 

prioritize allocation of these resources. This can be done by assessing costs and 

benefits of removals across locations and utilizing multiple removal methods and 

personnel. Determining priority areas for removals involves consideration of many 

viewpoints from various stakeholders. Priorities may differ depending on the 

perspective. Fiscal and human resources also come into play when determining 

removal priorities, as do logistics of removal methods. While one area might be 

deemed most important for conservation reasons, it could be expensive or logistically difficult to engage in removals at that site. Likewise, it might take little effort or 

expense (through volunteer efforts, for example) to remove lionfish from an area, 

even though it is ranked lower in ecological importance. 

Balancing removal effectiveness with logistical considerations and costs is a key 

function of management decisions. Many of the examples presented below are not 

mutually exclusive. There could be some sites that rank high across multiple 

ranking criteria. Weighing these factors should be a significant component of 

determining removal priorities.

Marine protected areas

Marine protected areas (MPAs) or reserves are designed for the preservation of 

marine resources and to minimize effects of extractive activities. For this reason, 

most have prohibitions on collecting or removing any resources from within their 

boundaries. Unfortunately, the boundaries are not heeded by lionfish and many 

MPAs, owing to their protected nature, can become sanctuaries for lionfish. In order 

to protect the biodiversity and natural state of these special areas, unique provisions are often needed to facilitate lionfish removals. Many resource managers are 

sensitive to the need for lionfish control, but may be hesitant to allow open access 

or removals in these areas. While the potential for regulatory abuses exists, 

Treating a Lionfish Sting: 

Sources of Heat in the Field 

Lionfish venom is a proteinaceous neurotoxin, and heat will denature the venom quickly. 

The key to suppressing the sting is to find safe sources of heat, such as those listed here. 

Remember not to scald! A burn may be worse than the sting itself. Since numbness can be 

a sting symptom, be sure to test water temperature with an unaffected part of the body to 

prevent scalding.

i) Bring a thermos of hot water when collecting lionfish.

ii) Nearby restaurants, marinas, or residences can usually heat water in an 

emergency.

iii) Vessel exhaust water or engine coolant system may be a source of heat. 

iv) Lay a wet shirt or towel over an engine block for heating, then wrap.

v) Heat packs do not normally reach high enough temperatures to be effective, 

however, the reusable packs may provide relief for short periods (5–10 minutes).

vi) Urine is body temperature and is not effective.
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 41 

preventing removal efforts may prove more damaging than potential abuses in a 

well-managed effort. Programs to license or permit key stakeholders have been 

effective and, when implemented under formal programs, they have resulted in low 

levels of abuse. 

Conversely, lionfish management programs that are designed and authorized to 

control lionfish specifically within MPA boundaries may find decreased success 

because of minimal removals outside the MPA boundaries. In fact, successful 

removal programs will take into account the connectivity between managed and 

unmanaged areas.

LOBSTER OR LIONFISH? NEW OPTIONS FOR DIVERS 

 

In many areas, divers are now engaging in lionfish removals as part of their regular diving 

activities. Rather than targeting lobster or grouper, these divers are choosing to spend 

their dive time searching for and removing lionfish. Many dive operators are also encouraging staff to remove lionfish that are sighted during their dive and allowing the staff to keep 

the fish for later consumption.

In Bermuda, divers are permitted to remove lionfish from areas traditionally off-limits, using 

tools and equipment traditionally disallowed. They are required to attend a lionfish 

workshop and to fly a special lionfish removal flag (Figure 4.19), when they are collecting 

lionfish. In Puerto Rico, resource agency staff and appropriate researchers are issued 

collapsible polespears and authorized to remove lionfish that are incidentally encountered 

during other dive-related activities, such as mooring buoy maintenance, research, or 

monitoring.

Tourism areas

The likelihood of beachgoers and swimmers encountering lionfish is low. Lionfish 

prefer habitats with structure(s) and are most often inactive during the day. Even 

with low risk of envenomation, these public areas may warrant removals due to 

their importance to tourism and economies. In addition to these easily accessed 

areas, the region derives much of its tourism through diving and snorkeling —

activities that place visitors in closer proximity to preferred lionfish habitats. Priority 

tourism areas may rank high for removals because of the potential of encounters 

with lionfish and the desire to maintain visibly healthy marine populations as 

tourism attractions. Lionfish removals from these areas also provide increased 

opportunities for education and awareness of tourists and the public, as collection 

activities occur.

Figure 4.19 Bermuda lionfish flag 

issued along with a special license to 

spear lionfish on scuba. The flag informs 

enforcement officers that the required 

license has been obtained.
 42 Control Strategies 

Areas of ecological importance

MPAs usually incorporate some habitat diversity, yet there may be other areas that 

are ecologically important to the health of local marine systems. Mangroves, 

seagrass beds, and hardbottom areas often serve as nurseries for juvenile fish and 

invertebrates that are key to maintaining future stocks of adults. Lionfish are known 

to inhabit all of these areas, and some priority may fall on protecting these sites 

from predation. Other ecologically important areas — including spawning sites and 

cleaning stations — may also be vulnerable to lionfish impacts and therefore 

considered during prioritizing.

Areas of high lionfish colonization

Areas with high lionfish densities can cause significant declines in prey communities and may displace other marine life. In addition, these sites may serve as areas 

of enhanced lionfish spawning activity and potential recruitment centers for other 

lionfish. Predation in these high-density areas can surpass the ability of native prey 

to recover and may cause more significant decreases than predation spread over a 

larger area. Areas known to harbor large densities of lionfish may be high on the list 

for targeted removals.

Areas of low lionfish re-colonization

Areas determined to have slow rates of re-colonization following lionfish removal 

may be priority removal areas due to their high success rates in maintaining low 

lionfish abundances and minimizing impacts over a great time period. Prioritizing 

these sites may be a cost-effective approach, as they may need to be revisited less 

frequently than sites with high re-colonization rates.

Easy removal areas

Some areas that are easily accessed and cleared of lionfish may make a priority list 

simply because of the ease of removal. Sites frequented by divers willing to adopt a 

reef, sites nearshore and easily accessed, and sites that allow for effective removals with infrequent visits may all be worth considering for their effectiveness in 

training, maintaining morale, and reducing lionfish movement to other, possibly 

inaccessible, areas.

Removal frequency

The frequency of removal needed to control lionfish can vary widely depending on 

many factors, including the target density, stage of the invasion, habitat, and 

recruitment pressure. Human and fiscal resources will limit typical removal programs, and the most effective removal frequencies will consider a combination of 

available resources, removal priorities, and effectiveness. While removal frequencies may vary, it has been shown that active removals on a local scale can significantly reduce and maintain low lionfish densities. 

As examples, divers in the Bonaire Marine Park and in the Florida Keys have been 

removing lionfish from commonly dived sites since the invasion began in those 

regions. Anecdotal information indicates the densities and sizes of lionfish in those 

heavily removed sites are much less than in surrounding un-dived sites. Additional 

research being conducted in the Bahamas is showing regular removals on shallow 

patch reefs to be highly effective at keeping densities far below control sites.
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 43 

Lionfish Removal Events 

 

One of the most effective methods for engaging the stakeholders — including the 

public — in lionfish removals includes organized events and removal programs. 

These efforts often contain a social component and opportunities for training, 

increasing awareness, and spreading information through media. In addition, 

depending on the type of event, they can often remove large numbers of lionfish in 

a short period of time.

Derbies

Fishing and spearfishing tournaments have long been held for commonly targeted 

species. Recently, derbies have begun to be organized specifically for lionfish. 

Successful derbies typically include educational components that cover basic 

biology, ecology, impacts, collecting and handling techniques, and details of rules 

and regulations associated with lionfish removals. Often offering significant prize 

money through sponsorships, the derbies also incorporate data collection for 

science and lionfish-tasting opportunities for the general public. Single-day derbies 

have been known to bring in thousands of fish from small geographic areas and 

may have measurable effects on local lionfish populations (Figure 4.20).

Monthly contests

To encourage ongoing removals throughout the year, groups in a number of 

locations have implemented monthly or seasonal contests. Media attention and 

outreach opportunities might not be as productive as for single-day events, but the 

Derbies Remove Lionfish by the Thousands 

The Green Turtle Cay Lionfish Derby held 

in June 2009 in Abaco, Bahamas, was 

the first lionfish derby held in the invaded 

region. In a single day, 1,408 lionfish 

were removed from local waters by 18 

teams competing for prize money and 

bragging rights. Prizes are offered for 

most, largest, and smallest lionfish. 

Since that time, numerous derbies have 

been organized around the region, 

serving to educate divers, raise awareness, and remove lionfish. The Florida 

Keys hosts a derby series (Figure 4.21) 

and some recent derbies in Mexico and 

the Bahamas have removed well over 

2,000 lionfish in a single day. Monthly 

ongoing removal contests are also a 

successful way both to encourage 

ongoing removals and offer small prizes 

and recognition to divers and dive 

operators. 

Visit http://www.lionfishderby.com for 

derby examples.

Figure 4.20 Lionfish derbies can 

provide intensive local removal 

success as well as excellent 

opportunities for outreach and the 

chance for participants to feel a 

sense of community and purpose. REEF 
 44 Control Strategies 

 

Organized efforts by divers

Organized and directed removal efforts have been undertaken in many locations. 

Divers in the Florida Keys have been permitted to remove lionfish from marine 

protected areas and they keep numbers down through ongoing removals during 

regular visits to these sites. The Caribbean Lionfish Response program in the U.S. 

Virgin Islands organizes regular removal dives to preselected sites. Divers with 

Ecotono in Puerto Rico have adopted certain sites for regular lionfish visits and 

removals. Many dive operators throughout the region remove lionfish from their 

sites on daily visits to keep numbers down.

End-use and Disposal 

 

Resource managers put much effort into designing and implementing removal 

plans and programs; however, the end-use of the removed fish is often overlooked. 

Important information can be garnered from collected fish. (Further, safety and 

conservation issues may come into play when considering the end-use of removed 

lionfish.) Simply recording information on size of the fish collected can be useful in 

determining removal effectiveness and impacts. 

Removed fish can also be dissected and key data gathered to aid in understanding 

their biology and ecology. Not every fish needs to be fully dissected, but developing 

a plan and protocol for gathering information as a part of removal efforts can be 

important (see euthanasia methods described in Green et al. 2012). Some removal 

efforts may also provide a source of income through sales of fish for local consumption. Allowable and encouraged end-uses should be included as part of lionfish 

control and removal plans.

Figure 4.21 Florida Keys derby poster.

collective results of ongoing removals 

could be of greater significance. 

Adopt-a-reef programs

Many groups are interested in helping 

to minimize lionfish impacts on an 

ongoing basis. Working with dive 

clubs, NGOs, and other organized 

groups to pick key sites for targeted 

removal efforts can be very effective in 

keeping lionfish numbers reduced in 

those areas. Often, groups can be self

-organizing and require minimal 

management, though follow-up, 

recognition, and periodic supervision 

will help maintain ongoing morale and 

effective removal programs. It is 

important to design programs with 

appropriate levels of scale and 

realistic expectations of effort in order 

to avoid overtaxing abilities.
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 45 

Final disposal of collected fish should also be addressed. Venom in lionfish spines 

denatures rapidly with heat, but the sharp spines can inflict serious wounds even 

without venom. Guidelines for discarding fish and/or their spines should include 

provisions to reduce potential interactions and risk to other humans or animals. 

Puncture proof bottles or jars with caps can provide relatively safe and inexpensive 

disposal containers. Some recent removal efforts have included the feeding of 

lionfish (immediately following their collection) to predatory marine life, including 

sharks, groupers, snappers, and eels, but consideration should be given to potential risks of spine injuries to these predators as well as behavioral changes due to 

association of feeding with humans.

Is Feeding Lionfish to Top Predators a Good Idea? 

 

The following opinion is an excerpt from http://myfwc.com/research/about/outreach/

science-behind-management/marine-fish-feeding/

“In 2001, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) unanimously voted 

to prohibit divers from feeding marine life in Florida. You might be wondering why the FWC 

believes these ‘interactive marine experiences’ are harmful. After all, the fish get an easy 

meal, and divers get entertained, so what's the problem?

“Overall, feeding marine fish is a bad idea for everyone, including divers, fish and the ecosystem. Contrary to popular belief, fish have memories and can learn. Through behavioural 

conditioning, fed animals learn to associate people with a meal. When this happens, fish 

anticipate the hand-feeding experience and depend on handouts from divers . . .

“Hand-feeding-induced attacks on humans do occur. Feeding wildlife can place people in 

harm's way . . .

“Moray eels, sharks, barracuda, groupers and a host of other species can pose an increased danger to divers as a result of hand-feeding.”

TRAINING 

Fishers and many divers are accustomed to removing and handling Caribbean fish 

species as part of their every-day work. Lionfish, however, are unlike any other fish 

in the Caribbean. Their behavior and long slender dorsal spines can prove to be 

challenging for removals by even experienced fishers and divers. In addition, much 

misinformation exists in the popular culture and media about the lionfish invasion 

and the biology and ecology of the fish. For these reasons, implementation of welldesigned and presented training programs for lionfish collecting and handling are 

extremely useful (Figures 4.22 and 4.23). 

One of the key elements in any training program is the safety of those doing the 

collecting. Proper techniques and hands-on demonstrations should be included in 

all removal presentations, and participants should have opportunities to handle 

lionfish under supervision whenever possible. Specific guidance in locating venomous spines and proper positioning of gloved hands to minimize stings should be 

given. Additional information on first aid for lionfish stings should also be covered, 

with recommendations for field applications of heat as first aid.
 46 Control Strategies 

Figure 4.22 Lionfish workshop utilizing the 

classroom.

Figure 4.23 Lionfish workshop in the field.

Courses

As the lionfish invasion progresses, numerous courses and training programs will be 

sure to follow. It is important for experienced reviewers to vet these training 

programs to ensure that safety protocols are included and all information is 

accurate. Program managers may want to endorse specific courses or removal 

programs (once they have been properly reviewed) to encourage passing along of 

accurate and timely information; however, care should be taken to maintain proper 

guidance and updates of information.

Materials

Many materials for conducting removal training can be ordered or obtained via the 

Internet. It is anticipated that specific training videos and slide presentations will 

follow this manual and be made available free of charge for use by marine resource 

managers and their key partners.

Liability

Any time programs deal with potentially harmful animals, questions regarding 

liability issues may arise. Many countries have developed lionfish-specific statements of understanding or liability releases to reduce the potential legal issues 

associated with injury. It is wise to consult with local legal authorities before 

undertaking lionfish removals to determine the level of liability and methods to 

address or minimize legal risk. All participants in any removal effort should be fully 

briefed on safety issues, potential risk, and first aid; and they should participate 

fully of their own will. No person should ever be forced into a position that they are 

uncomfortable with in handling either dead or live lionfish. (See Appendix 3 for 

example of liability release.)

Training strategies

Some specific training strategies include:

i) Conduct in-water training to motivate volunteers and enhance effective 

control,

ii) Facilitate “Train the Trainers” programs,

iii) Provide training on how to construct removal gear,

iv) Provide training on first aid and medical treatment, 

v) Provide cooking classes and training on lionfish consumption,

vi) Collaborate with the dive industry and fishers, 

TERRY CHEVAKO BAVA

MORMAN NORIS, DOMINICA FISHERIES DEPARTMENT
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 47 

vii) Establish protocols for proper use of specimens following collection, and 

viii) Use available online technology and social media tools.

REMOVAL INCENTIVES 

The incentive for participating in lionfish removals varies among individuals, and 

often depends on whether their livelihoods or recreational interests are connected 

with the marine environment. Incentives can vary widely depending on the interest 

and motivation of the individual. (Even those who make their living in or on the 

water often need an incentive.) Some may want to remove the fish because they 

want to protect native marine life and ecosystems, some may want to remove fish 

for food, and some to protect their livelihood or for economic benefit. It is important 

to recognize which incentives motivate individuals to remove lionfish and to foster 

those motivations.

Reasons for Stakeholder Involvement 

Divers

The desire to protect marine resources is a key motivator for many recreational 

divers, tourists, and tour operators. Their livelihoods and recreation depend on 

healthy marine systems, and many understand that removing lionfish whenever 

possible will help to protect those resources. For these stakeholders, recognition of 

their efforts and feedback on results often provide the motivation and incentive 

needed to maintain removal activities.

Fishers

Many fishers rely on their catch to provide a substantial portion of the diet for their 

families. Eating their catch can also be a strong incentive for recreational fishers to 

fish. Promoting the removal and consumption of lionfish to these stakeholders can 

help provide incentive for their targeted removal. Many subsistence fishers are 

already considering lionfish as worthy of keeping and consuming when caught.

Commercial fishers and divers, including spearfishers, spend their time capturing 

fish to make their living. Specific fish species are often targeted for their high dollar 

value and marketability. Developing consumer demand for lionfish can help elevate 

the dollar value of the fish in the market and provide incentive for commercial 

removals. Because of the significant effort required in removing lionfish and their 

small size as compared to some other commercially targeted species, prices paid 

will likely need to be higher to compensate for the time required in harvesting. 

Luckily, lionfish flesh is deemed high quality and has been shown to be better in 

omega fat content than many commonly consumed native species.

Bounty programs

Bounty programs have been attempted in a few locations and have been short, 

lived, with little promise for success. In addition to limited funds, bounty programs 

lack provisions for developing stewardship ethics and are typically for the shortterm monetary benefit of a few. Once funding runs out, removal effort is often 

discontinued and the invasion continues to progress unabated. Additionally, as 

markets develop for lionfish, bounty programs position governments in direct 

competition with private enterprise, possibly hindering more than helping.
 48 Control Strategies 

Long-term nature of the issue

In any incentive program, care should be taken not to create expectations of shortterm eradication. The region will likely be facing the lionfish issue into the foreseeable future and hinting at eradication or short-term solutions will only develop

resentment as the problem continues. Realistic expectations of local control and 

minimizing impacts through long-term incentive programs are key in developing 

and presenting incentive options.

Incentive Sources 

Donations

Incentives do not always have to come in the form of money. In fact, many incentive programs work together with private enterprise to offer donated items or 

services of value to lionfish collectors. Monthly contests, dive-tank air for fish 

exchanges, and raffle drawings have all been used as ways to include donated 

goods as incentive for removals.

Markets

Ongoing programs based on the commercial use of the lionfish may be the most 

sustainable model for incentives. Market-based payment for food fish is already in 

place for most coastal communities and simply developing the supply-and-demand 

chains can provide ongoing payments for fishers to target and remove lionfish. 

Markets for smaller fish to be used as aquarium fish encourage removals of 

juveniles and many other market-based uses (such as novelties and jewelry) are 

being explored. Managers may also consider the timeline of the invasion in 

determining when to begin introducing the concept and promotion of lionfish 

consumption. Recently invaded areas may even consider priming the market with 

pre-packaged lionfish imports as a method to enhance consumption prior to the 

availability of locally caught lionfish.

Subsidies

While bounties tend not to work very well, subsidies may. Providing help in the 

form of price control or subsidy, shipping costs for exports, or specific collecting 

tools, training, and equipment may encourage removals and increase market 

supply. Governments often subsidize agricultural products, and following proven 

examples of effective subsidy programs may be useful.

Recognition

Sometimes the only incentive required is a little recognition for efforts well 

undertaken. Recognition is especially important for volunteers, but should not be 

overlooked in working with other stakeholders or sectors of control programs. 

Recognizing participation in removal training events, removal efforts, and support 

is often as simple as issuing short media releases on a regular basis. Additional 

recognition through certificates, pins, hats, or shirts can go a long way in encouraging participation and continued removals. Never underestimate the effect of public 

recognition in encouraging participation. 

 

 

 
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 49 

Specific Strategies for Incentives 

Specific strategies and issues related to incentives for lionfish capture include:

Commercial incentives

i) Identify novel uses and alternative products for lionfish (spines, jewelry, 

biomedical),

ii) Evaluate market use of juveniles for the aquarium trade (pros and cons),

iii) Educate the public about lionfish as a food resource,

iv) Clarify negative perceptions about the dangers of lionfish,

v) Develop links between supply and demand for lionfish,

vi) Recognize potential risks of creating a market for lionfish (i.e., fishers 

interest to “grow and maintain” lionfish on the reef),

vii) Highlight lionfish consumption as a “green alternative” to other fish 

species,

viii) Ensure quality control of product (e.g., quality of meat or presence of 

toxins),

ix) Recruit marketing experts,

x) Be open to creative marketing, yet bring a balanced perspective to limit 

economic and cultural “acceptance” of an invasive species,

xi) Consider government subsidies (e.g., those similar in agriculture, farm, 

export, etc.),

xii) Establish a campaign in partnership with the aquarium industry,

xiii) Consider marketing strategies for all sizes of fish,

xiv) Create tax incentives or other government incentives (e.g., dive operator 

participation, fisher licensing, etc.),

xv) Ensure that the invasive (negative) nature of lionfish in the Caribbean is 

highlighted in all marketing materials,

xvi) Link decline in lionfish to restoration of native fish populations,

xvii) Investigate market use of bycatch of lionfish.

Public incentives

i) Establish and support tournaments and derbies,

ii) Create adopt-a-reef programs for removal,

iii) Recognize efforts of volunteers and partners,

iv) Provide discounts for purchase of scuba equipment/air fills,

v) Purchase, in whole or in part, removal gear for volunteers (e.g., fishers),

vi) Promote individual food consumption (i.e., “catch your own dinner”),

vii) Include control strategies in management plans, business plans, and 

reports for groups seeking funding,

viii) Use bounties if/when appropriate,

ix) Provide direct government payments if/when appropriate,

x) Generate prizes and rewards for removal,

xi) Establish and maintain national records (e.g., biggest fish/most fish 

captured),

xii) Award academic credits to university students for community service,

xiii) Promote lionfish control as a “Green Initiative,” and

xiv) Address liability issues.

 
 50 Control Strategies 

Monitoring 

Monitoring the effectiveness of lionfish removals and setting removal frequency 

targets is critically important to allocate removal resources effectively. Chapter 5 

provides extensive information on developing monitoring methods and efforts —

specifically for lionfish. 

No control program should be designed without due regard for this assessment and 

evaluation. Effective monitoring includes not only monitoring for impacts, but also 

monitoring of removal effort. These records can also be used as positive feedback 

for removal participants to maintain positive support of, and participation in, 

removal programs. 

Fish Food for Thought 

There has been considerable interest throughout the region in developing commercial 

markets for lionfish as a food fish. One criticism of this effort has included the potential for 

smaller juvenile lionfish to be left by commercial fishers in favor of larger, market-ready 

lionfish. While the potential for this is real, one possible mechanism to prevent this is to 

also create a market for juveniles. While some believe it is counter to combating the 

invasion, large commercial markets do exist for juvenile lionfish in the aquarium trade. 

Puerto Rico currently exports approximately 200–300 juvenile lionfish per week to supply 

the U.S. aquarium trade. Similarly, Florida Keys marine life collectors routinely remove and 

sell juvenile specimens. While the aquarium trade is implicated as the initial source of the 

invasion, the number of fish released was few. Even if a small percentage of collected fish 

were to end up back in the wild, the numbers removed would be greater and may contribute to a reduction in impacts. Further, there are economic benefits to fishers and collectors 

for lionfish removals. 

In some countries, however, there is concern that allowing aquarium trade in invasive 

species like lionfish could elicit additional introductions of lionfish or other non-natives. 

Potential restrictions on the sale and husbandry of non-native marine fishes in coastal 

zones, marking individual animals, and initiating permitting fees have all been suggested 

as ways to address possible releases.
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 

CHAPTER 5 

 

Monitoring: 

An Essential Action 

 

Stephanie J. Green

This guide outlines a suite of tools and techniques for minimizing the effects of 

lionfish on invaded marine ecosystems, and their associated economies and 

societies. Strategies to manage the lionfish invasion focus on controlling the size of 

local lionfish populations, because the number of lionfish in an area largely dictates 

the severity of their impact. For resource managers who are designing and implementing control strategies, a key question is: “How successful are my actions?” This 

chapter provides managers with the tools to answer this question. It outlines a 

crucial — and often overlooked — component of control plans for lionfish: designing 

and implementing monitoring programs to evaluate their success. 

Measuring success is essential because it: 

i) Gives an indication of whether the lionfish control strategy is achieving its 

goals, and 

ii) Provides direction on how actions can be modified to improve control 

(Figure 5.1). 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute

2012

Figure 5.1 Monitoring is an integral component of the Adaptive Management Cycle for 

lionfish control. 
 52 Monitoring 

Lionfish are a new stress on invaded marine ecosystems. Likewise, monitoring 

lionfish populations and their effects — and ultimately the success of control in 

mitigating them — requires new techniques and approaches. This chapter is divided 

into four parts. The first describes protocols and tips for assessing local lionfish 

populations. The second describes the main ecological effects of lionfish and 

provides monitoring indicators for each effect. The third part describes organismal 

monitoring, through lionfish dissection; and the fourth considers monitoring 

socioeconomic impacts related to fishing, tourism, and human health. Suggestions 

for appropriate monitoring protocols are included throughout the chapter. 

A range of programs are underway in the western Atlantic, Caribbean, and Gulf of 

Mexico to monitor the impacts and management of stressors, such as overexploitation, habitat degradation, pollution, and human mediated climate change. 

In many cases, existing programs can be modified to include protocols that assess 

lionfish and their effects. To aid in integration with existing programs, examples of 

protocol modifications are provided. 

MONITORING LOCAL LIONFISH POPULATIONS 

Several key questions managers will want to ask as they begin to develop a 

monitoring program for local lionfish populations are: 

i) How are lionfish numbers changing over time? 

ii) Are some locations being colonized more quickly or heavily than others?

iii) How effective is removal in controlling local lionfish numbers?

iv) How much effort is required to control lionfish numbers?

There are several methods that managers can employ to track changes in local 

lionfish populations over time and in response to management actions. These 

methods can be broadly divided into fisheries independent and fisheries dependent

data collection. 

Fisheries Independent Monitoring 

 

Fisheries independent monitoring activities are those conducted separately from 

commercial fishing operations. All sectors of society can be mobilized to collect 

valuable fisheries independent information on local lionfish populations. Table 5.1 

describes data collection methods, training requirements, and the applications of 

data gathered for three main sectors: the public, trained volunteers, and resource 

managers/researchers. Methods vary in the amount of time and training required, 

their relative geographic scale, and the level of detail at which data are collected.

Public 

The public provides a vast resource of eyes both in and on the water. With minimal 

training, members of the public can opportunistically collect and report lionfish 

sightings during recreational activities, such as diving, snorkeling, fishing, and 

swimming. To ensure data quality, a person’s level of training and expertise should 

be considered. Untrained members of the public should be asked to report only 

basic information (Table 5.1). 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 53 Table 5.1 Protocols and considerations for monitoring local lionfish populations, shown by sector. Sector Type of data collection Data collected Application Training required Public Opportunistic:

 Sightings data collected 

as part of other in-water activities, such as fishing, diving, snorkeling or swimming

Lionfish sightings information: Number of lionfish sighted Sighting location (habitat type 

coordinates, depth, date, time)

Sightings distribution and frequency by location, over time, and by habitatSpatial and temporal patterns of lionfish colonization (aid in determining priority areas for control)

Ability to accurately identify lionfishAwareness of and familiarity with the reporting system

Trained 

volunteers

Organized: Data collected during 

organized in-water lionfish survey projects or incorporated into ongoing monitoring programs

Roving diver surveys of lionfish abundance*Estimates of lionfish size (total length)

Spatial and temporal patterns in lionfish abundance, body size, and biomassSpatial and temporal patterns of lionfish colonization (aid in determining priority areas for control)

Ability to accurately identify lionfishAbility to accurately estimate lionfish lengthTraining in conducting roving diver surveys

Resource 

managers/ 

researchers

Organized: Data collected during 

organized in-water lionfish survey projects or incorporated into ongoing monitoring programs

Transect surveys of lionfish density**Estimates of lionfish size (total length)

Spatial and temporal patterns in lionfish density, body size, and biomassSpatial and temporal patterns of lionfish colonization (aid in determining priority areas for control)

Ability to accurately identify lionfishAbility to accurately estimate length of lionfishTraining in conducting belt/transect surveys

* The total number of individuals per survey. **The number of individuals per unit area.
 54 Monitoring 

While relatively few resources are required to gather a potentially large amount of 

sightings data, resource managers will have little control over sampling effort (i.e., 

sighting effort) across space and over time. The majority of sightings will likely come 

from areas that are accessed frequently, such as beaches, snorkeling and dive 

sites, and recreational fishing areas. 

Resource managers should collect demographic information on the groups reporting the majority of sightings, and comparisons between the numbers of sightings 

versus captures can be used to direct outreach/awareness efforts.

Trained volunteers

Volunteers can greatly increase the amount of skilled personnel devoted to monitoring local lionfish populations, particularly in areas where resource management 

staff are limited. After receiving standardized training, volunteers can participate in 

organized data collection using standardized protocols, either on scuba or snorkel 

(Table 5.1). By coordinating volunteer activities, resource managers can control 

sampling design, across both space and time. Volunteer activities may require 

focused logistic support (e.g., boat logistics and scuba tank fills) or may be integrated into ongoing monitoring programs. In all cases, resource managers will need to 

work with volunteer program leaders to coordinate sampling design and to obtain 

and manage data. 

Resource managers/researchers

With sufficient training, resource managers and researchers can generate highresolution data on the spatial and temporal distribution of lionfish. Monitoring 

activities by this sector differ from those of volunteers largely in the amount of time 

devoted to training and to conducting the monitoring itself (Table 5.1). While 

monitoring by resource management and researchers is resource-intensive, 

requiring dedicated funding for personnel and logistic support, it yields high-quality 

data against which the utility of public and volunteer data can be compared. It also 

informs site-specific decisions about lionfish control, which require spatially explicit 

information on lionfish biomass density.

An integrated approach

Lionfish control programs should include monitoring by all three sectors — the 

public, trained volunteers, and resource managers/researchers — because they 

represent information gathered at complementary spatial scales and levels of detail 

(Figure 5.2). For example, data gathered by the public coarsely approximate the 

relative rate of lionfish colonization and abundance over time and across a broad 

geographic area. On the other hand, monitoring by volunteers can quantify the 

abundance and biomass of lionfish within designated geographic areas. Finally, 

detailed data collection by resource managers and researchers provides information on local lionfish populations over space and time, in relation to control 

activities at specific research sites. The locations where the public, volunteers, and 

resource managers/researchers monitor lionfish are not mutually exclusive. Overlap 

in the monitoring locations can provide information on the relative utility of information generated by each sector for informing lionfish control (Figure 5.2). 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 55 

Centralizing lionfish data 

The USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species database is the largest repository for spatially referenced sightings information for lionfish in the western Atlantic. The majority of lionfish sightings are derived from personal communications through the online 

reporting system. Researchers, resource managers, and members of the public can 

submit sightings information, including geographic location and habitat information, 

online at http://nas.er.usgs.gov/sightingreport.aspx. This centralized database provides managers across the region with the most up-to-date lionfish distribution information for both their local area and the region, reduces the chance of duplication or 

data loss, and eliminates the need to allocate local resources to intensively manage 

sightings data within each location individually. 

 

Tips for Surveying Lionfish 

Lionfish are cryptic and patchily distributed

The cryptic coloration and behavior of lionfish make them particularly challenging to 

detect underwater (Figure 5.3). Lionfish primarily forage during low-light periods at 

dawn and dusk; during the day, they are most often found sheltering under structures (Green et al. 2011). Yet the vast majority of recreational and scientific diving 

and snorkeling activities take place during the day, when lionfish are least visible. 

On densely populated habitats, lionfish will often be found in close proximity to one 

another and in association with large structural features (such as coral heads or 

man-made debris). This means that divers must survey a rather large area in order 

to capture their distribution accurately. 

Figure 5.2. Circle size represents the relative geographic scale 

of monitoring by each group, while color represents the level of 

detail obtained from the data, with darker shades indicating 

more detailed information. 
 56 Monitoring 

Standard survey methods have a low probability of detecting lionfish

A recent study on Bahamian coral reefs found that belt transect and stationary visual census (SVC) surveys failed to detect more than half of the lionfish within their 

boundaries as compared with thorough lionfish-focused searches of the same area. 

Importantly, lionfish detection during belt transects and SVCs varied significantly 

with the size of lionfish and reef complexity, with smaller lionfish and high complexity habitats resulting in low detection, indicating that the application of a correction 

factor to standard visual data is not straightforward (S. Green, Unpublished data). 

Suggested standard survey procedure

Results over time suggest that thorough lionfish-focused searchers are most appropriate for characterizing lionfish distribution. While the exact transect area may vary 

by program and location, resource managers must ensure that surveyors take adequate time to make a thorough search of the habitat for lionfish. The observer 

should take care to look under all overhangs, in crevices, and in cracks in the substrate, using a dive light as needed. A maximum search rate of 10 m2 per minute is 

recommended, with even longer search times in complex habitats. 

Figure 5.3 The cryptic coloration and behavior of lionfish make them 

particularly difficult to detect during day-time visual surveys. Can you 

spot all four lionfish in this photograph?

Because lionfish are often patchily distributed — and the probability of detecting 

them using standard survey protocols is low — conducting separate, lionfishfocused surveys within an expanded search area is recommended, rather than 

relying on abundance and density information from all-species surveys. Lionfishfocused transect surveys of 25 m x 10 m (length x width) are well suited to detect 

lionfish in patchy, heterogeneous marine habitats. A trained observer swims in an S

-shaped pattern (Figure 5.4), taking care to thoroughly search all habitat features. 

The number and size (total length to the nearest 1 cm) of all lionfish within the 

survey area are recorded. Only lionfish are recorded during the survey. The minimum search time for each transect is 25 minutes. WWW.STUARTCOVE.COM
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 57 

Figure 5.4 A standard approach for monitoring lionfish density. After laying out a 25 m transect tape, a diver makes a thorough, lionfish-focused search by swimming in an S-shaped 

pattern within the transect area, 5 m on either side of the transect line. The abundance and 

size (total length to the nearest 1 cm) of all lionfish encountered within the transect area are 

recorded. 

Modifying Existing Volunteer Protocols to Gather Lionfish Data 

Volunteer divers and snorkelers currently collect valuable information on marine life 

through managed programs throughout the region, such as the Reef Environmental 

Education Foundation (REEF) Volunteer Survey Project. An ongoing effort across the 

western Atlantic, REEF allows volunteer scuba divers and snorkelers to collect and report 

information on marine fish populations. These data are used by a variety of resource 

management agencies and researchers. 

REEF volunteers use the roving diver 

technique (RDT) — a visual survey method 

well-suited for volunteer data collection 

(Table 5.2). During RDT surveys, divers 

swim freely throughout a dive site and 

record every observed fish species that can 

be positively identified. Species and 

approximate abundance scores are 

recorded on an underwater slate. The goal 

is to find as many species as possible so 

divers are encouraged to look under ledges 

and up in the water column, and to seek 

out cryptic species. Each recorded species 

is assigned one of four abundance 

categories based on how many individuals 

were seen throughout the dive. The 

categories are: single (1 individual), few (2–

10), many (11–100), and abundant 

(>100).

During REEF surveys, divers and snorkelers 

can also tabulate the size (total length to 

the nearest 1 cm) and exact number of all 

lionfish sighted during a 30-minute period. 

This simple modification to the existing 

protocol provides useful data on local 

lionfish populations. For more information, 

see http://www.reef.org.

REEF volunteer roving diving surveys (as 

shown here) may be modified to gather 

data on lionfish abundance and size. 

REEF
 58 Monitoring 

Fisheries Dependent Monitoring 

Recreational fisheries — derbies and tournaments

Single-day lionfish fishing events and monthly contests are growing in popularity 

across the Caribbean as a way to raise awareness about the invasion, showcase 

lionfish as edible, provide samples for research, and reduce local lionfish populations (Figure 5.5). Over time, lionfish derbies that track the catch of lionfish and the 

effort by participants — as measured by catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) — can provide 

an indication of change in local lionfish abundance. Tracking the distribution of 

lionfish sizes captured at each event can further provide an indication of the effects 

of fishing on the structure of local lionfish populations over time. Monthly contests 

can provide similar information on a more frequent basis, though sample sizes may 

be smaller than in single-day events.

Data to collect at each event:

i) Number of lionfish removed,

ii) Sizes of lionfish captured,

iii) Locations of capture (depth, habitat type), and

iv) Number of participants, gear types used, and time in the water.

Commercial and artisanal fisheries

Table 5.2 Common underwater visual survey methods used to assess fish communities in the western Atlantic. Methods vary in the number of species surveyed, the 

resolution of size data collected, and whether density or abundance is obtained. The 

type of ecological effect monitored determines which method is most appropriate.

Monitoring 

program

Method Reference Metric Body size 

recorded?

Set of species 

surveyed?

Reef Environmental 

Education Foundation (REEF) fish 

survey program

Roving 

diver 

survey

Schmitt and 

Sullivan (1996)

Log-scale

abundance

No All species

Atlantic and Gulf 

Rapid Reef 

Assessment 

(AGRRA)

Belt 

transect 

survey

Lang et al. 

(2010)

Density Binned

(5 cm 

increments)

Commercially 

exploited and 

grazers only

Reef Check Belt 

transect 

survey

http://

www.reefcheck.

org

Density Binned

(5 cm 

increments)

Selected 

commercially 

exploited and 

grazing fish, and 

some 

invertebrates

US Government/

National Parks 

Service/NOAA 

National Ocean 

Service

Belt 

transect 

survey

Rogers et al.

(1994)

Density Nearest 

1 cm

All species

US Government/

NOAA National 

Marine Fisheries 

Service

Stationary 

visual 

census

Bohnsack and 

Bannerot 

(1986)

Density Mean, min, 

max

All species;

restricted 

detection of 

small-bodied/

cryptic species
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 59 

Information on lionfish bycatch and fisher efforts can provide an indication of how 

local lionfish abundance and size distribution change over time. The minimum data 

to record to obtain these estimates includes:

i) Number and sizes of lionfish caught,

ii) Locations of capture (depth, habitat type), and

iii) Number of fishers, gear types used, and time in/on the water.

This information can be gleaned from fisheries observer programs, at landing 

stations, or by conducting research using gear similar to that employed for commercial purposes. 

 

 

 

 

MONITORING ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS 

Lionfish occupy coral reef, seagrass, mangrove, estuary, man-made, and deep-sea 

habitats between depths of 1–300 m. This section focuses on the main ecological 

effects of their interaction with native species in these habitats: the direct effects of 

lionfish on their prey and on their competitors, and in-direct effects (mediated by 

predation and competition) on habitat structure. This section also provides a 

description of the types of native species likely to be affected by lionfish and the 

monitoring methods for assessing their populations. Specific instruction on sampling design and implementation of each method can be found in the reference 

materials cited throughout this section, and summarized in Tables 5.2, 5.3, and 5.5.

Predation 

Lionfish consume an array of species and sizes of native fish and invertebrates 

usually overlooked in standard monitoring protocols (Albins and Hixon 2008, Morris 

and Akins 2009, Green et al. 2012). These include cryptic and small-bodied 

species, and the juvenile size classes of larger bodied species (Figure 5.6), which 

have declined rapidly on some invaded reefs as a result of the lionfish invasion 

(Green et al. 2012).

Figure 5.5. Data collected during 

lionfish derbies can be used to track 

local lionfish populations over space 

and time. During the past four years, 

recreational fishers have removed 

more than 4,000 lionfish from waters 

around the Abaco Islands, Bahamas, 

as part of the annual Green Turtle Cay 

Lionfish Derby. Each year, the number 

and sizes of lionfish caught, the 

number of participants and gear types 

used, and the locations in which the 

teams fished are recorded. (See 

Appendix 4 for sample data sheets.) 

REEF
 60 Monitoring 

Indicators and protocols

To assess lionfish predation impacts, managers can monitor temporal and spatial 

trends in the diversity, density, and biomass of prey-sized invertebrates and fish, in 

relation to lionfish density and biomass. The maximum size of prey lionfish can consume is largely determined by their gape size (i.e., mouth size). Lionfish have been 

documented to consume prey greater than 40% of their total length (TL). As a result, 

the vulnerability of native species to lionfish predation depends on the size of the 

lionfish in the area. With lionfish growing to sizes well over 40 cm TL in their introduced range, fishes and crustaceans up to ~15 cm length could be consumed.

For fish prey, visual belt transect surveys recording the identity, number, and size 

(TL) of all prey-sized fishes are appropriate (Table 5.2). Unfortunately, there are no 

standard approaches for monitoring invertebrate prey, due to their small size and 

very cryptic nature.

Suggested standard visual survey procedure for fish prey 

Accurately assessing populations of lionfish prey requires a thorough knowledge of 

Atlantic and Caribbean fish identification (including juvenile life stages, as well as 

cryptic species such as gobies and blennies) and fish-size estimation training. Replicated transect surveys of 25 m x 2 m (length x width) are well suited to detect small 

bodied and cryptic fishes on patchy, heterogeneous, marine habitats. A trained observer makes a thorough search of the transect area, taking care to look under all 

overhangs, crevices, and in cracks in the substrate, using a dive light as needed to 

look for cryptic fish. The number and size (total length to the nearest 1 cm) of all 

prey-sized fishes (i.e., less than ~15 cm) within the survey area are recorded. The 

minimum time for each transect is 30 minutes. Time may be longer depending on 

habitat complexity and fish density.

Figure 5.6. Potential lionfish prey. Lionfish consume an array of native fishes, including smallbodied and cryptic species, such as (top, left to right) the masked goby (Coryphopterus 

personatus) and secretary blenny (Acanthemblemaria maria), and juveniles of commercially 

and ecologically important species, such as (bottom, left to right) the Nassau grouper 

(Epinephelus striatus), and Spanish hogfish (Bodianus rufus). 

PHOTO COURTESY OF NEW WORLD PUBLICATIONS
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 61 

Competition 

Lionfish occupy the same habitats and consume similar prey to many species of 

native fish predators (piscivores and carnivores) and macro-invertebrates (Figure 

5.7). Competition with lionfish for food and space may affect the behavior, distribution, growth, survival, and, ultimately, population size of native organisms (Albins 

and Hixon 2011, Green et al. 2012, Albins 2012). It is possible that competition 

with lionfish will affect western Atlantic fisheries. For example, research is showing 

that lionfish grow much faster and consume prey at significantly higher rates than 

native Coney grouper (Cephalopholis fulva), raising fears that they may outcompete 

this species on invaded reefs (Albins 2012 ). 

Indicators and protocols

Monitoring temporal and spatial trends in the diversity, density, and biomass of 

large-bodied macro-invertebrates and predatory fish (i.e., >20 cm TL), in relation to 

lionfish density and biomass, will provide insights into the effects of competition 

with lionfish. Habitat-scale data are needed to determine if competitive interactions 

detected during small-scale experiments affect predator populations across 

invaded systems (Albins 2012). Fisheries independent methods, such as visual belt 

transect surveys and stationary visual censuses, are appropriate (Table 5.2). 

Indirect Effects on Habitat Structure and Function 

 

The direct effects of lionfish on native fish and invertebrate communities (i.e., 

through predation and competition) may indirectly affect the base of marine food 

Figure 5.7. Potential lionfish competitors. Lionfish share prey and habitat 

resources with a number of native Atlantic fish predators, such as (top, left 

to right) the Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus), Black grouper 

(Mycteroperca bonaci), and (bottom, left) Coney grouper (Cephalopholis 

fulva). They also inhabit similar habitats as (bottom right) Caribbean spiny 

lobster (Panulirus argus).

NEW WORLD PUBLICATIONS
 62 Monitoring 

webs if the species consumed or outcompeted by lionfish influence the diversity 

and biomass of benthic communities. These “indirect effects” may result in shifts in 

the benthic community structure, and ultimately physical structure, of invaded 

habitats. Coral reefs may be particularly vulnerable to indirect effects if lionfish 

predation depletes populations of grazers that control coral-algal dynamics. 

Indicators and protocols

The indirect effects of lionfish on habitat structure and function can be assessed by 

monitoring trends in the diversity and percent cover of benthic organisms in relation 

to native fish and lionfish density and biomass as well the physical structure of 

invaded habitat. Visual quadrat and photo-quadrats surveys assess benthic 

community composition (Table 5.3). Rugosity and depth profile measurements are 

used to quantify the physical structure of the marine habitat (Table 5.3). 

Sampling Design and Data Management 

 

Whether designing a new program or modifying existing ecological monitoring 

protocols to include lionfish and their effects, the spatial and temporal scale of 

sampling are critical considerations. Protocols will vary by area, depending on the 

characteristics of the habitat to be monitored, the goals of the lionfish control 

program, and the resources available. Several excellent references provide detailed 

information on the design and implementation of ecological monitoring methods 

(Tables 5.3 and 5.5) and resource managers should consult these as they develop 

their lionfish monitoring plans. Important considerations for monitoring design 

include the following: 

Where to monitor

Monitoring (both for lionfish and their ecological effects) should occur in areas 

prioritized for lionfish control (see Chapter 4) and at similar habitats where lionfish 

are not actively managed. It is important to expend the effort to sample sites not

targeted for lionfish removal, because these sites provide a reference against which 

the effectiveness of control/removal efforts can be compared. 

Integrated sampling

Where possible, information on native fishes, lionfish, and benthic habitat structure 

should be collected from the same sampling unit (i.e., multiple types of data from 

the same survey). Integrating sampling in this way enables comparison of variables 

at a fine spatial scale (e.g., transects within sampling area, usually sites). 

Sample size considerations 

Surveys should be replicated across space and at regular intervals over time, taking 

into account the seasonality of organism abundance and distribution, as well as 

local lionfish colonization rates, and the frequency of lionfish control. 

Data management 

Data should be managed electronically with software such as Microsoft Excel® and 

Access®, or similar open source programs. Because data security is of major 

importance for all monitoring projects, backing up information in several physical 

locations and on the Internet, using an on-line data storage service (e.g., DropboxTM 

or Mozy® ) is key to avoiding corrupted, damaged or lost data. It is highly recom-
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 63 Table 5.3 In-water methods to monitor potential lionfish prey and competitor fish species, and benthic composition. Selection and implementation of the methods described below depend on habitat type, monitoring resource considerations, and the types of ecological effects to be monitored. Detailed descriptions of each protocol and its implementation can be found in “Ecological resources” shown in Table 5.5. Ecological effect Indicator Component Protocols Metrics Training required Predation (direct effect) Trends in diversity, density, and biomass of prey-sized invertebrates and fish in relation to changes in lionfish density and biomass Fish prey Visual transect surveys Diversity, density, and biomass Visual identification of Atlantic and Caribbean fishes to the species level Familiarity with conducting visual transect survey methodology Invertebrate prey There is currently no standard visual survey method Competition (direct effect) Trends in the diversity, density, and biomass of large-bodied macro- invertebrates, and predatory fish (i.e., >20 cm total length) over time in relation to lionfish density and biomass Fisheries independent Visual transect surveys or stationary visual surveys Diversity, density, and biomass Visual identification of Atlantic and Caribbean fishes to the species level Familiarity with conducting visual transect survey methodology Fisheries dependent Trends in CPUE and body size of fisheries landings over time Diversity, CPUE, catch biomass Visual identification of Caribbean reef fishes to the species level Habitat structure (indirect effect) Trends in percent benthic cover and structural complexity over time on coral reefs in relation to lionfish density and biomass Benthic composition Visual quadrats or photo-quadrats Diversity, percent cover Visual identification of Caribbean and Atlantic benthic organisms Familiarity with conducting visual or photo quadrat assessments Physical structure Rugosity and depth profiles along transects Rugosity and depth variability Familiarity with conducting rugosity and depth measurements
 64 Monitoring 

Figure 5.8 Surveys (shown as red lines) conducted within a location or habitat type (the 

area within each yellow circle) may be more similar to each other than those conducted 

a separate location or habitat type, and are therefore not independent. When conducting statistical analyses, managers must account for this “nested” data structure.

mended that managers used the USGS Non-indigenous Species Database as a 

repository for all lionfish sightings information.

Analyzing ecological data 

Ecological monitoring data are often spatially or temporally correlated, meaning that 

surveys conducted at one location or habitat, or during one time period, are more 

similar to each other than surveys conducted at separate locations, habitats or time 

periods. Because each survey is not independent, analyses must reflect the 

“nested” nature of the data. An excellent reference for guiding ecologists through 

data exploration can be found in Zuur et al. 2010. 

For spatially or temporally correlated data, mixed-effects models are often most 

appropriate (Figure 5.8). For data that cannot be transformed to achieve normality 

(e.g., count and percent cover data), “generalized” forms of mixed models can be 

used. Several excellent references provide detailed information on sample design 

and statistical analysis (Krebs 1999, Schiener et al. 2001, Zuur et al. 2007).

Lionfish and Ecological Monitoring Designs 

Below are two examples of monitoring plans that integrate protocols for assessing 

local lionfish populations and their ecological effects. The spatial design of sampling 

and the choice of methodologies reflect location-specific habitat type and environmental conditions. 

Example 1: Continuous coral reef system 

Location: Puerto Rico and St. Croix, USVI 

Investigators: SFU, REEF, NOAA, University of Puerto Rico–Mayagüez (UPRM) 

Sampling design

A set of monitoring protocols were implemented to track the effectiveness of lionfish 

removal in reducing local lionfish populations and their ecological impacts on a 

continuous coral reef system. The system is comprised of a 20 km long fore reef, 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 65 

which lies along the top of a deep drop-off, ~300 m from shore. The average depth 

at the top of the reef crest is 9 m. The frequency of lionfish removals conducted by 

local divers and volunteers varies along the reef system. As a result, there may be 

differences over time in the establishment of lionfish and the magnitude of their 

ecological effect between areas which are subject to different levels of control. 

Sixteen monitoring sites (each ~1 ha in area) were selected along the reef, each 

separated from its nearest neighbor by at least 1 km. At each site, visual surveys 

for lionfish, native fishes, and benthos are conducted by trained observers who 

were scuba diving. All data — lionfish, native fishes, and benthic habitat information 

— are collected along 8 belt transects of 25 m length at each site. The transects are 

laid parallel to the reef crest, no closer than ~5 m to the drop-off and stratified by 

depth and position (i.e., reef wall, reef crest, and reef flat). Monitoring at each site 

occurs on a biannual basis (once in winter, once in summer).

Native fish survey

While rolling out each transect line, the diver records the identity and size (total 

length the nearest 1 cm) of all fishes greater than 15 cm within a distance of 2 m 

from either side of the transect (transect area: 25 m x 4 m). The minimum time for 

this survey is 5 min, and increases in higher complexity sites. After waiting 3 min to 

reduce observer effects on fish behavior, the diver makes a second pass to record 

the identity, size (total length the nearest 1 cm) and abundance of all fishes less 

than 15 cm within a distance of 1 m from either side of the transect line. (See 

“Suggested standard visual survey procedure for fish prey,” Page 60).

Lionfish survey

After conducting native fish surveys on each 25 m transect line, the observer 

makes detailed searches only for lionfish within 5 m of either side of the same 

transects (each transect area: 25 m x 10 m), using the methods described under 

“Suggested standard survey procedure for lionfish” and in Figure 5.5. The search 

encompasses the same area in which native fishes are surveyed on each transect. 

Benthic habitat

Data on benthic composition, rugosity, and structural relief are collected from 

multiple points along each 25 m transect line. Photo quadrats are conducted every 

3 m (for a total of 8 photos per transect), and the camera distance from the reef is 

standardized (e.g., 50 cm) to ensure a consistent area for analysis. Reef rugosity is 

measured every 5 m along the transect line (for a total of 5 measures per transect). 

To assess rugosity, divers fit a fine-linked 3 m long chain to the substrate perpendicular to the transect line, paying careful attention to fit the chain into all contours 

of the benthos. The straight-line horizontal distance between the transect tape and 

the end of the 3 m chain is recorded to create a ratio of the fitted distance to 

straight-line distance (i.e., rugosity). At the same points (every 5 m), the height of 

the reef structure (i.e., relief) is recorded by measuring the depth of the lowest and 

highest point within a 1 m radius of the transect tape. The depth of the reef 

structure directly under the transect tape at each 5 m point is also recorded.

 

 

 

 
 66 Monitoring 

Example 2: Coral patch reef system 

Location: Eleuthera Island, Bahamas 

Investigators: Cape Eleuthera Institute, SFU, REEF, 

Bahamas Department of Marine Resources 

 

Sampling design

A set of monitoring protocols were implemented to track the effectiveness of lionfish 

removal in reducing local lionfish populations and their ecological impacts on coral 

patch reefs within a large, shallow sound. The system is comprised of numerous 

patch reefs varying between 100–150 m2 in area and separated by between 200 m

–1 km of sand and seagrass habitat from its nearest neighbor. The depth of the 

water in the sound is ~4 m. The frequency of lionfish removal varies between 

patches, so that there may be differences in lionfish colonization (i.e., density and 

biomass) and their ecological effects between sites with higher and lower control. In 

this system, each patch is considered a monitoring site, and a subset of 32 patches, 

varying in removal frequency, are selected for monitoring. At each site (i.e., patch), 

visual surveys for lionfish, native fishes, and benthos are conducted by trained 

observers diving with scuba gear.

Because the patches represent small, discrete habitat units, two types of surveys 

are used for monitoring. Lionfish, native predatory fishes, and macro-invertebrates 

are censused during roving diver surveys of the entire patch. Native fishes and 

benthic habitat are characterized on 4 belt-transect surveys at each patch. Transects are oriented north-south on the patches. Three belt transects are also laid in 

the sand/seagrass adjacent to each reef (~5–10 m from the reef edge), to assess 

fish species in these adjacent habitats. Monitoring at each site occurs on a biannual 

basis (once in winter and once in summer).

Whole-reef lionfish and predatory native fish surveys

Prior to placing transect lines, the surveyor makes a systematic search of the entire 

patch reef area, recording the size (total length to the nearest 1 cm) of all large 

predatory fish species (Serranidae and Lutjanidae). For all lionfish located on the 

patch reef, the surveyor records total length (to the nearest 1 cm). Search time will 

vary with patch size, but should be no less than ~15 m2 per minute.

Transect surveys for native fishes

A diver records the identity and size (total length the nearest 1 cm) of all fishes 

within a distance of 1 m from either side of the transect (transect area: 8 m x 2 m). 

The time for each survey should be standardized to ~8 minutes, but may be longer 

for highly complex habitats (modified from Page 60, “Suggested standard visual 

survey procedure for fish prey”). A diver also records the identity and size of fishes 

along the 3 seagrass/sand transects, standardizing survey time for to a minimum of 

3 minutes each.

Benthic habitat surveys

Data on benthic habitat composition, rugosity, and structural relief are collected 

from multiple points along each 8 m x 2 m transect, using the same methods as 

described above. Photoquadrats are conducted every 1 m (for a total of 8 photos 

per transect). Rugosity, relief, and depth are measured every 2 m along each 

transect line (a total of four measures per transect).
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 67 

Table 5.4 Types and uses of data collected through lionfish dissection.

Type Metric Units Application

External

Measurement

Total length (TL) mm Growth, body condition, population 

size structure Standard length (SL) mm

Weight g

Gape width mm

Feeding ecology Gape height mm

Sample

Gill tissue —

Species identification, population 

structure

Muscle tissue —

Food web ecology through stable 

isotope analysis, species identification, population structure

Fin clip Species identification, population 

structure

Internal

Measurement

Gender M or F Individual gender, gender ratio in 

population

Interstitial fat volume ml Health assessment

Stomach contents mm & ml Feeding ecology

Sample

Otoliths — Age and growth

Gonad — Reproductive physiology

Stomach contents — Feeding ecology

ORGANISMAL MONITORING THROUGH DISSECTION 

Data generated through lionfish dissection can inform our understanding of their 

biology, ecology, and potential impacts on invaded habitats. Coupling dissection 

information with environmental and biotic data facilitates inferences about lionfish 

population dynamics, reproductive biology, and food web ecology across space and 

over time. 

This section briefly describes the dissection data required to inform the management of lionfish and the impacts on invaded marine habitats. Ideally, data and 

samples from specimens would be collected in a standardized way to facilitate inter

-region comparisons over time. 

Standard techniques for collecting information and samples from dissected lionfish 

are summarized in Green et al. (2012b). Table 5.4 outlines several areas in which 

data obtained through dissection can be used to inform our understanding of the 

population dynamics of lionfish, their potential ecological effects on invaded marine 

habitats, and the effectiveness of control.

Population structure 

The structure of populations can be determined through genetic approaches, which 

use tissue samples collected from dorsal fin, caudal fin, gill, and muscle tissues. 

Population dynamics 

Age and growth information from individual fish can be determined using otoliths 

(ear stones) in conjunction with fish body lengths. The relationship between weight 

and length of lionfish specimens can also be used to monitor changes in body 

condition, which may correlate with environmental variables such as: habitat type, 
 68 Monitoring 

resource availability, changing latitude, or invasion status. These data can also be 

used to determine temporal and spatial changes in age structure of local lionfish 

populations. 

Reproductive biology 

The reproductive status of an individual lionfish can be determined using various 

metrics such as gonad weight, morphology, and histology. These data aggregated 

over space and time can yield population-level trends in reproductive biology, such 

as spawning frequency and seasonality, and maturation schedules. 

Food web ecology 

Lionfish diet can be characterized by identifying and measuring the stomach 

contents of collected specimens. Conducting stomach contents analysis across 

temporal and spatial scales can improve our understanding of changes in diet 

composition and potential community effects. The carbon and nitrogen isotopic 

signature of lionfish muscle and fin tissues can be used to assess trophic position 

and feeding ecology. These data can be used in conjunction with isotope 2 data 

from native species to describe biotic interactions between lionfish and members of 

the invaded food web.

MONITORING SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS: FISHING, TOURISM, AND HUMAN HEALTH 

 

The economies and societies of many countries across the western Atlantic, 

Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico depend greatly on fisheries and tourism industries. 

These two major sectors may be affected by the ecological impacts of lionfish. A 

third concern is the health risk to people who come in direct contact with venomous 

lionfish. This section offers resource managers a general framework for assessing 

the economic, social, and human health effects related to lionfish. To date, few 

efforts have been made to quantify the magnitude and prevalence of socioeconomic impacts from the invasion. This section will be updated as new information and 

techniques become available.

Sampling design

Monitoring the socioeconomic effects of invasive lionfish requires linking social and 

economic data to the prevalence (i.e., abundance, density, and biomass) of lionfish 

within the area, both across space and over time. Information on the status of local 

lionfish populations can be obtained through both fisheries dependent and independent sampling methods (See Ecological Monitoring). Managers should relate 

these data to the social and economic metrics described below.

Fisheries 

 

Lionfish may affect the catch per unit effort of fished species in two ways: 1) they 

may directly affect the population size of the target species (through predation and/

or competition), and 2) they may interfere with fisheries activities, so that the cost 

of fishing increases — in terms of time, effort, or safety risk (Figure 5.9). These 

effects will likely vary by fishing method (gear type), target species, habitat, and the 

density of lionfish in the area.
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 69 

Indicators

i) Catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) and total catch of target species, and

ii) Bycatch-per-unit-effort and total bycatch over time of lionfish.

Protocols

i) Fisheries dependent — observation of commercial and subsistence fishing 

activities; minimum data to be collected:

 Location, habitat type, and depth of fishing

 Number of fishers, gear type, and duration of fishing

 Expenses per day of fishing (e.g., fuel, supplies, wages)

 Total number, size, and identity of target species caught

 Total number, size, and identity of bycatch (including lionfish)

ii) Fisheries independent — research fishery conducted by resource management staff: 

 Semi-structured interviews of fishers’ perception of lionfish effect on 

catch and livelihood

 Same data to be collected as above

Tourism 

While quantifying the economic effects of lionfish on the tourism industry will take 

long-term effort, gathering data on the perceptions of visitors and vendors is a 

valuable start to assessing impacts. There are two main ways in which the invasion 

could affect tourism:

i) Change to the structure and function of ecosystems regularly visited by 

tourists. Ecosystem change could affect tourism negatively if these systems 

are no longer desirable attractions. For example, a reduction in the 

diversity and density of fishes on coral reefs or reduced coral cover may 

affect dive tourism; reduced populations of recreationally fished species, 

such as bonefish, may affect international fishing tourism. However, the 

presence of lionfish colonization could boost tourism if sighting the species 

(i.e., during snorkeling or scuba diving) or fishing for them are desirable 

activities. 

ii) Increased risk to human health for tourists accessing invaded diving/

snorkeling sites or near-shore beach areas because of the possibility of 

envenomation by lionfish.

Figure 5.9. Lionfish caught in lobster 

and fish trap fisheries around the 

Caribbean raise concerns about their 

effects on the catch of commercially 

valuable species and the risk of 

envenomation to fishers. In particular, 

there is concern that the extra time 

and effort required to handle 

venomous lionfish caught within traps 

is reducing fishers’ efficiency in 

collecting their catch (i.e., reducing 

the catch per unit effort).

JOSEPH W. SMITH, NOAA
 70 Monitoring 

Indicators

i) Rate of envenomation among tourists,

ii) Diver perception of the effects of lionfish on coral reefs,

iii) Changes to rates of capture of recreationally valuable species, and

iv) Tourism revenue over time. 

Protocols

i) Envenomation records from medical sector,

ii) Semi-structured interviews with the tourism sector and tourists, 

iii) Surveys (online), and

iv) Economic data collection (tourism revenues audit).

 

Human Health 

Lionfish are venomous and there is a risk that people who encounter the fish will be 

stung. Sectors of society who are in close proximity to lionfish will likely be at a 

greater risk. These include fishers, divers, beach-goers, and those in the restaurant 

trade where lionfish are used as a food fish. As the density of lionfish in an invaded 

area increases, there is a greater risk that people from these sectors will encounter 

lionfish, and potentially an increase in the risk of being stung.

Indicators

i) Rate of envenomation among different societal groups,

ii) Cost of treatment to health system, and

iii) Trends in long-term effects on individuals who have been stung.

Protocols

Envenomation records and reports from health officials, including information on:

i) Location, date and time of envenomation,

Recreational Diver Perception of Lionfish Impacts

Dive masters, diving instructors, and tour operators are a vast source of qualitative 

information on changes in reef health and lionfish populations, as well as on tourist 

perception of the invasion and its impacts. Interviews with these dive professionals can 

provide anecdotal information on whether the lionfish invasion is affecting dive-tourist 

experiences and the likelihood of divers returning to a lionfish invaded location. Similar 

surveys have been conducted to assess the impacts of coral bleaching on dive tourism 

in the region (Cesar et al. 2000, Sealey-Baker 2011). 

A survey targeting the dive-tourist experience in lionfish

-invaded regions would focus on three key questions: 

i) Do dive/snorkel tourists notice the lionfish,

ii) Do the lionfish adversely impact the 

enjoyment of their dive, and 

iii) Does the presence of lionfish affect the 

number/location of dives they are 

making or their intent to return to the 

same area? 

WWW.STUARTCOVE.COM
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 71 

ii) Activity at time of envenomation,

iii) Demographic information, 

iv) Symptoms,

v) Follow up for long-term effects, and

vi) Cost of treatment.

 

Example 

As recommended within their National Lionfish Response Plan, the Commonwealth 

of the Bahamas has developed a questionnaire aimed at tracking the prevalence, 

severity, and distribution of lionfish envenomation across the country (Appendix 5). 

The questionnaire is intended for physicians at both hospitals and clinics. The 

questionnaire is still pending approval by the Department of Health and as a result 

is not in use at this time.

 

Information Resources 

 

Whether designing a new program or modifying existing ecological or socioeconomic 

monitoring protocols to include lionfish and their effects, resource managers should 

consider as critical the spatial and temporal scale of sampling. These details will 

vary by area, depending on the goals of the control program and resources available 

in each region, and are thus beyond the scope of this section. Several excellent 

references provide detailed information on the design and implementation of 

ecological and socioeconomic monitoring methods (Table 5.5) and managers may 

consult them as they develop their own plans for lionfish monitoring.

Table 5.5 Sources that provide detail on the design and implementation of 

monitoring methods.

Resource 

type

Reference Open access link

Ecological Hill Wilkinson (2004) http://www.icran.org/pdf/

Methods_Ecological_Monitoring.pdf

Ecological Menza et al. (2006) http://www.ccma.nos.noaa.gov/publications/

Reefmonitoringguide.pdf

Ecological Rogers et al. (1994) http://fl.biology.usgs.gov/Monitoring_Manual.pdf

Ecological Labross et al. (2002) http://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Doc/FAME/Manuals/

Labrosse_02_UVC.pdf

Ecological Caldow et al. (2009) http://ccma.nos.noaa.gov/products/biogeography/fgb/

Ecological/ 

Socioeconomic

Wilkinson et al. (2003) http://www.reefresilience.org/pdf/mcrmpa-v1.pdf

Ecological/ 

Socioeconomic

Sullivan Sealy et al. (2006) http://henge.bio.miami.edu/coastalecology/TOOLS%

20&%20METHODS%20April.pdf

SocioeconomicBunce et al. (2000) http://www.socmon.org/pdf/GCRMN_Manual.pdf

Socioeconomic

Bunce and Pomeroy (2003) http://www.socmon.org/publications.aspx
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 

CHAPTER 6 

LEGAL AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS 

FOR LIONFISH MANAGEMENT 

Dayne St. A. Buddo 

The lionfish invasion has spawned an array of legal challenges. Lionfish management in every jurisdiction can encounter legal and regulatory issues, which must be 

addressed to ensure the success of the management program. In some instances, 

existing laws and regulations may assist in the management of this invasive 

species. However, the more important issues are the legal and regulatory instruments that counteract management strategies for control of the species. One such 

issue is the removal of fish from marine protected areas (MPAs) that specifically 

prohibit fishing. Depending on the legal system in a jurisdiction or specific law, 

resource managers need to include considerations for regulatory amendments or 

even new legislation in their plans, if they intend to engage in and/or promote 

lionfish removal activities. 

The intent of this chapter is to provide guidance to resource managers and policymakers on the legal and regulatory challenges surrounding the lionfish invasion. 

This guidance will assist in the preparation of response plans and legislative 

instruments for effective control throughout the Wider Caribbean and other regions 

affected by the invasion. It is expected that the policies and perspectives provided 

here would need to be adapted, in time, to address the specifics of each jurisdiction. Inevitably, multiple stakeholders should work to reach consensus and implement strategies and practices in the context of a coordinated regional approach.

To date, no single legislation comprehensively addresses the lionfish invasion. 

Some countries have chosen to develop special provisions within existing legislation, mostly as are related to the removal of the lionfish in regulated areas.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR LEGAL AND REGULATORY INSTRUMENTS 

This section offers guidance for addressing legal and regulatory aspects of lionfish 

management at various levels of stewardship, from local marine park managers to 

those at the regional scale. These considerations were developed from the insights 

of partners and stakeholders in the Wider Caribbean and can be used to help 

develop local policy statements, legislative drafting, or even other management 

actions and practices. These are the main considerations as voiced by various 

countries throughout the region.

Consideration 1: Removal of lionfish from no-fishing areas

There has been a regional trend over the last decade to designate marine areas as 

no-take areas, primarily so they can serve as fish nursery grounds. In these areas, 

fishing and, by extension, the removal of any marine life are prohibited. These areas 

often show high abundances of juvenile fish and crustaceans, as is typical of 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute

2012
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 73

breeding/spawning areas. However, this causes a regulatory conflict. Since no 

fishing or removal is allowed, lionfish removal from these ecologically sensitive 

areas also is not allowed. This effectively provides a safe haven for lionfish. 

The removal of lionfish from no-fishing areas — such as fish sanctuaries, marine 

parks, and other protected areas — could be considered a specially allowed activity. 

Exceptions to existing laws and regulations governing gear type and the activity of 

fishing could be explored in order to review deviations from the existing regulations. 

Special permits under the respective laws could be issued, including guidelines and 

sanctions that:

i) Refer to removal of lionfish only,

ii) Supervise persons conducting removal (by government or officers),

iii) Specify dates and times for removals,

iv) Prescribe methods and gear types for removal,

v) Address safety considerations,

vi) Propose sanctions and/or fines for the violation of the guidelines,

vii) Notify local fishers that lionfish removal would take place at a particular 

date and time, and

viii) Include provisions for reporting and final disposition of specimens.

Special consideration should be given to granting these permits to local fishers, to 

avoid potential conflict and to reduce the need for enforcement. 

Bermuda and Jamaica have implemented legislation and regulations that provide a 

mechanism to allow removal of lionfish in otherwise no-fishing areas. In Jamaica, 

the previously declared fish sanctuaries in 2009 have been re-designated in 2012 

as Special Fishery Conservation Areas. This now enables officials to grant special 

permits, allowing the removal of lionfish from these areas. The Cayman Islands 

have also developed regulatory instruments for lionfish control; these are detailed 

later in this chapter. 

Consideration 2: Importation and/or use of lionfish for the aquarium trade

The broad consensus is that lionfish were introduced in the Atlantic from the 

aquarium trade. It is uncertain if this introduction was accidental or purposeful. The 

continued importation (regionally or nationally) and trade of live lionfish is a subject 

that demands careful consideration and debate. Some locations are considering 

banning possession or trade of lionfish (Pterois volitans or P. miles) for marine 

aquaria. Many countries of the Wider Caribbean region have policies restricting 

trade or import of live specimens of non-native species. Some locations are 

permitting live lionfish displays for research and public education activities only. 

Careful consideration should be given to the use of the lionfish in the pet/aquarium 

trade. Such considerations should include the destination of the live lionfish, 

special requirements for the disposal of unwanted lionfish to prevent humanmediated spread, the potential benefits to the environment through increased 

removal of juveniles for the aquarium trade, the socioeconomic benefits and 

dependence created for income by local fishers, and the possible negative public 

perception of encouraging/promoting an activity that caused the lionfish invasion 

in the first place.
 74 Legal and Regulatory Considerations

There are a myriad of ways of looking at the issue. In the Bahamas, for example, 

placing a ban on lionfish for the aquarium trade is of low priority under the Bahamas National Lionfish Response Plan (Appendix 6). This relates to the use of 

lionfish taken from Bahamian waters. This was viewed as an activity that would 

require significant resources to enforce, while the benefits may be negligible. 

Consideration 3: Use of lionfish as a fishery resource

There is no broad consensus regarding the advantages and risks of promoting a 

commercial market for lionfish. On one hand, lionfish flesh is widely recognized as 

excellent, and economic forces (i.e., the connection of supply chains with potential 

market demand) may be powerful tools in controlling lionfish populations in highpriority locations. On the other hand, some risks accompany this approach, including potential secondary impacts of increased fishing pressure, unknown market 

requirements for sustainable trade, impacts of new fishing practices on fragile 

marine ecosystems, challenges in regulating increased fishing effort, and the 

possibility of creating perverse incentives to introduce or maintain lionfish populations as an economic resource.

While additional exploration and dialogue is clearly necessary, several possible 

approaches to a lionfish fishery include:

i) Marketing the lionfish as an “eco-friendly” fishery resource with the intent 

of reducing the impact on the other local traditional fisheries,

ii) Special promotion of an “Appetizer” version (i.e., the smaller and sexually 

immature lionfish) in addition to the larger, sexually mature “Entrée” 

version,

iii) Implementing a special permit to commercial entities to use lionfish for 

commercial sale, and

iv) Use of licensing fees for, or percentage of sales going directly to, the 

management and control of lionfish. This message can also be clearly 

outlined on the packaging of the processed lionfish and/or be featured in 

advertisements and other marketing activities.

Lionfish bioaccumulation of ciguatoxins has been a concern for many countries in 

the region that promote consumption as a control strategy. This has been of 

greatest concern in countries described as “hotspots” for ciguatera poisoning.

Seafood Company Supports Lionfish Project 

In March 2011, in Jamaica, one of the largest seafood processing companies in the 

region, Rainforest Seafoods Co. Ltd., partnered with the National Lionfish Project. This 

company is very concerned about the impact that the lionfish is likely to have regionally, 

especially in the countries from where they get their supplies of seafood. The company has 

acknowledged that one of the ways to help control the lionfish is to increase its consumption by humans. They have embarked on an effort to commercialize the use of lionfish, 

primarily from the standpoint of conserving the fish being consumed by the lionfish, 

thereby protecting their already established market for these prey items. They are 

exploring the use of the juvenile lionfish as well. This effort aims to exploit lionfish as a 

commercial fishery resource in a very unsustainable manner to reduce its numbers. 
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 75

Consideration 4: National and regional coordination

National coordination on lionfish management provides an essential link between 

broader regional coordination and the personnel in the field in that country. It is 

useful to adopt best practices consistent with those being implemented throughout 

the region, and equally important for national adaptation of best practices suited to 

their respective needs. Some activities for consideration may include establishing a 

national lead/coordinator and a national committee or task force.

Lionfish do not recognize boundaries of countries, jurisdictions, or marine management areas, and therefore, it is essential that management and policy responses 

are synergized regionally, at the ecological scale of the invasion. Policies will be 

more effective when they are consistent, or at least complementary, across 

boundaries. Similarly, monitoring and research activities will be more powerful if 

fundamental methodologies and data collection standards are shared. There is an 

immense wealth of experience across the region that should be shared, so that 

individual managers and policymakers do not have to re-learn the same lessons in 

different places.

The managers who assembled in Cancun in August 2010 emphasized these 

principles, and many efforts are now underway to increase communication, 

collaboration, and coordination in response to the lionfish invasion.

REVIEW OF EXISTING LEGISLATION, POLICIES, AND PLANS 

The following sub-sections provide information on some of the legal and regulatory 

measures taken by countries throughout the region.

Puerto Rico

In November 2010, Puerto Rico created a “Special Disposition for the Lionfish” 

under Fish Regulation 7949 (Appendix 7). This special provision provides allowances by permit for the live and dead capture of lionfish in any marine environment, 

including no-fishing/no-take and other protected areas. It also makes provisions for 

use of scuba, hookah, or any type of gear to catch lionfish during day or night. In 

addition, the Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources 

established a special program to administer the special allowances. This important 

component provides organizational structure ensuring a level of regulatory control 

on the removal of lionfish.

The Bahamas

In 2003, the Bahamas developed a National Invasive Species Strategy (NISS) 

addressing the threat of terrestrial and aquatic invaders. Given that the lionfish 

invasion was not documented in the Bahamas until 2004, no special provisions for 

lionfish were addressed in the NISS. In 2009, based on recommendations from the 

Bahamas NISS, a National Lionfish Response Plan (NLRP) was developed with 

leadership of the Bahamas Department of Marine Resources (Appendix 6). Recommendations from these documents have led to the proposed amendment of several 

regulations in Chapter 244 of the Fisheries Resources (Conservation and Jurisdiction) Regulations. These recommendations include amending existing legislation or 

creating new legislation that addresses the management of invasive species, 

creating and updating priority lists of species for eradication, and suggesting that 
 76 Legal and Regulatory Considerations

the Government of the Bahamas adopt an Invasive Species Policy. These recommendations are currently under review. 

One of the main objectives of the NLRP is to develop appropriate policies and 

regulations via collaborative efforts among local and regional public and private 

sector partners. Three tiers of action for managing the lionfish invasion are provided, including amendment of legislation to allow lionfish removal, encouragement of 

the taking of unlimited numbers of lionfish for consumption, and the expansion and 

protection of the system of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). The lowest priority (with 

an action date within ten years) is to ban lionfish as aquarium pets and restrict 

possession or transport of live lionfish. Recommendations specific to lionfish 

harvesting encompass special permission to hunt lionfish in no-spearfishing areas, 

the use of a variety of gear (including scuba and hookah), the holding of lionfish 

tournaments, and the allowance of visitors to take unlimited quantities of lionfish 

out of the Bahamas. These amendments were developed to maximize lionfish 

removal in the shortest amount of time. Note that the Government of the Bahamas 

has yet to implement these amendments.

The Cayman Islands

The Cayman Islands developed three separate, but related, regulatory instruments 

for lionfish control to be implemented by the Cayman Islands Department of 

Environment (Appendix 8). While these are not formal pieces of legislation, the 

Cayman Islands Department of Environment (DOE) has implemented these guidelines with support from the Marine Conservation Board (MCB), the authorized body 

to make exceptions to the Marine Conservation Law. These exceptions were 

executed under special circumstances, of which a lionfish invasion qualifies.

In 2009, the MCB approved and began issuing a special license to permit removal 

of lionfish from two of three MPA types, including marine park zones and replenishment zones (but not the environmental zone). Prior to the lionfish invasion, the 

Cayman Islands had prohibited any use of spears, and as such, only nets were 

allowed under this license. Exceptions were made to the fishing regulations, 

permitting: 

i) Capture of lionfish using gloves and scuba in taking marine life, 

ii) Taking marine life from the marine parks and marine replenishment zones, 

and 

iii) Taking fish less than eight inches in fork length. 

A reporting system is also a feature of this system. 

In 2010, the Cayman Islands Tourism Association expressed an interest in using 

dive staff at hotels to remove lionfish. The MCB granted this permission, and 

through the DOE, established a dive company spearing program (Appendix 8). Given 

that it was illegal to import spears and components of spears into the Cayman 

Islands, manufacturing of pole spears in the Cayman Island became necessary. This 

program provided guidelines for the use of the spears exclusively issued by the DOE 

and only by the licensee. Return of the spear to the DOE is required after use. If 

licensee does not adhere to conditions of the license, spearing privileges may be 

revoked and prosecution may follow.
 Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 77

In March 2011, a legal change was executed at the request from residents to begin 

a resident culling program in the Cayman Islands. In addition, there was greater 

need for more effective control strategies given the number of lionfish. Special 

permission was granted by the government to allow the importation of short 

polespears from the United States. This program has since been implemented and 

includes mandatory participation in a training program on lionfish removal by the 

DOE (Appendix 8). 

Mexico

The Parque Nacional Arrecifes de Cozumel implemented a Volunteer Lionfish 

Capture and Control Program promoted by the Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (CONANP). This structured program allows interested persons to 

participate in the removal of lionfish using scuba. CONANP implemented a waiver of 

liabilities (Appendix 9) acknowledging the risks associated with diving on scuba to 

hunt for lionfish. 

French West Indies

In the French West Indies, an invasive alien species (IAS) is placed on a nuisance 

species list when it is deemed to negatively affect agriculture and farming. Species 

on this list are then the subject of actions designed to remove it from the wild or 

farmed areas. France does not presently consider lionfish an IAS; hence, there are 

no regulations regarding the invasive species. Lionfish are subject to the Environment Code, however, which allows the administration to capture, take, keep or 

destroy the specimens of introduced species when their presence in the wild is 

documented. All IAS species are covered by this provision, but its enforcement is 

restricted to nominative lists of species decided by the Minister of Environment 

(Appendix 10). In early 2011, a local decree was passed in Guadeloupe and 

Martinique authorizing the capture of lionfish by scuba divers with a gun or special 

kit. Currently, there are only approximately 50 persons with this authorization 

throughout the French West Indies. 

U.S. Marine Protected Areas

In the United States, the National Park Service (Department of the Interior) and the 

National Marine Sanctuaries Program (NOAA) have developed response plans to 

mitigate the impacts of lionfish. These include encouraging the harvesting of 

lionfish as a food fish, development of park- and sanctuary-specific lionfish control 

plans, and the review of regulations that may inhibit lionfish removals. In the Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary, permits are being issued to allow the use of 

prohibited gear in the sanctuary. Permit holders are required to attend a special 

training aimed at reducing the impacts of removal activities on the reef and 

protecting human health.

Bonaire

The Bonaire National Marine Park has special prohibitions for removal of any 

marine life within the marine park (Appendix 11). This includes commercial, 

artisanal, and recreational fishing. It also speaks to prohibition of gear type, where 

even the possession of that gear or parts of the gear is an offense. However, the 

law provides for exceptions to these aspects for the manager and agents of the 

park. Therefore, under existing laws, the marine park management was able to 

allow the removal of lionfish. 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 

Chapter 7 

RESOURCES, PARTNERSHIPS, AND SUSTAINABLE FUNDING 

Ricardo Gómez Lozano

The development of a comprehensive strategy for securing resources and utilizing 

partnerships is critical to a successful management approach to the lionfish 

invasion. Some activities for lionfish control can be incorporated into existing 

program budgets and work plans. Most activities, however, will require new and 

renewable funding sources in order to be effective. Sources for sustainable funding 

include establishment or earmarking of special funds for lionfish management, 

contributions from beneficiaries, and development of a trust or mitigation-type fund.

One of the key elements in securing funding is a sound management plan with 

prioritized actions. These actions may be prioritized based on the potential effectiveness of each one in mitigating lionfish impacts. A successful program also has 

several components, including planning, motivation, knowledge, funding, staff 

capacity, and action. The absence of any of these components can interfere with 

constructive outcomes. In many locations, government agencies have taken the 

lead role in invasion control and management, with strong support from nongovernmental and other research entities.

This chapter presents a number of issues that should be addressed in a resource 

acquisition and allocation strategy. This list is not intended to be exhaustive but to 

provide a beginning to guide managers in the planning process. Before initiating a 

lionfish research and control program, resource managers must have a clear idea of 

the resources necessary to start the program and sustain it for the long term. 

 

HUMAN RESOURCES 

Consider that, in most Caribbean countries, lionfish have invaded within the last five 

years. Without question, the lionfish invasion has caused a major shift in staff 

allocation to marine resource management in the Caribbean with individual staff 

time devoted to this problem ranging from 10–85% in some locations (Table 7.1). A 

useful way for resource managers to address and meet the demand of human 

resources is to clearly identify existing and new skills sets and evaluate organizational needs. In each institution, a manager can generally find staff members with 

the skills and aptitudes needed to carry out new or different roles. 

Roles and responsibilities

The first rule in planning an effective response effort is to get organized! The 

organization(s) taking the lead must decide who participates in the control actions, 

when is the best time to execute the actions, where is the best place to perform the 

activities, and how to involve different stakeholders and decision makers in lionfish 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute

2012
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 79

management. Below is a list of potential roles of personnel within a lionfish 

program. It is intended to assist managers in compiling human resources to 

address the lionfish invasion. The proposed roles can be adapted to specific 

locales, and one person may have to assume multiple roles, depending on local 

staffing resources. 

i) General Coordinator — This person is responsible for managing all 

activities arising in the actions of outreach, education, control, and 

research, as well as the economic resources necessary for their development. An important part of the general coordinator’s responsibility is to 

know the legal framework, the authorities, and duties, before developing 

the lionfish control program. The coordinator has the most direct contact 

with staff and is responsible for field activities and coordinating with 

partners and volunteers. The coordinator also defines roles and responsibilities and establishes an organizational chart.

ii) Outreach and Education Coordinator — An effective control strategy should 

include a public outreach and education program to raise awareness about 

invasive species and their impact on native resources. The person responsible for this program would oversee the preparation of printed and 

electronic materials, determine appropriate means for dissemination, and 

establish messaging that promotes control and possible use and exploitation of lionfish. The outreach and education officer must also have the 

skills to train staff and the subject-matter expertise to develop factual 

outreach materials.

iii) Research and Monitoring Coordinator — An effective control strategy 

should consider monitoring and research to better understand the status 

and behavior of local lionfish populations. Establishing baselines and 

conducting periodic assessments are necessary to determine lionfish 

population size and growth rate, its impact on native species, and the 

effectiveness of control strategies. To do this, technically and scientifically 

trained personnel are needed to coordinate efforts with existing staff and 

collaborators within the local government, universities, and other research 

institutions.

Human resources from the local community

All community members that manage or utilize coastal and marine resources are 

capable of contributing to the control of lionfish. For example, fishers can develop 

strategies that enable them to reduce the impacts of lionfish in fisheries by 

targeting lionfish or retaining bycatch, and governments can develop strategies to 

mitigate impacts on tourism and fisheries through development of fishery management plans. Tourism industries can be involved directly in the control efforts 

through adopt-a-reef programs. Basically, all community members that generate 

economic gains derived from marine resources can contribute resources to support 

control programs. Thus, it is important to identify local human and economic 

resources to best achieve program goals.
 80 Resources, Partnerships, and Sustainable Funding Table 7.1 Estimates of the impacts of lionfish on coastal manager staff time in the wider Caribbean region obtained through a questionnaire on the GCFI listserv (2011). Organization Country First lionfish sighting # of staff % staff time on lionfish Estimated staff working on lionfish Belize Fisheries Department Belize 2008 72 10% 7 Trinidad & Tobago, Institute of Marine Affairs Trinidad & Tobago Unknown 100 4% 4 Cayman Islands Department of Environment Cayman Islands 2008 33 8-10% 3 Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources U.S., Puerto Rico 2008 1500 10% 150 St. Lucia Department of Fisheries St. Lucia Unknown 30 At least 50% 15 STINAPA Bonaire–Bonaire National Marine Park Bonaire 2009 25 <5% 1 Bahamas Department of Marine Resources Bahamas 2004 55 10% 6 Acuario Nacional de Cuba Cuba 2007

— 40%

Old Providence Ecohamlet Foundation Colombia 2008 6 — Reef Check República Dominicana Dominican Republic 2008 3 5% 1Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Dominican Republic 2000 8 10% 1University of the West Indies – Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory Jamaica 2008 20 >50% 3National Environment and Planning Agency Jamaica 2008 400 >50% 10
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 81

Capacity building 

It is important to consider that an effective control and research strategy must be 

implemented on a regular basis and over the long term. For this reason, it is 

necessary to continuously train personnel, as they respond to different stages of the 

invasion. A train-the-trainers approach, where staff members are trained to train 

others, is an effective method for ensuring capacity building as well as the continuity of operations.

As the lionfish invasion progresses, management strategies will evolve, which will 

include resource managers giving consideration to new partners and new methods 

of lionfish control. In this regard, the following items are examples of management 

issues that should be periodically reviewed and updated to better achieve the 

strategy goals.

FINANCIAL RESOURCES 

Both financial and human resources will likely be limited, thus the control strategy 

goals and activities should be clearly defined and prioritized. Concrete actions, 

specific deadlines, and evaluation are a few of the components that are essential to 

creating a program that will have a real impact.

Resource allocation

Allocation of resources for each program component is perhaps one of the most 

difficult decisions a manager will face. Over-allocation of resources in one area can 

compromise the effectiveness of the overall program. Managers are required to 

balance allocation of resources with need, which will change often — requiring 

nearly constant evaluation of all aspects of the lionfish program.

Below are a number of organizations that work on invasive species in the Wider 

Caribbean region. Some of them have information that can help in developing 

funding proposals and/or they report on possible funding sources; and some 

organizations have directly supported actions to lionfish control.

i) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna 

and Flora (CITES); www.cites.org,

ii) Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG); www.issg.org,

iii) Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International (CABI); www.cabi.org,

iv) Specially Protected Areas for Wildlife (CAR-SPAW-RAC); www.car-spawrac.org,

v) International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI); www.icriforum.org,

vi) Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL); www.coral.org,

vii) Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF); www.reef.org,

viii) U.S. Geological Survey (USGS); www.usgs.gov,

ix) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); www.noaa.gov, 

and

x) The Nature Conservancy; www.nature.org/initiatives/invasivespecies.
 82 Resources, Partnerships, and Sustainable Funding 

Resource acquisition — designing a strategy for financing

Universally, the amount of funding that can be acquired to support conservation 

projects is small relative to need. Programs that do not have a focused strategy run 

the risk of distributing the resources in an inefficient way. Partners are essential to 

strengthen the organization and to provide matching support. General financing 

must be directed to selected activities to achieve a strategic impact. 

Some important points to consider are: 

i) What is the nature of the environmental threat? 

ii) What is the nature and duration of the conservation activity?

iii) Which other organizations are dealing with this threat? 

iv) What are the strengths and weaknesses of partner organizations? 

v) Is there need to establish a mechanism for governmental and nongovernmental organizations to work together on this issue? 

vi) How committed are the government and other key organizations? 

vii) What practices are legal in the country?

viii) What practices are reliable and inspire confidence in institutions at 

national and international levels? 

There are many resources to guide fundraising efforts. For example, Bath (2011) 

provides an excellent guide to identifying and managing funds for environmental 

capacity building (http://toolkit.conservationfinance.org/sites/default/files/

documents/redlac-capacity-building/redlacfundraising-strategies-environmentalfunds08112011.pdf).

To submit funding proposals to national or international organizations, it is important to consider the following aspects, which are required in most applications 

resources.

i) Commitment and availability of all key groups involved (e.g., council, 

governments, and the community),

ii) A clear vision and a strategic plan focused on the program’s improvement 

and growth,

iii) Objectives based on clear priorities and plans, budgets, and precise needs,

iv) A clear cause to fund, properly documented and supported, and

v) A market survey of potential national and international donors, whose 

priorities for the granting of subsidies correspond to the defined needs or 

objectives of the strategy.

Types of financing

Capital funding for control efforts may come from a variety of sources. For example, 

the creation of trusts is an act of faith and confidence that allows the flow of funds 

between the donor and grantee. In several countries, these trusts are instruments 

of widespread use because government institutions may not be eligible to receive 

direct economic resources.

Donations are another way of delivering to and receiving economic resources and 

material goods by institutions of social welfare and preservation of the environment. These may range from small donations from individuals to large donations 

from companies concerned about the lionfish invasion. 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 83

Sponsorships are also a popular method for private entities to gain publicity 

through their support for environmental and conservation initiatives. Both the 

control program and the company’s product or brand may benefit from this type of 

mutually supportive relationship. 

Another way to obtain funding to implement control and management programs is 

through the sale of materials that refer to the invasive species, including T-shirts, 

hats, and handcrafts made from by-products of the organism.

Below is a summary of potential sources of funding:

i) Donations from individuals in the country,

ii) Donations from national or international companies operating in the 

country,

iii) Fines collected from environmental damage settlements,

iv) Shares from nature conservation taxes collected at ports of departure,

v) Domestic taxes on equipment sales and water activities,

vi) Hotel room surcharges, and

vii) National and international conservation organizations.

Transparency

The administration of funding should be clear and transparent to all partners 

providing the financing. Transparency must be paramount in the use of financial 

resources to prevent corruption and misunderstandings when handling large sums 

of money. The creation of steering committees, project oversight committees, or 

similar groups with stakeholder participation (e.g., environmental managers, 

researchers, providers of tourist services) is useful and recommended. 
 84 Appendix 

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute

2012

Appendix 1. Communication and Outreach Strategies 

The following are lionfish-specific communication and outreach strategies that 

have been successfully implemented within the region. The list is divided into 

Private, Public and Government sectors.

Private Sector 

i) Conduct workshops and trainings (dive industry, fishermen, tourism 

associations).

ii) Design and disseminate posters, stickers and printed materials (all 

sectors),

iii) Target and publish in select industry publications,

iv) Request funding from private companies and educate in the process,

v) Give presentations at trade association gatherings,

vi) Maintain reporting ‘hotlines’ and email (all sectors),

vii) Stress financial benefits of control,

viii) Target private sector at a regional scale,

ix) Target airports and seaports,

x) Promote recognition of partners (all sectors),

xi) Target the food and hospitality sector, and

xii) Establish a regional ‘Day of the Lionfish’ 

Government 

i) Disseminate results of research,

ii) Use research data and analysis results to motivate government action,

iii) Prepare response plan prior to invasion,

iv) Use response plan to motivate government action,

v) Train and mobilize first responders,

vi) Create network of regional bodies and governments,

vii) Be persistent in communication to key political leaders,

viii) Target key government meetings to promote inter-governmental coordination,

ix) Conduct face to face meetings with government officials,
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 85 

x) Utilize other stakeholder groups to engage government officials (e.g., 

conservation NGOs),

xi) Create policy briefs,

xii) Invite officials to events and to see lionfish in the water,

xiii) Communicate an ecological and economic message to influence government officials, and

xiv) Aim E&O at significant government leaders and be ambitious.

Public Sector (including social/civic organizations and NGOs) 

 

i) Engage the media with press releases and public service announcements,

ii) Host workshops and lectures for the public,

iii) Develop school-based outreach materials,

iv) Recruit a high level or famous individual as a spokesperson,

v) Build broad stakeholder involvement,

vi) Create and host tournaments and fishing derbies,

vii) Engage schools and universities,

viii) Standardize informational materials for all sectors,

ix) Use the internet and other available technology (e.g., social networking 

sites),

x) Host ‘Lionfish Tasting’ events,

xi) Host information fairs,

xii) Create displays for aquariums and museums, and

xiii) Target public health issues and hospitals.
 86 Appendix 

Appendix 2. NOAA/CCFHR Venomous Fish Handling Protocol 

1. PURPOSE: Establish specific procedures and training requirements for NOAA 

divers assigned to the Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research 

(CCFHR) when diving where encounters with venomous fish are likely to occur

2. BACKGROUND: Venomous fish are commonly found in waters of the Southeastern United States, the Gulf of Mexico, and US territories in the Caribbean Sea. 

NOAA Scientific Divers are increasingly being asked to capture venomous fish, 

specifically the invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish, for research aimed at understanding and potentially controlling the rapid spread of these species.

3. SCOPE: This document provides operational guidance to CCFHR divers when 

capturing or handling venomous fish in the water when using SCUBA or while 

skin diving. 

4. POLICY: All divers diving on a CCFHR project shall use protective gear and 

equipment when working with and around venomous fish. 

Responsibility

4.1 Diver — Each diver shall evaluate his or her risk and complete training prior 

to conducting dives to collect venomous fish.

4.2 Divemaster (DM) — The DM shall brief the boat crew, divers, and topside 

support personnel on the risks of handling venomous fish and basic first 

aid for venomous fish incidents. Further, the DM shall verify that each diver 

has the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) available and 

agrees to use their PPE prior to allowing dives to commence.

4.3 Unit Diving Supervisor (UDS) — The UDS shall ensure DMs and Divers have 

the appropriate training, PPE, and appropriate first aid supplies at the dive 

site prior to authorizing dives. 

5. GUIDANCE: 

 

5.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) — Whether capturing live or spearing 

venomous fish, divers should wear at least one puncture proof glove and 

full wet suits. Some divers wear a puncture proof glove on one hand and a 

regular wet suit glove on the hand they use to control their spear. The buddy diver carrying the catch bag shall wear 2 puncture proof gloves. A wetsuit reduces risk but fish spines can penetrate a wetsuit. Thick, clear plastic bags made for use as dry bags are preferred to opaque catch bags, 

because solid materials resist punctures and because they are clear the 

diver can observe the fish (Figure 1), and because they might contain 

some of the fish scent. Canvas material is sometimes used but does not 

offer the advantages of the heavy clear plastic bags. There is a list of places to acquire protective gear in the Resources Section following the Figures below.

 

 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 87 

5.2 Capturing Methods — Most stings occur when a diver is distracted and not 

watching the fish when it is captured or bagged, when allowing the bag to 

hang near the body or leg, or when not wearing proper gloves, or trying to 

handle a fish by grasping the body. Divers should constantly monitor the 

location of the bag relative to themselves and other nearby divers, the 

condition of the bag, the fish in the bag, and the fish being hunted 

(maintain situational awareness). The dive boat should provide a weighted 

hang line on which to clip the bag near the safety stop so the divers can 

finish the ascent unencumbered. When “live boat” diving, divers should 

hang the catch bag from a line attached to a surface marker buoy or lift 

bag. A small weight can be added to the catch bag to ensure the bag remains vertical and doesn’t drift up during ascent when the fish bladders 

swell and the fish lose buoyancy control. Good buoyancy control reduces 

the likelihood of a leg or torso puncture (Figure 2).

5.3 Live captures — Nets can be used effectively to capture venomous fish. 

Most venomous species do not seem to fear divers and do not hurry away 

from one or two careful attempts to capture them. Closed, clear plastic 

nets have been effectively used for smaller fish and mesh landing nets for 

larger specimens. The following 2 different methods are being used:

5.3.1 — For smaller fish, one commonly used strategy is to equip one diver 

with two nets (one for herding and one for collecting (Figure 3) and 

the other diver with a collecting bag. Once the first diver captures 

a fish between the nets, both divers should move to a suitable 

area to transfer the fish. The preferred area will be protected from 

strong currents and allow space for equipment and bags without 

disturbing the nearby benthic habitat. The (bagger) diver with the 

collection bag places the bag on the bottom, opens the bag and 

vents any remaining air from the bag. The diver with the netted 

fish should place both nets on the bottom, collapse the nets to 

prevent movement of the fish, firmly gasp the fish by the head 

(and away from the spines- Figures 4 & 5) from the outside of the 

net, then turn the net inside out and place the fish into the open 

bag. The diver with the bag should then close the entrance of the 

bag around the diver’s arm who will then release the fish into the 

bag. The bag can then be closed and secured. To introduce additional fish into the bag, herd and secure previously captured fish 

towards the bottom of the bag prior to adding the new fish. 

5.3.2 — Another commonly used method is as follows: Net the fish, trap it 

by overturning the net onto the bottom, grasp the cod end of the 

net (on the thick mil plastic right above the mesh) and with the 

other hand grasp the net at the opening end trapping the fish between both hands. The bagger then opens up the collection bag, 

which is held vertically, and the collector the puts the opening of 

the bag over the top of the collection bag and releases the hand 

closest to the collection bag. Use the hand closest to the cod end 

to push forward and move the fish into the bag. The fish want to 

swim down escape by swimming up is unlikely. 
 88 Appendix 

5.4 Spear captures — Divers should use spears with paralyzer tips to immobilize the fish when speared (Figure 4). Once speared, the fish should be 

removed by grasping the fish by the head, away from the venomous spines 

(Figure 5). Place the fish into collection bags in the same procedure as 

with nets. Collection bags may also be equipped with a trap door so the 

fish can be pulled off the spear when placed in the bag. Bags equipped 

this way reduce handling time and risk. Some divers pith the fish after 

removing if from the spear tip to immobilize it. To pith a fish, press the tip 

of a spear point (or a tool like a marlinspike or ice pick) into the head behind the eyes through the brain. 

5.5 Other Safeguards — Each diver and the DM should assess the potential for 

and presence of predators, availability of proper gear, the planned methods, each diver’s ability and experience. For any method, divers should 

agree on the method before diving, practice the method in “dry runs” on 

the surface, and consult with more experienced divers for additional recommendations. No diver should agree to dive unless he or she is comfortable performing the required tasks. The DM should not allow dives to commence unless he or she is absolutely comfortable the dives can proceed 

without unnecessary risk. 

6. FIRST AID:

 

6.1 Signs and Symptoms — Signs and symptoms vary from mild swelling and 

pain to tachycardia, hypertension, hypotension, seizures, chest pain, abdominal pain, sub dermal necrosis at the sting site, and temporary paralysis to the extremities. Symptoms will vary depending on the severity of the 

sting. For an average sting, the pain, which may be excruciating, will usually lessen after a few hours. Generalized symptoms can be severe. The 

distress caused by the pain may advance to a state of delirium in severe 

cases. The generalized weakness that may develop can involve the cranial nerves, facial muscles, vision, speech, and cause respiratory distress. If 

stung, the diver should ascend immediately following normal procedures.

 

6.2 Treatment: An envenomated diver should ascend without delay — continuing the dive places the diver at greater risk that a severe reaction would 

occur while still in the water. 

As soon as practical after the diver is out of the water, apply heat to the 

affected area, either by soaking the affected part in non-scalding hot water 

up to 45° C (113 °F) or by using a heat compress for 30-90 minutes or 

until the pain no longer recurs when removed from the water. Avoid burning 

the victim, who may not be able to detect burn causing temperatures above 

120 °F. The wound site should be cleaned with soap and water or rinsed 

with sterile saline. If a spine or spines have broken off the fish and are still 

lodged in the skin, it should be gently extracted. Small amounts of bleeding may help to flush some of the venom, but profuse bleeding (rare in 

these cases) should immediately be controlled. Once heat therapy is ended, the extremity should be immobilized and elevated.
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 89 

If the victim shows signs of an allergic reaction, simple medications containing anti-histamines may be administered if the victim has no allergies 

to the medications and they are not nauseated or showing signs of shock. 

If an epinephrine injector (epi-pen) is onboard, and a person qualified in 

the use of an epi-pen recommends it be used, an injection might benefit 

the injured diver with a severe allergic reaction.

Monitor for signs of shock. If the victim’s respirations become weak, rapid, 

or labored or their pulse becomes weak or rapid, immediately initiate the 

Dive Emergency Assistance Plan (DEAP), provide 100% Oxygen, and be 

prepared to transport the victim to advanced medical care.

7. OTHER INFORMATION

7.1 Antivenins may be available for some venomous species in areas where 

these species and humans interact with some frequency. Many proteinaceous toxins, including those of the Indo-Pacific lionfish species, become 

less potent after ice or heat are applied. However, when cleaning fish precautions should always be taken to prevent punctures since other toxins, 

allergens, or pathogens might also be present.

7.2 In all cases, envenomations require cessation of future dive activities until 

the consulting medical practitioner indicates the medical emergency is 

over and the diver is fit to resume diving.

RESOURCES:

http://www.REEF.org/catalog/83/field_supplies

http://www.jblspearguns.com/polespears.php?id=Polespears

http://www.hexarmor.com/technology/

http://traveloasis.com/glaccleardry.html

http://www.westmarine.com/1/3/west-marine-dry-bags

(Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement by the United States Government.)

Figure 1: Collecting Bag. Figure 2. Good Buoyancy Control. GRAY’S REEF NMS

GRAY’S REEF NMS
 90 Appendix 

Figure 3. Use of 2 Capture Nets. 

Figure 4. Pole Spear or Hawaiian Sling with 

Paralyzer Tip.

Figure 5. Removing an Indo-Pacific Lionfish from 

a Pole Spear.

GRAY’S REEF NMS GRAY’S REEF NMS GRAY’S REEF NMS
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 91 

Appendix 3. Example of a liability release used in lionfish derbies or other collecting 

events from the Reef Environmental Education Foundation 

 

Lionfish Biology and Venomology Understanding of Risk

 

Overview

Lionfish (Pterois volitans/miles) are members of the scorpionfish family native to 

the Indo-Pacific. They are now also found in the waters throughout the Western 

Atlantic from Rhode Island through the Bahamas Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. 

Lionfish are predators reaching a size of more than 470 mm and reproducing yearround in the southern portion of their Atlantic range. They also possess venomous, 

spines and potentially represent both ecological and human health risks. Significant study, public education/outreach and control efforts are now being planned 

and implemented throughout the region.

Need for specimens

In order to predict the spread and impact of this invasive species, data are needed 

to determine populations and distribution, age and growth, reproduction, predation, 

larval disbursement, recruitment, mortality, genetics and changes to native fish 

communities. Obtaining this information requires the collection of many samples 

and appropriate preservation of these samples. There is little funding and few field 

operations available to collect the number of samples required for statistically 

robust analysis. REEF is working with U.S. state, federal, and university researchers 

in addition to Caribbean nations to obtain the necessary samples as well as 

educate the public and key government officials about the lionfish issue. As part of 

this effort, we are also collaborating with the dive community to gather samples and 

data from their regularly dived sites.

Venemology

Lionfish spines, like those of many other scorpionfishes, contain venom. Spines 

located within the dorsal, ventral, and anal fins contain venomous tissue along the 

length of the spine. A sheath or skin covers the spine and glandular tissue which, 

when exposed in the act of puncture, releases venom into the wound. Severities 

and reactions to stings can vary however lionfish stings are rarely lethal. Reactions 

to venom typically include localized, moderate to severe, pain and swelling, which 

normally subsides within hours and with first-aid treatment. Complications or 

increased severity of reactions could result from allergic reactions or severe 

punctures. Heat and time reduce the effect of this venom. As with any wound, 

cleaning and sterilization of the affected area is important to prevent infection. If 

stung, seek medical attention immediately.

Participation

While the likelihood of coming in contact with a lionfish in the water or on the vessel 

is extremely small for those wanting to avoid contact, there never-the-less exists the 

possibility of being stung. No participants wishing to avoid collection, dissection or 

any other physical contact with lionfish will be asked to handle or in any other way 

physically engage themselves with any lionfish. All contact with lionfish, direct or 

otherwise, is voluntary in nature as is participation in this project, knowing the 

venomous nature of the subject.
 92 Appendix 

I understand these risks and am willing to take part in this project anyway.

Printed Name of Participant: ________________________________

Signed: _________________________________________________

Date: _________________________________________________

Signature and date of legal guardian required if participant is under 18.

Legal Guardian Printed Name: ______________________________

Signed: _________________________________________________

Date: _________________________________________________
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 93 

Appendix 4. Sample Datasheet 

 

This sample can be amended for various types of collectors or events
 94 Appendix 

 

Appendix 5. Lionfish Medical Questionnaire 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 95 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 96 

Appendix 6. The Bahamas’ Response 

THE BAHAMAS’ RESPONSE TO THE LIONFISH INVASION 

The Department of Marine Resources

Nassau, Bahamas

31 May 2011

 

 

Introduction 

The Bahamas and the rest of the Wider-Caribbean have been faced with the 

challenge of combating the Indo-Pacific lionfish (Pterois volitans). The lionfish has 

become a major cause for concern for a number of reasons:

i) Threat to human health;

ii) Ability to out-compete native species due to their ambush style of predation;

iii) Preys on a wide variety of species including several that are commercially 

important; and

iv) Few known predators in the region.

In 2009, the Department of Marine Resources in collaboration with The College of 

The Bahamas Marine and Environmental Studies Institute (COB-MESI) initiated a 

long-term National Lionfish Response Plan (NLRP). The NLRP was formalized in 

response to the growing threat posed by the invasion of lionfish in the waters of The 

Bahamas.

The existence of the NLRP is due in part to the mandates set-forth in the National 

Invasive Species Strategy for The Bahamas (NISS). The National Invasive Species 

Strategy is essential to this discussion because it laid the framework for proposed 

amendments to fisheries regulations. Since the drafting of the NISS and subsequently the NLRP, recommendations to amend several regulations in Chapter 244 

of the Fisheries Resources (Conservation and Jurisdiction) Regulations have been 

proposed by The Department of Marine Resources. 

National Invasive Species Strategy 

The National Invasive Species Strategy (NISS) was published in 2003 with the 

intent of assessing current mechanisms existing in the Bahamas to address the 

invasive species issue. The NISS outlines an overview of invasive species; identifies 

mechanisms for the management and control of invasives; and provides recommendations for action. Of particular interest to this discussion are Recommendations 5, 7, & 8.T hese recommendations laid the groundwork for the NLRP that 

would come six (6) years later. 

Recommendation 5 

Existing Legislation related to management and control of alien species should be 

enforced and where deficient, be amended. There will also be a need to draft and 

amend new legislation specific to management and control of invasive alien 

species.

 
 97 Appendix 

Recommendation 7

Priority species should be listed for eradication and control. These lists therefore 

would not include all known invasives for The Bahamas . . . species on the eradication and control lists would be reviewed on a regular basis with the result that. . . 

new species added. 

Recommendation 8

The Government accept and implement an Invasive Species Policy...

The NISS also includes a Draft National Invasive Species Policy to be adopted by 

the Government of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas. The Draft Policy set-forth 

specific action items for the Government of The Bahamas to carry out. Several of 

which echo the sentiments of Recommendations 5, 7 & 8:

i) Enact legislation to prevent the introduction of, to control, and to eradicate 

those alien invasive species which threaten the ecosystems, habitats, 

endemic species and the human health and welfare of The Bahamas, in 

support of the Convention on Biological Diversity;

ii) Prepare a National Invasive Species Strategy for The Bahamas, which lists 

and prioritizes in order of significant impact those invasive species present 

in the Bahamas;

iii) Prepare Strategic Management Plans for individual species of high priority 

as identified under the NISS;

iv) Conduct and facilitate research into the best management and control 

practices for individual species, including plants, animals and microorganisms, using chemical, physical and biological methods that are 

environmentally sound;

v) Mandate cooperation between Government Ministries, Departments and 

other Agencies including Non-Governmental Organizations and the Private 

Sector, as necessary, to implement this policy and carry out the Strategy.

In addition, the NISS outlines codes of conduct for The Government to follow. In 

particular, The Government is asked to enforce existing invasive species legislation 

at all levels, and enact new legislation where deficiencies occur in existing legislation. This mandate paved the way for the development of the National Lionfish 

Response Plan and amendments to the Fisheries Resources (Jurisdiction and 

Conservation) Regulations Chapter 244. 

However, when the NISS was first developed, lionfish were not identified as a 

species recommended for eradication or control, and for good reason. It was not 

until 2004 that the first sighting of lionfish in The Bahamas was recorded. Currently, the NISS is being updated to incorporate the management of lionfish under the 

Mitigating the Threats of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean (MTIASIC)

Project.

 

The National Lionfish Response Plan 

The National Lionfish Response Plan (NLRP) was designed to be a Strategic 

Management Plan. It was determined that the NLRP would function to maintain 

the distinctiveness and diversity of Bahamian marine communities, protect 

commercially important fisheries, and safeguard public health by controlling and 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 98 

The main objectives of the NLRP are to build research; build outreach and educational initiatives; identify sources of financing and other resources; and develop 

appropriate invasion policies and regulations via collaborative efforts among local 

and regional partners in the public and private sector. These objectives are in 

accord with recommendations outlined in the NISS. Collectively, they function to 

ensure the implementation of an efficient lionfish management plan.

Within the response plan, several management goals and strategies have been 

identified. These goals were selected with the intention of mitigating the threats of 

the invasive lionfish. They are prioritized in the NLRP by importance: high, medium, 

and low. 

High Priority (immediate action - implementation within 1 - 2 years) 

i) Amend existing fisheries regulations:

A. Allow spear fishing for lionfish within the 1 mile (New Providence) and 

200 yard (Family Islands) limit.

B. Allow an unlimited bag limit per vessel for persons granted a permit to 

spear lionfish.

C. Allow the use of SCUBA, spears, and nets to remove lionfish during 

authorized fishing tournaments. 

ii) Encourage the capture and sale of lionfish (for consumption) as a commercial fisheries resource.

iii) Expand and improve the network of National Parks and Marine Reserves.

 

Medium Priority (implementation within 3 - 5 years) 

i) Require the removal of marine debris and artificial structures from nearshore areas.

ii) Improve coastal zone management.

 

Low Priority (implementation within 6 - 10 years) 

i) Ban lionfish as aquarium pets and restrict possession or transport of live 

lionfish.

The proposed management strategies to amend fisheries regulations are consistent 

with the code of conduct for the Government of the Bahamas and recommendations in the NISS. 

Despite strong support to implement and execute the response plan, the NLRP has 

not been fully implemented. A cost estimate for the implementation of the plan has 

not been completed. Aside from the work the Department of Marine Resources is 

implementing with respect to the NLRP, partner organizations are also contributing 

the achievement of management goals set out in the plan. The MTIASIC project also 

seeks to promote the implementation of the NLRP and to essentially formalize the 

plan after completion of the lionfish control experiments.

 
 99 Appendix 

Proposed Amendments to Fisheries Resources (Conservation and Jurisdiction) 

Regulations 

 

In response to recommendations in the NLRP and mandates within the NISS, the 

Department of Marine Resources proposed amending several regulations in the 

Fisheries Resources (Conservation and Jurisdiction) Regulations. The main points of 

the proposed amendments are set out below:

 

i) Empower the Minister to grant permission for persons to use “prohibited 

apparatus” for fishing subject to special conditions. This would include 

SCUBA, hooka and related breathing devices. 

ii) Allow fishing for lionfish in areas normally protected from general spearfishing, areas close to coastlines, within harbours

iii) Allow the use of small mesh nets to fish for lionfish,

iv) Allow spearfishing tournaments for lionfish,

v) Allow visitors fishing under the terms of a sportsfishing permit, to collect 

and take out of the country an unlimited amount of lionfish.

 

Conclusion 

 

The Bahamas’ response to the lionfish invasion has spanned the development of 

the National Invasive Species Strategy, the National Lionfish Response Plan, and 

proposed amendments to the Fisheries Resources (Conservation and Jurisdiction) 

Regulations. 

The Bahamas has made some progress in its attempts to address the lionfish 

invasion and the problem of invasive alien species in general. Considerable 

progress has been made in respect of building capacity and strengthening relationships between the various partners that have been engaged in this effort. In an 

effort to continue to move forward, response will be focused in areas such as 

education, public awareness, and outreach. 

Despite these successes, the Bahamas is still faced with various administrative and 

legal challenges that prohibit it from being able to fully respond to the threat posed 

by lionfish. 
 100 Appendix 

Appendix 7. Special Disposition for Lionfish in Puerto Rico 

Fish Regulation 7949

November 2010

ARTICLE 22 - SPECIAL DISPOSITIONS FOR THE LION FISH 

 

22.1 In the case of any species of lionfish (Pterois volitans, Pterois miles) allowed:

a. unlimited export agencies. (further clarified to be export of live lionfish 

through a permitting system)

 b. the use of juvenile lionfish as bait.

 c. fish caught in mangrove areas, lagoons, harbors, estuaries or channels 

interconnecting water bodies of fresh water with a body of salt water.

 d. their catch can be made at any time of day or night.

 e. capture without having to comply with the requirements of Control Permit 

harmful species, as described in Article 19.2 of this regulation (do not 

need a memorial explanatory resume delivery, limited area, or permits for 

scientific and educational) .

 f. capture in Nature Reserves, Marine Reserves, Special Planning Areas or 

areas closed to fishing ("no take zones"), only by written authorization of 

the Secretary for volunteers entitled "Special Authorization Capture 

Volunteer Lionfish."

 g. used as spear fishing gear, "Hawaiian sling" or blunt object or ornamental 

fish hand nets or other networks approved by the Department to capture 

lionfish, in combination with "Scuba" or "Hookah" only by written authorization from the Secretary entitled "Special Authorization Capture Volunteer Lionfish." 

22.2. In the case of having the "Special Volunteer Lionfish Capture" and use 

"Scuba" or "Hookah" in combination with Spear, "Hawaiian sling" or blunt object, 

their capture alone for that day will lionfish.

 

22.3. In the case of having the "Special Volunteer Lionfish Capture" and use it to 

fish in Nature Reserves, Marine Reserves, Special Planning Areas or areas closed 

to fishing ("no take zones"), their capture alone for that day will lionfish.

22.4. Fishing activities or capture lionfish in Nature Reserves, Marine Reserves, 

Special Planning Areas or areas closed to fishing ("no take zones") empowered by 

the "Special Volunteer capture lionfish, will have to be reported to the Department 

by the methods of reporting under the authority of the Secretary. The work will be 

supervised by the Department, must be understood. The Secretary may regulate 

the activity of capture by volunteers through Administrative Order. 
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 101 

CAYMAN ISLANDS DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT 

LIONFISH RESPONSE LICENSE 

TERMS AND CONDITIONS 

 

As provided for under PART VI, Section 27.(2) of the Marine Conservation Law 

(2003

Revision), in issuing a special license to participants of the Lionfish Eradication Program being implemented by the Department of Environment, the Marine Conservation Board has attached the following conditions which shall apply:

1. Only the Red Lionfish (Pterois volitans) may be taken under this license.

2. The licensee is exempt from the following prohibitions in the law pertaining to the 

taking of marine life:

a) Restriction on the taking of marine life using SCUBA.

b) Restriction on the use of gloves while on SCUBA.

c) Restriction on taking marine life within Marine Parks and Replenishment 

Zones.

d) Restriction on taking fish less than eight inches in fork length.

3. The following are still prohibited:

a) Entering the water within the Environmental Zone, Grand Cayman.

b) Scuba Diving in the No Diving Zones.

c) The use of any spearing device.

d) The use of any noxious substances.

4. The licensee must report all catches of lionfish and provide details such as name 

of culler, date, time, location, number of lionfish and approximate sizes, and dive 

company (if applicable). For size approximation: S means less than 6 inches, M 

means 6 to 12 inches, L means over 12 inches. See example below:

John DoE, 1st January 2011, 9:00am, Trinity Caves, 15 lionfish, 2S, 8M, 5L.

5. All sightings of lionfish should be reported.

6. PLEASE HAVE THE LAMINATED LICENSE AVAILABLE WHEN IN THE FIELD

COLLECTING LIONFISH. On the boat (or in your car if shore diving) is acceptable.

7. Failure to abide by these conditions will result in immediate revocation of this 

license and may result in prosecution. 

 

Appendix 8. Lionfish Response Licenses in the Cayman Islands 
 102 Appendix 

CAYMAN ISLANDS DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT (DOE) 

LIONFISH RESPONSE (SPEARGUN) LICENSE 

 

TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR DIVE COMPANIES 

 

As provided for under PART VI, Section 27.(2) of the Marine Conservation Law (2003 

Revision), in issuing a special license to participants of the Lionfish Eradication Program 

being implemented by the Department of Environment, the Marine Conservation Board has 

attached the following conditions which shall apply:

1. Only the Red Lionfish (Pterois volitans) may be taken under this license.

2. The licensee is exempt from the following provisions in the law pertaining to the taking of 

marine life :

A. Restriction on the taking of marine life using SCUBA.

B. Restriction on the use of gloves while on SCUBA.

C. Restriction on taking marine life within Marine Parks and Replenishment Zones.

D. Restriction on taking fish less than eight inches in fork length.

E. The use of a spearing device provided that the following conditions are adhered 

to:

a. Only DoE issued spearguns may be used under this license

b. Only licensed Lionfish Cullers currently employed by licensee may use the 

licensed spearguns

c. Each speargun will be tagged and licensed to one company but will remain 

property of DoE

d. The licensee shall not lend, give, or sell their spear gun to any other person.

e. License must accompany speargun at all times

f. Each company will provide DoE with a complete list of all employees for 

approval to use the spearguns

g. Spearguns must be kept in a secure location at place of employment

h. Companies must notify DoE if approved employees leave any lost spearguns 

or broken tags must be reported to DoE IMMEDIATELY

i. DoE will not be held responsible for any injuries resulting from the use of 

these spearguns

3. The following are still prohibited:

A. Entering the water within the Environmental Zone, Grand Cayman.

B. Scuba Diving in the No Diving Zones.

C. The use of any noxious substances.

4. The licensee must report all catches of lionfish and provide details such as name of culler, 

date, time, location, number of lionfish and approximate sizes and dive company (if applicable). 

For size approximation:

S means less than 6 inches, M means 6 to 12 inches, L means over 12 inches. See 

example below:

John DoE, 1st January 2011, 9:00am, Trinity Caves, 15 lionfish, 2S, 8M, 5L.

5. PLEASE HAVE THE LAMINATED LICENSE AVAILABLE WHEN IN THE FIELD COLLECTING 

LIONFISH. On the boat (or in your car if shore diving) is acceptable.

6. Failure to abide by these conditions will result in immediate revocation of this license and 

may result in prosecution.

7. The Marine Conservation Board retains the right in its discretion to revoke any license.
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 103 

CAYMAN ISLANDS DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT (DOE) 

LIONFISH RESPONSE (SPEAR GUN) LICENSE 

 

TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR RESIDENTS 

 

As provided for under PART VI, Section 27.(2) of the Marine Conservation Law (2003 Revision), in issuing a special license to participants of the Lionfish Eradication Program being 

implemented by the Department of Environment, the Marine Conservation Board has attached the following conditions which shall apply:

1. Only the Red Lionfish (Pterois volitans) may be taken under this license.

2. The licensee is exempt from the following provisions in the law pertaining to the taking of 

marine life :

A. Restriction on the taking of marine life using SCUBA.

B. Restriction on the use of gloves while on SCUBA.

C. Restriction on taking marine life within Marine Parks and Replenishment Zones.

D. Restriction on taking fish less than eight inches in fork length.

E. The use of a spearing device provided that the following conditions are adhered 

to:

a. Only DoE issued spear guns may be used under this license

b. Only licensed Lionfish Cullers may use the licensed spear guns

c. Each spear gun will be tagged and licensed to one individual and may only be 

used by that person but will remain property of DoE.

d. The licensee shall not lend, give, or sell their spear gun to any other person.

e. License must accompany spear gun at all times

f. Spear guns must be kept in a secure location.

g. Any lost spear guns or broken tags must be reported to DoE IMMEDIATELY

h. DoE will not be held responsible for any injuries resulting from the use of these 

spear guns

3. The following are still prohibited:

A. Entering the water within the Environmental Zone, Grand Cayman.

B. Scuba Diving in the No Diving Zones.

C. The use of any noxious substances.

4. The licensee must report all catches of lionfish and provide details such as name of culler, 

date, time, location, number of lionfish and approximate sizes and dive company (if applicable). For size approximation:

S means less than 6 inches, M means 6 to 12 inches, L means over 12 inches. See example 

below:

John DoE, 1st January 2011, 9:00am, Trinity Caves, 15 lionfish, 2S, 8M, 5L.

5. PLEASE HAVE THE LAMINATED LICENSE AVAILABLE WHEN IN THE FIELD COLLECTING LIONFISH. On the boat (or in your car if shore diving) is acceptable.

6. Failure to abide by these conditions will result in immediate revocation of this license and 

may result in prosecution.

7. The Marine Conservation Board retains the right in its discretion to revoke any license.
 104 Appendix 

Appendix 9. Disclaimer for Scuba Divers Capturing Lionfish in Cozumel, Mexico 

Diving with SCUBA

Disclaimer of Responsibilities and Risks 

Please read carefully and fill the blanks before signing.

I___________________________________, hereby say that I am a certified diver 

and I understand the dangers inherent in the diving with SCUBA (Self Contained 

Underwater Breathing Apparatus). I also understand that these risks include, but 

are not limited to damage lung expansion, drowning, decompression sickness and 

other damage that may occur in the sea. To sign this waiver of responsibility, I 

certify that I was warned and fully informed and therefore expressly assume these 

and other risks during my tenure as a “volunteer” in the “lionfish capture and 

control program” promoted by the “Parque Nacional Arrecifes de Cozumel” (CONANP). 

I understand and agree that any member of staff of the “Parque Nacional Arrecifes 

de Cozumel”, none of its employees, officers, agents, or respective assignees 

hereinafter calls ("exonerated parties") be considered liable or responsible in any 

way for any injury, death or other damage suffered I or my family, heirs or assignees 

that may occur as a result of my participation in the dives with scuba. 

In addition, I affirm that I have legal age and I am trained by law to sign this waiver 

of responsibilities or that I have obtained consent in writing of my parent or 

guardian.

I ____________________________________ USING THIS INSTRUMENT RELEASED 

AND WAIVE TO ALL THE ABOVE MENTIONED, INSTITUTIONS AND/OR INDIVIDUALS 

FROM ALL LIABILITY FOR PERSONAL INJURY, DAMAGE TO PROPERTY OR DEATH BY 

NEGLIGENCE IN ANY WAY EXCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO NEGLIGENCE OF 

EXEMPTED PARTIES, EITHER PASSIVE OR ACTIVE. 

I_____________________________________ AM IN KNOWLEDGE AND I HAVE 

READ THE PREVIOUS PARAGRAPH, I COMPLETELY UNDERSTAND THE POTENTIAL 

DANGERS THAT EXIST IN THE DIVES WITH SCUBA, I AM QUITE AWARE LEGAL 

CONSEQUENCES AND I AM IN AGREEMENT IN WHICH THIS DOCUMENT IS LEGALLY 

CONFORMED AND ME DISABLES ENGAGE ECONOMIC DEMAND AGAINST PREVIOUSLY LISTED, ENTITIES OR INDIVIDUALS, ARE SPECIFICALLY NAMED OR NOT, FOR 

PERSONAL INJURY, DAMAGE TO PROPERTY OR DEATH BY NEGLIGENCE OR 

PRODUCT RESPONSIBILITIES. 

NAME ______________________________________

SIGNATURE ________________________________ DATE ____________________
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 105 

Appendix 10. Brief Summary of Existing Regulations Regarding IAS in the French 

West Indies (and French Guiana) 

Given the status of departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique within the Republic of 

France, the general framework for IAS is the French legislation and corresponding regulations, with local specifications or adaptations. In France the legislation on marine and 

terrestrial wild species is two-fold :

i) Protected species. Some species are given a particular status of protected species, 

meaning that they cannot be killed, caught, harassed, etc. 

Several regimes co-exist: species protected on the entire national territory (e.g 

whales, strictly protected in all French waters all around the world) ; species 

protected only in some locations by local decree, whether this particular status is 

justified by their restricted occurrence -it would make little sense to protect in 

European France some species that are endemic to Guadeloupe - or by a specially 

fragile local status whereas the national status of the species is favourable.

ii) « Harvested » species — These are the species that can be hunted, fished, or more 

generally taken or caught. Regarding fisheries, quotas (total catches authorized) 

are determined for all fished species at the national level in accordance with 

European decisions. These national quotas can be complemented locally by local 

specific decrees that regulate fishing periods (open/close seasons), minimal/

maximal sizes of fishes caught, or that can edict particular prohibitions of fishing 

for some species in particular when there is a pollution or a risk of contamination 

with ciguatera.

All this implies that, in Martinique and in Guadeloupe, the quotas determined nationally 

apply, completed by specific decisions taken at the local level that add particular regulations 

or framework

Noticeably, all fishing devices are strictly forbidden when scuba diving ; fishing is only 

permitted for snorkellers.

Invasive alien species in general 

 

Introduction pathways: France has ratified in 2008 the IMO Convention on Ballast Waters. 

A recent report prepared by the French IUCN committee summarizes the existing regulations 

and their gaps regarding the control and destruction of IAS in France (including Guadeloupe 

and Martinique). The legal possibility to take control measures depends on the legal status of 

the target species : 

i) If it is protected, of course it cannot be destroyed until the protected status has 

been removed;

ii) If it the species is domestic or a crop (not a wild species), then the situation is clear 

and well framed by regulatory texts;

iii) If the species is wild and not protected, then it can be difficult to know exactly what 

measures can be taken against a particular species. The complexity arises 

noticeably from the scattering of legal articles between several laws and codes, 

which hampers having a clear, harmonious understanding at once. Furthermore 

several state departments and agencies often have shared competences on the 

issue, collaboration is thus required before measures can be taken; however the 

situation is more simple within protected areas.
 106 Appendix 

The main gaps, conflicts or confusions occurs with wild IAS animal species that have not 

been given the status of « pest » or nuisance, the definition of this status being most often 

made in relation with agriculture or farming. Indeed if an animal IAS species has no negative 

consequence on crops or domestic species, then it is less easy to confer it the status of 

nuisance. This is a problem because once a species is declared a nuisance, the situation is 

much more clear and control measures (and corresponding funding) are far easier to design, 

agree upon and implement.

For wild IAS species that have no consequences on agriculture or farming, the Environment 

Code is the reference in terms of control. This code allows the administration to capture, 

take, keep or destroy the specimens of the introduced species, as soon as its presence in 

the wild is documented. All IAS species are covered by this provision, but its enforcement is 

restricted to nominative lists of species decided by the Minister of Environment. It means 

that, in Guadeloupe or in Martinique, the services in charge of environment have not the 

mandate to decide on their own that the lionfish is to be put on the above-mentioned list: 

they can propose it, but the decision has to be made by the ministry in Paris.

 

For the lionfish 

As explained before, a species has to be put by the ministry on a national list before special 

decision for its destruction can be made. This is the case for the lionfish : it has not yet be 

listed in the national IAS list in France, henceforth no particular regulation exist on the 

lionfish at the national level. The consequences are:

i) That the extent to which local decisions to control it can be made is limited (special 

use of fishing gears, prohibition of sale of living specimens, etc.). A local decree has 

been passed some months ago in Guadeloupe authorizing the capture of lionfish 

for scuba divers with gun or special kit. The authorization is granted only for a list of 

people whose names are listed in the decree. A similar decree has been passed in 

Martinique, but as long as the lionfish is not on the national IAS list, both decrees 

have to rely on a nominative and limited list of individuals, meaning that no global 

control campaign can be launched easily, except with authorized fishing gears (nets 

etc) but not with scuba divers.

ii) Incidentally, nothing prohibits today the fishing and trade of the lionfish in France, 

except the restriction for scuba diving and its exemption mentioned above. This 

could be questioned as the risk of contamination with ciguatera is not known yet

An important step now is to try and have the lionfish listed by the ministry as an IAS in the 

FWI so that a ministerial decree authorizing its destruction can be signed, with corresponding 

funding granted. The local state delegations for environment in Guadeloupe and Martinique 

are working on that.
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 107 

Appendix 11. Excerpt from Bonaire Marine Park Island Resolution (AB2010 #14) 

Section IV

ARTICLES CONCERNING FISHING 

Article 9 

i) It is forbidden to use mechanical gear, explosives, hand spears or poles 

with hooks, to hunt or catch marine life. 

ii) It is forbidden to transport, to offer for sale, to transfer, or to deliver marine 

life that has been caught by mechanical marine hunting gear, explosives, 

hand spears or hand hooks. 

iii) It is forbidden to transport mechanical marine hunting gear over public 

ground or public water. 

iv) It is forbidden to offer for sale, to sell, or to have in stock for sale in a shop 

or accompanying space, mechanical marine hunting gear complete or in 

parts. 

v) Mechanical marine hunting gear means any guns and pistols that are 

regulated by the Firearms Ordinance 1931 (P.B. 1931 nr. 2) as amended, 

as well as any guns or pistols that either by air or by gas under pressure, or 

by other means, can fire missiles under water. 

With the exception of explosives, the prohibitions set forth in paragraph 1, 2 and 3 

do not apply to the Manager or to the persons assigned by the Manager, upon 

catching, gathering and killing of harmful species as referenced in paragraph 1, 

Article 19 of the Island Resolution Nature Management Bonaire
Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Management and Control 

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. The practices identified in this manual were developed with the assistance of many 

field workers in the Caribbean region. Their ingenuity and resilience are the greatest 

assets for combating lionfish.

P. WHITFIELD
 

 

 

The introduction of lionfish into the Atlantic Ocean is now recognized as 

one of the major ecological disasters of the last two decades. Today 

lionfish are found in nearly all marine-habitat types along the Southeast 

United States, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean. Densities of lionfish have 

surpassed some native reef fish in many locations. The ecological impacts 

of this invasion are far-reaching — from disruptions to the structure and 

function of reef communities to impacts on commercial fishing and the 

tourism industry. 

 

Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management provides best 

practices for lionfish control and management, including control strategies, 

outreach and education, research, monitoring, legal considerations, and 

ideas for securing resources and partnerships. By following these best 

practices, resource managers can reduce the local impacts of invasive 

lionfish in marine protected areas and other places of ecological and 

economic importance. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“Invasive lionfish pose a clear and present threat to coastal marine 

ecosystems and fisheries of the tropical Western Atlantic, Caribbean, 

and Gulf of Mexico. Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management is a comprehensive compendium of up-to-date information for 

understanding and effectively addressing this worst of marine invasions.” 

— Mark A. Hixon 

Professor of Marine Ecology and Conservation Biology 

Oregon State University 

 

 

 

“Our globalized economy, characterized by the continuous transport of 

species around our planet, including marine species, presents urgent 

invasive species challenges such as lionfish in the Caribbean. Invasive 

Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management provides many best practices that, if followed, will empower coastal managers to address this everincreasing problem in the Wider Caribbean.” 

— Alfredo Arellano Guillermo 

Director General de Conservación para el Desarrollo 

Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (CONANP) 

México 

 

 

 

COVER ILLUSTRATION BY RICHARD POWELL