SOUTHAFRICA

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide

Johannesburg

Pretoria

Bloemfontein

Soweto

Durban

PortElizabeth

EastLondon

Capetown

SouthAfrica
This guide is designed to help 

prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and 

successfully achieve mission 

objectives. The fundamental 

information it contains will help you 

understand the decisive cultural 

dimension of your assigned location

and gain necessary skills to achieve 

mission success (Photo courtesy of 

Pro Quest 2011).

The guide consists of two parts: 

Part 1: Introduces “Culture General,” the foundational 

knowledge you need to operate effectively in any global

environment (Photo courtesy of 

USAID). 

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” 

South Africa, focusing on unique 

cultural features of South African 

society and is designed to 

complement other pre-deployment 

training. It applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase your 

knowledge of your assigned 

deployment location.

For further information, visit the Air 

Force Culture and Language Center 

(AFCLC) website at https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or

contact AFCLC’s Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

ECFG South Africa
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story –

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture.

Social Behaviors Across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, 

all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian 

societies generally produce

their own food for limited 

consumption using very 

basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized 

nations have more 

sophisticated market economies, producing foodstuffs for 

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universal consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and 

tradition, although they represent these concepts through a 

variety of unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world 

religions share the belief in one God, their worship practices 

vary with their traditional historical development. Similarly, in 

many kin-based cultures where familial bonds are foundational 

to social identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview– how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles. 

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing most 

of what was traditional 

and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form of 

bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed for 

several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo a courtesy of Wikimedia).

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

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death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or the female side of the family, a practice that

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate 

their “release” from 

colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they tend to communicate with reserve to 

avoid confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans 

believe that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity 

are of utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism 

and controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults 

or peers.

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life.

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual.

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection 

and widespread poverty 

caused by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions.

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as 

civil war, disease, 

poverty, and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational 

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of South African society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Historical Overview

The history of South Africa is a story of competition between 

diverse groups to control scarce land and labor. While this 

contest was fairly balanced for several centuries, the discovery 

of minerals promoted a devastating period of white domination 

from which South Africa only recently began to recover.

Early South Africa

Hominid remains found near 

Johannesburg date back almost 

2 million years, although the 

earliest modern humans to 

inhabit what is now South Africa 

appeared about 100,000 years 

ago. These nomadic huntergatherers were the ancestors of the modern Khoe and San

(often referred to collectively as the Khoe-San), similar but 

distinct ethnic groups which diverged about 2,000 years ago

when the Khoe settled and began to herd animals.

Around the same time, Bantu-speaking societies with Iron Age 

technology emerged in southern Africa (Important Note:

“Bantu” is a linguistic classification. Speakers of Bantu 

languages should never be referred to as “Bantus,” as this term 

is offensive.) Although their settlements varied from rural 

homesteads to densely-populated townships, most Bantuspeakers raised cattle and assimilated into chiefdoms or 

centralized systems. A chiefdom contains two or more social 

groups loyal to a ruler whose position is a family legacy.

Over many years, a geographic and linguistic division emerged 

among the Bantu-speaking farmers. Sotho-Tswana-speakers 

remained on the Highveld, an interior plateau, and established 

dense settlements of up to 20,000 people. Nguni-speakers, by 

contrast, moved to the Indian Ocean coastline and continued to 

live in small groups.

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

HISTORY &

MYTH
The Dutch East India Company

Portuguese explorers seeking a sea route to India became the 

first Europeans to reach present-day South Africa in 1487, but 

it was not until 1652 that Jan van Riebeeck (pictured) and a 

group of employees of the Dutch East India 

Company (Verenigde Oost-Indische 

Compagnie or VOC) established the first 

European settlement in southern Africa at 

Table Bay on the Cape of Good Hope.

This settlement initially remained small and 

temporary because its only purpose was to 

supply passing Dutch ships with meat and 

produce procured from local Khoe herders.

By 1657, however, the Khoe were no longer willing to supply 

the growing Dutch demand for provisions. Consequently, the 

VOC gave several of its employees a plot of farmland and the 

title of “free burgher” in order to promote permanent settlement.

These grants increased the demand for labor, prompting the 

VOC to import slaves from other parts of Africa and the East 

Indies. The grants also led to land conflicts with the Khoe, and 

after an unsuccessful Khoe rebellion in 1659 and a ruinous 

period of war from 1673 to 1677, the highly susceptible Khoe 

were largely decimated by the arrival of smallpox in 1713.

Hoping to expand agriculture in the Cape, the VOC in 1679 

offered free farmland to Dutch and German emigrants, who

were joined in 1688 by French Huguenots. These settlers 

established farms and raised livestock as their cultures merged 

through the adoption of the Dutch language. This process later 

gave rise to Afrikaans, a uniquely African variant of the Dutch 

language (see Language and Communication).

Trekboers: The European emigrant farmers eventually came 

to view the VOC as corrupt, prompting many of them to leave

the Cape in the early 18th century to establish farms on interior 

plots of land. Because these Trekboers or Boers (Dutch for 

“farmer”) tried to claim land already occupied by the Khoe-San, 

warfare ensued for much of the 18th century. By the 1770s, 

Boers expanding eastward had also encroached upon land 

occupied by a Nguni-speaking ethnic group called the Xhosa, 

resulting in additional conflict.

HISTORY &

MYTH
The Arrival of the British

As Dutch sea power waned at the end of the 18th century, the 

British seized the Cape Colony in 1795 in order to prevent its

sea route to India from falling into French hands. Although the 

British originally intended to limit their involvement in the Cape, 

imperial politics soon led to the adoption of land and labor 

policies which drew the British more 

deeply into colonial affairs (Pictured: 

Coat of Arms of the Cape Colony).

Land Policy: These policies began in 

1799 when the British deployed troops 

against the Xhosa in order to mitigate 

land pressures faced by the Boers.

After 20 years the British eventually 

drove the Xhosa north of the Great 

Fish River, which runs through the Eastern Cape Province, and 

positioned 5,000 British immigrant farmers on the new frontier 

to serve as a buffer. These actions simply resulted in new land 

pressures as the immigrant farmers discovered that their 

homesteads were unprofitably small and began to compete 

with the Boers for access to more arable land.

Labor Policy: After the British Parliament outlawed the slave 

trade in 1807, the colonial authorities attempted to appease the 

already disgruntled Boers by allowing them to retain their 

personal slaves. Consequently, non-whites were required to 

carry identification (ID) passes to avoid becoming forced 

laborers. Influential British missionaries objected to these 

practices, prompting the colonial authorities to establish a 

racially neutral court and have labor practices monitored. 

Already angered by the land policy, the Boers were further 

enraged when Parliament repealed the ID pass requirement in 

1828 and fully enforced the banning of slavery in 1833.

The Zulu and the Mfecane

During the first half of the 19th century, southern Africa saw a 

rapid increase in warfare and migration as various groups 

competed for control over natural resources that had been 

diminished by overpopulation and drought. This period, known 

in the isiZulu language as the Mfecane, or “crushing,” saw the 

rise of the Nguni-speaking Zulu Kingdom and its powerful 

leader Shaka.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Shaka: Born the illegitimate son of a Zulu chief in 1787, Shaka 

(pictured) began his military career under the command of 

Dingiswayo, chief of the Mthethwa, another Nguni group. After 

Dingiswayo helped Shaka succeed his father as Zulu chief in 

1816, Shaka expanded and improved the Zulu military by 

introducing innovative weaponry and battle tactics.

After Dingiswayo was killed in 1818 by his

Nguni rival, Shaka used his formidable 

military to take revenge and bring many 

Nguni peoples under the control of his Zulu 

state, which by the mid-1820s had an army 

of 40,000 and a population of over 100,000. 

Shaka consolidated his power by forging a 

unitary Zulu identity for all of his diverse 

population. Zulu power began to decline after 

Shaka was assassinated in 1828 and 

succeeded by his half-brother Dingane.

Aftermath: Shaka’s aggressive expansion of the Zulu state 

caused many ethnic groups to form fortified states in order to 

bolster food security and provide defense against Zulu raiders. 

Some of these states, such as Lesotho and Swaziland, survive 

to this day. However, political development came at a heavy 

price. Zulu expansion led to the death or displacement of 

thousands of southern Africans and forced many more to seek 

employment in the Cape Colony at any available wage.

The Great Trek

In an effort to escape British land and labor restrictions, groups 

of Boer Voortrekkers, or pioneers, began to migrate east from 

the Cape Colony in 1836. The largest group of Voortrekkers,

led by Piet Retief, migrated to the southeastern tip of presentday South Africa, an area ruled by Dingane and the Zulu.

In February 1838, Retief and a group of followers approached 

Dingane and requested permission to settle. Dingane had the 

entire party killed and sent his military after the Voortrekkers. 

Hundreds of Voortrekkers were killed, prompting the survivors 

to return in December with Cape Colony reinforcements under 

the command of Andries Pretorius. The reinforced Voortrekkers 

defeated Dingane at the Battle of Blood River in 1843 and 

established the Republic of Natalia.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Colony of Natal: Fearing 

that the new Dutch-speaking 

republic would negotiate 

directly with other European 

powers, the British annexed 

the Republic of Natalia in 

1843 and created the Colony 

of Natal, leading most Boers 

to relocate to Voortrekker 

settlements in the Highveld. Meanwhile, the British attempted 

to finance their new colony by importing thousands of Indian 

laborers (pictured) to work on sugarcane plantations. 

The Boer Republics

The Boers in the Highveld formed two independent republics: 

the Orange Free State, situated between the Orange and Vaal 

rivers, and the South African Republic, located north of the 

Vaal River in an area known as the Transvaal. Both republics, 

however, claimed territory in which African settlements already 

existed, and the Boers clashed frequently with Africans as they 

tried to establish their claims.

Due to this conflict, the Boers were only able to establish farms 

in the spotty areas between African settlements. Consequently, 

both republics were largely rural, and most Boers continued to 

hunt and trade livestock for a living. Supplying Cape Colony 

merchants with ivory, skins, and feathers also provided income.

Balance of Power

There was a balance of power in southern Africa by the end of 

the 1860s: the British controlled the Colony of Natal and the 

Cape Colony, the Boers claimed their two republics, and most 

African societies controlled their own independent chiefdoms. 

This balance of power was supported by a regional economy 

still based largely on agriculture. The discovery of minerals in 

the late 1860s, however, destroyed that economic model and 

led to two wars between the British and the Boer republics.

The First Boer War: Shortly after the discovery of diamonds in 

the Cape Colony in 1867, the British asserted their sovereignty 

and seized the diamond fields. The mining industry developed 

rapidly in the following years around the new city of Kimberley, 

creating huge demand for cheap labor.

HISTORY &

MYTH
In 1887, this labor demand led the British to annex the South 

African Republic as the Transvaal Colony. The official reason 

for this move was to prevent the collapse of the republic, which 

at the time was fighting a losing battle against the Pedi tribe. 

The unofficial reason was that the British hoped to conquer the 

Pedi and force them to work in the Kimberley mines. However, 

the Transvaalers soon declared their independence anew and 

rose in rebellion, defeating the British in 1881 at the Battle of 

Majuba Hill and reclaiming the right of self-government.

The tenuous peace that followed this Boer victory lasted only 

until 1886, when the discovery of massive gold deposits on the 

Witwatersrand led English-speaking businessmen to flock to 

the South African Republic in search of profits. By the 1890s 

these uitlanders, as the Boers referred to 

them, constituted a majority of white males 

in the South African Republic. Few 

uitlanders could vote, however, due to 

residency requirements, and Paul Kruger 

(pictured), the South African Republic’s 

President, enraged the British by refusing 

to make exceptions. The British were also 

concerned that Kruger would seek ties with 

Germany and Portugal, both of which were 

active in southern Africa at the time.

The Second Boer War: The British sent troops to southern 

Africa and demanded that Kruger extend the vote to uitlanders. 

Kruger refused and in 1900 preemptively declared war on the 

British in alliance with the Orange Free State. Both the Boers 

and the British conscripted Africans. Although the Boers won 

some early battles due to the element of surprise, the British 

soon overran them. The Boers refused to surrender, however, 

and began to launch guerilla attacks.

Unable to defeat this Boer insurgency by conventional means, 

the British resorted to “scorched earth” tactics that resulted in 

the destruction of 30,000 Boer farms. Many African farms were 

also ruined, leaving many Africans landless and dependent 

upon wage labor at white-owned mines and farms. The British 

also placed many Boers and Africans in concentration camps, 

where more than 25,000 Boers and roughly the same number 

of Africans died from disease and malnutrition.

HISTORY &

MYTH
The Union of South Africa

Although the British spent the 

next decade trying to create an 

English-speaking majority in 

South Africa, they ultimately 

failed because the war-ravaged 

economy could not attract 

enough English-speaking 

immigrants. Similarly, Dutch- and Afrikaans-speaking 

inhabitants (known as Afrikaners) were uninterested in 

adopting the English language and culture. Consequently, the 

British began to encourage the four colonies to unite 

independently. The result in May 1910 was the Union of South

Africa, a British dominion in which English and Dutch were 

coequal official languages.

The dominant white government quickly established a series of 

discriminatory laws, the most flagrant of which was the Natives 

Land Act of 1913. This law defined distinct areas where blacks 

and whites could own land. Although blacks comprised 2/3 of 

the population, they were assigned only 7.5% of the land.

This racial legislation and the British policies which preceded it 

inspired political activism by non-whites. The most enduring 

example is the creation in 1912 of the South African Native 

National Congress, later called the African National Congress 

(ANC). The ANC was created by a group of black intellectuals 

who sought moderate changes through non-violent means. 

Hertzog and the National Party: In 1914 South Africa entered 

World War I by aligning with the Allies. Although the country

was a British dominion, the decision to join the Allies was 

controversial because Germany had aided the Boers during the 

South African War. From this debate emerged the National 

Party (NP), which JBM Hertzog founded in 1914 to protect his 

fellow Afrikaners by limiting the power of mine owners and 

introducing policies that favored white workers.

The NP agenda gained steam in the 1920s as wage cuts and 

layoffs prompted white workers to strike and later march on 

Johannesburg. In 1924 Hertzog led a National Party-Labour 

Party alliance that harnessed this zeal into an election victory 

and a sweeping new round of discriminatory legislation.

HISTORY &

MYTH
The Great Depression: By the 1930s, the economic downturn

of the Great Depression forced Hertzog to join forces with 

former Afrikaner rival Jan Smuts in order to secure reelection 

on a joint United Party (UP) ticket. Hertzog’s racial policies 

hardly softened, however, even with the more moderate Smuts 

as his deputy. The UP soon introduced legislation that further 

restricted black voting rights and regulated existing identity 

pass laws (see Land Policy above) even more strictly.

World War II: In 1939, South Africa entered World War II after 

an intense debate between Hertzog, who favored neutrality, 

and Smuts, who favored supporting the British. The cabinet 

sided with Smuts, prompting Hertzog to resign and form the 

Herenigde (Reunited) National Party (NP) with Afrikaner 

nationalist DF Malan.

World War II resulted in a vast expansion of manufacturing in 

South Africa, creating a need for labor that was eventually filled 

by blacks who congregated in shantytowns on the outskirts of 

rapidly expanding cities. By the end of the war, South Africa 

was a far more industrial and urban society, causing even past 

proponents of racial segregation to question its practicality.

The Apartheid Era

Apartheid, meaning “apartness,” 

refers to a system of legal racial 

segregation introduced after the 

NP took power in 1948. Although 

apartheid created new extremes 

of racial division, its motivations 

and ideology are easy to identify 

in behaviors and policies dating 

back to the arrival of the first 

Dutch settlers. Just like earlier forms of discrimination, 

apartheid was designed to support the economic interests and 

entrench the political power of South Africa’s white minority.

Apartheid Laws: Passed in 1950, the fundamental apartheid 

laws were the Population Registration Act and the Group Areas 

Act. The former provided for the legal classification of all South 

Africans as black, white, “colored” (mixed-race), or Asian, while 

the latter established specific areas in which each racial group 

was allowed to live (see Political and Social Relations).

HISTORY &

MYTH
These acts provided the basis for a series of laws which 

banned interracial marriages and sexual relations, established 

separate authorities for black areas, deprived coloreds of the 

right to vote, created special protections for white workers, 

mandated that blacks carry “reference books” with all of their 

personal information, and provided for the creation of separate, 

unequal public facilities – including schools, parks, beaches, 

and toilets – for each of the different races.

Several security directives were issued to enforce these laws. 

Those directives greatly expanded police power by banning 

Communism (defined very broadly), increasing censorship, 

permitting the banishment of blacks to “Bantu” areas, and 

providing for the suspension of all laws in states of emergency. 

Resistance: The only formal African 

political grouping, the ANC, had not 

been effective during its early years, 

and in the 1940s, its leadership gave 

way to a younger generation that

advocated a more forceful approach. 

Groups representing other non-white 

races also began to protest against apartheid in the 1950s. The 

Congress Alliance was a brief coalition of these groups that 

produced the Freedom Charter, which is regarded today as a

blueprint for modern South Africa. Other groups, such as the 

Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), advocated violent resistance.

Sharpeville: In 1960, the PAC organized a peaceful protest in 

the Transvaal township of Sharpeville. The protest began when 

thousands of blacks congregated at the local police station 

without their reference books and asked to be arrested. 

Although there is no evidence that the protestors were armed, 

the police opened fire, killing at least 67 and wounding 186.

The Sharpeville massacre caused an international outcry which 

prompted a defiant South Africa to withdraw from the British 

Commonwealth and declare itself an independent republic in 

1961. Meanwhile, the South African government outlawed both 

the ANC and the PAC, prompting both groups to embrace 

violent resistance and leading to the arrest or exile of many top 

leaders. Of note, Nelson Mandela and 7 other ANC leaders 

were sentenced to life in prison in 1964 at the Rivonia Trial. 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Bantustans: Having fractured black resistance and restored 

investor confidence by the mid-1960s, the government tried to

consolidate its gains by creating Bantustans, or independent 

black homelands that were supposed to justify the denial of 

citizenship rights to Africans. Based on the 1913 Native Lands 

Act, Bantustans consisted of remote, fragmented, overcrowded 

land that totaled only 13% of South 

Africa’s area. Although the Bantustans 

were dependent upon South Africa’s 

economy, 3.5 million Africans were 

forced to relocate (Photo: Officials 

reviewing a Bantustan proposal).

Steve Biko: Political resistance soon

resumed in full force with the Black 

Consciousness Movement (BCM). 

Led by Steve Biko, the BCM argued that blacks had to distance 

themselves from white liberals and take pride in their culture in 

order to escape inferior status within a white establishment.

Soweto: Inspired partly by the BCM, a group of students in 

1976 marched in the black township of Soweto to protest a new 

government order that half of their school subjects be taught in 

Afrikaans. After the police used tear gas and guns in an effort 

to end the protest, the demonstrators and some Soweto 

residents reacted by burning down government buildings. The 

violence at Soweto was the worst since the start of apartheid.

Although the police eventually quelled the violence in Soweto,

similar protests erupted across South Africa. By February 1977, 

494 blacks, 75 coloreds, 5 whites, and 1 Indian had been killed 

according to official statistics. Later that year the government 

banned all anti-apartheid groups, and in September Steve Biko 

was tortured to death by the South African secret police.

Dismantling Apartheid

Unrest spread from Soweto as the ANC encouraged followers 

to make South Africa ungovernable. During the 1980s, even 

the most brutal police tactics increasingly failed to suppress the 

chaos created by mass protests and attacks from exiled 

resistance groups. Meanwhile, the international community 

expressed its condemnation of apartheid by imposing 

devastating economic sanctions on South Africa.

HISTORY &

MYTH
FW de Klerk: The impasse between a restless populace and a 

repressive government was broken in 1989 when President 

PW Botha, an old guard Afrikaner nationalist, suffered a stroke 

and was replaced by FW de Klerk, the Minister of Education. 

De Klerk surprised many in a February 1990 address by lifting 

the ban on anti-apartheid groups and announcing the release 

of all political prisoners, including Nelson Mandela. Although de 

Klerk did not immediately remove all apartheid-era restrictions, 

he initiated earnest negotiations with Nelson Mandela in order 

to transition South Africa to a democratic 

government. 

The New South Africa

Although Mandela (pictured) and de Klerk 

negotiated against a backdrop of intense 

racial mistrust and repeated outbreaks of 

violence, the two men eventually reached a 

deal that resulted in South Africa’s first free 

elections being held April 26 - 29, 1994.

With 88% voter turnout for what international observers 

described as free and fair elections, the ANC won 62.6% of the 

vote. A few days later, the new National Assembly elected 

Nelson Mandela to be South Africa’s first post-apartheid 

President.

In 1995 the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was 

established under Archbishop Desmond Tutu (see Religion and 

Spirituality) with the intention of promoting national healing by 

soliciting testimony from both victims and transgressors about 

the tragedies of the apartheid era. 

South Africa after Mandela

At the end of 1997, Mandela stepped down as ANC leader in 

favor of Thabo Mbeki, who became President in 1999. Today,

former President Mandela is acknowledged as South African’s 

national father figure. During his first term, Mbeki proved adept 

at handling both the economy and the ANC’s electoral 

prospects. He later drew criticism for his marginal response to

the HIV/AIDS epidemic and refusal to denounce the repressive 

actions of President Robert Mugabe of neighboring Zimbabwe. 

After a power struggle within the ANC, Jacob Zuma succeeded 

Mbeki in 2009. Although Zuma is known for his personal 

HISTORY &

MYTH
popularity, some citizens have questioned his credibility and 

policy-making judgment (see Political and Social Relations). 

South African Myth & Legend

In ancient times, African oral legends and myths 

were used to preserve history and wisdom across 

generations and ethnic boundaries, teach moral 

lessons, and entertain. 

In South Africa, one popular legend is that of “Jan 

van Hunks and the Devil.” Van Hunks was an early 

18th century Dutch pirate who decided to retire 

from his perilous life at sea and reside on the 

slopes of South Africa’s Devil’s Peak, which is a 

mountainous backdrop to Cape Town.

As the story goes, Van Hunks would routinely seek 

refuge in the mountains to distance himself from 

his nagging wife and smoke his pipe peacefully. On 

one occasion while smoking on the mountain, a 

mysterious man approached van Hunks and asked 

to borrow some tobacco. Van Hunks acknowledged 

the request, and in the course of conversation, a 

smoking contest with high stakes emerged 

between the two men – the winner's prize would be 

a ship full of gold. 

Following several days of competition, the retired 

pirate defeated the stranger, who was actually the 

devil in disguise. Soon after, thunder rolled and the 

clouds closed in on Jan van Hunks who 

disappeared leaving only a scorched patch.

Thereafter, the cloud of tobacco smoke 

metaphorically turned into a tablecloth or white 

cloud that can be seen over Table Mountain, a 

large flat-top peak overseeing Cape Town, when 

the southeasterly wind blows during the summer. 

At that time, Van Hunks and the devil are believed 

to be dueling once again.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Official Name

Republic of South Africa

Political Borders

Namibia: 600 mi

Botswana: 1,143 mi

Zimbabwe: 140 mi

Mozambique: 305 mi

Swaziland: 267 mi

Lesotho: 565 mi

Coastline: 1,739 mi

Capitals 

South Africa has 3 capitals: Bloemfontein (judicial), Cape Town 

(legislative), and Pretoria (administrative).

Demographics

South Africa’s population of 50.6 million is growing at a rate of 

1.1% per year and divides into 4 major racial categories: blacks 

(79.5%), whites (9%), coloreds (mixed-race) (9%), and Asians 

(2.5%). South Africa’s rate of HIV prevalence among adults 

aged 15-49 was the 4th highest in the world in 2009 at 17.8%. 

This high rate of HIV prevalence contributes to South Africa’s 

high death rate, which is the 3rd highest in the world at 17.1 

deaths per 1,000 people per year.

Flag

The centerpiece of the flag is

a green horizontal Y which 

symbolizes the convergence 

and unity of South Africa’s 

diverse cultural groups. The 

arms of the Y enclose a black 

triangle outlined in yellow on 

the hoist side of the flag, 

while the remainder of the flag is filled by two horizontal 

trapezoids of red and blue outlined in white. The colors match 

those of the African National Congress (black, green, yellow) 

and the flags of South Africa’s colonizers, the Netherlands and 

the United Kingdom (blue, red, white).

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

With a total area of 470,693 square miles, South Africa is about 

twice the size of Texas. Located at the southern tip of Africa, 

South Africa completely encloses the country of Lesotho in the 

southeast.

The defining geographical 

feature of South Africa is a 

massive plateau in the 

center of the country that is 

covered by savanna and 

semi-desert terrain. It 

reaches its highest 

elevations between 4000

and 6000 feet in an area 

known as the Highveld 

(see History and Myth). This interior plateau is separated from 

the coastal region by large, erosion-formed cliffs known as 

escarpments. Although the area around Cape Town in the 

southwest is mountainous, the western and northwestern 

regions tend to be dry and flat.

Climate

South Africa generally has lower temperatures than other 

countries at equivalent latitudes due to its high elevation. The 

eastern coast, which is warmed by the Agulhas current, has 

higher average temperatures than the western coast, which is 

cooled by the Benguela current. For example, temperatures in 

the eastern city of Durban vary seasonally between the mid60s and mid-70s °F, while temperatures in the western city of 

Cape Town range from the mid-50s to the high 70s °F. 

Average annual rainfall is slightly less than 18 inches per year, 

although rainfall amounts vary widely both across regions and 

from year-to-year. Although the Cape Town area receives 

ample precipitation, the arid western half of the country 

receives less than 8 inches of annual rainfall, mostly in the 

winter months of May to July. By contrast, the eastern half of 

the country receives about 20 inches of annual rainfall, mainly 

during the summer months of mid-October to mid-February. 

The Drakensburg and Maluti mountains in the east are the only 

parts of the country which receive snow.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Because of its low rainfall and a lack of major rivers and lakes, 

South Africa is constantly under threat of drought or surface 

water shortages. Consequently, the country requires rigid water 

conservation and control measures.

Government

South Africa is a multiparty parliamentary democracy divided 

into 9 provinces: Eastern Cape, Free State, Gauteng, KwaZuluNatal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Northern Cape, North-West, and 

Western Cape. Originally incorporated in 1910 as a British 

dominion, South Africa became an independent republic in 

1961 (see History and Myth). After almost a half century under 

apartheid, a system of racial segregation, South Africa held 

free elections in 1994 and adopted a new, non-discriminatory 

Constitution in 1996. Although there are currently 14 political

parties in South Africa, the most significant are the African 

National Congress (ANC) and the Democratic Alliance (DA). 

Executive Branch

The President, currently Jacob Zuma

(pictured), is selected by the National 

Assembly to serve a maximum of two 5-

year terms. In addition to his role as

head-of-state, head-of-government, and 

commander-in-chief of the armed forces;

the President selects a Deputy President 

and a Cabinet of Ministers. The Deputy 

President is responsible for assuming 

the President’s duties when the 

President is unable to fulfill them. Each 

President assigns the Cabinet Ministers’ responsibilities.

Legislative Branch

South Africa has a 2-chamber Parliament composed of a 

Council of Provinces and a National Assembly. While the 400 

members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote

through a proportional representation system, the 90 members 

of the Council of Provinces are selected by each of South 

Africa’s 9 Provincial Legislatures (10 representatives for each 

province). All members of Parliament serve 5-year terms.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Judicial Branch

The original basis of South Africa’s legal system is Roman 

Dutch law (Roman law as interpreted by Dutch scholars in the 

17th and 18th centuries), although the influence of British 

colonization resulted in a hybrid legal system incorporating 

many aspects of British common law. As long as it does not 

conflict with the Constitution, South Africans can also choose to 

be subject to customary law, which comprises the traditional 

legal practices of indigenous ethnic groups.

There are four types of courts 

in South Africa’s legal system. 

The 11-justice Constitutional 

Court is the ultimate authority 

on constitutional questions, 

while the 23-justice Supreme 

Court of Appeal is the highest 

court for all non-constitutional 

matters. The High Courts and 

the Magistrate Courts handle 

the majority of cases (Photo: Then Senator Obama with 

members of the Constitutional Court).

Political Climate

Since the 1994 elections, South Africa has made great strides 

toward effective democratic government. With nearly 80% voter 

turnout in the 2009 election, South Africa benefits from a 

population enthusiastic for participatory democracy. South 

Africa also has several powerful public interest groups such as 

the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), black 

economic empowerment groups (BEEs), and the Treatment 

Action Campaign, which seeks to further HIV/AIDS prevention.

Jacob Zuma, who in 2009 became South Africa’s 4th postapartheid President despite allegations of rape and corruption, 

has met with mixed success during his tenure. Although Zuma 

gained positive attention for his successful management of the 

2010 World Cup and his effective overhaul of predecessor 

Thabo Mbeki’s HIV/AIDS policies, some of his economic 

policies have angered allies such as the COSATU. Some news 

outlets have reported speculation that the ANC may choose a 

different candidate ahead of the 2014 elections.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Defense

Formed in 1994 from the

old South Africa Defence 

Force and the paramilitary 

wings of various antiapartheid organizations, the 

South Africa National 

Defence Force (SANDF) is 

widely regarded as the best 

trained and best equipped military in sub-Saharan Africa. The 

SANDF currently has over 64,000 active-duty troops and close 

to 20,000 reserves divided between an Army, Navy, Air Force, 

and health service. Although the SANDF is a small force 

relative to the size of South Africa, it has a large and growing 

portfolio of regional responsibilities. South Africa’s defense 

budget equals about 1.7% of GDP (Photo: Then Chairman of 

the US Joint Chiefs of Staff Navy Admiral Mike Mullen with 

General Godfrey Nhlanhla, Chief of the SANDF).

Army: Composed of about 39,000 active-duty troops and more 

than 12,000 reserves, the Army has two major multi-unit bases 

– Thaba Tshwane at Pretoria and Tempe at Bloemfontein – in 

addition to smaller, single-unit bases throughout the country. 

The main responsibilities of the army are to defend South 

Africa and regional allies from attack, assist the police in case 

of emergency, and supply and maintain peacekeeping forces. 

Navy: The Navy, which comprises nearly 7,000 active-duty 

troops and more than 1,000 reserves, operates from 4 major 

stations, the largest of which is south of Cape Town at Simon’s 

Town. The primary focus of the Navy is to protect South 

Africa’s maritime trade, which accounts for 30% of GDP. The 

Navy conducts anti-piracy missions in the waters surrounding 

southern Africa with an emphasis on the ports at Cape Town 

and Durban.

Air Force: Composed of about 11,000 active-duty troops and 

just over 1,000 reserves, the Air Force is primarily responsible 

for South African airspace and troop deployment locations. 

Other responsibilities include transporting government officials 

and providing light air support and transport capabilities to the 

Army and police during border protection and internal security 

operations.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL

RELATIONS
Security Issues

Crime: Crime is a major problem in South Africa and is often 

regarded as the primary threat to South Africa’s social stability.

In particular, South Africa’s sky-high unemployment rate of 

23.3% contributes to widespread violent crime such as 

mugging, armed robbery, carjacking, and rape.

Organized crime tied to illicit-drug trafficking is also a major 

problem. In addition to its status as a major transshipment point 

for cocaine, hashish, and heroin; South Africa also has growing 

domestic markets for cocaine and heroin and the world’s 

largest market for methaqualone, an inexpensive sedative that 

is often mixed with cannabis.

Border Security: Maintaining the integrity of South Africa’s 

land, air, and sea borders is necessary to control smuggling

and illegal immigration. Consequently, in 2011 the SANDF

shifted its focus from peacekeeping missions to border control.

South African troops currently are deployed along land borders 

with Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe. Their 

main focus is stemming the 

tide of economic and political 

refugees from Zimbabwe. 

The SANDF also works with 

the armed forces of Namibia 

and Mozambique to increase 

security at ports and along 

coastal borders. In addition, 

because most contraband 

that reaches South Africa is smuggled by air, the Air Force has 

sought to tighten security along South Africa’s 4,760 miles of 

air borders.

Diplomatic Relations

Since the end of apartheid, South Africa has worked to repair 

its relationships with other countries in southern Africa. One 

aspect of this effort has been South Africa’s active membership 

in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), a 

15-country organization that seeks to establish political and 

economic stability in southern Africa. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
South Africa is also active in several multilateral organizations. 

Continentally, South Africa is active in the African Union (AU), a 

54-country organization founded in 2002 to promote African 

unity and seek solutions to shared challenges. Of note, former 

South African President Thabo Mbeki served as the first 

chairman of the AU. Although the United Nations (UN) 

suspended South Africa’s membership from 1974 to 1994 

because of apartheid, South Africa is now an active member of 

the UN and in 2011 served as a non-permanent member of the 

UN Security Council.

US-South Africa Relations: Although 

relations between the US and South 

Africa have improved dramatically since 

the end of apartheid, the two countries 

have still experienced a number of 

diplomatic setbacks since 1994. While 

the US has criticized South Africa’s 

ongoing relations with Cuba, Iran, and 

Libya; South Africa has expressed its

disapproval of the War in Iraq (Photo: 

President Obama with South African President Jacob Zuma 

and British Prime Minister David Cameron).

The US in 2003 temporarily ended military aid to South Africa 

due to the South African government’s insistence that 

Americans are subject to prosecution by the International 

Criminal Court, a body whose jurisdiction the US rejects. 

Nevertheless, the US and South Africa have enjoyed normal 

trade relations since 1994, and Secretary of State Hillary 

Clinton has praised South Africa for its role in fostering US 

trade relations across the 

African continent.

Ethnic Groups

The diverse population of 

South Africa contains 4

major racial groups which 

were rigidly defined during 

apartheid and are used by 

the census today. The 4

races are blacks, whites, 

coloreds (mixed-race), and Asians (see History and Myth).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Blacks

Comprising nearly 4/5 of the population, black South Africans

divide into 4 ethnic group clusters (Nguni, Sotho, Tsonga,

Venda) and 9 ethnic groups (Zulu, Xhosa, North Sotho, South 

Sotho, Tswana, Tsonga, Swazi, Ndebele, Venda).

Nguni: There are 3 main divisions within 

the Nguni cluster of ethnic groups: the 

Northern Nguni, the Southern Nguni, and 

the Ndebele. The main Northern Nguni 

ethnic groups are the Zulu (South Africa’s 

largest indigenous ethnic group with 23% 

of the population) and the Swazi (Photo: 

an early 20th-century Zulu warrior). The 

main Southern Nguni ethnic groups are 

the Mpondo, the Thembu, and the Xhosa

(the second largest ethnic sub-group 

comprising 18% of the population).

Sotho: The diverse Sotho cluster of ethnic groups has several 

subdivisions, the largest of which are the Northern Sotho, the 

Southern Sotho, and the Western Sotho. Although the Northern 

Sotho consist of a wide variety of ethnic groups in the northern 

Transvaal, many were conquered and assimilated by the Pedi,

the largest Northern Sotho ethnic group. The Southern Sotho, 

also known as the Basotho, live in Lesotho and the surrounding 

areas of South Africa. The Western Sotho, also known as the 

Tswana, live in Botswana and the border regions of the central 

part of northern South Africa.

Tsonga: The Tsonga are a much smaller cluster of ethnic 

groups, the largest of which are the Shangaan, the Thonga, 

and the Tonga. The Tsonga are descended from fisherfolk who 

inhabited small independent chiefdoms in the lowlands of 

southern Africa’s eastern coast before moving inland during the 

Mfecane (see History and Myth). Today, more ethnic Tsonga 

live in Mozambique and Zimbabwe than in South Africa.

Venda: The Venda people constitute South Africa’s smallest 

cluster of ethnic groups and live mainly along the Limpopo 

River on the southern border of Zimbabwe. Venda culture is 

notable for displaying a variety of influences from southern, 

eastern, and central Africa.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Whites

Comprising about 9% of the total population, the white 

inhabitants of South Africa subdivide into two main groups: 

English-speakers descended from English, Irish, and Scottish 

settlers; and Afrikaans-speakers descended from Dutch, 

French, and German settlers. Although English-speakers in 

South Africa have largely retained the cultural identities of their 

homelands, Afrikaans-speakers (Afrikaners) have formed a 

distinct cultural identity through the Afrikaans language and the 

Dutch Reformed Church (see Religion and Spirituality).

Portuguese-speakers also comprise a small but significant 

minority of white South Africans. Although the Portuguese were 

the first Europeans to reach South Africa, most Portuguese 

influence has entered South Africa through the former 

Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique.

Coloreds

Constituting about 9% of South 

Africa’s population, coloreds are 

the mixed-race descendants of 

white settlers, indigenous Khoe, 

and slaves imported during the 

colonial era from the Dutch East 

Indies. For example, the colored 

Griqua people trace their roots to 

white settlers and native Khoe. Coloreds have their own unique 

culture and traditions and primarily speak Afrikaans. 

Asians

Comprising about 2.5% of the population, South African Asians 

are mostly descended from the Indians originally imported by 

the British to work sugarcane plantations in Natal Colony (see 

History and Myth). Although South African Indians use English 

to communicate with other ethnic groups, they sometimes 

speak Hindi or Tamil in the home. Indians have historically 

been deeply involved in South African politics.

In addition, there is also a small minority of South African 

Asians who are of Chinese descent. Although they have 

succeeded in a wide range of fields, South African Chinese are 

best recognized for their accomplishments in medicine.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Despite the tragic legacy of apartheid, the multiracial society of 

modern South Africa functions with a degree of civility and 

smoothness which would have been unimaginable just a few 

decades ago. However, 350 years of economic inequality and 

racial strife did not disappear overnight.

Despite the introduction of hiring quotas designed to combat 

discrimination, many blacks continue to have difficulty finding 

work. Moreover, those same hiring quotas often marginalize 

coloreds, and whites occasionally report reverse discrimination. 

Consequently, although racial discrimination is no longer legal, 

whites, blacks, and coloreds 

continue to occupy vastly different 

social and economic classes.

Socio-Economic Divisions

Although complete data is not

readily available, there is little doubt 

that South Africa has one of the

world’s highest levels of income 

inequality. Consequently, socio-economic divisions are deeply 

etched into South African society, and they continue to be 

correlated with, if not completely determined by, race (Photo: 

Kayamandi Township near Stellenbosch, South Africa).

This socio-economic gap further curtails already limited social 

interaction between the races. Middle-class and wealthy South 

Africans, who are overwhelmingly white, live mainly in large, 

expensive brick houses surrounded by gates and connected to

reliable supplies of water and electricity. They tend to socialize 

at heavily secured shopping malls with faux (French word for 

“false”) sidewalk cafés and shops selling Western imports. 

Increasing numbers of wealthy South Africans have moved 

abroad in recent years in order to avoid widespread violent 

crime and pursue better careers.

Conversely, poor South Africans, who are mostly black, live in 

settlements composed of small, makeshift houses built from 

scavenged pieces of corrugated metal, cardboard, and wood. 

Neither clean drinking water nor adequate health facilities are 

necessarily available. Poor South Africans tend to socialize on 

street corners and at local bars.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

Religion has played diverse, sometimes 

conflicting, roles in South Africa. White 

settlers used religion to justify their 

expansion into Africa and dominance over 

other races. Blacks looked to religion as a 

source of inspiration and unity in their 

struggle against apartheid and colonial 

rule. Since the end of apartheid in 1994, 

religion has promoted reconciliation and 

healing among many South Africans

(Photo: A Dutch Reformed Church near Johannesburg).

According to a 2001 census, about 80% of South Africans selfidentify as Christians, mostly of Protestant sects. About 15% of 

South Africans do not identify themselves as members of any 

organized faith. This group predominantly consists of atheists 

and followers of traditional African religions. Smaller numbers 

identified themselves as Muslims (1.5%), Hindus (1.2%), Jews 

(0.2%), and Buddhists (0.1%).

Traditional Beliefs

Although traditional beliefs vary widely in South Africa even 

within single ethnic groups, followers of traditional faiths tend to 

believe in a remote supreme being who created all things. This 

creator presides over daily life but does not exercise strong 

influence over daily events.

By contrast, subordinate spirits such as deceased ancestors 

are deeply concerned with daily events and influence mortals in 

both positive and negative ways. Consequently, people honor 

and seek to placate these spirits with libations (liquid poured on 

the ground as an offering) or other rituals performed under the 

supervision of family heads, chiefs, diviners, and healers.

Historically, traditional religion provided leaders with a way to 

reinforce their political authority by presiding over rituals of 

fertility, rainmaking, and warfare. In modern times, traditional 

beliefs form an important part of Christian worship for many 

South Africans.

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Healers: Some South Africans rely on sangomas (traditional 

diviners) to lift curses, make predictions, and establish links 

with ancestral spirits to learn the cause of specific misfortunes. 

For certain ailments, some South Africans may also consult an 

inyanga (herbalist) or an umthakatis, a type of healer with a

detailed understanding of muti (traditional medicine).

Witchcraft: One of the primary roles of traditional healers is to 

counteract witchcraft, which is thought to cause a wide range of 

illnesses and misfortunes, including HIV/AIDS (see Sustenance 

and Health). The South African media have recently reported a 

spate of “muti-killings,” in which people were allegedly killed by 

witches so that their body parts could be used to concoct 

especially potent muti intended for evil purposes.

Introduction of Christianity

Dutch traders introduced Christianity 

to southern Africa in 1652, when 

they founded the Dutch Reformed 

Church (Nederduits Gereformeerde 

Kerk or NGK) and brought Calvinist 

ideas of predestination into a new 

and complex cultural context. In the 

early years of European settlement 

most whites joined the NGK, which 

eventually became a key 

component of the Afrikaner identity 

(see Political and Social Relations). However, due to disputes 

during the 19th century, the NGK divided into three separate 

branches. Growing membership among non-whites later 

resulted in the establishment of separate NGK congregations 

for coloreds (1881) and blacks (1910) (Photo: NGK Church in 

Simon’s Town, a suburb of Cape Town).

Mission Churches: Early Dutch settlers shunned missionary 

activities because Dutch religious authorities required baptized 

slaves to be freed. Some Dutch settlers even banned religious 

instruction for slaves in order to sidestep this ruling. By the late 

18th century, however, missionaries began to arrive in presentday South Africa from Britain, France, Germany, Scandinavia, 

and the US. Consisting of Anglicans, Lutherans, Methodists, 

Presbyterians, and Catholics; these missionaries sought new 

members in black and English-speaking white communities.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Xhosa Prophecy

As the Xhosa grew increasingly outraged at British 

occupation around the middle of the 19th century

(see History and Myth), a prominent diviner named 

Mlangeni organized an army and promised that his 

forces would have divine support if the Xhosa 

sacrificed all of their sandy-yellow cattle. Although 

the Xhosa answered Mlangeni’s call, the British 

crushed the ensuing rebellion in 1853.

Following this defeat, a niece of the Xhosa chief 

predicted that British domination would end if the 

Xhosa killed the remainder of their cattle and 

destroyed their food stores. In 1856-1857, thousands 

of Xhosa followed these new instructions, sacrificing 

more than 400,000 cattle. The prophecy nevertheless 

proved incorrect and about 40,000 people died of 

starvation while a similar number were forced to seek 

wage labor in the colonial economy.

Although many of these European and American missionaries 

made important contributions by establishing schools and 

improving healthcare, they also imposed new cultural norms 

through the process of religious conversion, as Christianization 

was almost always accompanied by Westernization.

Ethiopian Churches: Rejecting the racial discrimination and 

denial of African culture inherent in Christian mission churches, 

some Africans founded congregations known as “Ethiopian” 

churches, a reference to a biblical prophecy and the ancient 

Orthodox Christian churches of Ethiopia.

Also known as African Independent Churches (AICs), these 

churches focus on creating an “Africa for Africans” and usually 

incorporate traditional beliefs into Christian worship. Notable 

early AICs include the Tembu National Church, founded in 

1884, and the African Methodist Episcopal Church, introduced 

near the end of the 19th century by American missionaries who 

established churches and trained preachers.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Christianity and Apartheid

Religious Support: Firmly entrenched

since the arrival of Europeans in 1652, 

the idea of racial separation gained even 

more traction among whites in the early 

20th century, when they began to feel 

that their survival as a community was 

under threat. Although they did not invent 

the idea of racial separation, NGK leaders

acknowledged its theological credibility in 

the 1930s, when they used their Calvinist 

doctrines to develop a philosophical 

justification for the prevailing racist ideology and the apartheid 

policies that soon flowed from it (Photo: John Calvin).

The NGK’s justification claimed that it was God’s intention that 

the races remain separate and that racial distinctions were part 

of God’s natural order, as evidenced by the division of people 

into languages and nations at Babel. As the “chosen” people 

predestined to be saved, Afrikaners had been set apart from all 

others by divine will. Consequently, the argument concluded, 

Afrikaners must reign supreme over all others.

Having espoused its own ideology of racial separation at least 

as early as 1932, the National Party (NP) embraced the NGK’s 

argument as it took power in 1948 and established the policies 

of apartheid (see History and Myth). As its leaders continued to 

preach the religious and moral merits of the political order, the 

NGK became known as the “official church” of the NP. Some 

congregations of English-speaking Anglicans and Methodists 

joined the NGK in supporting the NP government.

Religious Opposition: Although most NGK leaders supported 

apartheid until the 1980s, some NGK clergy opposed apartheid 

much earlier. For example, Reverend Beyers Naudé began to 

question apartheid after the Sharpeville massacre (see History 

and Myth) and later left his white congregation for a black one.

The NGK was suspended from the World Alliance of Reformed 

Churches in 1982 after refusing to endorse a declaration that 

apartheid was a heresy. This sort of external pressure took a 

toll, however, and the NGK eventually withdrew its support for 

apartheid in 1986.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Other Denominations: Apartheid was a divisive issue in other 

Christian denominations. Although leaders of the (Anglican) 

Province of South Africa, the Roman Catholic Church, and the 

mostly black Methodist Church openly opposed the political 

system, many parishioners expressed concern about the idea 

of their religious leaders becoming involved in political activism. 

Apartheid remained controversial even after the leaders of 

many different denominations denounced it by issuing a series 

of ecumenical statements in the late 1980s.

The South African Council of Churches (SACC): In order to 

protect activist parishioners and leaders from public exposure, 

many denominations began as early as 1968 to coordinate 

their apartheid opposition 

through the SACC. Appointed 

Secretary-General of the 

SACC in 1978, Desmond Tutu 

(pictured) called for total 

opposition to the apartheid 

regime two years later. After 

being named the Anglican 

Archbishop of Cape Town in 

1986, Tutu became a 

prominent spokesperson for 

the anti-apartheid cause, 

calling for a peaceful transition to democracy and reconciliation 

between the races. Tutu later helped pursue this vision by 

leading the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) from 

1995 until 2003 (see History and Myth).

Religion Today

Christianity: AICs, consisting of Zionist or Apostolic churches, 

constitute the largest group of Christian churches in South 

Africa, having more than 10 million members and around 4,000 

congregations. The next largest Christian denominations are 

the Roman Catholic Church, the Methodist Church, the Dutch 

Reformed Churches (including the NGK), and Pentecostal 

churches, each of which claim about 3 million members. There 

are also about 2 million members of the Anglican Church and 1 

million members of the Lutheran Church. Blacks constitute a 

majority in all Christian denominations in South Africa except 

for the Dutch Reformed Churches.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Zion Christian Church (ZCC): With about 5 million members, 

the ZCC is South Africa’s largest and fastest growing church. 

Established in 1910, the ZCC emphasizes religious healing 

through faith, purification rites, prophesying, dancing, and night 

communion. Although the ZCC generally respects traditional 

African religious beliefs, especially those concerning the 

importance of ancestors, there have been occasional clashes 

between ZCC leaders and sangomas. ZCC members follow 

strict rules which prohibit drinking, smoking, and eating pork.

Islam: South Africa is home to about 650,000 predominantly 

Sunni Muslims, who live mostly near Johannesburg, Cape 

Town, or Durban. Most Muslims are descendants of slaves 

brought from the East Indies 

during the colonial era, but

some are Indian, Pakistani, 

or mixed-race (Photo: 

American and South African 

Muslims in KwaZulu Natal 

Province).

Other Religions: About half 

of South Africa’s ethnic 

Indian population practices 

Hinduism, with most Hindus residing in KwaZulu Natal. 

Residing mostly in Johannesburg, about 75,000 South Africans 

follow Judaism. There are also small communities of Buddhists 

and Baha’is (members of a monotheistic religion founded by

Bahá'u'lláh in 19th-century Persia). 

Interfaith Cooperation: South Africa’s seven major religious 

communities – Christian, African Traditional, Muslim, Hindu, 

Jewish, Buddhist, and Baha’i – work together in the National 

Religious Leaders’ Forum to plan and implement social welfare 

initiatives such as poverty alleviation and HIV/AIDS prevention.

Religion and Politics: During the 2009 election campaign, 

Jacob Zuma made remarks claiming the African National 

Congress (see History and Myth) had a religious mandate to 

govern South Africa. These remarks, in combination with 

Zuma’s practice of polygyny (see Family and Kinship) and his 

habit of making political appeals from church pulpits, have 

prompted rebukes from both politicians and religious leaders.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

In the traditional culture of black South Africans, the basic unit 

of social organization was the nuclear family, consisting of two 

parents and their children. Multiple nuclear families sharing a 

single common ancestor often lived together as an extended 

family within a single homestead. Patterns of descent were 

“patrilineal,” or traced from father to son. Similarly, patterns of 

housing were “patrilocal,” meaning that a married woman lived 

at the homestead of her husband’s family.

These traditional kinship patterns were severely stressed and 

nearly wiped out by the industrialization of the South African 

economy (see History and Myth). As young men moved to 

cities in search of employment, they found it difficult to maintain 

connections with their rural homesteads. As new relationships 

and support networks took the place of traditional kinship 

bonds, the importance of the nuclear family surpassed that of 

the extended family.

Many migrant workers, however, never intended to become 

permanent city-dwellers. Some even sought to recreate their 

traditional lifestyle by settling near members of their lineage 

and reinvigorating traditional ceremonies. In some cases, these 

urban versions of traditional rural 

ceremonies are practiced on a 

much grander scale than the 

traditional versions ever were.

Residence

Homesteads: Among black South 

African ethnic groups, extended 

families traditionally lived together in imizi, or homesteads. 

Typically comprised of a semi-circular cluster of round, oneroom huts made from wood or clay, homesteads functioned as

self-contained economic and political units. Almost all activities 

and life-cycle events took place within the homestead, 

including growing crops, tending livestock, raising children, 

consecrating marriages, worshipping ancestors, and 

performing death rites. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP
Townships: Beginning in 1923, black South Africans moving to 

urban areas were required to reside outside of cities in publicly 

provided housing. Along with all 

other non-whites, they were not 

allowed to own or purchase land in 

the cities or indeed any land 

outside of their “homelands” (see 

“Bantustans” in History and Myth).

Because public housing was often 

substandard, many who moved to 

urban areas in search of work built 

makeshift shacks on the outskirts of municipal townships.

Similar shacks remain common in South Africa to this day.

Built from cardboard, wood, and corrugated metal; township 

shacks usually consist of a single room without electricity or 

running water. Many shacks house multiple generations of a 

single extended family, while other shacks are home to nontraditional arrangements in which unrelated individuals gather 

around a core group of related residents. Despite the difficult 

circumstances in townships, they are closely knit communities.

Traditional Marriage

An essential life event for all black South African ethnic groups, 

marriage is seen more as a union of two families than a union 

of two individuals. Consequently, everyone is expected to get 

married and to strive to preserve their marriages.

Spouse Selection: In Nguni ethnic groups, which include the 

Swazi, Xhosa, and Zulu, spouses are chosen from distinct 

lineages. By contrast, in Sotho-Tswana ethnic groups, which 

include the Pedi, Sotho, and Tswana, spouses are preferably

“cross-cousins” – the children of an individual’s maternal uncle 

or paternal aunt.

Bridewealth: Called lobola by the Nguni and bogadi by the 

Sotho-Tswana, bridewealth is a form of material compensation 

paid by the groom’s family to the bride’s family in exchange for 

rights over the bride’s labor and offspring. Although bridewealth 

traditionally consisted of cattle, today it is just as likely to be 

cash. While the Nguni consider it acceptable to negotiate the 

size of bridewealth, the Sotho-Tswana consider the bridewealth 

requested by the bride’s family to be a final offer.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Among the Nguni, the transfer of the bride to the groom’s home

consecrates a marriage. The transfer of bridewealth has little 

ceremonial importance for the Nguni, although it is important in 

a legal sense. By contrast, the Sotho-Tswana consider the 

transfer of bridewealth as a critical 

event and attach little importance to 

the bride’s relocation.

Nature of Marriage: Although rights 

over the bride are transferred to the 

groom at marriage, husbands are 

encouraged to treat their wives well. 

The groom’s family welcomes the bride by providing her with a 

home, security, and a guarantee that even if her husband dies 

her physical and procreative needs will be met – usually by 

having a younger brother take his place. Polygyny, a practice in 

which men marry multiple women, is legal in South Africa, 

although its popularity has declined due to the spread of 

Christianity (Photo: Xhosa-Zulu Wedding, courtesy of ProQuest 

2011).

Marriage in Urban Contexts

Marriage in urban areas differs in many ways from traditional 

marriage. Rather than marrying partners selected in close 

consultation with their families, city-dwellers tend to choose 

marriage partners independently from among the many people 

they meet through their various social interactions. In addition, 

due to the influence of the state and Christianity, modern 

marriages tend to occur in courthouses or churches rather than

homesteads. Some city-dwellers also live together as couples

without officially getting married at 

all. 

Children 

Among black South African ethnic 

groups, raising children is one of the 

most important duties that a person

can perform, and marriages are not seen as fully consummated 

until they produce children. Regardless of biological parentage, 

children are seen socially and legally as belonging to the 

husband of their mother. Consequently, even couples in which 

one of the parents is sterile are expected to produce children 

through various types of surrogacy arrangements.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
In addition to providing their parents with emotional fulfillment, 

children also serve many practical ends. Girls learn to perform 

domestic chores relatively early in life and secure bridewealth 

for their families upon marriage. Boys begin to tend livestock at 

a young age and later look after their elderly parents as adults.

Rites-of-Passage 

Rites-of-passage are ceremonies recognizing life’s transitions 

and tend to vary by ethic group.

Birth: Infants are traditionally delivered by older women and 

then secluded with their mothers for 6-10 days. Afterwards, the 

child is given a name and presented to the community at a 

feast marking his or her “social birth.”

Puberty: Puberty rituals are intended to prepare young people 

to enter society. Male rituals are generally more prolonged and 

elaborate, but both genders undergo a process of seclusion, 

skills training, and reincorporation. Male training focuses on 

ethical principles as expressed in rituals, dances, songs, and 

myths. Female training emphasizes domestic skills needed to 

be a good wife and mother. As noted earlier, modern families 

adapt these rituals to changing circumstances.

Death and Funerals: Township funerals are scheduled so that 

out-of-town relatives have sufficient travel time. Funerals begin 

with a prayer meeting, after which mourners are transported by 

taxi to the cemetery, which is often decorated with red carpets

and flowers. Following the funeral, mourners are provided with 

a meal. The expenses associated with this type of funeral often 

cause financial hardship for the family of the deceased.

Family and Kinship among White South Africans

The family and kinship patterns of white South Africans 

closely resemble those of Americans. Whites marry in 

courthouses or Christian churches and live in modern 

houses as nuclear families. Often raised with the help of 

non-white domestic workers, white children are 

considered adults at age 21. Upon death, whites are 

rendered appropriate rites according to their religious 

affiliation and then cremated or buried in a cemetery. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Although complete gender equality remains a distant ideal in 

South Africa, the status of women has slowly but steadily 

improved in recent years. In addition, both the legal system and 

public discourse in South Africa have grown notably more 

sensitive to gender issues.

Gender Roles and Work

In rural black communities men 

were traditionally responsible for 

running local political affairs, 

tending to livestock, and performing 

heavy agricultural labor such as 

plowing, loading, and transport. 

Women were responsible for all 

other agricultural labor. As South 

Africa’s economy industrialized in 

the 19th century, black men increasingly relocated to urban 

centers and sought work in mining and industry, leaving 

women responsible for all aspects of running the household.

Modern: Women are far less likely than men to be employed in 

the modern economy: although 61% of men participate in the 

labor force and 23% are unemployed, only 48% of women 

participate in the labor force and 29% are unemployed. Those 

women who are employed are disproportionately represented 

in low-wage, insecure jobs and are generally still expected to 

raise children and perform domestic chores.

Common professions for women include wholesale and retail 

trade, clothing and food manufacturing, social services, and 

domestic work in private households. Men tend to be employed 

in manufacturing, social services, and trade as well as finance, 

construction, and transport.

Leadership: Among South African firms, women account for 

17% of directors, 19% of executives, and 3% of CEOs. About 

25% of firms have no women in senior management. These 

statistics are comparable to those in the US, where only 18 of 

the Fortune 500 firms (3%) have a female CEO.

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Gender and Politics

Women are well-represented in the South African Parliament, 

holding 172 of 400 seats (43%) in the National Assembly and 

19 of 54 seats (35%) in the 

National Council of 

Provinces. In addition, 14 of 

34 cabinet ministers (41%) 

are women, including 

Minister of International 

Relations Maite NkoanaMashabane (pictured with 

Then US Secretary of State 

Hillary Clinton). Legislation 

also requires that women 

constitute at least 1/3 of the National House of Traditional 

Leaders, which is a national advisory council.

Gender and the Law

The South African constitution guarantees gender equality, and 

legislation grants both genders equal rights with regard to 

inheritance, divorce, and child custody; however, women still 

face indirect legal barriers. For example, the male-dominated 

traditional authorities that control many rural areas often refuse 

to grant legal land ownership to women and thereby deny them 

access to government housing subsidies.

Gender-Based Violence

Across racial boundaries, South African culture promotes an 

ideal of masculinity in which men exert authority in order to 

earn respect. This ideal often becomes an excuse for violence 

against women, especially within relationships. According to 

one study, victims and perpetrators knew each other in about 

90% of the assaults, 75% of the rapes, and 70-80% of the 

murders that occurred in South Africa between 2000 and 2010.

According to recent studies, about 40% of men report having 

been violent towards an intimate partner, and almost half of all

women report having been victims. In addition, the female 

homicide rate in South Africa was six times the world average 

in 1999, with one 2009 study finding that over half of female 

homicide victims were killed by an intimate partner. There were 

over 55,000 reported rapes or indecent assaults between April 

SEX &

GENDER
2009 and March 2010, and a 2005 study estimated that only 

one in nine rapes is reported to the police.

Sex and Procreation

Just as the industrialization of South Africa’s economy changed

traditional occupational arrangements, it also altered sexual 

relations. As young people moved to cities and escaped the 

supervision of elders, non-marital 

sex and sex with multiple 

partners became more common. 

These changes laid the 

foundation for modern South 

Africa’s patterns of sex and 

procreation, which often 

contribute to social problems 

such as crime, poverty, the 

spread of HIV, and high rates of 

childhood sexual assaults.

For example, the number of 

women with a sexual partner 

more than 5 years older has 

increased significantly in recent years. In most such 

relationships, a young woman trades sex for material support 

from an older man, an exchange which makes it difficult for 

young women to insist on safe-sex measures. Consequently, 

relationships intended to help young women escape poverty 

often put them at risk of single motherhood and HIV infection, 

outcomes which tend to promote poverty.

Awareness of HIV/AIDS prevention nevertheless seems to be 

growing. Due mainly to an aggressive government campaign, 

the share of South African adults who recently practiced safe 

sex rose from 27.3% in 2002 to 62.4% in 2008.

Homosexuality

Modern South Africa has some of the world’s strongest legal 

protections for homosexuals. The South African Constitution

was the first in the world to prohibit discrimination on the basis 

of sexual orientation, and in 2006 South Africa became the first 

African country to legalize same-sex marriage. Even in 2006, 

however, a notable majority (63%) of South Africans believed 

that homosexuality was not acceptable.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Some of the 25 languages

spoken in South Africa have 

been used historically not 

only as tools for 

communication but also as 

instruments of control, 

discrimination, division, and 

nationalism. The National 

Language Policy Framework introduced in 2002 sought to put 

all South African languages on an equal footing by recognizing 

more official languages and promoting linguistic diversity in 

education and government. However, the prevalence of 

English, an international lingua franca, continues to limit the 

number of people willing to learn and use the predominant 

isiZulu and isiXhosa languages of the black majority.

Each of South Africa’s 11 official languages belongs either to 

the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family

(Afrikaans and English) or to the Bantu branch of the NigerCongo language family (isiNdebele, Sepedi, Sesotho, siSwati, 

Xitsonga, Setswana, Tshivenda, isiXhosa, and isiZulu). 

According to the 2001 census, 78% of South Africans speak 

one of the official Bantu languages in the home, 13% speak 

Afrikaans, and 8% speak English (see chart above).

Bantu Languages

The Bantu languages spoken in South Africa fall into several 

sub-groups, the largest of which are the Nguni languages, 

which include siSwati, isiZulu, and isiXhosa, and the SothoTswana languages, which include Sepedi, Sesotho, and 

Setswana. Due to historical ties, the languages of each Bantu 

sub-group are mutually intelligible to some degree. 

Nguni and Sotho-Tswana languages are tonal and incorporate 

various pop and click sounds. In 2001 Nguni languages were 

spoken in the home by 44% of South Africans, with the largest

concentrations in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal provinces. 

Sotho-Tswana languages were spoken by 26% of the 

population, mostly in Northwest and Free State provinces.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Afrikaans

Although ultimately rooted in the Dutch spoken by early traders 

in the Cape of Good Hope, Afrikaans is the product of centuries 

of influence from other regional languages, including the Bantu 

tongues spoken by southern Africans and the French, English, 

German, and Malay languages spoken by settlers and slaves.

Due to these diverse influences, Afrikaans developed a unique 

grammar, pronunciation, syntax, and vocabulary, leading many 

Afrikaans-speakers to consider their tongue an indigenous 

African language. Afrikaans is spoken throughout South Africa, 

with particularly high speaker concentrations in the Free State, 

Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, and Western Cape provinces.

English

English arrived in South Africa 

when the British seized the Cape 

Colony at the beginning of the 19th 

century (see History and Myth).

Although mutually intelligible with 

most other global forms of English, 

South African English displays 

significant variations in syntax due 

to the influence of regional 

languages.

Because it has little association with tribal rivalries or apartheidera oppression, English serves as a politically neutral language 

for inter-ethnic communication. Most street signs are written in 

both English and the predominant local language, and English 

is the primary language of business, government, and media.

Because South Africans who learn English generally study it as 

a second or third language, levels of proficiency tend to be 

basic: about 75% of black South Africans are not functionally 

literate in English.

Other Languages

Although Indian South Africans tend to speak English most of 

the time, many continue to speak Indian languages such as

Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, Tamil, and Telugu. In addition, as of 2006 

close to 60,000 South Africans continued to speak Nama, an 

indigenous, non-Bantu language spoken by the Khoe-San. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Mixing Languages

Because of the high degree of interaction among speakers of 

different languages, it is common for South Africans to speak 

three or more languages, often during the course of a single 

day. South Africans sometimes even mix languages in the 

same sentence, a practice known as “code-switching.”

Many South Africans also speak “pidgins,” or mixed languages, 

most of which resulted from isolated and sustained interaction 

among people from different linguistic backgrounds. Common 

examples include Kitchen English, a mixture of English and 

Afrikaans, and Tsotsitaal, a vernacular derived from Afrikaans 

and Bantu languages that is mainly spoken in cities.

Communication Style

Although communication styles 

vary across individuals and 

ethnic groups, South Africans 

generally emphasize tolerance 

and respect in order to limit the 

misunderstandings which can

develop among people from 

diverse linguistic backgrounds.

Language Choice: Because the language a speaker chooses 

greatly affects the outcome of an interaction in South Africa, 

the principles of tolerance and respect are fundamental 

components of effective communications. Although it may 

seem unnecessary due to the prevalence of English, foreign 

nationals are advised to learn and use a few phrases in the

language of the South African groups with which they interact.

Listening: Active listening is critically important, especially for 

foreign nationals. South Africans often communicate indirectly, 

so foreign nationals must pick up on subtle contextual cues in 

order to receive information that is not stated explicitly. Foreign 

nationals should never interrupt a South African, especially one 

of higher status, as to do so is considered rude. 

Speaking: South Africans consider direct communication to be 

offensive. Consequently, conversing tactfully and with reserve

is crucial. South Africans prefer to engage in small talk and 

establish a relationship before “getting down to business.”

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Gender: In some parts of South Africa, women are expected to 

remain silent or pretend to be unintelligent in the company of 

men. Particularly among black South Africans, females rarely 

participate in mixed-gender conversations, and women who 

socialize with groups of men are seen as disreputable.

Saving Face

Black South Africans are deeply concerned with maintaining 

face both individually and collectively. These concerns can be 

partly explained by the ethical concept of Ubuntu, which 

roughly equates to the idea that the 

reputation and success of the individual 

are inextricably linked to those of the 

group.

Foreign nationals are advised to 

communicate in a manner that allows

the other party to maintain face. For 

example, if a South African gives an 

unclear or ambiguous answer to a 

question, follow-up questions should be 

framed as requests for assistance and should not imply that the 

South African presented the information poorly.

Foreign nationals should also be aware that this desire to save 

face may lead South Africans to answer a question with 

inaccurate information if they do not know the correct answer, 

although they will usually update their answer as soon as they 

have the correct information.

Conflicts

Likely due to decades of Apartheid (see History and Myth), 

South Africans do not tolerate conflict well and have developed 

a number of conflict avoidance practices. One strategy, 

particularly within Zulu culture, is to communicate frequently in 

order to promote understanding and defuse serious conflicts 

before they have a chance to develop. Another common 

approach is to use wit and sarcasm to relieve emotional 

tension without seriously damaging relationships. When 

conflicts do arise, they should be resolved directly and privately 

by the parties involved. Among white South Africans, Englishspeakers generally have a stronger aversion to conflict than 

Afrikaans-speakers.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Greetings

When a black South African

initiates a conversation, he 

begins by saying in the 

appropriate language, “Hello, 

how are you?” The other person 

then responds, “Fine, and you?” 

The first person must respond, 

“Fine, thank you,” before the 

interaction can proceed. 

Although this type of greeting 

may seem boring, repetitive, or pointless; it is an indispensable 

part of interacting with black South Africans.

White South Africans typically initiate conversations with a 

handshake (see Time and Space), and greetings tend to be 

brief and formal until a strong relationship is established. Mora 

Meneer (“Morning, Mister”) is a typical greeting in Afrikaans, 

while a simple “Good morning” is common in English.

Titles

The use of proper titles shows respect and deference. Although 

first names are not commonly used, last names are sometimes 

used on their own as an indication of warmth. It is appropriate 

to call older men Baba in isiZulu, Tata in isiXhosa, and Ntate in 

Sesotho (“Father”) and to call older women Mama in isiZulu 

and isiXhosa and Mme in Sesotho (“Mother”). In Afrikaans, the 

respectful forms of address are Meneer (Mnr) for men and 

Mevrou (Mev) for women, and older adults are sometimes 

referred to as Oom (“Uncle”) or Tannie (“Aunt”).

Conversational Topics

Most conversations revolve around family, health, weather, and 

sports. Foreign nationals should avoid racist commentary, 

which is explicitly prohibited and punishable by law, and 

discussions on HIV/AIDS or the New Partnership for Africa’s 

Development (an economic development program sponsored 

by the African Union), which remains a controversial program.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English Afrikaans Zulu

Do you speak 

English? Praat U Engels? Ukhuluma isiNgisi na?

Hi/Hi everyone Goeie dag Sawubona!

How are you? Hoe gaan dit met 

U? Unjani?

Good morning Goeiemôre Sawubona!

Good night Goeienag Lala(ni) kahle!

Please Asseblief Siza

Thank you (very 

much) (Baie) dankie Ngiyabonga (kakhulu)

Welcome! Welcom! Ngiyakwemukela!

Yes/No Ja/Nee Yebo/Cha

OK Lekker/Goed Ngisaphila

Sorry Jammer Phephisa

What is your name? Wat is U naam? Ngubani igama 

lakho?

My name is... My naam is... Igama lami ngu...

Nice to meet you Bly te kenne Ngiyajabula 

ukukwazi!

See you later! Totsiens! Sizobonana!

Who? Wie? Ubani?(s)/Obani(pl)

What? Wat? Yini?

When? Toe? Nini?

Where? Waar? Kuphi?

Why? Waarom? Kungani?/Yini?

Calm down Ontspan Khululeka

Stop! Stop! Hhayibo!

Can you help me? Kan U my help? Ungangisiza na?

Zero, One, Two Nul, Een, Twee Iqanda, Kunye, Isibili

Three, Four, Five Drie, Vier, Vyf Kuthathu, Okune, 

Sihlanu

Six, Seven, Eight Ses, Sewe, Ag

Isithupha, 

Isikhombisa, 

Isishiyagalombili

Nine, Ten Nege, Tien Isishiyagalolunye, 

Ishumi

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 86.4%

• Male: 87%

• Female: 85.7% (2003 estimate)

Traditional Education

Traditional methods of education in 

South Africa varied by ethnic group,

although most were intended to 

integrate young adults into society and 

to teach them the intellectual, moral,

and practical skills they needed to 

thrive in their physical and social 

environment. Education was 

historically organized around puberty 

rites (see Family and Kinship) and primarily focused on both

theoretical and practical lessons in topics such as domestic 

work, kinship duties, religious values, politics, and survival 

tactics. Elders also used parables to illustrate moral principles 

and recited oral histories that included tales of heroism and 

treachery (Photo: A Zulu woman with her children, courtesy of 

ProQuest 2011).

Throughout history, black South Africans have adapted these 

traditions to changing circumstances. Among the Zulu, for 

example, King Shaka abolished initiation rites for males and 

substituted military training. Later, the discovery of minerals in 

South Africa seriously disrupted traditional social arrangements 

as many men were forced to seek wage work in distant urban 

centers (see History and Myth). Today, some communities 

have reinvigorated traditional training and initiation as a way to 

deal with problems of youth delinquency.

Introduction of Formal Education

The earliest European schools in South Africa were established 

in the Cape Colony in the late 17th century by elders in the 

Dutch Reformed Church (or NGK, see Religion and Spirituality

and History and Myth). Early efforts at educating black South 

Africans focused solely on religious education. Later, traveling

teachers taught basic literacy and math skills in Dutch.

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
The first representatives of the London Missionary Society 

arrived in 1799, and by 1827 there were more than 24 Englishlanguage mission schools in the Cape Colony. From the 

beginning their presence irritated Afrikaners (or Dutch settlers, 

see History and Myth), who viewed the English language and 

school curriculum as contrary to their values. For much of the 

19th century, Afrikaners chose to educate their children only in 

Afrikaans (see Language and Communication), either at home 

or in schools run by the NGK. 

In the early 19th century British colonial officials began to 

encourage educated British families to emigrate and appointed 

a superintendent to oversee the education of British settlers. In 

the same period British mission schools began accepting black 

students. Methodist mission schools were especially eager to 

accept black students and accepted all Xhosa who applied.

The primary goal of both government and 

mission schools in 19th century education 

was to “civilize” indigenous South Africans in 

order to adapt them to European rule. NGK 

mission schools also stressed the Calvinist 

doctrine of predestination, which Afrikaners

interpreted to mean that they were a race set 

above all others by divine will (see Religion 

and Spirituality).

Following the Boer Wars (see History and Myth), the British 

continued to spread the English language and values, bringing 

thousands of teachers from Britain, Canada, Australia, and 

New Zealand. Some Afrikaner churches resisted and proposed 

their own curriculum known as Christian National Education. 

Although the British were reluctant to fund this curriculum, they 

eventually agreed in the interest of harmony among whites. 

The British decision did not promote harmony, however, and 

simply resulted in schools segregated by race and language.

By the early 20th century, mission schools were educating

more blacks than government schools. These mission schools 

helped give rise to a moderately prosperous class of farmers, 

teachers, clergy, and small business owners who organized 

into a variety of civic groups, such as trade unions and the 

African National Congress (see History and Myth).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
In response, activists in the National Party (NP) (see History 

and Myth) adopted opposition to racial integration in schools as 

their rallying cry. By the time the NP took power and began to 

enact its apartheid platform, government-sponsored education 

for black South Africans had become little more than vocational

training for low-wage jobs, an arrangement which protected the 

white minority from competition with blacks for higher-wage 

jobs.

Education and Apartheid

Upon taking control of the 

government in 1948, the 

NP required the separation 

of Afrikaners from other 

whites in public schools in 

order to defend Afrikaner 

culture against British 

influence. Although the NP 

realized that a trained 

labor force was essential for the future growth of the South 

African economy, the NP distrusted the mission schools and 

believed they were transmitting alien ideas which facilitated 

organizing efforts by blacks.

Bantu Education: Consequently, the government passed the 

Bantu Education Act in 1953, which removed public schools 

from the control of provincial governments. The NP government 

then proceeded to withdraw funding from any black schools 

that did not adopt a racially discriminatory curriculum. This 

practice appeared to be a deliberate attempt to defame the

history, culture, and identity of black South Africans. Unwilling 

to adopt this curriculum, yet unable to finance themselves

independently, most mission schools were forced to close.

Consequently, black enrollment at government schools 

increased considerably, although there were major inequalities. 

Education was compulsory only for whites, and the government 

spent 10 times as much per capita on educating white children.

Classes for blacks were twice as large as those for whites, and 

only schools for white children had adequate funding and 

resources. Although in 1978 there were 5 times as many black 

students as white, 3 times as many white students as black 

passed the exit examination.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Because schools taught and practiced apartheid ideology, they

became closely identified with racist government policies. Not 

surprisingly, schools became a ready target for protests and 

violence as black resistance mounted. The best known of these 

protests occurred at Soweto in 1976 after the Department of 

Bantu Education mandated that several subjects be taught in 

Afrikaans (see History and Myth). Similar incidents, coupled 

with a serious shortage of teachers and resources, left the 

education system in crisis by the end of apartheid.

Education after Apartheid

As apartheid laws were lifted in 

the early 1990s, President de 

Klerk called for a nonracial 

school system which allowed 

communities to preserve their 

cultures and languages. New 

policies mandated compulsory 

education for all children and 

earmarked almost 1/4 of the 

government’s budget for 

education. When Nelson Mandela took office in 1994, there 

were still separate education departments for each race and 

homeland (see History and Myth), immense disparities in 

funding and resources for whites and non-whites, and a serious 

lack of qualified teachers. In addition, schools still used racist 

textbooks and curricula, and 24% of the population had never 

received any schooling at all.

Education in Modern South Africa

The South African Schools Act of 1996 mandates a single 

curriculum and equitable funding for all schools. Basic 

education runs from grade 0 – also called grade R or reception 

year – through grade 12, and school is compulsory from grades 

1-9. Black South Africans generally study in their indigenous 

language until grade 7 and then switch to English or Afrikaans.

Despite commanding 20% of the government budget today, 

schools in predominantly black areas still tend to have fewer 

resources than those in primarily white areas. In addition, while 

93% of South African children currently attend school, only 

14% of the black population has a high school diploma or an 

advanced degree.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

South Africans generally consider personal relationships and 

current interactions to be more important than schedules and 

future commitments. Despite the fact that South Africans have 

one of the most Westernized lifestyles in Africa, their relaxed 

tempo still prompts some to say that the country runs on 

“Soweto Time.” This relaxed pace is especially pronounced 

among black South Africans and in

rural areas.

Personal Space

South Africans tend to stand close to

one another while conversing, and

the average dialogue among South 

Africans takes place within what 

some Americans would view as 

personal space. Although an arm’s 

length is generally a good measure, 

foreign nationals are advised to allow 

South Africans to determine speaking distance (Photo: Then 

Senator John Kerry speaking with residents of KwaZulu-Natal).

Touching: South Africa is a high contact culture, and touching 

is common in greetings, from firm formal handshakes to hugs, 

handholding, and backslapping between friends. Because 

touch can indicate positive regard and build trust, it is critical 

that foreign nationals not shy away from personal contact, 

especially among black South Africans.

Touch is not as common among white South Africans, who 

generally consider a traditional handshake sufficient. It is 

proper for a male foreign national to shake hands with a South 

African female only if she first offers her hand. Female foreign 

nationals should not initiate physical contact and should 

instead offer verbal greetings.

Photography: Foreign nationals should always ask permission 

before photographing South Africans and should avoid taking

pictures or videos of police, soldiers, airports, military bases, or 

government buildings.

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Gestures

Hand gestures are common among black South Africans and 

are used to show enthusiasm; however, they are less common 

among white South Africans. Although 

eye contact can help build trust, some 

South Africans prefer not to maintain 

eye contact for long periods of time.

Pointing, finger-wagging, and talking 

with hands in pockets are considered 

rude. Although traditionally it has been 

unacceptable to use the left hand for 

anything other than personal hygiene, 

this taboo is gradually being relaxed. 

As a precaution, foreign nationals are advised to use only the 

right hand in social settings.

Paralanguage: Black South Africans often emphasize points 

by speaking at a high volume with marked enthusiasm and 

inserting longer pauses between speaking turns than foreign 

nationals may expect. Similarly, they tend to communicate 

politeness in English through tones of voices that are difficult 

for non-native speakers to reproduce. Consequently, South 

Africans who speak English as a second language may sound 

rude or discourteous even when that is not their intention.

Time and Work

Most South Africans use the 24-hour clock (military time), and

their only time zone is South African Standard Time (UTC+2). 

Although working hours vary, offices are usually open Monday 

through Friday, 9:00am-5:00pm with a 30-minute lunch break,

and Saturday from 9:00am-12:00pm. Some urban stores also 

have night and weekend hours.

Seasons: Because seasons are reversed in the Southern 

Hemisphere, Christmas and New Year’s Eve take place during 

the summer in South Africa. Consequently, South Africans tend 

to take long holidays from mid-December through mid-January, 

causing travel delays and business closures. Some of them 

refer to this period as komkommertyd, also known as “silly 

season” because of the preponderance of frivolous news 

stories during the holiday season. Another term for 

SPACE

TIME &
komkommertyd is “cucumber time,” a term used in England in 

the 1800s to denote a slow season. Hols, a similar but less 

busy holiday period, occurs in mid-July.

Negotiations: Most South Africans prefer to conduct business 

with individuals they know on a personal basis. Consequently, 

foreign nationals should seek to establish a relationship prior to 

negotiating with a South African. If time constraints are 

involved, an introduction from a trusted third party can help. 

Ideally, initial meetings should be limited to small talk, with 

business reserved for subsequent meetings. Of note, playing 

“hardball” is ineffective when negotiating with a South African.

Punctuality: Despite their relaxed view of time, punctuality is

important to many South Africans, and foreign nationals are 

advised to arrive at meetings on time as a courtesy. Although 

visitors are sometimes kept waiting for appointments, waiting

time is generally linked closely to the visitor’s status: the more 

important the visitor, the less time they will have to wait.

Because formal time has little bearing on interactions, meetings 

rarely end when planned. Similarly, deadlines are not always 

taken seriously and project delays should be anticipated.

Demonstrating impatience towards South Africans who stall for 

time can damage relationships.

Public Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• March 21: Human Rights Day

• Friday before Easter (variable): Good Friday

• Monday after Easter (variable): Family Day

• April 27: Freedom Day

• May 1: Workers’ Day

• June 16: Youth Day

• August 9: National Women’s Day

• September 24: Heritage Day

• December 16: Day of Reconciliation

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 26: Day of Goodwill

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

As with much of the national culture, aesthetic preferences and 

recreational practices in modern South Africa are a blend of 

both indigenous and foreign cultural influences and both 

traditional and modern practices.

Dress

South Africans consider clothing a reflection of social status, 

ethnicity, age, and gender. Consequently, South Africans value 

their appearance and tend to dress formally in public. Similarly,

hairstyles are also considered an important means of selfexpression.

Due to the strong influence of 

European culture, the vast majority of 

South Africans wear Western-style 

clothing. Although some rural South 

Africans wear traditional clothing, it is 

rarely seen in cities. Since the end of 

apartheid, however, there has been 

renewed interest in traditional dress 

as part of a broader resurgence in 

enthusiasm for all things African.

Men: Although businessmen commonly wear a full suit and tie, 

most urban men wear a shirt and pants. In rural areas, men 

often wear shorts and knee-length socks. Although traditional 

clothing varies across ethnic groups, some rural men who have 

reached puberty wear an apron that covers both front and back 

and is made from the skin of a small animal. Some rural men 

go shirtless.

Women: Urban women tend to wear Western-style garments 

such as dresses, skirts, tops, and pants and generally favor 

loose, comfortable clothing. Rural women usually wear more 

traditional ensembles which may include an apron, a scarf or 

headdress with a dress, or a skirt with a blouse. Made from

beads and gazania leaves, the apron is a key part of traditional 

dress and is often worn along with a cloak.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
A woman’s choice of clothing can be highly symbolic. For 

example, because white represents moral and sexual purity 

among the Zulu, it is against social custom for married women 

to wear white. Although breast coverage is not universal in 

rural areas, covering the breasts was one of the earliest 

changes encouraged by European missionaries.

Children: Urban children wear Western-style clothing such as 

shorts and t-shirts for boys and dresses for girls, while some 

rural children remain nude apart from strings of beads worn 

around the waist for decoration. The only other garments 

commonly worn before puberty are penile tip covers for young 

boys and a white linen cloth draped around the shoulder for 

young girls. As they mature, girls are allowed to wear red in 

order to signify their emerging sexuality.

Sports and Games

Soccer: Especially among 

the black population, soccer 

is the most popular sport in 

South Africa. In addition to 

supporting the national 

team, nicknamed Bafana 

Bafana (Zulu for “The boys, 

the boys”), local soccer fans sponsor a variety of clubs in the 

South African Premier League. South Africa is also home to 

Soccer City (pictured), a 94,700-seat stadium in Johannesburg 

that was used extensively when South Africa hosted the 2010 

International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) World 

Cup.

Rugby: Introduced to the game by a British schoolmaster in 

the mid-19th century, South Africans rapidly embraced rugby. 

For the first half of the 20th century, the South African national 

team, dubbed the Springboks by the British press, dominated 

international competition and lost not a single test match. The 

2009 film Invictus, starring Morgan Freeman and Matt Damon,

chronicled the Springboks’ success in the 1995 Rugby World 

Cup. This event was hosted in South Africa the year after 

apartheid ended and used by President Nelson Mandela to 

promote national unity. Rugby is most closely associated with 

white South Africans, particularly Afrikaners.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Cricket: Introduced by British soldiers in the late 18th century, 

cricket is a popular sport among English-speaking white South 

Africans, and the South African national team ranks among the 

top 5 teams.

Other Sports: Due to South Africa’s mild climate, residents 

enjoy a variety of outdoor sports such as camping, hiking, 

surfing, and swimming. Field hockey, golf, lawn bowling, 

sailing, and squash are also popular among South Africans 

who can afford the necessary equipment and access fees.

Music and Dance

Traditional Music: For many 

indigenous South African 

ethnic groups, rhythm is the 

defining feature of music. 

Vocal accompaniment often 

takes the form of choral 

singing, which is popular 

among Bantu-speakers, or even yodeling, which is practiced by 

the Khoe-San. Common instruments include musical bows, 

rattles, wind instruments made from antelope horns, and the 

marimba, a type of wooden xylophone. Many traditional songs 

and dances correspond to specific occasions and ceremonies, 

and it is often either forbidden or meaningless to perform them 

outside of the intended context.

Praise Poetry: Praise poetry, a traditional practice in which 

choral recitations are set to a melody, is popular among many 

Bantu-speaking ethnic groups. The Zulu are well known for 

their praise poetry, and Zulu royal courts traditionally retained

an imbongi, or full-time praise poet. 

Popular Music: Popular music in South Africa often blends 

traditional folk songs with modern sounds. For example, many 

young South Africans enjoy Kwaito, a style which blends 

traditional African music with rock, hip-hop, and reggae and 

employs lyrics which reflect the difficulties of life in the 

townships through political and social commentary. The late 

Brenda Fassie, known as the “Queen of Kwaito” for her 

piercing and enthusiastic vocal style, is widely credited with 

popularizing Kwaito in the post-apartheid era.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dance

Like their accompanying music, traditional South African 

dances are performed in conjunction with many major events 

and are often intended for a specific purpose or occasion. In 

most performances, dancers seek to synchronize their bodies, 

hands, and feet with rhythmic singing and drumming. Modern 

South African dance takes many forms, ranging from Western 

dances to performance art. Many of South Africa’s energetic 

dance forms have gained global popularity in recent years. 

Theater

South African theater ranges from “black 

theater” to European-style performances. 

Black theater is often performed entirely 

by black actors and uses scripts written by 

both black and white playwrights. South 

Africa also has a rich history of socially

dissident theater that includes playwrights 

such as Athol Fugard and actors such as 

Zakes Mda. European-style performances 

include dance, drama, and opera (Photo: 

South African actor Andre Huguenet as 

Hamlet). Since the end of apartheid, there 

has been a deliberate effort within the arts community to 

combine both African and European traditions by using rituals, 

audience participation, and an emphasis on dance to create a 

distinctly South African style.

Literature

South Africa’s literary tradition has been heavily influenced by 

its history of social strife. Many black authors such as Es’kia 

Mphahlele became well-known for works documenting their 

experiences living under apartheid, while some white authors 

such as Nadine Gordimer and JM Coetzee earned their

reputations with works decrying apartheid-era injustices.

South African fiction is published in all 11 official languages, 

with a particularly large amount written in Afrikaans. Some of 

South Africa’s most popular literature is not written at all;

“spoken word poetry,” a form of recital which fuses literary and 

musical performance, has enjoyed a surge in popularity in 

recent years. Famous spoken-word poets include Lesego 

Rampolokeng, Lebogang Mashile, and Jessica Mbangegi. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Arts and Crafts

San: The San are renowned 

worldwide for their superb rock 

art, which involves painting rocks 

which have been engraved using 

hammers. Rock art is most 

widespread in South Africa’s 

inner plateau, where the San 

have produced an estimated 

15,000 rock paintings. Because 

all San hunting expeditions traditionally were commemorated 

with rock paintings, most San rock art features hunting scenes.

Bantu-speakers: South Africa’s Bantu-speaking ethnic groups 

are known for wood carvings, pottery, musical instruments, 

beadwork, textiles, and carved headrests. The details of these 

handicrafts vary across ethnic groups. For example, the Pedi 

are known for their realistic depiction of the human body in 

wood carvings, while the Tsonga are known for elongating their 

sculptural interpretations of the human body.

European: The most popular art forms produced by white 

South Africans are paintings and sculptures. Painting was used 

by early Dutch traders to record their pioneering experiences, 

and sculpture became popular when the religious sculptures of 

German-born carpenter Anton Anreith became known in the 

late 18th century.

Festivals

Although festivals vary, most ethnic groups celebrate several of 

them during the year. One uniquely South African celebration is 

the Cape Coon New Year Festival, which began early in the 

colonial era as a celebration of the slaves’ holiday on New 

Year’s Day. Today people of all races celebrate “the Coon” as 

a rejection of racism and a celebration of equality.

A similar spirit of racial harmony and national unity motivated 

the post-apartheid South African government to designate 

December 16 as the Day of Reconciliation. Under the apartheid 

government, December 16 had been known as the Day of the 

Vow and marked the victory of the Voortrekkers over the Zulu 

at the Battle of Blood River in 1838 (see History and Myth).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dining Customs

Although dining customs vary across ethnic groups, mealtime

plays a central role in the lives of all South Africans. It is not

considered appropriate for adults to eat alone or on the street, 

and black South African children are taught at a young age that 

sharing food, especially meat, is a basic component of human 

decency.

White South Africans typically eat in the European style, with a 

fork in the left hand and a knife in the right, while black South 

Africans use spoons or their fingers. The main meal for all 

South Africans is dinner, which is typically eaten after 6:00pm.

Traditional Diet

Traditionally, indigenous Khoe-San hunter-gatherers subsisted 

on berries, fruit, insects, shellfish, and wild game. Modern 

South Africans include far more carbohydrates in their diet. A 

typical meal for black South Africans may consist of cornmeal, 

meat stew, and vegetables, while a standard meal for white 

South Africans may include meat, rice, and potatoes. 

Staples: Emasi, a type of 

sour milk, was the main 

staple food for black 

South Africans until the 

mid-18th century, when 

maize (corn) and millet 

(pictured) surpassed it. 

Both grains are ground 

into a paste known as 

mealie, which is then 

used to make simple 

foods like pap, a porridge accented with vegetables, herbs, 

sauces, or meat; and complex dishes like umngqusho, which 

is made with dried corn kernels, butter, potatoes, onions, 

chilies, and lemons.

Meat: Most meat comes from livestock such as chickens, 

goats, lambs, and pigs. Although beef is consumed regularly in 

urban contexts, it is eaten only on special occasions in rural 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
areas due to the immense practical and symbolic importance of 

cattle (see Economics and Resources).

White South Africans are known for boerewors, a type of 

farmer’s sausage, and biltong, a spiced and marinated jerky. 

Cape Malays, the descendants of slaves brought from the 

Dutch East Indies during the colonial era (see Political and 

Social Relations), have become famous for bobotie, a minced 

meat pie made with beef or lamb; sosaties, a type of 

marinated kebab; and bredie, a meat and vegetable stew.

Fish: Although not as popular as meat, fish is an important part 

of South African cuisine. Cape Malays are well known for their 

skill at preserving fish through spicing and pickling and 

particularly for their creatively spiced versions of grilled, fried, 

baked, and curried seafood. Among indigenous South Africans, 

the coastal Tsonga also eat preparations of dried fish.

Beverages

Beer: In addition to using mealie as a foodstuff, black South 

Africans also use it to brew a variety of low-alcohol beers, the 

best known of which is the corn-based umqombothi. Because 

mealie beers are high in calories and B vitamins, they are 

considered less a drink than a nutritious and nourishing food.

South Africans also enjoy non-mealie beers. The Tswana brew 

beer from honey, and European-style lager is available across 

Braai

One tradition shared by South Africans of all ethnic 

groups is the braai, a type of cookout which can occur 

in nearly any setting, from the beach to the countryside 

to an urban backyard. At a typical braai, men gather 

around the grill to talk and drink beer as they roast 

meats such as boerewors, sosaties, steak, chicken, 

chops, and ribs. Women also form a group and chat as 

they prepare salads and side dishes. This element of 

socializing is essential to the character of braais and 

often ensures that they last for hours.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
South Africa. Of note, SAB Miller, the world’s second-largest

brewer, was founded in Johannesburg in 1895.

Wine: Although the first South African wine was produced in 

1659, just 7 years after the arrival of Dutch traders, it was not 

until the end of apartheid that improved technology and stricter 

regulations allowed South African wines to earn a reputation for 

quality and value. South Africa’s wine-producing regions are 

primarily in the mountainous Western Cape, which enjoys a 

gentle Mediterranean climate.

Health 

Traditional Medicine: An estimated 72% of black South 

Africans seek medical care from traditional practitioners. In 

2007 there were an estimated 190,000 such practitioners, 

including herbalists (inyanga), diviners (sangomas) (see 

Religion and Spirituality), surgeons (iingcibi), and birth 

attendants (ababelethisi or 

abazalisi).

Although the details vary 

across ethnic groups, illness 

traditionally is believed to be 

caused by disharmony 

between an individual and 

ancestral spirits. Harmony 

between the two can be 

restored by taking muti

(traditional medicine) derived from animals, plants, or other 

objects. Generally, diviners determine the spiritual cause of an 

illness, while herbalists dispense the appropriate muti.

Many black South Africans consult both traditional practitioners 

and Western-style doctors, although attempts to integrate the 

two into a unified system have been hampered by the uncertain 

effectiveness and insufficient regulation of traditional medicine.

Modern Healthcare System: South Africa’s healthcare system 

is disproportionate: 4.1% of GDP is spent on private healthcare

for 16.2% of the population, while about the same amount goes 

to public healthcare for the other 83.8% of the population. The

majority of South Africa’s 36,000 medical professionals work in 

the private sector, and South Africa’s public healthcare system, 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
which includes more than 4,000 public healthcare facilities, has 

only 7% of the doctors it requires. In addition, there are severe 

urban/rural disparities in the distribution of health care workers 

and resources across 

the country.

Health Challenges

HIV/AIDS: South 

Africa’s 17.9% HIV 

rate for adults aged

15-49 is the 4thhighest in the world 

and more than 23 

times the global 

average. Although only 0.7% of the world’s population resides 

in South Africa, 17% of the world’s HIV-positive people live 

there. In addition to slashing the country’s life expectancy from 

a peak of 61.5 years in 1992 to 51.6 years in 2009, HIV has 

also become a primary contributor to its maternal, peri-natal

(immediately before and after birth), and neo-natal (the 4 

weeks following birth) mortality.

Although still serious, HIV prevalence appears to have 

stabilized in recent years, aided by significantly reduced rates 

of mother-to-child HIV transmission and much higher rates of 

safe-sex practices. South Africa also has the world’s largest 

program for distributing anti-retroviral medications used to treat 

HIV/AIDS.

Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis (TB) was the most common 

opportunistic infection in HIV-positive South Africans in 2010, 

with 73% of new TB cases occurring in people with HIV. Lately, 

drug-resistant forms of TB have grown more common due to 

late detection or poorly managed treatment regimens.

Other: Largely due to alcohol abuse, South Africa has notably 

high injury and fatality rates associated with traffic collisions 

and interpersonal violence, especially against women and 

children (see Sex and Gender). In addition, smoking, alcohol

abuse, lack of exercise, and poor nutrition are key contributors

to high rates of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, 

cancer, heart disease, hypertension, and respiratory diseases.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

Although South Africa has 

the largest and most 

advanced economy on the 

continent, it is considered 

an emerging market by 

global standards. Impacted 

significantly by the global 

economic downturn, South 

Africa suffered its first 

recession since the apartheid era in 2009; however, GDP grew 

2.8% the following year due partly to economic activity 

associated with hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup (see 

Aesthetics and Recreation).

South Africa nevertheless faces huge economic challenges.

Although its unemployment rate has declined from a peak of 

31% in 2003 to a current rate of 25.7%, this number does not 

account for 2.2 million South Africans who are too discouraged 

to seek employment. Unemployment is also racially skewed: 

30% of blacks are unemployed compared with just 6% of 

whites. Finally, although South Africa has a relatively high per 

capita GDP of $10,700, it has one of the world’s least equitable 

income distributions: the wealthiest 10% of citizens claim over 

half of annual income while the poorest 40% claim just 4%.

Services

The services sector consists of community and social services; 

finance and business services; domestic work; transportation; 

trade; and tourism. The services sector is the largest part of the 

South African economy, accounting for 66.7% of GDP in 2010. 

The services sector also accounts for 71.4% of South African 

jobs and is expected to provide most employment opportunities 

in coming years.

Tourism: Tourism has thrived in South Africa since the end of 

apartheid, with international arrivals increasing from 3.9 million 

in 1994 to 8.1 million in 2010. The Department of Tourism has 

recently tried to attract more business travelers because they 

spend 3 times more on average than leisure travelers.

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Industry

Industry includes construction, manufacturing, mining, and 

utilities. This sector contributed 30.8% of GDP in 2010 and 

currently accounts for 24% of South African jobs. Industry is 

geographically concentrated in South Africa, with over 75% of 

industrial employment and output located in Gauteng Province, 

Western Cape Province, Durban, or Port Elizabeth.

Manufacturing: South Africa’s primary manufactured products 

are chemicals, fertilizer, foodstuffs, iron and steel, machinery,

metalwork, motor vehicles and parts, and textiles.

Mining: Although the mining sub-sector was the main catalyst 

for South Africa’s industrialization (see History and Myth), its 

share of GDP has declined over the years, from 27.1% in 1911 

to 7.9% in 2006. Nevertheless, South Africa remains the 

world’s largest producer of gold, platinum, and chromium, and 

among the world’s largest producers of coal, iron ore, and 

uranium.

Although the original Witwatersrand gold mines are now mostly

depleted, the broader Witwatersrand basin still accounts for an 

estimated 98% of South Africa’s gold production. South Africa 

also has significant reserves of antimony (largely used as an 

alloying material for lead and tin), copper, manganese, nickel, 

phosphates, tin, rare earth metals, and vanadium (primarily 

used as an additive to improve steel).

Agriculture

The agriculture sector

includes animal herding, 

farming, forestry, and 

fishing. The smallest of 

South Africa’s economic 

sectors, agriculture 

contributed only 2.5% of 

GDP in 2010 and 

currently accounts for 

only 4.6% of South 

African jobs. The 

country’s mild and varied climate enables agricultural 

diversification, although drought and infrequent rainfall limit 

production.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
While it must import some meat and grain, South Africa is 

basically self-sufficient in food crops and is a net exporter of 

agricultural products. Apart from corn, a staple for much of the 

population, South Africa’s major agricultural products include 

beef, dairy, poultry, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables, and wool.

Money

The currency of South Africa is the 

Rand (R), which is subdivided into 100 

Cents (c). The Rand is issued in 5 

banknotes (R 10, 20, 50, 100, 200) and 

7 coins (5c, 10, 20, 50, R 1, 2, 5). 

Although the exchange rate fluctuates, 

recently $1 has been worth between R 

7 and R 8. The values of the currencies 

of Lesotho, Swaziland, and Namibia are fixed to the value of 

the Rand. In addition, the Rand has been legal tender in all 

three countries since the creation of the Common Monetary 

Area in 1974, and it is used alongside the US dollar as an 

unofficial national currency in Zimbabwe.

Cash: South Africa is probably the easiest country in Africa to 

access and spend money. ATMs are available in most cities, 

and credit cards are widely accepted. Because ATM scams are 

common even in affluent areas, foreign nationals should 

exercise caution by safeguarding their PINs and monitoring 

their accounts for fraud. 

Foreign Trade

South Africa’s imports totaled $81.9 billion in 2010 and consist 

primarily of chemicals, machinery, petroleum products, 

scientific instruments, textiles, and transportation equipment.

Key import suppliers include China (17.2%), Germany (11.2%), 

the US (7.4%), Saudi Arabia (4.9%), and Japan (4.7%). 

Totaling $85.8 billion in 2010, South Africa’s major exports

include agricultural products, minerals, and motor vehicles and 

parts sold to China (10.3%), the US (9.2%), Japan (7.6%), 

Germany (7%), the UK (5.5%), and Switzerland (4.7%).

Although foreign investment in South Africa nearly halted

entirely in the 1980s and 1990s due to international sanctions 

and high levels of violence, it began to accelerate in the early 

years of the new millennium. With a sound banking and transit 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
infrastructure, modern South Africa has become an attractive 

destination for foreign investors hoping to expand into Africa. 

However, high crime rates and restrictive labor laws continue to 

deter some investors.

Foreign Aid

South Africa received little official development assistance 

(ODA) prior to 1994, although in recent years it has become a 

top recipient in sub-Saharan Africa, receiving a total of $1.3 

billion (about 0.5% of GDP) in 2009. Its largest donors included 

the EU, the US, Germany, and France; which jointly accounted 

for over 75% of that total.

Although South Africa needs some ODA, it is less dependent 

than many other recipients due to its reliable institutions, welldeveloped infrastructure, vast mineral reserves, and diverse 

economy. Consequently, South Africa tends to target its ODA 

towards specific problems. For example, 43% of South Africa’s 

total ODA was spent on Population and Reproductive Health in 

2009.

Standards of Wealth

Having a wide variety 

of uses in traditionally 

rural South African 

society, cattle have 

long been considered a 

symbol of wealth and 

status. Consequently, 

black South Africans 

traditionally prefer not 

to slaughter, sell, or 

trade their cattle unless 

absolutely necessary. Since men are expected to have surplus 

cattle to pay the bridewealth for multiple wives (see Family and 

Kinship), polygyny has also been considered as a traditional

indicator of wealth and status.

Modern symbols of wealth and status emerged with the 

industrialization of South Africa’s economy and the migration of 

job-seekers from rural areas to urban centers. These new 

symbols of urban wealth include Western education, a lucrative 

occupation, and monetary wealth.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

South Africa is the most technologically advanced country in 

Africa and continues to improve due to large government 

investments in fields such as astronomy, biotechnology, 

information and communication technology (ICT), mining, water 

resources management, and nanotechnology, the study of 

manipulating atomic and molecular matter. In 2009 the South 

African government spent more than R 21 billion ($3 billion) on 

research and development.

Transportation

Although travel within South Africa could be difficult prior to 

2010, the government undertook a huge expansion of the

transportation infrastructure in preparation for the 2010 FIFA 

World Cup (see Aesthetics and Recreation). Recently, the 

Department of Transportation developed a plan known as 

“Natmap” to further advance the transportation infrastructure. 

Taxis: Most common in urban areas, private minibus taxis 

account for 65% of passenger trips in cities. Minibus taxis are 

also used in rural areas and for travel between cities.

Buses: As part of its 

preparations for the World Cup, 

the South African government 

introduced the Bus Rapid 

Transit (BRT) System, also 

known as Rea Vaya, in order to 

provide express service 

between outlying suburbs and

city centers through the use of high-capacity buses. 

Roadways: In 2010 South Africa had about 43,500 miles of 

paved roads, including almost 2,000 miles of toll roads. 

Although much of the road system was in disrepair at the start 

of the new millennium, post-apartheid governments have made 

infrastructure improvement a priority. South African drivers 

have a reputation for violating traffic laws which is reflected in 

high accident rates: South Africa had 33.2 deaths per 100,000 

vehicles in 2008, nearly triple the US rate.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: Freight Rail, a subsidiary of state-owned company 

Transnet, operates the main South African rail network, which 

includes about 12,500 miles of rail or about 80% of all rail in

Africa. Of note, the Durban to Gauteng line carries more freight 

than any other rail line in the southern hemisphere.

Transnet also operates Metro Rail, a subsidiary which serves 

1.7 million passengers daily on its commuter rail services in 

Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, and Johannesburg.

In addition, plans are currently in the works to construct highspeed rail links connecting Johannesburg with Cape Town, 

Durban, Musina, and Pretoria.

Ports: South Africa has no commercially navigable inland 

waterways, although its major international transshipment ports 

at Cape Town, Durban, East London, Port Elizabeth, Richards 

Bay, and Saldanha Bay handle over 4 million tons of freight per 

year. About 98% of South 

African exports depart 

through these ports.

Airways: Although South 

Africa has 147 airports with 

paved runways, most 

international traffic goes through Cape Town, Durban, and O.R.

Tambo International in Johannesburg. In addition to South 

African Airways, the national airline and largest airline in Africa,

over 50 major global airlines service South African airports.

Energy

Despite having less than 1/20th of Africa’s total landmass, 

South Africa generates almost 2/3 of the continent’s electricity. 

Eskom, a state-owned utility company, generates about 95% of 

that electricity at its 24 power stations. Due to South Africa’s 

Mass Electrification Program established in 1991, the number 

of households with electricity more than doubled from 4.5 

million in 1994 to 9.4 million in 2010.

As the world’s 5th largest coal producer, South Africa gets most 

of its electricity from coal-fired plants, with only 6% coming from 

the state-owned Koeberg nuclear plant. About 60% of South 

Africa’s oil and gas is imported from Africa and the Middle East.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

The South African constitution guarantees free speech and free 

press, and diversity in the media has improved greatly since 

the end of apartheid. The national news agency is the South 

African Press Association, while the national broadcaster is the 

South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC). 

Radio: The SABC operates a national network of 18 radio 

stations, with 11 stations broadcasting in each of South Africa’s 

official languages, along with 4 community stations and 3 

commercial stations. In addition, there are more than 100 

community-based stations which extend coverage into rural 

areas.

Television: The SABC runs 3 broadcast stations and 1 pay 

station, and private firms offer paid satellite service. Broadcasts 

vary by language, covering all official languages. Some of the 

most popular television shows include locally produced soap 

operas and a national talent show similar to American Idol.

Print Media: Most of South Africa’s 24 daily newspapers are 

produced by 1 publishing house. There are also 11 weekly 

newspapers and over 200 free community newspapers.

Telecommunications

Telephones: South Africa’s landline system is the most 

advanced in Africa, although public telephones are rare. South 

Africa had about 4 million fixed telephone lines and over 50 

million mobile subscriptions in 2010 or about one mobile 

subscription per person. Mobile service extends into all but the 

most remote areas of South Africa.

Internet: Between 1998 and 2010

the share of South Africans using 

the internet surged from 2.9% to 

12.3%. About 750,000 people or 

12.2% of internet users had 

broadband access in 2010. Ranking 

98th for download speeds and 90th 

for upload speeds, South Africa’s 

internet performance is middling in 

international terms. Internet cafés 

are widely available and typically charge a flat rate-per-hour.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL

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