United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest

Service

Northern

Research Station

General Technical

Report NRS-76

EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

OF A NATURAL GAS WELL AND

ASSOCIATED PIPELINE ON THE

NATURAL AND SCIENTIFIC RESOURCES

OF THE FERNOW EXPERIMENTAL FOREST

Mary Beth Adams, Pamela J. Edwards, W. Mark Ford, 

Joshua B. Johnson, Thomas M. Schuler, 

Melissa Thomas-Van Gundy, and Frederica Wood
Visit our homepage at: http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/

Abstract

Development of a natural gas well and pipeline on the Fernow Experimental Forest, 

WV, was begun in 2007. Concerns were raised about the effects on the natural and 

scientifi c resources of the Fernow, set aside in 1934 for long-term research. A case 

study approach was used to evaluate effects of the development. This report includes 

results of monitoring projects as well as observations related to unexpected impacts on 

the resources of the Fernow. Two points are obvious: that some effects can be predicted 

and mitigated through cooperation between landowner and energy developer, and that 

unexpected impacts will occur. These unexpected impacts may be most problematic. 

Published by: For additional copies:

U.S. FOREST SERVICE U.S. Forest Service

11 CAMPUS BLVD., SUITE 200 Publications Distribution

NEWTOWN SQUARE, PA 19073-3294 359 Main Road

 Delaware, OH 43015-8640

January 2011 Fax: 740-368-0152

The Authors

Mary Beth Adams is a research soil scientist, Pamela J. Edwards is a research 

hydrologist, Thomas M. Schuler and Melissa Thomas-Van Gundy are research foresters, 

and Frederica Wood is an information technology specialist, all at the U.S. Forest 

Service, Northern Research Station in Parsons, WV. W. Mark Ford is the unit leader 

of the USGS Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit in Blacksburg, VA. 

Joshua B. Johnson is a research associate with the University of Maryland Center for 

Environmental Science in Frostburg, MD.

Manuscript received for publication June 2010

Acronyms and Abbreviations

d.b.h. diameter at breast height

DEP Division of Environmental Protection (West Virginia)

DSF Direct Site Factor 

FS Forest Service

FS701 Forest Service Road #701

MNF Monongahela National Forest

NTU Nepholometric turbidity units

PAR Photosynthetically active radiation

ROW Right of Way

The use of trade, fi rm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information 

and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an offi cial endorsement 

or approval by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or the Forest Service of any product 

or exclude others that may be suitable.
Page 1

INTRODUCTION 

Recently, an increased demand for natural gas, coupled 

with advanced technology for extraction, has led to 

an increase in mineral exploration and development 

in many previously unexplored areas. The impacts 

of this increased development pressure are largely 

unknown for forest land in the eastern United 

States. Landowners and land managers are seeking 

information about these effects to help them make 

decisions about mineral resource development and 

associated impacts to surface resources. 

In 2001, a natural gas and energy development 

company leased the privately owned minerals under 

federally owned U.S. Tract 1, which underlies the 

Fernow Experimental Forest and about the northern 

quarter of Otter Creek Wilderness (Fig. 1) in the 

Monongahela National Forest (MNF) in West Virginia. 

U.S. Tract 1 was acquired as part of the MNF in 1915, 

with the mineral rights reserved by the seller. The 

Fernow, established in 1934, is dedicated to long-term 

research (Adams et al. 2008) and is part of several 

national and international research and monitoring 

networks. In summer 2007, the energy company 

proposed a gas well within a long-term research 

compartment (Compartment 16) of the Fernow (B800 

well, Fig. 1). When gas was confi rmed after the B800 

well was drilled, a pipeline was proposed and a rightof-way (ROW) was identifi ed and cleared. 

The purpose of this report is to document the impacts 

of this natural gas development on the natural and 

scientifi c resources of the Fernow Experimental 

Forest. This report describes results from a single 

case study in a single experimental forest. Although 

some physical impacts from clearing and construction 

of the well site and pipeline ROW were predictable, 

other impacts were not expected or predicted. Because 

of time and logistical constraints, and because some 

of the impacts were unforeseen, the data described 

here generally come from post hoc monitoring, not 

designed experimentation. In most cases, there is 

no replication and relatively little pretreatment data. 

Nor were all the potentially sensitive components 

of the ecosystem monitored. Information on fauna, 

in particular, is lacking. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service has responsibility for Endangered Species 

protection and requires biannual counts of Indiana 

bat1

 and Virginia big-eared bats that overwinter in Big 

Springs Blowing Cave, located within the Fernow 

and near the B800 well site2

. However, effects on 

other potentially sensitive fauna, such as the endemic 

Greenbrier Cave isopod, found only in 18 caves 

including the Big Springs Blowing Cave system, 

were not evaluated. Finally, many of the impacts were 

diffi cult to quantify. As such, this report provides a 

detailed description of our observations of impacts on 

the resources of the Fernow.

Because of the limitations to the data, it is not 

appropriate to extrapolate our fi ndings and 

observations to other mineral development sites 

across the region. However, such documentation of 

natural gas development effects on natural resources 

in central Appalachian hardwood forests is needed and 

can provide us with useful insights. In addition, this 

site allows the assessment of impacts from gas well 

development on a research forest specializing in longterm research. There is a dearth of published research 

describing the effects of natural gas development 

on eastern forests. Therefore, the information 

summarized in this report is novel and useful for future 

environmental impact analyses and decisionmaking. 

Such information also will identify avenues for future 

research.

1 See Appendix for scientifi c names of organisms listed in 

this text.

2 Those data are available from the West Virginia Division 

of Natural Resources, Natural Heritage Program, P.O. Box 

67, Ward Road, Elkins, WV 26241, Attn: Barbara Sargent; 

or through the Web page http://www.wvdnr.gov/wildlife/

data.shtm
Page 2

Figure 1.—Map of Fernow Experimental Forest and U.S. Tract 1 lease area, showing locations of B800 well site, 

pipeline, and signifi cant features.
Page 3

METHODS

Site Description 

The B800 well site is located within the 1,902-ha

Fernow Experimental Forest, which is in the 

Allegheny Mountain section of the mixed mesophytic 

forest (Braun 1950). The Fernow was set aside to 

“make permanently available for forest research and 

the demonstration of its results a carefully selected 

area representing forest conditions that are important 

in Northeastern West Virginia” (Fernow Establishment 

Order dated March 23, 1934; on fi le at the Timber 

and Watershed Laboratory, Parsons, WV). Hardwood 

forest vegetation dominates the area, and the Fernow 

is managed for research and demonstration. For 

more information on the history and resources of the 

Fernow, see Kochenderfer (2006). 

The B800 well site is located within a subcompartment 

of compartment 16 (Fig. 1), which is dedicated to 

a demonstration of late-rotation crop tree release 

and two-age management. The demonstration area, 

established in 1990, has been a frequent destination 

for many Fernow tours. The subcompartment is 9.8 ha 

with a northwest aspect and a site index of 77 (base 

age of 50 years for northern red oak). Such a high site 

index refl ects the infl uence of the underlying limestone 

bedrock. About 51 crop trees ha–1 were left following 

crop tree release in 1990. The new age-class of trees 

established since then consists primarily of black 

birch, yellow-poplar, and sugar maple. This age-class 

of trees is undergoing self-thinning and refl ects many 

aspects of an even-aged stand in the early stages of 

development. The subcompartment is bordered by 

a Forest Service road (FS701) to the northwest; it 

contained a skid trail and a small open area that served 

as a log deck, before replacement by the B800 access 

road. 

The B800 well site and access road are located on 

karst topography within the Elklick Run watershed, 

which is part of the Dry Fork subwatershed, a sixthlevel HUC (hydrologic unit code) (Seaber et al. 1987). 

Surfi cial bedrock geology is the Greenbrier Group, 

which includes cavernous limestone. Karst features, 

specifi cally closed-bottom sinkholes and water 

disappearance and reappearance within intermittent 

and ephemeral stream channels, are present within 

the area of the well site. Groundwater emerges at two 

major springs located about 1,000 m northeast of and 

at a lower elevation than the B800 well site. Known 

underground passageways within the Big Springs Cave 

are located about 600 m away from, and at a lower 

elevation, than the B800 site. 

Well Site Development 

A detailed timeline of the well and pipeline 

development process is provided in Table 1. Much 

of the timing of the various activities was controlled 

by weather conditions and by the availability of 

equipment required at each stage of well development. 

Development of the B800 gas well site3

 required about 

8 months from the time the West Virginia Division of 

Environmental Protection (DEP) approved the well 

work permit application (Table 1). Logging of the site 

by the Fernow logging crew was completed in slightly 

less than a month, and site clearing and construction 

required about 3 months.

It was estimated that 1.4 ha would need to be cleared 

for the B800 well site: 1.0 ha for the well pad and 

0.4 ha for a 335-m-long access road. Trees were 

cleared from this area, followed by earthwork to 

construct a 4.6-m-wide road, a level drill pad of about 

30 m by 61 m, and a pit 24 m by 37 m by 3 m deep. 

The purpose of the plastic-lined drilling pit was to hold 

rock cuttings and drilling residues. 

Drilling required about 3 weeks and was completed 

to a depth of 2,387 m. After completion of drilling, 

the rock layer was fractured to release natural gas 

in the formation (a process known as hydrofracing). 

Subsequently, the drill pit fl uids (about 302,800 liters) 

3 Note this is not the fi rst gas well site within the Fernow. 

In 2005, about 1.25 acres were logged for the B782 gas 

well, near the western boundary of the Fernow, but the 

B782 site was not used.
Page 4

Table 1.—The chronology of activities on the B800 well site and associated pipeline (documentation is available 

in electronic mail or formal correspondence fi les at the Timber and Watershed Laboratory, Parsons, WV); a list of 

abbreviations and acronyms can be found on the inside front cover of this report.

Date Activity

May 11, 2007 Energy company contacts the Forest Service (FS) with project map and requests input.

May 23, 2007 FS sends letter identifying issues with proposed site.

June 21, 2007 Joint energy company and FS review of the site/issues on the ground.

July 20, 2007 FS and energy company review of proposed erosion and sediment control plan.

Sept. 11, 2007 FS receives copy of well work permit application.

Sept. 21, 2007 WV DEP, Offi ce of Oil and Gas approves well work permit application.

Sept 21, 2007 FS Request for Comments on B800, legal notice issued.

Nov. 2, 2007 Decision Memo and Biological Evaluation signed.

Dec. 2007 Appeal period ends – no appeals received.

Jan. 2008 Timber on access road/well site sold, cut by Fernow logging crew.

Feb. - April 2008 Access road/well site constructed.

April 8, 2008 Well drilling begins.

April 30, 2008 B800 well reaches total depth of 2,387 m. Gas confi rmed in the Huntersville Chert portion of the 

Oriskany and associated strata, and possibly the Oriskany sandstone. Drill pipe breaks and sticks 

in the well bore. Directional drilling around stuck pipe. 

May 15, 2008 Drilling completed.

May 16, 2008 Drill rig leaves the site.

May 23, 2008 Hydrofracing begins, completed on May 31.

May 29, 2008 Particulates/aerial spray released from well bore.

June 13, 2008 Road repairs completed.

June 16, 2008 Legal announcement issued for pipeline right of way (ROW).

June 21, 2008 Land application of drill pit fl uids completed to Site 1. 

July 15-17, 2008 Land application of drill pit fl uids completed to Site 2. 

July 28, 2008 Pit contents solidifi ed and back-fi lled. 

Aug. 12, 2008 Decision Memo signed for pipeline ROW clearing.

Sept. 9, 2008 Recontouring of the well site begins.

Oct. 2, 2008 Cutting of pipeline ROW begins.

Oct. 7, 2008 Recontouring of well site completed.

Nov.14-15, 2008 Dry trenching completed across Elklick Run.

Dec. 15, 2008 Well pad and access road seeded and mulched. 

Dec. 29, 2008 Pipeline installation through small wetland via dry trenching completed.

Dec. 31, 2008 Cutting of pipeline ROW and removal of harvested stems completed. 

Jan. 29, 2009 Pipeline installation completed.

were land-applied to approximately 0.2 ha within 

subcompartment 17B (Fig. 1), per the company’s 

drilling permit. Dramatic foliar injury and death of 

vegetation during this application necessitated a 

change of application site, and the remaining 75,700 

liters were applied within the pipeline ROW on an area 

of about 0.04 ha (the Discharge Monitoring Report 

fi led with the State indicated that a total of 378,500 

liters had been applied to 0.8 ha). The remaining pit 

contents were then solidifi ed by adding cement and 

buried in place. A road use permit issued by the MNF 

allowed use of Fernow roads to move equipment 

and personnel to and from the site. In addition, about 

378,500 liters of water from the reservoir on the 

Fernow were hauled by tanker trucks to B800 for use 

during the drilling and hydrofracing process. 
Page 5

Because the mineral rights for this action were 

privately held, the decisions to be made by the Forest 

Service were limited. Nonetheless, environmental 

analyses and decision documents for the B800 well 

and pipeline were required and are available on 

the MNF Web page (http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/mnf/

environmental/nepa_documents/nepa_index.htm). The 

WV DEP issued the permit for drilling the B800 well. 

Data Collection and Monitoring Methods

Where feasible, we used standard monitoring methods 

for the anticipated impacts (effects on erosion, 

water quality, and vegetation loss) and developed 

measurement techniques to assess the unexpected 

impacts when additional problems were discovered. 

Because of limited time, personnel, and resources, 

and unexpected events, we were unable to monitor 

as thoroughly as we desired; therefore, many of our 

observations are simply that—observations. 

Erosion and Sediment 

Silt fences were used to collect sediment from the well 

pad site. In addition to perimeter silt fence constructed 

by the energy company’s contractor around the lower 

and east edges of the well site, more silt fences were 

later installed by the contractors and by Forest Service 

employees (Fig. 2). All of the soil collected from 

behind the supplemental silt fences was oven dried 

at 100 oC; the oven-dried masses were determined 

and then totaled by silt fence segments. The collected 

material was not combusted to remove the organic 

matter from the soil, but almost no organic material 

was visible, so the measured masses were assumed 

to be almost entirely inorganic material. Particle size 

analyses also were not conducted because of the very 

large mass involved, but almost all of the material 

collected was soil-sized particles (i.e., < 2 mm). 

Figure 2.—Diagram of B800 well site, Fernow Experimental Forest, showing locations of water and 

sediment control devices and of water and sediment areas of concern (from Edwards 2008).
Page 6

Water was sampled for turbidity analyses at two 

locations: Big Spring just below FS701 and at the 

outfl ow of Big Springs Blowing Cave. This sampling 

was done out of concern about possible connections 

between those sites and the well site via subsurface 

fl ow through the karst geology. Throughout the 

monitoring effort, stream samples were collected 

at preset time intervals using ISCO model 2700 

automatic samplers (Teledyne Isco, Inc., Lincoln, NE). 

At Big Spring, the uptake line for the sampler was 

positioned in the approach box of the inactive fl ume 

that had been built in the early 1990s. At Big Spring 

Cave, the uptake line was positioned on the stream 

bottom at about the midpoint of the cross section at the 

cave mouth. 

The frequency of turbidity sample collection depended 

upon the activities at the well site; thus, sampling 

frequency was different during different chronological 

periods of well development. Samples were collected 

at 6-hour intervals from August 2, 2007, to December 

16, 2007, before any ground-disturbing operations. 

No samples were collected from December 17, 2007, 

through February 4, 2008, because frozen uptake lines 

prevented sampling. When sampling began again on 

February 5, 2008, the frequency was reduced to 2-hour 

intervals in anticipation of access-road construction 

expected during the week of February 11. The sample 

frequency was further intensifi ed to 1-hour intervals 

on April 8, 2008, the day drilling began. On April 

18, sampling was changed back to 2-hour intervals 

because drilling had passed through the entire 

limestone layer. Drilling ended May 15, 2008, and 

the sampling frequency returned to 6-hour intervals 

on May 27. Recontouring the pit area began 

September 9, 2008 (+/– 1 day) and was completed 

on October 7. For 2008, sampling at Big Spring 

was terminated on September 8, due to low fl ows; 

sample collection at Big Spring Cave continued until 

November 17, when freezing conditions prevented 

sample collection by the automatic sampler. 

The turbidity of each sample was determined in the 

laboratory using a Hach model 18900 turbidimeter. 

Results were measured and recorded in Nepholometric 

turbidity units (NTU). Instrument calibration was 

performed using stabilized formazin standards. For 

more details, see Edwards (2008).

Vegetation Condition 

at Fluid Application Sites

Vegetation injury was observed during the land 

application of fl uids in June 2008. Immediately 

thereafter, a perimeter of the impacted area was 

delineated and all trees greater than 2.54 cm diameter 

at breast height (d.b.h.) that showed symptoms of 

damage (discolored or damaged foliage, loss of 

foliage) were marked with fl agging, so that their 

condition could be monitored. Trees were identifi ed 

to species, and their diameter was measured. Trees 

greater than 25.4 cm d.b.h. were given individual 

numbers, and the number of merchantable logs and the 

grade of the butt log were determined, so that changes 

in log quality over time could be assessed. This site 

was revisited in late May 2009, and all the marked 

trees were reassessed for presence/absence of foliage, 

percent of full canopy, and presence of any other 

symptoms such as sprouting, epicormic branching, 

dwarfed foliage, discolored foliage, or bark sloughing. 

In addition to trees marked the previous year, any trees 

within the perimeter that showed symptoms, but were 

not marked the previous year (those that did not show 

symptoms in July 2008) were marked and assessed. 

Early Leaf Fall and Canopy Openness 

at Fluid Application Site 1 

During fl uid application, we observed that trees 

began dropping leaves early—in late June and early 

July. We used two methods to estimate the extent of 

premature foliar loss on fl uid application area 1. First, 

we assessed the mass of freshly fallen (green) leaves 

within the fl uid application site on July 9, 2008 (about 

2 weeks after fl uid application was halted). Samples 

were collected using three sampling transects and a 

sampling template of 668 cm2

 placed at 5-m intervals 

along the transect. All freshly fallen leaves (indicated 

by green color on >50 percent of the leaf surface area) 

within the sampling template were collected, and the 

mass of the fallen leaves was determined after drying 

at 70 o

C for 2 days. 
Page 7

Second, to assess the amount of solar radiation 

penetrating through the canopy after leaf fall, we used 

a Nikon E8400 digital camera, coupled with a Nikon 

FC-E9 fi sheye lens, to take hemispherical canopy 

images, about 3 weeks after fl uid application ceased. 

Because no images were taken before the premature 

leaf fall, our analysis was limited to comparing 

post-impact conditions to similar areas that were 

not impacted. We conducted canopy analysis using 

the WinsCANOPY software version 2006b (Regent 

Instruments Inc., Quebec, Canada). Interactive 

masks were used to block any ground surface 

captured in the image due to slope characteristics. 

We defi ned the growing season for canopy analysis 

as May 1 to September 30, and we used standard 

overcast conditions as defi ned by Anderson (1971). 

WinsCANOPY estimates numerous canopy parameters 

based on calculated solar tracks and canopy 

characteristics. We report the under-canopy direct site 

factor (DSF) and openness. Openness is the fraction 

of the total number of pixels classifi ed as open sky, 

adjusted for the lens, in the real canopy above the 

lens. DSF is the ratio of the average daily direct 

radiation received under the canopy and the average 

daily direct radiation received over the canopy for 

the growing season expressed as a percent. Because 

photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is a constant 

percent of total radiation, we used DSF as a surrogate 

for the amount of PAR penetrating the forest canopy to 

the height of the lens.

Soil Chemistry at Fluid Application Sites 

To evaluate effects of land application of pit fl uids on 

soil chemistry, we ran two or three transects within 

each of the fl uid application sites, depending on size 

of the area. We also sampled an equivalent number 

of transects in adjacent forest area with similar aspect 

and vegetation as controls. For fl uid application 

site 1, three transects were sampled within the fl uid 

application perimeter (Treated) and three transects 

were run in adjacent forest area with similar aspect 

and vegetation showing no symptoms (Control). For 

fl uid application area 2, because it was a smaller area, 

only two transects were run within each Treated/ 

Control area, and it was sampled only once, in August 

2008. Soil samples were collected every 5 m along 

the transect, using a soil pushprobe to a depth of 

about 10 cm, and composite samples were created 

by transect. Soil samples were collected from the 

fi rst fl uid application area on July 9 and October 17, 

2008, and again on May 18, 2009. Samples were airdried and analyzed for nutrients and elements at the 

University of Maine Soils Testing Laboratory, using 

standard Forest Soil protocols and established QA/QC 

standards. Means for the control and treatment area 

were compared for each sampling period for the fi rst 

fl uid application area, using t-tests (p=0.10) (Steel and 

Torrie 1980).
Page 8

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Expected or Predicted Impacts 

An area of approximately 0.63 ha was cleared for 

the well pad and drill pit; this is slightly less than the 

area originally estimated. Ninety-four trees (>28 cm 

d.b.h.) and 126 pulpwood stems (12.7 to 28 cm d.b.h.) 

were removed, and much reshaping and contouring of 

the site was required (Fig. 2). All ground vegetation 

was removed within the perimeter. The road surface 

and adjacent ditch covered 0.20 ha. The cleared area 

represents 8.5 percent of subcompartment 16A, less 

than the originally estimated 14 percent. 

The pipeline ROW was located to minimize impacts 

on active research compartments (Fig. 1), and it runs 

adjacent to 10 active research and demonstration 

compartments (totaling 152 ha). The pipeline also 

required excavating crossings of Elklick Run (Fig. 1)

and a small wetland area. The area of the pipeline 

ROW was estimated to be 2 ha (8 to 9 m wide and 

1,798 m long). The trees were felled, and the ROW 

was cleared using an excavator and bulldozer. Stumps 

were bulldozed and removed to the side of the ROW. 

During preparation of the ROW, a total of 714 trees 

were removed, 310 (43 percent) of those being greater 

than 28 cm d.b.h. 

Initially, the energy company installed silt fences to 

reduce sediment loss and delivery from the well site, 

primarily around the perimeter of the well pad site 

and along the access road (Fig. 2). However, within 

a relatively short time, the perimeter silt fence was 

undermined or overtopped along much of its length. 

The silt fence was least effective in the northern corner 

of the site because water was rerouted and allowed to 

concentrate. A relatively large amount of subsurface 

fl ow became emergent and remained as concentrated 

overland fl ow as the result of the construction of the 

cutbank around the well pad. This water provided the 

energy to destabilize, dislodge, and transport exposed 

soil from the cutbank. Heavy rains on March 4 and 5, 

2008, spurred further erosion. During this rainstorm, 

the concentrated fl ow and associated sediment initially 

was routed to a sinkhole (Fig. 2). An unknown 

amount of eroded soil entered the sinkhole during that 

storm period. On March 7, 2008, energy company 

contractors constructed a trench in the upper portion 

of the cutbank and just inside the perimeter of the 

silt fence along the eastern side of the well pad and 

pit area to reroute water and sediment away from the 

sinkhole. 

However, the rerouting of additional water and 

sediment inside the perimeter fence resulted in the silt 

fence being overtopped and further undermined in the 

northern corner. Consequently, fi ve additional short 

lengths of silt fence (totaling 28.2 m) were installed 

further downslope to help reduce the water fl ow and 

retain sediment. These additional sections of silt fence 

still did not fully contain sediment coming from the 

site. The visible evidence suggested that the water 

infi ltrated the soil and the eroded soil settled out before 

reaching the ditchline on FS701. Also, because of 

the evidence of extended soil transport and elevated 

erosion, an additional 27.2-m length of silt fence was 

installed downslope of the contractor’s silt fence by 

the Forest Service on May 5, 2008 (Fig. 2). 

The mass of sediment collected by these non-perimeter 

silt fence sections during the summer of 2008 is 

reported by collection date in Table 2. A total of 

1,330.12 kg of soil material was collected from the 

fences. Given a cleared area of 0.63 ha, this would 

amount to 2.1 metric tons per hectare. This estimate 

is conservative, however, because it represents only a 

portion of the soil that moved off the site. Soil eroded 

from the site before installation of these fences, 

and soil moved off the well site at other locations, 

including from the road into the ditch along FS701. 

In addition, short-term losses to the sinkhole east of 

the pit were not measured or estimated. Therefore, 

2.1 metric tons per hectare likely underestimates total 

site erosion losses. 

Because of the concern about possible subsurface 

fl ow connections through the karst geology, water 

quality was sampled at two locations as described 

above (see Edwards 2008). More than 99 percent of 

the turbidity values from both sites were <40 NTU; 
Page 9

Table 2.—Mass of sediment collected from silt fences (excluding the perimeter fence) installed by contractors and 

the Forest Service on the north side of the well pad and pit, Fernow Experimental Forest, by date of collection 

(see text for description of methods) 

Collection date Contractor fence sections Forest Service fence sections Total

 (kg)

May 7, 2008 76.30 not installed 76.30

June 26-27, 2008 225.28 618.06 843.34

Sept. 3, 2008 not collected 410.48 410.48

Total 301.58 1028.54 1330.12

only 7 of the 2,035 samples collected from Big Spring 

and only 12 of the 2,403 samples collected from Big 

Spring Cave had turbidities exceeding 40 NTU. All 

of the samples from Big Spring had turbidity values 

less than 120 NTU as did most of the samples from 

Big Spring Cave. The two largest turbidity values at 

Big Spring Cave (252 and 292 NTU) were observed 

after completion of drilling activities, and both of 

these measurements were associated with large rainfall 

events. Approximately 6.4 cm of rain occurred before 

the fi rst of these was measured, and about 4.7 cm 

occurred before the second. All of the turbidity values 

from both sites are within ranges commonly reported 

in this region; indeed, the preponderance of relatively 

unvarying low turbidities (< 40 NTU) refl ects that 

most of the fl ows sampled at these locations originated 

from groundwater. Streams with larger contributions 

of surface runoff typically have low turbidities, but 

they tend to vary more through time, especially during 

storms or where infl uences of road runoff would be 

expected. 

The mean turbidity values for the fi ve periods at 

each site are shown in Table 3. In all fi ve periods for 

both sites, the mean turbidities were less than 5 NTU 

(Table 3). Values below 5 NTU are not visible to the 

human eye (Strausberg 1983), so the fl ow would have 

appeared to be clear. Based upon the relatively low 

and unvarying turbidities observed at either site, and 

given the reasonably large amount of obviously muddy 

water fl owing into the sinkhole east of the pit, it does 

not appear that there is a strong or direct connection 

between that sinkhole and the monitored streams, 

nor that there were other connections with the karst 

geology in that area. 

The Well Operator’s Report (AP1#47-093-00107, 

available from the WV DEP) describes drilling 

through three caves (the deepest at 50 m below 

the surface), and fresh water was encountered at 

120 m below the surface. While the well bore was 

cased in concrete to protect water quality in these 

sections, these observations reinforce that we have an 

Table 3.—Least square mean turbidities and standard error (in parentheses) for stream water collected before, 

during, and after gas well drilling, collected at two sites on the Fernow Experimental Forest, 2008 

Period Big Spring Big Spring Cave

 (NTU)

Pre-disturbance 2.98 (0.24) 2.80 (0.46)

Access road, pad, pit construction 2.16 (0.22) 3.30 (0.42)

Drilling through limestone 1.28 (0.35) 1.50 (0.67)

Drilling below limestone 2.85 (0.24) 3.44 (0.49)

After drilling/before reconstruction 4.80 (0.26) 3.68 (0.39)
Page 10

incomplete knowledge of the connectiveness within 

the geologies of this area. A better understanding of 

karst connections could be obtained by dye tracer 

studies. 

Some damage to roads was expected and was observed 

during site development and drilling (Fig. 3), despite 

spot graveling. Ruts of 30 cm or greater developed, 

roadside drainage ditches were fi lled or collapsed, and 

erosion of the road surface subsequently occurred. 

The problem appeared to be caused by heavy vehicle 

traffi c when the roads were very wet, and insuffi cient 

preventive graveling. Conditions were such that FS701 

between Big Springs Gap and the McGowan Mountain 

road (FS324) intersection (about 2 km) was closed to 

the public for safety reasons. Although some damage 

was expected, the severity of the impacts was greater 

than we had expected. After drilling was complete, 

the roads were repaired by grading and application 

of stone. 

Figure 3.—Damage to road surface and roadside ditch on the Fernow Experimental Forest from gas well 

construction and drilling equipment. Note that the drainage ditch has been obliterated. Photo taken May 22, 2008. 

Photo by U.S. Forest Service.

Unexpected Impacts

Probably the most severe, and certainly the most 

dramatic, of the unexpected impacts are related to 

the drilling and hydrofracing fl uids. Because there 

was no brine indicated within the geology of the 

well site, the risk to vegetation was assumed to be 

minimal. However, obvious and measurable damage to 

vegetation did occur from these fl uids at three different 

locations. 

On June 11, 2008, damage to about two dozen trees 

was noted immediately adjacent to the well pad on 

the lower west side by Fernow staff. Browning of 

foliage and a lack of ground vegetation for several 

meters into the residual stand were observed (Fig. 4). 

Many of the trees subsequently dropped their foliage. 

These symptoms were attributed to a loss of control of 

the drill bore on May 29, 2008, resulting in an aerial 

release of materials that drifted over areas immediately 
Page 11

adjacent to the well pad and drill pit. These effects 

were still evident several months later in the autumn, 

prior to leaf fall. Trees showed no noticeable 

symptoms in the summer of 2009. Fluids in this 

release may have had high pH levels from the tallow 

plug used to hold the fracturing fl uids in the formation. 

Because a major component of the fracturing fl uids 

was hydrochloric acid (15 percent; Well Operator’s 

Report, AP1#47-093-00107, available from the WV 

DEP), an alternative explanation may be that a low pH 

solution containing high chloride levels is responsible 

for the observed symptoms. Clearly, a better 

knowledge of the chemical makeup of the drilling and 

hydrofracing fl uids is needed in order to understand 

and predict possible impacts on the resources.

Also, fl uids from the drill pit that were land-applied 

at two locations on the Fernow resulted in dramatic 

impacts on vegetation. Land application involves 

spraying the fl uid into the air and, in this instance, 

onto the vegetation (Fig. 5). It was assumed that if 

the drill pit fl uids met the standards specifi ed in the 

permit, there would be no damage to the vegetation 

or soil. Levels permitted by WV DEP for this pit 

were chlorides below 12,500 mg L–1 and a pH 

between 6 and 10. Note that these are concentrations 

and not loads. An estimated 302,800 L of drill pit 

fl uids were applied to an area of about 0.20 ha in 

subcompartment 17B (fl uid application site 1). 

Fluid application site 1 represents 2.6 percent of 

subcompartment 17B. The fl uid application area was 

deliberately kept small in area in order to minimize 

possible impacts to the ongoing research. This intent 

obviously backfi red. The second fl uid application 

site was located within the pipeline ROW corridor 

(fl uid application site 2) along the boundary of 

compartments 17 and 19 and received an estimated 

75,700 L of drilling pit fl uids.

Figure 4.—Foliar injury of trees damaged by aerial release of drilling fl uids on May 29, 2008, from the B800 well. 

Pit containing drilling fl uids is shown in the foreground. Photo taken June 11, 2008. Photo by U.S. Forest Service.
Page 12

Figure 5.—Land application of drill pit fl uids to fl uid application site 1, Fernow Experimental Forest, June 2008. 

Photo by U.S. Forest Service.

On June 19, 2008, severe browning of foliage on 

the fi rst fl uid application site was discovered by 

Fernow staff (Figs. 6-8; Table 4). Initial effects 

were immediately visible on shrubs and small trees; 

however, within about 10 days, leaves of older trees 

(> 20 m in height), which were unlikely to have been 

directly contacted by the spray, were showing similar 

symptoms, and numerous trees began dropping green 

(fresh) leaves (Fig. 7). Ground vegetation and vines, 

including greenbrier, were top-killed or killed outright 

(Fig. 8). The temporal and spatial development of 

symptoms suggested that the effects were due to both 

direct contact of foliage with the spray, and to uptake 

of the solution from the soil by tree roots. A total of 

115 trees (10 species), nearly all of those within the 

perimeter of the application area, exhibited some 

symptoms of damage (leaf browning, leaf drop, or 

twig dieback) in 2008.

Almost a year later, in May 2009, the number of trees 

included in the tally increased to 147, representing 

11 species (Table 4). Half of these trees had no live 

foliage, and two-thirds had less than 35 percent full 

crown. Although there was some sprouting of tree 

seedlings and ground vegetation within the perimeter, 

there were still signifi cant areas of dead ground 

vegetation in May 2009. Nearby trees outside the 

application area were nearly fully leafed out and 

green (Fig. 9). The 2009 tally included trees that had 

no symptoms in 2008 and a few trees that had shown 

symptoms in 2008 but were symptom-free in 2009 

(mostly understory red maple trees < 12 cm d.b.h.). 

Symptoms observed in 2009 included dwarfed foliage, 

discolored foliage, and bark sloughing. Trees with 

no live foliage in May 2009 were considered dead. 

We also looked for evidence of basal-stem or root 

sprouting, but observed very little sprouting. 

Table 4.—Trees within fl uid application site 1 with 

damage symptoms due to application of drill pit fl uids, 

July 2008 and May 2009, Fernow Experimental Forest 

 July 2008 May 2009

Species Number Diameter range Number

 (cm, d.b.h.)

American beech 57 2.5 to 15.2 57

Red maple 29 3.8 to 55.9 47

Sassafras 10 2.5 to 10.2 10

Northern red oak 6 2.5 to 68.6 14

Yellow-poplar 5 12.7 to 27.9 6

Sweet birch 4 2.5 to 12.7 5

Chestnut oak 1 40.6 1

Cucumber tree 1 5.1 1

Fraser magnolia 1 5.1 1

Downy serviceberry 1 7.6 3

Sourwood 2

Total 115 147
Page 13

Figure 6.—Foliage injury of Fraser magnolia on fl uid 

application site 1, Fernow Experimental Forest. Note 

damaged red maple foliage in background (upper 

left). Photo taken June 19, 2008. Photo by U.S. Forest 

Service.

Figure 7.—Fluid application site 1, Fernow 

Experimental Forest, showing dead and damaged 

understory vegetation, and freshly fallen green leaves. 

Red fl agging indicates trees showing symptoms. Photo 

taken July 9, 2008. Photo by U.S. Forest Service.

Figure 8.—Damaged greenbrier vines on fl uid 

application site 1, Fernow Experimental Forest. Photo 

taken June 19, 2008. Photo by U.S. Forest Service.

American beech was the most common dead tree 

species in 2009; about 38 percent of the beech trees 

experienced bark sloughing (Fig. 10), a dramatic 

visual response, less than 1 year after fl uid application. 

We also noted that the prolifi c root sprouting, which 

is well known and documented for beech, is entirely 

absent within the fl uid application area. Auchmoody 

and Walters (1988) reported that large beech trees 

were the last of the hardwoods to die after an 

accidental brine spill from an oil well development in 

Pennsylvania, although beech were identifi ed as the 

deciduous trees most sensitive to salt in a Canadian 

assessment (Environment Canada 2001). While these 

observations suggest that beech might be a sensitive 

indicator of excessive salt levels, other species should 

perhaps be considered because of the presence of 

beech bark disease in the region. Note, however, that 

beech bark disease was not observed on beech trees in 

the area immediately surrounding the application area, 

so it was ruled out as a causal agent of the symptoms 

we observed. Other tree species affected on the fl uid 

application areas included northern red oak, chestnut 

oak, sassafras, yellow-poplar, sweet birch, cucumber 

tree, Fraser magnolia, red maple, serviceberry, and 

sourwood. The largest dead tree within the perimeter 

was a 67.8-cm-d.b.h. northern red oak.
Page 14

Figure 9.—Fluid application site 1, with non-treated forest in background, Fernow Experimental Forest. Photo 

taken May 17, 2009. Photo by U.S. Forest Service.

Figure 10.—Bark sloughing by American beech trees, fl uid application site 1, Fernow Experimental Forest. Photo 

taken April 22, 2009. Photo by U.S. Forest Service.
Page 15

The mass of freshly fallen green leaves in July 2008 

on an areal basis (dry weight) ranged from 227 kg 

ha–1 to 1,395 kg ha–1 and averaged 714 kg ha–1. For 

comparison, annual leaf fall from a nearby forested 

watershed is about 3,060 kg ha–1 (Adams 2008). In the 

control areas, there were insuffi cient green leaves on 

the forest fl oor to sample and the estimated premature 

leaf fall mass was equivalent to zero. The amount of 

leaf drop within fl uid application site 1 resulted in a 

much more open canopy, with a signifi cant increase 

in light penetration to the forest fl oor (Fig. 9). Canopy 

openness was 15.0 percent. For comparison, canopy 

openness of areas that had been treated with prescribed 

fi re twice in recent years was 8.9 percent, and the 

unburned reference unit was 7.2 percent (T. Schuler, 

unpublished data). Therefore, the fl uid application 

resulted in almost twice the canopy openness of the 

prescribed-burned area and untreated references. 

DSF, the ratio of the average daily direct radiation 

under the canopy and above the canopy for the 

growing season, at fl uid application site 1 was 18.5 

percent. By comparison, DSF in a nearby prescribed 

fi re site was 17.8 percent for the treated units and 

12.0 percent for the untreated reference units. When 

we used DSF as a surrogate for the amount of PAR 

penetrating the forest canopy, the PAR penetrating to 

the forest fl oor was substantially higher than in an area 

not receiving drill pit fl uids. Because of this increased 

light to the ground within the affected area, there was 

a fl ush of germination of seed from light-sensitive tree 

species (e.g., sassafras) and some resprouting of topkilled seedlings. Epicormic branching was observed 

on about 6 percent of trees within the area. The open 

canopy is expected to continue for some time, because 

mortality of many of the remaining live overstory and 

understory trees is expected. Auchmoody and Walters 

(1988) also reported 100 percent vegetative mortality 

from an accidental brine spill in Pennsylvania. 

However, after the brine source was removed, and 

the site fl ushed by heavy rainfall, they noted rapid 

revegetation. We will continue to follow mortality 

and canopy openness over time on the Fernow fl uid 

application site 1 to gauge recovery.

A much lower volume of fl uid was applied to the 

second fl uid application site, and the operator took 

care not to spray the contents into the air, but to run it 

out on the ground, and to move the outlet pipe often 

so as to disperse the fl uid over the area. A smaller 

area was treated (0.04 ha) and the visible effects 

were not as obvious. Nonetheless, considerable leaf 

browning and mortality of young northern red oak 

seedlings was observed (Fig.11), along with some 

browning of other short vegetation. In general, no 

symptoms were observed in the overstory trees and 

there was no obvious increase in leaf drop, as at fl uid 

application site 1. Because the fl uids were applied 

within the future pipeline ROW, further monitoring of 

the vegetation and soil was not possible after the ROW 

was cleared for pipeline installation. 

For fl uid application site 1, analyses of soil chemistry 

suggest that levels of sodium, chloride, and calcium 

were substantially higher (by 2-50X) in the area 

receiving pit fl uids than in the adjacent control area 

in July, shortly after application (Table 5), although 

only increases in chloride and sodium concentrations 

were statistically signifi cant. These differences suggest 

that the drill pit fl uids contained elevated salts and 

chlorides. Levels of nutrient elements in the second 

fl uid application site immediately after application 

Figure 11.—Damaged oak seedlings and greenbrier 

vines on fl uid application site 2, Fernow Experimental 

Forest. Photo taken July 25, 2008. Photo by U.S. 

Forest Service.
Page 16

were similar to those of fl uid application site 1 (Table 

6), and concentrations of chloride, calcium, potassium, 

and sodium were elevated within the treated area. 

Concentrations of iron, magnesium, and lead were also 

slightly elevated in the treated soil of site 2 relative to 

the control area.

Although sodium and chloride concentrations at fl uid 

application site 1 decreased by almost 40 percent by 

October 2008, concentrations in the area treated with 

drill pit fl uids were still signifi cantly elevated relative 

to the control area. This was observed despite more 

than 25 cm of precipitation that fell in July, August, 

and September of 2008; this precipitation should 

have leached the salts away, as was reported by both 

DeWalle and Galeone (1990) and Auchmoody and 

Walters (1988). Chloride, calcium, and sodium levels 

remained signifi cantly greater in the treated area 

relative to the control in May 2009. 

Table 5.—Mean soil analyte concentrations from fl uid application site 1, sampled in July and October 2008, Fernow 

Experimental Forest (standard deviations are shown in parentheses; statistically signifi cant differences within a 

sampling date and analyte are indicated by * (p=0.10) or ** (p=0.05))

Analyte July 2008 October 2008 May 2009

 Control Treated Control Treated Control Treated

pH 3.5 (0.25) 3.8 (0.10) 4.5 (0.25) 4.1 (0.0)* 4.1 (0.33) 4.8 (0.24)*

 percent

Loss on ignition 31.3 (4.31) 30.0 (12.92) 28.3 (6.09) 48.7 (2.96)** 46.4 (14.2) 39.3 (1.42)

Total nitrogen 0.74 (0.12) 0.64 (0.17) 0.68 (0.16) 1.06 (0.08)** 1.15 (0.34) 0.87 (0.05)

Total carbon 15.80 (1.76) 15.43 (5.18) 14.30 (3.48) 24.93 (2.54)** 23.43 (7.89) 19.27 (0.81)

 mg kg–1

Chloride 15 (3.1) 735 (301.3)** 19 (7.5) 453 (131.8)** 18 (2.9) 35 (4.7)**

Calcium 431 (143) 1,181 (920) 1,226 (515) 1,473 (265) 1,081 (60) 2,414 (1042)*

Potassium 122 (26.7) 135 (81.1) 160 (42.4) 267 (30.0)** 339 (55.4) 365 (45.8)

Magnesium 50 (9.0) 66 (20.1) 77 (17.9) 98 (18.9) 124 (13.9) 165 (44.3)

Phosphorus 14.5 (6.41) 11.8 (7.02) 8.7 (4.68) 17.5 (4.32)* 27.1 (15.56) 12.6 (5.75)

Aluminum 602 (130) 461 (169) 456 (107) 456 (154) 328 (52) 177 (89)*

Iron 159.3 (20.2) 123 (11.8)* 15.2 (15.8) 25 (0.5) 49.1 (32.6) 10.7 (8.5)

Manganese 20 (5.1) 14 (1.0) 66 (14.7) 31 (5.7)** 88 (24.4) 34 (6.3)*

Sodium 15 (3.5) 806 (547.8)* 14 (2.3) 473 (41.9)** 5 (1.7) 105 (5.6)**

Zinc 11.8 (4.10) 7.0 (0.75) 9.5 (4.14) 11.4 (2.92) 13.1 (4.4) 5.9 (0.8)**

Lead -- -- 42 (24.7) 34 (7.1) 35 (3.6) 28 (3.8)*

Table 6.—Mean soil analyte concentrations from fl uid 

application site 2, collected August 2008, Fernow 

Experimental Forest (n=2) 

Analyte Control Treated

pH 4.8 4.5

 percent

Loss on ignition 11.2 17.8

Total nitrogen 0.30 0.46

Total carbon 5.17 8.62

 mg kg–1

Chloride 16 455

Calcium 96 734

Potassium 84 195

Magnesium 20 32

Phosphorus 2.8 3.3

Aluminum 414 369

Iron 3.6 15.7

Manganese 134 152

Sodium 10 390

Zinc 3.6 3.1

Lead 28 41

 meq 100 g–1

Acidity 5.4 4.6

Cation exchange capacity 6.2 10.7
Page 17

Note the increase in soil levels of loss-on-ignition 

(an indication of organic carbon concentration of 

soil), total nitrogen, phosphorus, and cation exchange 

capacity in the treated area from July to October 

(Table 5). The higher loss-on-ignition may be due 

to an increase in organic carbon in the soil resulting 

from rapid decomposition of the premature leaf fall. 

Indeed, it appears that the increases observed for all of 

these elements may be due to the pulse of green leaves 

that fell in July. Because retranslocation of mobile 

elements, such as nitrogen and potassium, probably 

did not occur prior to leaf fall, as would happen in the 

autumn with seasonal senescence, we hypothesize that 

a fl ush of nutrients was released from the premature 

leaf fall, and decomposition occurred relatively more 

quickly, resulting in a pulse of nutrients to the soil in 

midsummer. An examination of the site the following 

spring (2009) revealed relatively little leaf litter, 

providing some support for the hypothesis of rapid 

decomposition of the prematurely shed leaves. The 

relative importance of small-scale changes in nutrient 

cycling such as these may be minor, but certainly 

requires further consideration, particularly as natural 

gas development increases in the eastern U.S. Because 

carbon sequestration is an important ecosystem service 

provided by forests, a better understanding of the 

carbon budgets resulting from these developments is 

necessary.

The drill pit fl uids were sampled and analyzed 

several times (Table 7) in order to help us understand 

why we observed the effects that we did, and for 

compliance reasons. Note that the standards permitted 

by the General Permit are for a single required 

sample collected from the end of the hose. There is 

signifi cant variability in chloride and pH among the 

samples, and the June 20, 2008, sample did exceed 

the General Permit standard for chloride. The permit 

discharge limits were 12,500 mg L–1 for chloride, a 

pH of 6-10, and 6.0 mg L–1 for total iron. Based on 

data provided in the Well Operator’s Report (7,500 

mg L–1 of chlorides), a calculated loading of 11,355 

kg of chloride per hectare was applied to the fi rst fl uid 

application site. Such a loading far exceeds load limits 

established elsewhere, such as in Oklahoma (450 kg 

ha–1), Wisconsin (275 kg ha–1) (http://www.dnr.state.

wi.us/org/water/wm/ww/gpindex/57665_permit.pdf) 

over a 2-year basis, and Saskatchewan (400 kg ha–1; 

http://eps.mcgill.ca/~courses/c550/Environmentalimpact-of-drilling/Sask_Drilling_Waste_Guidelines.

pdf). Thus, while the concentrations may have met 

the standards of the General Permit, the load (dose) of 

chloride that was applied was extreme. This points to 

the desirability of a load-based standard. 

The June 19, 2008, sample of pit fl uids also was 

screened by staff at West Virginia University’s 

Department of Forensic and Analytical Chemistry. 

Their screening showed high levels of sodium, 

potassium, lead, and palladium; medium to low 

levels of calcium; and low but detectable levels of 

rhodium (Dr. Suzanne Bell, pers. communication). 

Because this was a screening analysis, we do not 

have concentrations or dosages, but these results 

raise concerns about the contents of pit fl uids that are 

applied to forest land. DeWalle and Galeone (1990) 

Table 7.—Drill pit fl uid sampling information and analytical results, Fernow Experimental Forest, 2008 

Date sampled Sampled by Chloride pH Total iron Other

 (mg L–1) (mg L–1) 

Unknown Berry Energy 7,500 7.8 1.0 No settleable solids, oil, grease, or petroleum products

May 24, 2008 MNF staff 10,700 10.51 Pit fl uids, immediately below the liquid surface

June 19, 2008 Fernow staff 4,880 11.65 Pit fl uids; settleable solids, and some that did not settle 

 for >24 hours

June 20, 2008 Fernow staff 13,500 - End of the hose

 14,250
Page 18

also reported elevated levels of chloride, barium, lead, 

selenium, arsenic, and cadmium in soil water as deep 

as 70 cm from a single brine application to a hardwood 

forest in Pennsylvania, although levels quickly 

declined to meet Safe Drinking Water Act limits 

(except for selenium). Thus, there is some concern 

about metals in soil and soil solution, and it suggests 

another area for further research. 

Other Unexpected Impacts

The other unexpected impacts of the well development 

included effects from heavier-than-predicted use, 

changes in procedures or techniques, and accidents 

and equipment failures. The extent and severity 

of these events are unknown; nonetheless, they do 

represent potential impacts on the resources, natural 

and scientifi c, of the Fernow, which would not have 

occurred had gas well development not taken place. 

Below, we describe some of these. 

As mentioned earlier, substantial damage to roads 

occurred during site development and drilling. 

Because loaded log trucks regularly use Fernow roads, 

we anticipated a similar level of damage. However, 

the estimated total weight of trucks required for 

developing the well site was substantially greater 

than that of logging trucks during a normal year 

(an estimated 10,218 tons [MNF Road Use Permit] 

compared to 5,000 tons for logging), which may 

explain the greater than expected damage. For 

instance, obliteration of ditches rarely, if ever, occurs 

on the Fernow main roads due to traffi c from logging 

trucks. We also expected that damage would be 

repaired as soon as it occurred or was pointed out; 

instead, the damage was repaired after completion of 

well site construction and drilling. Some runoff and 

erosion from roads and loss of road function were 

observed as a result of this delay in maintenance, but 

were not quantifi ed. 

Unexpected and unknown impacts also occurred 

from changes in procedures. For example, for the 

crossing of an unnamed tributary to Stonelick Run, the 

operating plan and the Decision Memo identifi ed that a 

buried natural gas pipeline would be installed beneath 

this wetland by directional boring if water was present 

at the time of pipeline installation. Otherwise, the 

pipeline would be installed by excavating and setting 

the pipeline in an approximately 1-m-deep trench. At 

the crossing location, the unnamed tributary channel is 

0.3 to 0.6 m wide, with a wetland on the west side of 

the channel containing obligate wetland plant species. 

Water was present in the channel at the time the pipe 

was to be laid. Nonetheless, at the energy company’s 

request, permission was granted to install the crossing 

by excavating a dry trench. Concerns centered around 

possible elevated turbidity and sedimentation within 

this tributary to Stonelick Run. Also, trenching 

through the wetland could produce changes in the 

hydraulic conductivity of the wetland substrate within 

the trench, as well as within the wetland for a short 

distance upslope and downslope of the trench. We 

have no measurements to support this hypothesis and 

suggest that these appear as important needs for future 

research. Risk assessments and plans for mitigation 

should be prepared before procedural changes are 

made. 

The crossing of Elklick Run was also planned to be 

accomplished by drilling underneath the streambed. 

But the dry trenching method was preferred, and it 

was implemented during a period of low fl ow. During 

excavation of the trench, an excavator broke down 

within the stream channel and remained there for 

about 18 hours while being repaired. Although no 

obvious impacts to water quality or sensitive biota 

were observed, the accidents surrounding this change 

in procedure point to the potential for unexpected 

impacts. In another case, the truck carrying pipeline 

ran off the road in the Biological Control Area, an 

area considered a reference area for much of the 

silvicultural research of the Fernow (Fig. 12). Damage 

to the vegetation from this accident appeared minor, 

but the potential for signifi cant impacts to such a 

valuable research resource is not negligible. We 

suggest conducting risk assessments that consider 

a variety of scenarios to help prepare for such 

unexpected effects of natural gas development. 
Page 19

Finally, another unexpected impact was the increased 

presence and activity of white-tailed deer in areas 

where the pit fl uids were land-applied and on the well 

site in the area of the buried drill pit. The frequency 

of hoof prints in the ground at these sites remained 

unusually high throughout the winter, and into the 

spring and summer of 2009, indicating that B800 

had become a readily used mineral source for deer. 

Such activity is well documented (Campbell et al. 

2004). Increased foraging activities by black bears, 

as evidenced by turned-over logs, heavily disturbed 

soil, and bear signs such as foot prints and scat, also 

were observed within fl uid application site 1 and 

hypothesized to be due to high salt concentrations in 

soil and vegetation. 

Two of the seeps (4.5 m2

 and 32 m2) in the area of 

the buried pit were covered with slash to discourage 

deer use of the area and to enhance germination of 

ground cover seed. This met with mixed success 

(Fig. 13), because regeneration became well 

established on the one seep and reasonably well on 

the second. However, a third, smaller seep (1.7 m2

) 

was identifi ed in September 2009 and has attracted 

deer attention. In July 2010, at least two active 

seep/lick areas still were frequented by deer, and the 

area disturbed by the deer’s activities has increased. 

Mitigation of increased deer herbivory to establish 

ground cover may be feasible in these areas, but such 

mitigation does not deal with the issue of leakage of 

pit contents through such seeps. High deer numbers 

could delay or even prevent successful revegetation of 

an area (Campbell et al. 2006). 

Figure 12.—Biological Control Area, Fernow Experimental Forest, showing damage from truck hauling gas 

pipeline and from the bulldozer used in an attempt to push the truck back onto the road surface. Photo taken 

August 13, 2008. Photo by U.S. Forest Service.
Page 20

Figure 13.—Partially remediated deer lick areas, located near drill pit burial site. Inset photo shows new deer lick 

area, located to the technician’s right (up slope) in the larger photo. Photos taken September 10 and 18, 2009. 

Photo by U.S. Forest Service.

Impacts on the Research 

and Research Needs

We have concerns about the impacts of the 

development of the B800 gas well and associated 

pipeline on the research mission of the Fernow. These 

impacts may not be quantifi able and point to additional 

information gaps and research needs. 

The physical impacts expected included the permanent 

deforestation of the well pad, access road, and pipeline 

ROW, and the reshaping, ground disturbance, and 

erosion associated with the construction. Due to 

coordination and cooperation among all parties, a 

relatively small area of land was directly affected 

by the construction of well site, pipeline, and 

road—less than 0.5 percent of the land area of the 

Fernow. However, the areas directly impacted were 

changed permanently, with the possible exception of 

areas below the pit where silt fences were overrun. 

Accordingly, these physically impacted areas have 

been withdrawn from research compartments, 

decreasing the area available for research and 

demonstration. For example, fl uid application site 

1 removed approximately 0.12 ha from an active 

long-term study of patch-clearcutting, one of the 

longest term research studies on the Fernow (Schuler 

2004). Within these areas, long-term data collection 

efforts have ended and long-term datasets have been 
Page 21

compromised. While research in areas adjacent to the 

physically impacted areas may proceed, additional 

possible impacts must be considered: an “edge effect” 

on tree growth and regeneration (Landenburger and 

McGraw 2004) due to changes in microclimate in the 

adjacent open areas, changes in herbivory due to slash 

piles along the perimeter of the pipeline and adjacent 

research compartments, increases in variability of data 

collected subsequently, and truncation of impacted 

studies. Further work will be needed to assess these 

effects over time. 

The gas well opening and pipeline, although relatively 

small in comparison with the whole Fernow, may 

also represent an increase in fragmentation of a 

relatively intact forest matrix. For example, the 

pipeline introduced an additional estimated 3,000 m

of “hard edge” into the Fernow. Such edge has been 

demonstrated to have signifi cant implications for 

nest predation (King et al. 1997, 1998; Gates and 

Gysel 1978). We also have questions about whether 

the additional permanent openings, in particular 

the long, linear pipeline ROW, act as avenues for 

increased dispersal of invasive exotic plants and 

animals. Japanese stiltgrass, in particular, is likely to 

take advantage of the open corridor to invade new 

territory. However, control of invasive plant species 

may be easier on the pipeline ROW, due to periodic 

mowing and improved accessibility. The probability of 

introduction of invasive exotic plant species through 

seeds or other propagules may have increased due to 

markedly greater vehicular traffi c for well site and 

pipeline construction and maintenance, use of hay 

instead of straw on one occasion on the pipeline ROW, 

and the truck running off the road in the Biological 

Control Area. Such introductions could imperil longterm research on the Fernow and negatively affect 

sensitive plant communities, including communities 

of running buffalo clover, an endangered species that 

is the subject of research unique to the Fernow. Such 

issues will require investigation and monitoring in the 

future. 

We are also concerned about changes in deer 

movements and effects on browsing in adjacent areas. 

It is likely that herbivory in the immediate area of 

the well site and fl uid application area will increase 

in response to elevated salt levels, as reported by 

Campbell et al. (2004), and we have insuffi cient 

information to predict how long such an effect may 

persist. Based on Campbell’s research, a doe born 

this year in the area will set up adjacent homerange to 

her mother but will retain knowledge of this mineral 

lick and will make sallies from her homerange to visit 

it (Campbell et al. 2004). This “knowledge” can be 

passed along the multiple generations from mother to 

daughter so that deer occupying ranges more than 5 

km away may visit these mineral sources in the spring 

when physiological demand for minerals is high. 

Incorporating this sort of a shift in herbivory into longterm regeneration research is problematic. We also 

need to understand how to manage deer in this altered 

environment. 

There were several surprises throughout the 

development of B800 and the pipeline, which suggest 

some additional research needs. The response of the 

vegetation to the land application of fl uids is one such 

surprise and needs further study. We suggest the need 

for a more reliable means of assessing the chemical 

content of the drill pit fl uids before land application. A 

single sample clearly did not characterize the contents 

suffi ciently to predict the response that was observed. 

Also, because we hypothesize a dose effect, rather than 

just a response to concentration, a better understanding 

of dose-response relationships for the signifi cant 

constituents of drill pit fl uids would help to predict 

where land application of drill pit fl uids is likely to 

have deleterious effects. Some vegetation may respond 

to concentration, while for others dose may be a better 

predictor of response. Monitoring the fl uid application 

site over time will provide some understanding of the 

longer term effects on vegetation and regeneration. 

Research to identify better means to dispose of drill pit 

fl uids is also needed, particularly for karst topography. 
Page 22

Varying season of application (dormant vs. growing 

season) may be a way to mitigate vegetative effects, 

but effects on soil, fauna, and other resources should 

also be studied. 

We also posit that a better understanding of fl uid 

movement and connectivity in karst geology is 

needed. Decisions were made based on relatively 

limited knowledge about the location of caves and 

fi ssures, and how they connect to the Big Springs 

Blowing Cave housing hibernating Indiana bats, for 

example. Using dye to trace water movement within 

the karst would help to identify more conclusively the 

signifi cant linkages and evaluate the relative safety 

of drilling in the karst topography for affecting the 

fragile environment within the caves. While there 

was some monitoring of sediment in the stream 

draining Big Springs Blowing Cave, and the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service and West Virginia Division of 

Natural Resources did conduct a mid-winter survey 

of bats, and place temperature probes within the cave, 

this information about the effects of the drilling on 

cave environment and biota is far from conclusive or 

complete. 

Finally, we do not know much about how natural gas 

development affects biota. Vegetation is relatively 

simple to evaluate, even post-hoc, but other taxa may 

also be sensitive to changes due to land clearing, 

drilling, and reclamation activities, and indeed, some 

may be more sensitive. There is very little information 

on the effects of these activities on rare, endangered, 

or threatened species, and relatively little information 

on effects on salamanders, invertebrates, and cave 

dwelling organisms. 

CONCLUSIONS

This case study identifi es some expected and 

unexpected impacts, which might be used to predict 

environmental effects of similar developments and to 

better prepare for monitoring such developments. This 

case study also helps us examine the information gaps 

associated with natural gas development in eastern 

forested landscapes. Finally, our experiences can help 

inform both public and private land managers as to the 

range of possible outcomes from the development. 

Development of a natural gas well, and associated 

pipeline, had impacts on the resources, both natural 

and scientifi c, of the Fernow Experimental Forest. 

Due to good coordination and cooperation, some of 

the expected impacts, mostly physical effects, were 

minimized. Unexpected impacts, however, were 

perhaps more important, and because they could not be 

carefully controlled or planned for, are less likely to be 

mitigated successfully. It is obvious that unexpected, 

unpredicted events will occur during such activities, 

and therefore land managers should consider a wide 

range of possible effects when analyzing impacts 

on natural resources. Good communication among 

all parties becomes even more critical to ensure that 

unlikely events are not dismissed as unimportant and 

that appropriate responses to unexpected events can 

happen in a timely manner. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The hard work and excellent cooperation of the 

Fernow technicians and logging crew in collecting 

data and working on this project under diffi cult 

situations is hereby acknowledged: Rick Hovatter, 

Donnie Lowther, Scott Hockman, Mark Owens, 

Jeff Pennington, Doug Owens, Jane Rodrigue, 

Tim DeBerry, Chris Cassidy, and Greg Evans. We 

appreciate the comments and review provided by MNF 

staff, George Monk, and John Stanovick. Thoughtful 

reviews by Susan Stout, Greg Nowacki, and John 

Brissette are particularly appreciated, and they resulted 

in a much improved manuscript. 
Page 23

LITERATURE CITED

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Northern Research Station: 179-186.

Adams, Mary Beth; Loughry, Linda; Plaugher, 

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Rep. NE-321. Revised. Newtown Square, PA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

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W. Mark; Miller, Karl V. 2004. From the fi eld: 

unusual white-tailed deer movements to a 

gas well in the central Appalachians. Wildlife 

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Page 24

APPENDIX

Common and scientifi c names

Black bear Ursus americanus

Greenbrier isopod Stygobromus emarginatus

Indiana bat Myotis sodalis 

Virginia big-eared bat Corynorhinus townsendii 

 virginianus

White-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Greenbrier Smilax 

Japanese stiltgrass Microstegium viminem

Running buffalo clover Trifolium stoloniferum

American beech Fagus grandifolia

Chestnut oak Quercus prinus

Cucumbertree Magnolia acuminata

Downy serviceberry Amelanchier arborea

Fraser magnolia Magnolia fraserii

Northern red oak Quercus rubra

Red maple Acer rubrum

Sassafras Sassafras albidum

Sourwood Oxydendrum arboretum

Sugar maple Acer saccharum

Sweet birch Betula lenta

Yellow-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera

Beech bark disease Nectria coccinea var. faginata 
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Printed on recycled paper

Adams, Mary Beth; Edwards, Pamela J.; Ford, W. Mark; Johnson, Joshua B.; 

Schuler, Thomas M.; Thomas-Van Gundy, Melissa; Wood, Frederica. 2011. 

Effects of development of a natural gas well and associated pipeline on 

the natural and scientifi c resources of the Fernow Experimental Forest.

Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-76. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 24 p.

Development of a natural gas well and pipeline on the Fernow Experimental Forest, 

WV, raised concerns about the effects on the natural and scientifi c resources of the 

Fernow, set aside in 1934 for long-term research. A case study approach was used 

to evaluate effects of the development. This report includes results of monitoring 

projects as well as observations related to unexpected impacts on the resources 

of the Fernow. Two points are obvious: that some effects can be predicted and 

mitigated through cooperation between landowner and energy developer, and 

that unexpected impacts will occur. These unexpected impacts may be most 

problematic. 

KEY WORDS: natural gas, disturbance, mineral development, fl uid application, 

 white-tailed deer, karst topography 
www.nrs.fs.fed.us