ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS AT 

SITE 48TE412, STRING LAKE, 

GRAND TETON NATIONAL PARK, WYOMING 

BY 

James V. Winfrey 

Midwest Archeological Center 

Technical Report No. 35 

Produced for the Rocky Mountain Region, National Park Service 

United States Department of the Interior 

National Park Service 

Midwest Archeological Center 

Lincoln, Nebraska 

ABSTRACT 

In the fall of 1990, archeological investigations were conducted at 48TE412 in advance 

of visitor facility relocation projects in the Jenny Lake Developed Area, Grand Teton National 

Park, Wyoming. The site is located at the outlet of String Lake, which is located north of the 

much larger Jenny Lake. 

Previous work at the site recovered worked lithics, animal bone, hearths, and evidence 

of culturally significant subsurface deposits. The 1990 fieldwork included the mapping and 

excavation of previously identified hearth features and documentation of several concentrations 

of worked lithics and fired rock. The radiocarbon dates from the excavation reported here and 

from earlier work at the site are statistically indistinguishable and suggest a fairly recent, 

probably Euroarnerican, occupation. Diagnostic artifacts recovered during survey and 

excavation, however, suggest that the site was also occupied during the Late Plains Archaic or 

the early part of the Late Prehistoric period. 

The evidence of prehistoric activity at 48TE4 12 suggests short-term, seasonal 

occupations by hunters and gatherers moving through the area. Activities in evidence at the 

site include the processing of animals for bone grease and the production, use, and maintenance 

of stone tools. 

The site was recommended as eligible for inclusion on the National Register of Historic 

Places on Feburary 27, 1990. While disturbance of the site will be extensive, portions of the 

site will remain intact, preserving the site's eligibility status. 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

After 1991, when I left the Park Service, many people were brought in to help complete 

this report. I would like to thank all of them for their suggestions and patience. Douglas Scott 

has generously allowed me to continue to work on the project, and Melissa Connor, Ken 

Cannon, Bruce Jones, Douglas Bamforth, and Steve Dominguez have all at one time or another 

read the document and provided insightful and valuable comments. I'd like to thank Colleen 

Winchell, and Koni Fujiwara for their work on the maps, artifact illustrations, and other figures 

and tables. Carrol Moxharn also deserves thanks for her work on the layout of the final 

illustrations. RenC Botts deserves thanks for mailing me artifact slides and copies of the 

document many more times than she should have had to. I also need to thank the field crew, 

Stephanie Crockett, Sarah Crurnp, Pat Phillips, and Colleen Winchell, for all their hard work. 

Patrick Phillips also wrote the section Historic Artifacts (pp. 29-3 1) and cataloged most of the 

collection. 

Other people who contributed to this report include Paul Flack, who worked on the 

statistics; Stacy Stupka-Burda, who helped edit the original document; Nancy Sikora, who did 

the typing; and John Andresen and Ken Gobber, who provided the final editing. 

The U.S. Department of Transportation funded this project. Douglas Scott of the 

Midwest Archeological Center supervised the project. Adrienne Anderson and Ann Johnson, 

Rocky Mountain Regional Office, National Park Service, provided helpful comments on earlier 

drafts of this report. 
TABLEOFCONTENTS 

Abstract ......................................................... i 

. . Acknowledgments .................................................. 11 

... Table of Contents ................................................. 111 

List of Tables ..................................................... v 

List of Figures ..................................................... v 

Introduction ...................................................... 1 

Purpose of Fieldwork ........................................... 1 

Environmental Setting .......................................... 2 

Geology ............................................... 2 

Climate ............................................... 3 

Resource Availability ...................................... 3 

Previous Archeological Work .......................................... 7 

Site48TE412 ................................................ 8 

Regional Chronology ........................................... 9 

Paleoindian Period ........................................ 9 

Archaic Period .......................................... 9 

Late Prehistoric Period .................................... 11 

Protohistoric Period ...................................... 11 

Historic Period ......................................... 11 

Fieldwork ....................................................... 13 

Introduction ................................................ 13 

Field Methods ............................................... 13 

Excavation Results ............................................ 14 

Shovel Tests ........................................... 14 

BlockA .............................................. 15 

BlockB .............................................. 15 

BlockC .............................................. 16 

Excavated Features ...................................... 16 
Laboratory Studies ................................................. 17 

Chipped-Stone Analysis ........................................ 17 

Tool Production ......................................... 17 

Bifacial Production ...................................... 18 

Analysis of Bifacial Production Debris ......................... 20 

Bipolar Production ....................................... 21 

UseWear ............................................. 22 

Obsidian Analysis ............................................ 23 

Sourcing ........................................ 23 

Hydration Dating ........................................ 24 

Date of Occupation ...................................... 25 

Tool Descriptions ............................................ 25 

Projectile Points ........................................ 25 

Bifaces ........................................ 26 

Multipurpose Tool ....................................... 26 

Cores ................................................ 26 

Non-flake Artifacts ...................................... 27 

Soilsamples ................................................ 27 

Summary ........................................ 28 

Macrobotanical and Pollen Samples ................................ 28 

Faunal Material .............................................. 29 

Historic Artifacts ............................................. 29 

Summary ............................................. 31 

Postdepositional Environment ......................................... 33 

Background ................................................. 33 

Postdepositional Processes at 48TE4 12 .............................. 34 

Summary .................................................. 35 

Discussion ...................................................... 37 

Site Chronology ............................................. 37 

Subsistence and Site Function .................................... 38 

Plant Processing ........................................ 38 

Bone Grease Processing ................................... 38 

Tool Production and Site Use ............................... 40 

ToolUse ............................................. 42 

Mobility and Trade ...................................... 43 

Summary of Discussion ........................................ 44 

Management Summary .............................................. 45 
References Cited .................................................. 47 

LIST OF TABLES 

1 . Summary of shovel test depths and results ............................. 55 

2 . Lithic material type distribution at 48TE412 ............................ 55 

3 . Results of obsidian-hydration band analysis ............................ 56 

4 . Time calculation on 13 Teton Pass obsidian samples ...................... 57 

5 . Lithic material distribution for flaked tools ............................. 57 

LIST OF FIGURES 

1 . Topographic map showing location of 48TE412 ......................... 58 

2 . Construction plan map of 48TE412 .................................. 58 

3 . Map of site 48TE412 ............................................ 59 

4 . Site map showing location and orientation of shovel tests and excavation units at 

48TE412 ..................................................... 59 

5 . Surface map of unit 105Nl10 1 W and the north profile cross section of Feature 1 . . 60 

6 . Composite map of Excavation Block A ............................... 61 

7 . Composite map of Excavation Block B ............................... 62 

8 . Composite map of Excavation Block C ............................... 63 

9 . Log frequency of obsidian flake size distribution at 48TE412 ................ 63 

10 . Lithic artifacts representing biface production stages ...................... 64 

11 . Lithic artifacts ................................................. 65 

12 . Cores ....................................................... 66 

INTRODUCTION 

The String Lake site (48TE412) is located at the outlet of String Lake and along its 

eastern shoreline (Figure 1). Archeologists from the Midwest Archeological Center (MWAC) 

conducted excavations at this site between 17 September and 9 October 1990 as part of 

Package 171B2, which is the reconstruction of the park road from South Jenny Lake to North 

Jenny Lake. Excavation of the site was the final step in the Section 106 compliance process 

of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (as amended) for this section of the proposed 

road reconstruction. 

The String Lake site was recommended for inclusion on the National Register of 

Historic Places on the basis of criteria developed for the Jackson Lake Archeological Project 

(Connor 1989). The criteria included the potential to refine the cultural history and chronology 

of the area and contribute to a better understanding of aboriginal settlement and subsistence 

patterns, the paleoenvironmental sequence, and the extent of trade. The Wyoming State 

Historic Preservation Officer concurred with the National Park Service on the eligibility of the 

site on February 27, 1989. 

Purpose of Fieldwork 

After a large windstorm struck the Jenny Lake Developed Area in November 1973 and 

damaged a large number of the standing trees, the National Park Service conducted a 

reevaluation of the area's use patterns. The Jenny Lake Developed Area includes both Jenny 

and String lakes and their associated visitor facilities. During the reevaluation, several 

problems were defined, and a planning effort was launched to alleviate them. The primary 

problems were vehicular congestion and conflicts between hikers, horseback riders, 

pedestrians, and motorists. As a solution to these problems, the National Park Service (1977) 

began a construction project that would reroute many of the roads in the area, create new 

parking areas, and reduce adverse impacts to the natural environment. Construction plans 

indicated that a large portion of site 48TE412 would be affected (Figure 2). 

Work at 48TE412 was conducted in the fall of 1990 in response to these construction 

activities, which threatened the integrity of the site. While there was no mention of the site 

in the Development Concept Plan (National Park Service 1977), preconstruction inventories 

revealed its existence. Wright and Marceau (1977) conducted site testing in 1976 and 

concluded that 48TE412 represented a special-activity locus from which specific resource 

procurement activities were conducted. They suggested that the site was occupied intermittently during both the Middle Archaic and Late Prehistoric periods. Partially buried, in situ 

deposits were detected but not fully excavated. 

During an inventory for the realignment of the Jenny Lake road, Connor (1989) 

reassessed the site in relation to research themes developed for the Jackson Lake Archeological 

Project (National Park Service 1987) and recommended that the site be considered eligible for 
nomination to the National Register of Historic Places. There is a potential for improving our 

understanding of the past using new data from 48TE412. 

For the present analysis, the occupation history of the site was reconstructed, which 

helped to clarify the Jackson Hole area settlement and subsistence patterns. Determination of 

the sources of obsidian artifacts from the site helped in reconstructing the occupants' trade 

spheres of interaction. Pollen analysis and other soil sample analyses clarified subsistence 

practices, the paleoenvironmental sequence, and the postdepositional environment. Analysis 

of the lithic material provided information regarding those activities that occurred at the site. 

Data on tool production, maintenance, and use assisted with identification of site function. In 

turn, the accumulated information is compared to other sites in the area with similar sets of 

data, allowing a regional picture to develop. 

Environmental Setting 

Like most places on earth, the environment of Jackson Hole is the result of the various 

natural forces working within the area (Clark 1981). Geologic forces, weather conditions, 

abundance of water, soil, and elevation all shape the region's biotic communities. Elevations 

vary from approximately 2,000 m above mean sea level at the floor of Jackson Hole to 4,220 

m above mean sea level on the peak of the Grand Teton (Love and Reed 1971). 

Geology 

About 10 million years ago, the Jackson Hole area was only mildly affected by the 

mountain-building events that shaped other portions of northwestern Wyoming (Love and Reed 

1971). After that time, volcanism, regional subsidence, and uplift began to create the present 

geologic features. The Tetons are a fault block mountain range created from a section of the 

earth's crust that has been uplifted along a normal fault. The fault is located approximately 

at the foot of the eastern slope of the range. Nearly 10,000 meters of vertical movement along 

the fault has taken place since the block first shifted. Rock layers buried 7,400 meters below 

the surface of Jackson Hole on the east side of the fault are the same as those that cap the 

highest peaks on the western side. Displacement along the fault is still occurring at a rate of 

about 30 cm every 300 to 400 years (Love and Reed 1971). 

Along with the geologic uplift in the area, Jackson Hole has experienced glacial events 

dating back over 150,000 years. A Middle Pleistocene glacier in the Jackson Hole area filled 

the valley with ice and terminated against Manger Mountain south of Jackson (Pierce 1979). 

The Pinedale glaciation was the last to affect the Jackson Hole area. According to 

Pierce and Good (1986), it receded from Jackson Hole around 15,000 years ago. This period 

of glaciation is responsible for many of the topographic features visible on the valley floor 

today. Alpine glaciers, occurring at the same time as the Pinedale, advanced down the 

mountain valleys and deposited moraines at the front of the range. These moraines and 
glaciers are partly responsible for the series of lakes along the eastern front of the mountains 

(Love and Reed 197 1) and they influenced the development of lower elevation vegetation cover 

in the Jackson Hole area (Clark 1981). 

Volcanic and glacial events in the Jackson Hole region were beneficial to the prehistoric 

occupants of the valley. Volcanic glass (obsidian) from sources around Jackson Hole was used 

for tools, as evidenced by the abundance of obsidian in archeological sites throughout the area. 

Love (1972:39) visited five obsidian sources in the Jackson Hole area, and he believes several 

others may be in the region. He also discusses the glacial origins of the Precambrian quartzites 

found throughout the valley floor and represented in most archeological assemblages from the 

area (Love 1972). Glacial action was also a source of the Tensleep quartzite, which is a finegrained lithic material used for tools. Landforms created by the glaciers influence vegetation 

and provide habitats for plant and animal resources. The location of prehistoric sites in close 

proximity to these landforms indicates that prehistoric inhabitants of the valley exploited these 

resources (Love 1972; Wright and Marceau 1977; Bender 1983). 

Climate 

After deglaciation, the area experienced a period during which herbs and shrubs 

dominated the landscape in a manner reminiscent of the alpine to subalpine meadows common 

in the higher elevations in the Park today (Barnosky 1988). Around 11,200 years ago, juniper 

became widespread in well-drained areas, accompanied in some locations by birch and willows. 

Between 1 1,100 and 9000 years B.P., a succession of coniferous trees spread through the area, 

with lodgepole pine dominating by the end of the period. During this time and for another 

3,000 years, the regional climate was characterized by warmer and drier summers with 

increased summer droughts (Barnosky 1988). After 6000 years B.P., the climate appears to 

have become cooler with relatively moist conditions. This conclusion is supported by the 

replacement of such fire-adapted species as lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, and aspen with closed 

pine forests of spruce, pine, and fir (Barnosky 1988). 

Today the climate is greatly influenced by the mountains. Prevailing winds are from 

the west. Data collected at the Moose weather station (1,972 m amsl) from 1959 to 1980 

indicate a mean January temperature of -10.3 degrees Celsius, and a mean July temperature of 

16.1 1 degrees Celsius. Mean annual precipitation is 63 cm for the same period (Martner 

1986). Most of this precipitation occurs during the winter months in the form of snow 

(Martner 1986). 

Resource Availability 

String Lake is one of several lakes at the foot of the Teton range formed about 15,000 

years ago after the retreat of the Pinedale and Teton Glaciers. The eastern shoreline of the 

lake, where 48TE412 lies, is an outwash plain formed during the glacial retreat. Soils in the 

area developed from porous quartzite sand and gravel deposited by glacial meltwater. 
Typically, these soils are nutrient-poor and support a sagebrush-grassland community. 

Vegetation at the site, however, is characterized by open parkland and lodgepole pine. 

This vegetation pattern is apparently a result of increased rainfall at the foot of the 

mountains (Love 1972). The vegetation community is classified as a transitional life zone with 

the primary community consisting of low sagebrush, followed by dispersed clumps of 

lodgepole pine. Plants identified by Wright and Marceau (1977:13) as dominant in July 

include pussytoes (Antennaria sp.), skyrocket gilia (Gilia aggregata), and a variety of low 

grasses (Gramineae). Mammals characteristic of this life zone include mule deer, red squirrel, 

ground squirrel, prairie-dog, mice, gophers, and rabbits. Larger mammals seen in the vicinity 

of String Lake include elk and moose. 

Throughout much of prehistory the valley is believed to have only been occupied from 

late spring to early fall (Wright and Marceau 1977; Wright 1984). During that time a 

succession of plant resources would become available along the northlsouth temperature 

gradient as well as along the lower elevations to higher elevations gradient (Love 1972; 

Wright and Marceau 1977; Wright 1984; Bender 1983). Plant resources that ripen during this 

season in the vicinity of the site include arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata), 

biscuitroot (Lomatium ambiguum), bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva), Indian potato (Orogenia 

linearifolia), onions (Allium), and wild hyacinth (Broadiaea sp.) (Wright and Marceau 1977). 

There are also several woody species available for tool maintenance. 

The position of the site between the mountains and valley enabled its occupants to 

exploit a variety of resources. In the higher elevations, plant resources would become available 

later in the season than in the valley (Wright 1984). This delayed season allowed inhabitants 

of the area an extended period during which they could gather these resources. Plants possibly 

gathered by prehistoric inhabitants in the higher elevations include mountain sunflower 

(Helianthus unzflora) and spring beauty (Claytonia lanceolata), plants which are both abundant 

and high in protein (Bender 1983). 

There are various big game species available in the uplands. These include bighorn 

sheep, mule deer, and elk, plus a variety of smaller mammals. These species would have been 

hunted in an opportunistic fashion (Bender 1983). Archeological sites on the southern end of 

Blacktail Butte contain the remains of bison (Wright and Marceau 1981). Faunal remains were 

also recovered from archeological contexts around Jackson Lake (Connor et al. 1991). Cannon 

(1991) reports the remains of large and small mammals, birds, and fish in faunal assemblages 

from prehistoric sites in the Snake River Delta. 

Cutthroat trout, as well as other fish species, may also have been available in String 

Lake and in Cottonwood Creek. Wright and Marceau (1977) found several historical 

references to the quality of fishing in Jenny and Jackson lakes. Connor et al. (1991:Figure 5) 

show a distribution of net weights in the Jackson Lake delta area that suggests that fishing was 

part of the subsistence strategy. The use of plant fibers in the making of nets is also 

documented for the area (Wright and Marceau 1977:20), as is the taking of fish with the use 
of traps, weirs, and nets (Lowie 1909). Wright and Marceau (1977:19) believe that the 

concentration of sites along Cottonwood Creek, between the Snake River and Taggart Creek, 

represents a series of task-specific loci focusing on the procurement of spawning Cutthroat 

trout. 

PREVIOUS ARCHEOLOGICAL WORK 

The archeology of Jackson Hole has been a topic of much research over the last two 

decades. Until the early 1970s, avocational collectors performed most of the work done in the 

area. Although their work was destructive, it provided information that enabled Frison (1971) 

and other researchers to make important inferences about the region's prehistoric inhabitants. 

The first documented visit to Jackson Hole by a professional archeologist, Paul 

Beaubien, occurred during September of 1956 (Beaubien 1956). The first archeological survey 

of Jackson Hole was conducted in the summer of 1971 by Charles Love, then a graduate 

student at the University of Wyoming, and was reported in his Master's thesis (Love 1972). 

In his thesis, Love discusses the seasonally open access routes into the area, the sources of 

lithic raw material, the floral and faunal resources available in different portions of his research 

area, and the cultural chronology represented by diagnostic artifacts. 

Over the next eight years, Gary Wright of the State University of New York, Albany, 

studied site location, resource utilization, and adaptation. Much of the data for this research 

came from preconstruction surveys and inventories within the Grand Teton National Park. 

From this research, Wright and Bender have developed theories about the settlement patterns 

in Jackson Hole based on site size, artifact diversity, and site distribution (Wright et al. 1978, 

1980; Bender 1983; and Wright 1984). These theories are discussed below. 

During the 1980s, MWAC conducted extensive surveys around Jackson Lake during the 

drawdown of the lake by the Bureau of Reclamation (Connor 1986). Center personnel also 

conducted preconstruction inventories for smaller projects throughout the Park (Connor 1986, 

1987, 1989; Connor et al. 1991). 

During regional surveys conducted over the past 17 years, a considerable number of 

archeological sites have been located, tested, and excavated. From this work the cultural 

chronology of the area has been defined and the subsistence adaptations and settlement patterns 

of the prehistoric inhabitants of Jackson Hole have been described. The dominant adaptive 

pattern is believed to have developed in the area during the Middle Archaic and involved a 

transhumance based on plant resources that became available through the growing season at 

increasingly higher elevations. (Wright et al. 1980; Bender 1983; Wright 1984; Bender and 

Wright 1988). 

Combined with this resource-motivated subsistence model, three low-elevation 

geographic areas, each with a distinct resource, are described. These are: northern Jackson 

Hole where blue camas (Camassia quamash) was the key resource (Wright 1984; Reeve 1976); 

southern Jackson Hole, south of Blacktail Butte and east of the Snake River, where the key 

resource was the abundant sego lily (Calochortus nuttallii) (Wright and Marceau 198 1 ; Reeve 

1976); and western Jackson Hole where spawning cutthroat trout was the key resource (Wright 

and Marceau 1977). 
The subsistence model posits that as these low-elevation resources were depleted, groups 

moved into the adjacent high country in order to exploit plant resources ripening at higher 

elevations (Wright 1984; Bender 1983). In all areas, hunting is considered to have been 

supplemental to the acquisition of the primary plant resource. 

These conclusions regarding high-country adaptations have influenced the subsequent 

research in the area. However, as the data increase for the area, the settlement and subsistence 

pattern described by Wright (1984) becomes more difficult to support. Surveys around Jackson 

Lake have recorded 47 new sites in the area with evidence of hunting and animal resource 

processing (Connor 1 987). 

Connor (1986:70) interprets the data slightly differently. First, she suggests that the 

adaptive pattern proposed by Wright and Bender did not exist in its entirety until the Late 

Prehistoric period. Then, in response to evidence supporting high-country adaptation to plant 

resources, she argues that projectile points in high-country sites from the earlier period signify 

the utilization of animal resources as well as plants. 

Site 48TE412 

Site 48TE412 is on the northern shore of String Lake's southeastern arm (Figure 3). 

The site was first recorded by Charles Love in 1971 (Love 1972) and redocumented by Wright 

and Marceau (1977:14) in 1975. During their first visit to the site, Wright and Marceau 

gathered a collection of flakes from the surface and recorded a partially buried hearth. In July 

1976, they returned to the site, recorded four more fired-rock scatters in association with 

debitage, and conducted another surface collection. They excavated a hearth that extended to 

a depth of 10 cm below surface and contained three obsidian flakes, a quartzite core, and 

fragments of teeth from a large ungulate. A sample of burnt wood and charcoal fragments 

from this hearth was dated to 210 B.P. (Wright and Marceau 1977: 15). Wright and Marceau's 

collection consists of 45 specimens, including an obsidian side-notched point fragment, three 

obsidian bifaces, three obsidian scrapers, one obsidian perforator, three notched flakes, and four 

retouched flakes. 

In 1988, a crew from the MWAC inventoried the road alignment from the Glacier 

Gulch turnout to North Jenny Lake Junction (Connor 1989). Again 48TE412 was documented 

and described. While no collection of material was conducted during this inventory, Connor 

(1989:3) comments on the abundance of material still visible on the surface, despite Wright and 

Marceau's (1 977) extensive collection. 

In preparation for planning the realignment of the road and parking areas, Ann Johnson 

of the Rocky Mountain Regional Office and Robin Gregory, Grand Teton Landscape Architect, 

visited the site in July 1989. At that time it was believed that the road project would not 

impact the site, but it was agreed that the site should be surveyed and mapped to determine site 
boundaries and the degree of potential impact on the site from the proposed construction 

project (Neckels 1990). 

In June 1990, a field crew from the MWAC conducted a pedestrian survey along the 

road corridor and in the area of the site. Cultural material was flagged and mapped. Three 

areas of concentration were observed at the site, with the largest area encompassing 

approximately 14,851 square meters on both sides of the existing road (Figure 2). The 

remaining areas, one south of the main concentration along Cottonwood Creek and the other 

northwest along the proposed right-of-way, are approximately 1,170 sq m and 4,805 sq my 

respectively. During mapping, centerline stakes for portions of the proposed realignment were 

plotted along with the existing road and other landmark features. From the map generated 

using the points taken during this visit, it was apparent that the proposed right-of-way passed 

directly over the site area, and that construction would affect 95 to 100 percent of the site area. 

Regional Chronology 

While the construction of regional chronologies based on physiographic areas is a useful 

means of ordering materials, the resulting boundaries rarely signify aboriginal territories or 

spheres of interaction. Movement or interaction of groups through or across physiographic 

barriers is fairly common and is reflected in the presence of exotic trade items and lithic 

materials in archeological collections. Jackson Hole is no different. Archeological collections 

from the area reflect influences from the High Plains, Great Basin, and Plateau cultural areas. 

With all of the work conducted in the recent past, the sequence of occupation for Jackson Hole 

is fairly complete. The following is a brief description of the chronological periods represented 

in Jackson Hole. 

Paleoindian Period 

The cultural chronology for the area of Grand Teton National Park, as reflected in 

projectile point typologies and absolute-dating methods, begins in the late Paleoindian period. 

Artifacts diagnostic of the Cody complex, dating to 10,000 years B.P., have been recovered 

near Jackson Lake and Emma Matilda Lake. Geochemical analysis of obsidian artifacts has 

determined that Teton Pass was the source for some of the material (Connor 1986). There is 

also a Clovis point dating to 11,500 years B.P. in the collection of material from the Lawrence 

site, 48TE509 (Connor et al. 1991). Adaptive strategy for Paleoindians in the area is the use 

of small, mobile bands of hunters and gatherers specializing in the pursuit of large animal 

resources. Other dates on late Paleoindian materials from the area range from 9000-7000 B.P., 

including a stemmed point dating to 7500 B.P. (Svec 1986). 

Archaic Period 

In the Archaic period, the adaptive strategy shifted from the Paleoindian large game 

focus to a broader subsistence base focusing on hunting a variety of both large and small 
mammals and gathering edible plants. On the basis of shifts in the subsistence strategies 

occurring through the Archaic period and accompanying shifts in projectile point morphology, 

the period has been divided into the Early, Middle, and Late Plains Archaic (Connor 1986). 

In spite of changes in Plains subsistence practices over time, Frison (1978) argues that 

several features remained constant, notably an emphasis on hunting bison, communal bisonhunting techniques, and a generalized foraging strategy for augmenting the meat-dominated 

diet. Wright and Bender (Wright 1984; Wright and Bender 1988) have different ideas on 

subsistence for the Jackson Hole area. They propose that prehistoric subsistence in Jackson 

Hole focused on edible plant resources. According to Wright (1984:8), these were exploited 

throughout the spring and summer as they ripened at different elevations, providing a rich and 

varied vegetal diet. As with the Plains bison-hunting subsistence strategy, this one is also 

believed to have been practiced from the Middle Archaic to the Late Prehistoric (Wright 1984). 

In Grand Teton National Park, the Early Archaic is represented by sites located around 

Jackson Lake (Connor 1986). Nine other sites around Jackson Lake have obsidian-hydration 

dates ranging between 6200 and 3800 B.P. (Connor 1986). 

Several factors led Connor (1986) to believe that some Archaic finds from Grand Teton 

National Park represent a subsistence change leading into the McKean complex of the Middle 

Archaic. These factors include the appearance of new point types, the appearance of roasting 

features, and a preference for raw materials from the Obsidian Cliff and CamasIDry Creek 

source areas. Since Jackson Lake marks the southern extent of the blue camas range (Wright 

1984), and the roasting pits have been ethnographically linked to the processing of this 

resource (Wright 1984), the occurrence of these features together at the end of the Early 

Archaic could represent an influx of people. 

McKean complex artifacts have been found within the Jackson Hole area. The roasting 

pits, as discussed above, are still present, as are ground-stone implements, further suggesting 

a shift in subsistence (Connor 1986). Dates for the Middle Plains Archaic range from 5500 

to 3500 B.P. Absolute dates from sites within the Park include the 4440 B.P. date from the 

roasting feature at the Lawrence site (Wright 1984:Table 3), and obsidian-hydration dates of 

material collected from 14 sites around Jackson Lake (Connor 1986). Wright (1984) also dated 

three sites at Blacktail Butte to the Middle Plains Archaic using obsidian hydration. 

Some have questioned the accuracy of these obsidian-hydration dates because of the 

lack of environmental data from collection sites and sources. Strict controls are required to 

obtain an accurate date, because source-dependent chemical properties and variations in site 

environment affect hydration rates. It is not known how rigorous Wright (1984) was in 

collecting samples and data. 

Connor (1986) notes that during the Late Plains Archaic (3500-1000 B.P.) a greater 

emphasis on wild plant procurement developed and that, besides the shift from the McKean 

complex of projectile points to an emphasis on corner-notched projectiles, little else changed 
in the valley. Late Plains Archaic projectile points are fairly abundant within Jackson Hole as 

surface finds (Connor 1986). There are several roasting pits from around Jackson Lake dated 

to this period by projectile types and obsidian-hydration band analysis (Connor 1986). Wright 

(1984) also reports dates from Blacktail Butte and the Moose area that fall into the Late Plains 

Archaic range. 

Late Prehistoric Period 

Two technological advances mark the beginning of the Late Prehistoric period: the use 

of the bow-and-arrow, and the production of ceramic and steatite bowls (Frison 1978). While 

the method of procurement may have changed, there is still evidence that bison was a main 

element in subsistence. There is also evidence of increased plant processing and trade during 

this period (Connor 1986). 

There are only two sites documented within the Park bearing ceramic and/or steatite 

material-the Lawrence site (48TE509) and 48TE1090, both of which are in the Jackson Lake 

delta area (Connor et al. 1991). Radiocarbon dating, obsidian-hydration dating, and projectile 

point types place several sites in the Jackson Lake area and several others within the Park into 

this period (Wright 1984; Connor 1986; Connor et al. 1991). 

Protohistoric Period 

During the Protohistoric period, the Park may have been visited by several different 

groups. Wright (1977, 1984) reports that the Jenny Lake I1 site (48TE576) contains evidence 

of a post-horse Shoshone occupation. Other than this site, there is very little archeological 

evidence that the bands moving through the area stayed for any considerable length of time. 

Other groups which may have visited the area include the Blackfeet, Crow, Gros Ventre, 

Flathead, and Nez Perce (Connor 1986). 

Historic Period 

In the early nineteenth century, fur trappers began visiting the area of Jackson Hole to 

exploit the abundance of pelt-bearing animals. One of the first of these trappers was John 

Colter who is believed to have been in Jackson Hole in 1808 (Betts 1978). 

Even though the fur trade persisted in the valley until the 1840s and sporadically 

thereafter, records of traders' visits to the area are somewhat incomplete. 

The first permanent settlers in the valley arrived in 1884; and after that, the numbers 

increased slowly until the early 1900s (Betts 1978). The economy of Jackson Hole was based 

primarily on small-scale ranching and guiding visitors to the region (Betts 1978). In 1929, 

Grand Teton National Park was created from 96,000 acres to preserve the area's scenic beauty 

and wildlife from commercial exploitation. Since that time, the Park has increased in size to 

nearly 300,000 acres. 
In the early 1920s, a number of tourist-oriented businesses were located along the 

eastern shores of Jenny Lake and String Lake. These included dude ranches, a photo studio, 

stores and cabins, a dance hall, and lodges. Many of these have been removed, but evidence 

of these features exists in the developed areas of the two lakes. 

Within sight of 48TE412 was the Crandall Studio, where Harrison Crandall had a 

homestead and a photography studio. Danny Ranch (now the Jenny Lake Lodge), which was 

operated as a dude ranch until 1929 when it was purchased by the Snake River Land Company, 

is approximately 400 m southeast of the site; and the site of the Square G Lodge, which 

operated as a tourist resort until its purchase by the Snake River Land Company, is about 400 

meters to the northeast of the 48TE412 (National Park Service 1977). Of the three historic 

sites located in the vicinity of site 48TE412, only the Jenny Lake Lodge remains. 
FIELDWORK 

Introduction 

At the time of fieldwork planning, construction in the area was to affect as much as 

4,000 sq m of the site. We first mapped and collected all surficial flaked lithic material and 

located fired-rock features. We then noted a concentration of material along the western edge 

of the site. This area contained five of the suspected hearth features located during the 

pedestrian survey. Construction of a parking area was to affect most of this concentration of 

material. Fieldwork focused on this portion of the site for two reasons: 1) it was the most 

likely area to yield information relating to the research goals set forth in the Data Recovery 

Plan (National Park Service 1990); and 2) it was going to be impacted by construction and 

probably later by visitor use. 

Field Methods 

The pedestrian survey and the subsequent surface collection of flaked lithic material 

were conducted over the entire site. Survey transects were spaced five meters apart and 

parallel to the north side of the road. All cultural material was flagged for collection during 

the mapping portion of the survey (Figure 3). Flagged material included flaked lithics, fired 

rock, ground stone, and tested cobbles. On the south side of the road, transects were spaced 

at five- to seven-meter intervals parallel to the road. After the pedestrian survey was 

completed, mapping stations (datums) were established to piece-plot flagged material. 

During this phase of operations, only flaked lithics and ground stone were collected. 

Fired rock was left in place, flagged, and plotted. Given the high quantity, wide distribution, 

and low research potential of fired rock, this material class was mapped but not collected. Six 

mapping stations were situated about the site in areas that could be tied to at least one other 

station and that were capable of shooting points within or near the site. Three of the stations 

were used during the initial June 1990 survey and mapping project at the site, and many of the 

points plotted at that time have been incorporated into the site map presented here. During this 

survey and mapping, the centerline of the proposed road construction was also located in order 

to thoroughly examine those areas with the highest potential for disturbance. 

Following the initial survey, shovel test transects were situated across the site to 

determine the occurrence and depth of intact subsurface cultural deposits. All material from 

the shovel tests was dry screened through 114-in hardware cloth. 

Excavation blocks were established on an arbitrary grid system centering on Mapping 

Station D (Figure 4). Three blocks consisting of a total of 22 one-square-meter units were 

excavated along with three one-square-meter test excavations within this grid. Two excavation 

blocks (A and B) were placed over hearth features after they were probed to determine the 

extent of preservation and potential for in situ subsurface deposits. Block C was away from 

any surface features and in an area of the site with little surficial cultural material. Block C 
was purposely located away from features and significant surface materials, in order to 

increase representativeness of the sample of in situ subsurface deposits. 

All excavation was in 10-cm arbitrary levels. Two excavation units located on the 

southern end of the kettle exceeded 30 cm in depth. Only two levels, or to the depth of the 

glacial till, were excavated in the remaining units. Photographs recorded the progress of the 

excavation block by level. Field notes documenting the work completed in each 1-x-1-meter 

unit were also taken during excavation by a crew member. Features within the excavation 

units were mapped, profiled, and photographed. When excavated, features were sectioned on 

two dimensions. Pollen, radiocarbon, constant volume, and flotation samples were taken from 

features. A constant volume sample and a pollen sample were also taken from each level in 

the excavation blocks and test units. The provenience of all material collected during fieldwork 

is recorded in the Field Specimen Log (the dBASE III+ file name is GRTECAT.dbf). 

Excavation Results 

Shovel Tests 

Fifty-nine shovel tests were excavated in seven transects crossing portions of the site. 

These shovel tests were excavated until glacial till was reached. Many of the tests are very 

shallow (Table 1). This is a result of the formation of the glacial outwash plain upon which 

the site is located. In the area of the site, there is typically 10 to 15 cm of silt loam mixed 

with smaller (less than five cm) gravels overlaying a stratum with a much denser concentration 

of larger clasts. This second stratum usually marked the lower extent of the cultural material 

and was fairly difficult to penetrate with a shovel. 

Transects F and G were oriented to cross a shallow basin northeast of Mapping Station 

D and southeast of Mapping Station E (Figure 4). These transects were intended to determine 

the depth of the basin and its origin. The soil in this area is sand with only a few gravel clasts. 

By using two- and four-meter shovel test intervals it was possible to determine the shape of 

the lower boundary of the basin. In both the north-south and east-west transects the basin has 

gradually sloping sides. The depth of the basin remains undetermined. Shovel tests in the 

central area of the basin extend as deep as 90 cm into the sand without encountering the large 

clast-on-clast glacial outwash deposits found at a depth of 20 cm across the rest of the site. 

The shape of the basin and its depth is more suggestive of a small kettle created during 

the retreat of the glacier than a historic feature excavated and filled in the recent past. Both 

the amount and the size of the historic material in the fill suggest that the area was not a dump 

or a privy. The size and shape of the material do not suggest that it was a foundation, and the 

fill of almost pure sand suggests that it was filled through natural processes. 

The basin is well mixed through bioturbation. More shovel tests in this area produced 

cultural material than in the other transects. The material from the shovel tests in these 
transects is a mixture of prehistoric and historic debris, mostly broken glass, wire nails, fired 

rock, and obsidian flakes. The mixture of this material can be cited as additional evidence of 

postdepositional disturbance in the area, with prehistoric obsidian flakes overlying broken bottle 

glass and wire nails. 

Block A 

Excavation Block A was 3 x 4 meters, with the southeast corner located four meters 

north of Mapping Station D (Figure 4). The block was situated over Features 1 and 5. Feature 

1 was a surface concentration of fired rock in the 105Nl101 W unit of the block and extended 

to a depth of 19 cm (Figure 5). Feature 5 was a basin 24.5 cm deep located 20 cm southwest 

of Feature 1 and consisted of several pieces of fired rock exposed on the surface. It was 

sectioned and profiled as part of the stain associated with Feature 1. Cummings (1991) 

discusses the flotation and pollen samples taken from this area. 

During excavation of surrounding units, a large charcoal stain was observed. This stain 

originated from the area of the Feature 1 fired-rock concentration and was oriented toward the 

southwest (Figure 6). Portions of the stain were very thin, consisting of only a centimeter or 

two of dark organic material below the root layer. Other areas within the stain were thicker. 

All of the stains were treated as fill associated with Feature 1, which is the hearth and the 

surrounding area. The thicker portions of the stain were mapped and collected as flotation and 

pollen samples (Figure 6). 

Bulk soil samples were collected for radiocarbon dating from the stains associated with 

Feature 1. One sample from Level 2 of 104Nl102W contained sufficient charcoal to date. The 

radiocarbon age of the sample is 160 f: 80 B.P. (Beta-41 161; wood charcoal; 6I3c undetermined). Following Klein et al. (1982), the calibrated date range for this sample is A.D. 1505- 

1950. The radiocarbon date collected by Wright and Marceau (1977) of 210 f: 80 B.P. 

(1-9648) using Klein et al. (1982) has a calibrated date range of A.D. 1480-1950. 

Block B 

The southeast corner of Block B was located two meters north and 14 meters west of 

Mapping Station D (Figure 4). It was a four-square-meter area situated over Feature 3. The 

feature was bisected by the two northernmost units of Block B and contains a hearth with a 

fired-rock concentration. 

The hearth in this block was also partially buried (Figure 7). It was approximately 55 

cm in diameter and had a depth of 12 cm. Several large fragments of fired rock defined the 

limits of the hearth, and a small mound of earth was defined within those limits. During 

excavation of the hearth, a few obsidian flakes and an assortment of historic debris were found. 

The historic material included wire nails, unidentified metal fragments, portions of a Kerr 

canning jar, and fragments of melted glass. The jar was also deformed from heat. Once the 

hearth was determined to have historiclmodern origins the excavation block was closed. 
Block C 

Block C was not situated over a feature or in an area with a dense surface concentration 

of prehistoric material. It consisted of six one-square-meter units 39 meters north of Mapping 

Station D (Figure 4). This block was located away from areas with concentrations of surface 

material to determine the density of subsurface material. Subsurface material was determined 

to exist in the area of Block C during the shovel testing phase of the project. Shovel Test 

Transect C follows the line connecting Mapping Stations D and E. 

During excavation of Block C, much of the prehistoric material was recovered from 

Level 2, which is a 10-cm level between 10 and 20 cm below surface. Directly below this 

level, Stratum C was encountered. Cultural material recovered from this level included 

obsidian flakes and fired rock (Figure 8). It is believed that this material may represent what 

is left of a hearth feature after it has undergone extensive bioturbation. 

Excavated Features 

In all, six features were identified during the fieldwork. Three of these (Features 1, 3, 

and 5) are described briefly above. The other three (Features 2, 4, and 6) were located during 

the pedestrian survey and later probed to determine depth and cultural affiliation. Results of 

this probing are discussed here. 

Feature 2 was a circular depression one meter in diameter, 44 degrees east of north and 

10.35 m from Mapping Station D (Figure 4). This feature was partially excavated. A onesquare-meter unit was established over the basin. The southern half of the basin was excavated 

to a depth of 22 cm. At 10 cm below surface, a distinct charcoal lens was encountered. At 

20 cm, charcoal was still present and a basin-shaped depression was apparent. Cultural 

materials associated with the hearth include wire nails, can fragments (hole-in-cap and 

sanitary), window glass, and aluminum foil. During excavation, the feature was determined 

to be modern in nature, and excavation in this location was terminated. 

Feature 4 was a circular depression 60 cm in diameter, 29 meters 10 degrees east of 

north of Mapping Station D (Figure 4). It was found to have no subsurface manifestation. No 

further excavation was conducted in this location. 

Feature 6 consisted of two pieces of fired rock at the edge of a shallow depression 50 

cm in diameter. It was located 25.44 m from Mapping Station E and 105 degrees east of 

north, near the shallow kettle basin discussed previously. During testing of this feature, a 

shallow lens of charcoal was discovered that contained fragments of green bottle glass, can 

fragments, and round nails. An excavation unit was placed near this deposit to determine the 

depth and origin of the kettle depression. Cultural material from this unit included obsidian 

flakes, wire nails, and glass. 
LABORATORY STUDIES 

Samples collected during fieldwork were processed in accordance with the Midwest 

Archeological Center standards. After this material was cleaned and sorted, it was rebagged 

and labeled with provenience information. Artifacts, records, photographs, and maps were then 

entered into the Automated National Catalog System (ANCS) and packaged for curation at the 

Midwest Archeological Center. 

The artifact assemblage from 48TE412 is small (n = 653) and is biased toward lithic 

artifacts, which make up a majority of the collection (about 60 percent). Analysis of the lithic 

assemblage focused on tool production and source identification. 

The rest of the collection consists of a small amount of faunal material and a few 

diagnostic historic artifacts. The faunal material was too fragmentary to determine genera and 

species, but the condition and location of the bone does suggest bone grease processing. 

Chipped-Stone Analysis 

Analysis of the 1990 String Lake lithic assemblage resulted in identification of tool 

production methods, production stages, and lithic raw material sources. Attribute analysis of 

debitage and biface production stages, obsidian sourcing using x-ray fluorescence analysis, and 

obsidian-hydration dating aided identification and analysis. Use-wear analysis of tools and 

edge-modified flakes was included in the original analysis of the lithic assemblage, and is 

discussed below in reference to postdepositional disturbances at the site. 

The ability of worked material to retain a good edge, the availability of the material, 

and the degree of mobility of the group utilizing the material are all factors in determining the 

lithic reduction strategy employed during the occupation of an archeological site (Chatters 

1987). The combination of these factors allows researchers to investigate the way lithic 

technology was ordered to fulfill the needs of the users. The following analysis focuses on 

these three aspects of technology to better understand the underlying cultural behavior patterns 

which produced the assemblage. 

Tool Production 

That stone tool production occurred at 48TE412 is apparent from the presence of lithic 

debitage at the site. Evidence for tool manufacture in archeological sites can include debitage, 

waste, tool rejects, and discarded tools. The stone tool production debris at 48TE412 reflects 

two desired goals that are directly related to the material types being worked. The volcanic 

glasses (obsidian and vitrophyre) represent the largest proportion (80 percent) of the flaked 

stone assemblage (Table 2). This material is easily worked and produces tools with sharp, 

brittle edges (Semenov 1964). Quartzite makes up 13 percent of the assemblage, followed by 

chert (6 percent). Analysis of the lithic assemblage focuses on raw material type and 

production method. 
Two basic means of chipped-stone tool production identified for material from 48TE412 

are: 1) the manufacture of flakes, either for immediate use, or to be further worked into formal 

tools; and 2) the manufacture of bifaces, which may be one type of formal tool produced from 

the flake blanks. At sites with exhausted cores, which indicate flake manufacture, or 

unfinished bifaces, indicating biface production, determining the goals of tool production is 

made easier. When these forms of evidence are limited, the alternative is to determine 

production goals through the analysis of the debitage, or waste material. 

The differences between the two production techniques are identifiable by the debitage 

created during tool production. The goal of flake production-the production of large, usable 

flakes-is different from that of biface production. Characteristic debitage from flake 

production includes the presence of many larger flakes with thick platforms and high exterior 

platform angles, and fewer small flakes (Sollberger and Patterson 1976; Speth 1981; Dibble 

and Whittaker 1981). Platform thickness and the exterior platform angle are related, in this 

case, to the size of the core and the desire to produce large flakes. 

The goal of biface production-to control the shape and edge of the piece being 

worked-requires flaking techniques that result in an increasing amount of small flakes 

produced as the biface nears completion. Depending on the size of the preform, initial 

reduction and shaping may involve the use of hard and soft hammer percussion flaking 

methods (Henry et al. 1976; Doug Bamforth, personal communication 1991). The flakes 

removed from the preform in these early stages of production get smaller as the biface is 

worked (Stahle and Dunn 1982). As these flakes get smaller, the exterior platform edge angle 

becomes more acute, and the platform also becomes narrower (Speth 1981; Patterson and 

Sollberger 1978; Stahle and Dunn 1982). 

The final stages of biface production frequently involve the use of pressure flaking to 

better control the shape of the biface (Henry et al. 1976; Callahan 1979). Flakes produced 

during pressure flaking have very acute exterior platform angles, reflecting the thickness of the 

preform, and narrow platforms, and resulting from the placement of the flaking tool on, or very 

close to, the edge (Doug Barnforth, personal communication 1991). 

While the production sequence of bifaces is typically presented as a series of steps 

(Callahan 1979) not all the steps need to occur at one time or in one place. Thus, a bifacial 

tool may have many uses before it is finished or discarded (Kelly 1988; Stahle and Dunn 

1982). For this reason, an attempt is made here to identify the production stages occurring at 

48TE412. By identifing the stages of production, we will be better prepared to discuss the 

types of activities conducted at the site and speculate on the type of occupation that occurred 

there (Stevenson 1985). 

Bifacial Production 

The implication of a handful of flakes from an archeological site is that at some time 

in the past someone cracked two rocks together and produced a tool from the material. This 
inference is possible through the recognition of cultural patterns in the way the flakes were 

produced, which is known to be distinct from flakes produced naturally. The recognition of 

patterns among the flakes not only allows the distinction between cultural and natural flakes, 

but also allows the identification of a flake produced by a specific method for the production 

of a specific type of tool. The recognition of patterns resulting from different means of tool 

production enables researchers to determine what kind of tool or how much of that tool was 

produced at a site (Callahan 1979; Kelly 1988; Doug Bamforth, personal communication 1991). 

To this end, several researchers in the production of stone tools have designed 

experiments to determine the flake attributes that consistently provide information concerning 

the production method through which the flakes were derived (Speth 1981; Magne and 

Pokotylo 1981; Stahle and Dunn 1982; Henry et al. 1976; Patterson 1982, 1990; Sullivan and 

Rozen 1985). Others have focused on the stages of biface production in order to design better 

experiments (Callahan 1979; Crabtree 1977; Kelly 1988). 

In an experiment to determine the degree to which flake size and platform angle are 

related to core size, Speth (1981) dropped steel balls on glass prisms set at angles. By 

changing the weight of the ball, the angle of prisms, and shape of the prisms he was able to 

conclude that the platform angle (shape of prism) is important in determining the size and 

shape of the resulting flake. In a similar experiment, Dibble and Whittaker (1981) also found 

that exterior platform angle and platform thickness played important roles in the formation of 

other attributes, including flake length, thickness, and termination. 

Using an archeologically derived assemblage, Magne and Pokotylo (1 98 1 :34) used 

multidimensional scaling and multiple discriminant analysis to recognize "patterns of 

sequential variability in lithic debitage." The results of their test indicated that weight was the 

most important variable to use in determination of reduction stages. Combined with weight, 

they believe the amount of cortex on both the platform and the dorsal surface of the flake is 

useful in determining the stage of production (Magne and Pokotylo 1981). They also pointed 

out that in areas where flakes display bifacial platforms, bifacial production can be inferred 

(Magne and Pokotylo 198 1). 

Bifacial reduction produces an exponential curve when flake size is plotted by frequency 

(Stahle and Dunn 1982; Patterson 1990; and Patterson and Sollberger 1978). The curve shows 

a decrease in flake size and an increase in number of flakes as a bifacial preform is worked 

into the final production stages (Stahle and Dunn 1982). This type of curve, when compared 

to other methods of lithic reduction, appears to be characteristic of bifacial reduction (Patterson 

1982, 1990; Patterson and Sollberger 1978; Stahle and Dunn 1982). Flake size analysis is 

similar to the analysis of flake weight reported by Magne and Pokotylo (1981). Since the 

weight of a flake is related to its size, either is likely to characterize the biface reduction 

sequence. 

Sullivan and Rozen (1985), using technologically descriptive flake attributes (i.e., 

complete, proximal, distal, and shatter), designed a test to determine the differences in 
frequency of these categories when core reduction and bifacial reduction techniques are 

compared. Their results indicate that bifacial production produces a higher frequency of 

broken flakes, and that core reduction results in more complete flakes and more shatter. These 

results correspond to the goals of each production method discussed above. Bifacial reduction 

methods are used primarily for tool production, and bipolar reduction method are used 

primarily for flake production. 

Analysis of Bifacial Production Debris 

Evidence of the kinds of tool production utilized at 48TE412 can be seen in the 

presence of bifacial artifacts representing both exhausted and discarded forms and manufacturing blanks. These bifaces are described in terms of Callahan's (1979) stages of production in 

the following sections. The presence of this material at the site along with the debitage 

provides an opportunity to investigate the relationship between lithic reduction techniques and 

debitage attributes. Much of the research discussed above was conducted on experimentally 

produced assemblages, so applying the results of these experiments directly to an archeological 

collection may provide additional information. 

Flake attributes were recorded during cataloging of the lithic material. From a review 

of the literature, it is apparent that some of these attributes are better suited to the intended 

analysis than others. Attributes used for this analysis include weight (measured in .0l-g units), 

flake size (flake diameter measured at 5-mm intervals), and raw material type. 

Analysis of the obsidian and vitrophyre flakes indicates that bifacial reduction was the 

primary means of on-site tool production for these material types. This assessment comes from 

plotting the size of flakes against the percentage of that size represented in the assemblage of 

flakes greater than 10 mm in diameter. The curve produced by the distribution of flake sizes 

at 48TE412 is similar to those described by Patterson (1990) that indicate a bifacial reduction 

technology (Figure 9). If the production of flakes was the goal of tool production at 48TE412 

then the curve in Figure 9 would be irregular with a slight decreasing trend in the size of flakes 

as reduction of the core progressed (Patterson 1990). There would also be a higher frequency 

of large flakes compared to small flakes. In the assemblage of flakes from 48TE412, small 

flakes predominate; fewer large flakes are represented. 

Magne and Pokotylo (1981) found that weight was an effective measure of lithic 

reduction techniques. Using the weight of flakes larger than 10 mm in diameter from 

48TE412, frequencies were calculated for 12 weight groups at 0.5-g intervals. A graph of the 

frequency was plotted, and the resulting curve is very similar to that of flake size. The 

similarities between the two curves reflect the relationship between size and weight. 

The occurence of bifacial production material and debitage provided a means of 

assessing the ability of flake size and flake weight to identify reduction techniques. Both flake 

size and weight indicate that bifacial production methods were used and support the 

conclusions of Patterson (1990) and Magne and Pokotylo (1981). These results, while not 
conclusive, favor the hypothesis that flake size and weight attributes of debitage can be used 

to determine lithic reduction techniques. These findings bolster confidence in the use of the 

above methods to determine reduction techniques. 

The production attributes underlying the curves can also be used to identify biface 

manufacturing blanks in the assemblage. The production of bifacial tools, like that of any 

manufactured item advances through a series of stages (Callahan 1979). The stages are points 

along a continuum through which the biface passes on its way to completion. Callahan (1979) 

identifies five stages, beginning with the selection of a blank to be worked, its initial edging, 

primary thinning, secondary thinning, and shaping. Each stage is identifiable by its shape in 

cross section, flake scar pattern, edge angle, and widthlthickness ratio. 

Using Callahan's (1979) stage classification for biface manufacture, the assemblage 

from 48TE412 includes one large Stage I flake blank (FS 412-299; Figure 1 Oa), three Stage 

I1 bifaces (FS 412-003, 293, 080), three Stage I11 bifaces (FS 412-302, 010, 093), one Stage 

IV biface (FS 412-164), and eight Stage V bifaces (FS 412-210, 046, 208, 050, 002, 264, 297, 

121). All execept FS 412-297 and 121 are illustrated in Figure 10. Production failures 

resulting from impurities in material make up the bulk of the manufacturing blanks. 

The occurrence of all five of Callahan's (1979) stages at 48TE412 suggests that, over 

time, all stages of biface production occurred at the site. While a biface progresses through 

a series of morphologic changes during manufacture, the production sequence need not occur 

at one time or place (Callahan 1979; Kelly 1988). Bifaces may be taken out of production at 

any time for use and finished later as need arises, or discarded (Kelly 1988). The presence of 

all five production stages at the site suggests that tools were produced there and were used to 

perform a variety of functions. 

Bipolar Production 

Bipolar artifacts are produced by positioning a cobble on an anvil and striking the 

cobble with a hammer (Crabtree 1972). The utility of this technique is in the speed at which 

hard materials can be reduced to useable flakes, and the quantity of flakes produced (Shott 

1989). Evidence for this technology is found in many areas around the world throughout 

prehistory (Shott 1989). There has been some disagreement in the past over the use of the 

material produced in this fashion. Shott (1989) discusses the history of this controversy and 

presents an archeological and ethnographic argument in favor of the interpretation of bipolar 

cores and debris as byproducts of flake manufacture rather than the production of wedges for 

the splitting of wood and bone. Parry and Kelly (1987) link bipolar reduction as well as other 

expedient core technologies to a shift from a highly mobile subsistence strategy to a more 

sedentary life style in areas where lithic material is abundant. The relationship between 

subsistence, technology, and lithic source has been discussed previously. 

Core attributes used to identify bipolar materials include: 1) the presence of linear 

platforms extending across the width of the core and flanked by shearing plains where the 
flakes have been detached, 2) crushing, 3) step fracturing, and 4) evidence of explosive force. 

There is also occasionally evidence for flakes to have been detached from both ends of the core 

(Binford and Quimby 1963). Flake attributes include diffuse and occasionally opposing bulbs 

of percussion, presence of cortex on dorsal surfaces, and ventral surfaces exhibiting scarring 

from the force of percussion (Binford and Quimby 1963). 

Quartzite artifacts in the assemblage represent the bipolar production of flake tools. 

Whereas among the obsidian and vitrophyre artifacts, cores for the production of flakes were 

infrequent (n = 1 ; FS 412-1 60), there are five quartzite cores in the assemblage (FS 412-074, 

1 17, 327, 29 1, 191) out of approximately 30 quartzite artifacts. These cores, as well as many 

of the flakes, have attributes characteristic of bipolar reduction. 

Use Wear 

Bifacial artifacts and flakes coded as edge-modified were examined under a binocular 

microscope for evidence of use wear. It is the intent of this analysis to determine whether or 

not the edge modification on these items is cultural or the result of postdepositional influences. 

Edge modification was defined as present or absent and usually included macroscopically 

visible nibbled or retouched edges. Microscopic evidence of use wear includes polish, 

striations, edge rounding and grinding, crushing, and flaking in conjunction with the edge 

modification (Ahler 1977; Ode11 1975). Postdepositional damage to obsidian flakes may result 

from trampling and soil movement. This damage may obscure cultural-use traces or produce 

similar morphologic traits (Hayden 1977; Knudson 1977; Pryor 1988). The physical location 

of the evidence on an edge-modified artifact can be used to determine whether or not the 

evidence resulted from use or postdepositional influences. 

Each artifact was cleaned, and the edges were viewed through the binocular microscope 

at low magnification. Aside from the edge modification, many of the pieces exhibited edge 

rounding, step fracturing, and striations. The position of this evidence, however, suggests that 

it is the result of trampling and soil movement rather than use. Edge rounding and grinding, 

the most frequent trace, was observed on edges as well as on flake scar ridges on the faces of 

the flakes. Striations were also found on the flake faces well away from the edges, and with 

no particular orientation. 

Experimental pieces that were used to cut wood (75 strokes), drill wood (60 rotations), 

and scrape leather (60 strokes) exhibited faint evidence of use along the working edges while 

the unused edges remained very sharp. Flake scar ridges on the experimental pieces also 

showed no signs of edge grinding or rounding. Further attempts to identify use wear on the 

flaked stone material were halted when these experimental results were obtained. It was felt 

that postdepositional influences had introduced such a high degree of erroneous "wear" that 

interpretations of the cultural wear patterns would be unreliable. 
Obsidian Analysis 

Sourcing 

The String Lake site flaked-stone materials are primarily volcanic glasses (Table 2). 

The twenty-two items selected for obsidian sourcing included three projectile points, nine 

biface fragments, one core, and nine flakes. This sample includes finished and discarded tools, 

exhausted cores, and production flakes, several of which have cortex on their dorsal surfaces. 

The obsidian-hydration samples from 48TE412 represent material from five sources: 

Teton Pass n= 14 

Teton Pass Variety 2 n=5 

American Falls Idaho or Mudlake Montana n=l 

Obsidian Cliff n=l 

Chesterfield, Idaho n=l 

According to Hughes (1991), the Teton Pass Variety 2 items have the same elements 

as the Teton Pass samples. But, these elements occur in significantly different concentrations, 

resulting in the division. Hughes (1 99 1) believes that the differences may represent another 

source, but more source samples are required for confirmation. 

By sourcing this material, we were able to determine that a major portion of the 

material came from the Teton Pass source area. The Teton Pass samples included tools 

discarded at the site as well as production debris. Samples from the other three sources 

included two broken bifaces and one flake. The amount of material from outside the area 

suggests some material movement between the Obsidian Cliff area; the American Falls, Idaho, 

area; and the Chesterfield, Idaho, area into the Grand Teton National Park area. The small 

sample size makes it difficult to determine what percent of the collection is not from the Teton 

Pass source. 

Sourcing and obsidian-hydration dating help to reveal temporal patterns of occupation 

and source use at the site. Hydration dating was used to determine if materials from a single 

source were utilized at approximately the same time. Hydration dates, radiocarbon dates, and 

chronologically diagnostic artifacts can be considered together to determine the age of the site. 

Unfortunately, only the three projectile points in the sourcing sample are diagnostic. 
Hydration Dating 

Since most of the obsidian turned out to be from the Teton Pass area, those samples 

(including Variety 2) were subjected to hydration band analysis. The nineteen samples were 

sent to Thomas Origer of the Obsidian Hydration Laboratory, at Sonoma State University 

(Origer 1992). Of the 19 specimens, 13 Teton Pass and 4 Teton Pass Variety 2 specimens 

produced measurable hydration bands (Table 3). 

Hydration band thickness measurements allow calculation of an absolute date 

representing the time elapsed since the cortex was removed from the obsidian specimen (Davis 

1984). An age calculation for an obsidian object using this method depends on an accurate 

determination of the effective hydration temperature (Davis 1984). The effective hydration 

temperature represents the environment that influenced the hydration rate of the specimen. An 

estimate of the effective hydration temperature can be obtained through extended monitoring 

of the collection sites or by inducing hydration under laboratory conditions (Davis 1984). 

Without an accurate measure of the effective hydration temperature the calculation of specimen 

age can be in error (Davis 1984). 

Perhaps because the Teton Pass obsidian source is so large or because so many Teton 

Pass specimens have been recovered from sites in the area, the effective hydration temperature 

has been calculated for Jackson Hole by inducing hydration in the laboratory (Michels 1981). 

Michels' effective hydration temperature is used here. 

The band thickness measurements for 17 measurable specimens ranged from 0.9 to 1.8 

microns. A test was performed to determine if all the specimens were from a normally 

distributed population of rind measurements. This test was used to determine the occupation 

history of the site. Raymond (1984) demonstrates the usefulness of such a test to determine 

the site occupation history of lithic scatters. He uses the Wilk-Shapiro statistic to determine 

if obsidian specimens from single sources are from normally distributed samples. If the 

samples are normally distributed, then it can be argued that the sample was created over a short 

period of time and perhaps represents a discrete occupational episode (Raymond 1984). If, on 

the other hand, the sample is not normally distributed, then the sample is believed to have been 

created during more than one occupation (Raymond 1984). 

The Wilk-Shapiro statistic (W,) was calculated twice for the sample from 48TE412 

following procedures outlined by Raymond (1984) and Conover (1971) using STATISTIX 

software. The first calculation was conducted with all seventeen specimens. The result was 

W, = 0.8482, p < 11211, with W, = 0.9100 at a 0.10 level of significance. This test rejected the 

null hypothesis that the specimens could have been drawn from a normally distributed 

population of rind measurements. Rejection of this hypothesis meant that the population was 

not normally distributed and that the obsidian artifacts could have been produced during more 

than one occupation. 
The second calculation was made without the four specimens identified as Teton Pass 

Variety 2. The result was W, = 0.9058, p < 1/2n, with W, = 0.889 at a 0.10 level of 

significance. The results of this test failed to reject the null hypothesis, indicating that the 

sample of thirteen obsidian objects from the Teton Pass source were normally distributed and 

therefore probably resulted from the same occupational event. 

Date of Occupation 

After it was determined that the thirteen specimens from Teton Pass could have been 

produced at the same time, a median obsidian-hydration date was calculated using the effective 

temperature for Jackson Hole provided by Michels (1981 :5). Hydration band thicknesses 

ranged from 0.9 to 1.8 microns, and the date for each specimen was calculated (Table 4). The 

median date for this sample is A.D. 236 f 600. This date may then be used to help estimate 

the age of the prehistoric component. 

Tool Descriptions 

Of the 393 pieces of flaked stone in the String Lake assemblage, 25 pieces were worked 

into items falling into one of four categories: projectile points, bifaces, multipurpose tools, and 

cores (Table 5). The individual artifacts are described below. 

Projectile Points 

There are two corner-notched projectile points with convex bases; one has been 

reworked, and one is represented only by the distal portion (Figure 10i,k). They have straight 

lateral edges and flaring stems with convex bases. Maximum widths are 19.26 and 19.63 rnrn; 

maximum thicknesses are 6.93 and 4.65 mm; the lengths are incomplete. The corner notches 

are deep and wide, the stems are slightly expanding, chipping is fair, edges are retouched, and 

cross sections are asymmetrical and biconvex. Both points are obsidian (FS 412-208, 210). 

Although both points are broken, FS 412-208 has had the broken edge retouched, causing the 

tip to be off the centerline. 

One short-stem, notched-base point (FS 412-002) has straight lateral edges, wide 

shallow corner notches, a wide deep basal notch, and is similar to Yonkee points. The width 

is 17.06 mm, thickness is 4.62 mm, and the length could not be measured due to breakage 

(Figure 10m). The shoulders are asymmetrical, with one sloping and the other at nearly a right 

angle to the lateral edge. The cross section of the point is biconvex and the edges are 

retouched. The point appears to be fashioned from a flake. The flake scar surface is still 

present on one surface. 
Bifaces 

Of the obsidian biface fragments in the assemblage (Table 5), five may be projectile 

fragments. Included in this subset are three midsections, one basal section, and one tip. 

Fracture features on one of the midsections appear to be the result of trampling (FS 412-050; 

Figure 1 Of). Another fragment, with parallel-oblique flaking on one side, received an impact 

which removed the opposite surface (FS 412-046; Figure 10j). The remaining midsection has 

bending fractures on the proximal and distal margins (FS 412-264; Figure Ion). The base is 

very small, and the exact orientation is difficult to define (FS 412-297). The tip in the 

collection is too small to describe (FS 412-121). 

Three biface fragments are Stage I1 preforms (Figure lob-d). Flaking on these 

specimens is irregular, as are the edges (FS 412-080, 293, 003). Topographic features on their 

surfaces are suggestive of production failures during thinning attempts and initial shaping. 

Three other bifaces are Stage I11 preforms (FS 412-302, 010, 093; Figure 10e-g). Thinning 

flakes are large and irregular, extending into the middle of the preform. One of the bifaces 

appears to have had a burin edge struck along a lateral edge (FS 412-093). One specimen is 

ovoid, with retouch on both surfaces (FS 412-010). The high edge angles along the tool 

margin suggest use as a scraper more than as a cutting tool. Flaking on this piece appears to 

have been an attempt to thin the dorsal surface. 

The last specimen (FS 412-1 64) is a Stage IV preform (Figure 10h) and has bend breaks 

suggestive of trampling. The orientation of these breaks and the irregular tool edge profile 

render a shape description difficult. Judging from the size of the piece and the low edge 

angles, it may have been used as a cutting implement. Evidence suggesting that it may have 

also been a preform is in the irregular flaking and shaping. 

There are two other bifaces in the assemblage. One (FS 412-003) is a vitrophyre Stage 

I1 biface production failure. The other (FS 412-1 17) is quartzite, and has bifacial retouch along 

one margin (Figure 1 1 a). 

Multipurpose Tool 

There is one multipurpose tool in the assemblage (FS 412-147; Figure 1 lb). It has 

bifacial retouch, is a light-colored chert, and has several tool loci. 

Cores 

There are nine cores in the assemblage: two chert (FS 412-033, 155), one obsidian (FS 

412-160), one vitrophyre (FS 3412-003), and five quartzite (FS 412-074, 117, 327, 291, 191). 

The five quartzite cores (Figure 12b,c,e,g,h) are the product of bipolar reduction strategies and 

range from 68.36 rnm to 42.62 mm in length and from 45 mm to 26 mm in width (also 

included in the collection are a number of bipolar quartzite flakes). The degree of usage of 

these cores varies-specimen FS 41 2- 1 17 appears to only represent a split cobble, while 
specimens FS 412-191, 074, 327, and 291 exhibit battered edges, ridge platforms, and 

multidirectional flake removals. 

The chert cores are also small. One (FS 412-155; Figure 12a) is a piece of shatter off 

a larger core or rejuvenation fragment. The other chert core (FS 412-033) was worked on one 

side, while on the reverse side a steep keel would have prevented further thinning of the core 

into a biface (Figure 120. 

The obsidian core (FS 412-160; Figure 12d) is a water-rolled cobble approximately 40 

mm in diameter with several flakes removed from one surface. The vitrophyre core was 

included as a Stage I1 biface preform because of its irregular flaking and edges. It is also 

discussed here because of its size, approximately 15 mm thick, and the presence of cortex on 

one surface. It appears to have broken during thinning. Hughes (1991) sourced the obsidian 

and vitrophyre cores. 

Non-flake Artifacts 

Two specimens were collected during site mapping. One is a grinding stone of welded 

tuff or rhyolite (FS 412-044) with several striations and smooth spots transverse to the long 

axis on one surface. The other (FS 412-081) is a quartzite hammerstone. 

Soil Samples 

Nine soil samples were submitted for particle-size analysis and soil chemistry 

evaluation. Samples were taken from the different stratigraphic levels visible in the profiles 

after excavation in an area was completed. Analysis results reveal differences in the particlesize distribution of different areas of the site and differences in the chemical composition of 

those soils. 

The samples were from the profile of Feature 1 in Block A, the profile of Feature 3 in 

Block B, and the west wall profile of 142N/75W, a test unit in the kettle feature discussed 

above. Three samples were taken in each area, representing the different stratigraphic layers 

visible in the profiles. In Blocks A and B, Stratum A represents the A horizon and has a high 

frequency of organic material, Stratum B represents the feature fill, and Stratum C represents 

the sterile soil overlaying the glacial outwash deposits. In the test unit, Stratum A also 

represents the A horizon, Stratum B is a dark brown loamy sand, and Stratum C is a dark 

yellowish brown loamy sand. The glacial outwash deposit was not reached in this area. 

Particle-size analysis indicates a difference between the two sets of samples from the 

block excavations and the set from the test unit. In all three sets, the silt and clay content 

decreases with depth as the sand content increases. There is also a difference in the overall 

increase in sand in the three areas. The sand may have been deposited with the glacial 

outwash. Subsequent aeolian deposition of silts and clays may account for the low levels of 
materials in this size category at lower depths. Low silt and clay content in the soils in this 

area may also be representative of the surrounding sagebrushlforest environment and the low 

volume of litter accumulation (Limbrey 1977). The higher percentage of sand in the kettle area 

may be related to the filling of this feature with sand either by aeolian or fluvial processes after 

the ice melted away. The general classification of the soils across the site ranges from a loam 

on the surface of Feature 1 to sandy loam across much of the site to loamy sand in Strata B 

and C of the test unit in the kettle. 

The chemical analysis reveals fairly constant pH levels across the site (5.2 to 6.38), 

which do not appear to vary with depth (Figures 5 and 7). These pH levels are acidic and may 

have affected bone preservation at the site. Poor preservation of bone results from the 

dissolution of minerals in the bone by acids in the soil (White and Hannus 1983). In damp 

conditions, bone near the surface of acidic soils is especially vulnerable (Schiffer 1987). 

The percentage of organic material in the nine samples is low, ranging from 11 percent 

of the sample from the surface of Block A to .66 percent in the sample from Stratum C of the 

test unit. Generally, the percentage of organic material is higher in the top layers and 

decreases with depth (Figures 5 and 7). Low organic content is one characteristic of "acid 

brown" forest soils and is a result of a combination of reduced forest composition, high rates 

of leaching, and reduced litter accumulation (Limbrey 1977). Leaching also inhibits the 

formation of clay minerals in the soils (Limbrey 1977: 133). 

Summary 

The soils at 48TE412 are very thin, between 10 and 25 cm, and have poorly developed 

A horizons and little structure. They are overlying a clast-on-clast glacial outwash deposit, and 

the porous conditions of this base material may enhance leaching, causing the soil to be low 

in plant nutrients (Limbrey 1977). The sandy nature of the soil and its mixture with glacial 

gravels suggest that its origins are also related to the glacial retreat. Cultural material at the 

site was recovered throughout this soil, but the features were situated primarily at its surface, 

suggesting very little deposition of sediment on the site since its occupation. 

The determination of the acidic conditions of the soils at the site is of concern to this 

project. The low frequencies of bone recovered during excavation at the site may be the result 

of poor preservation. The deterioration of bone may have been accelerated as a result of being 

exposed on the surface to various mechanical processes and because of the acidic soil 

conditions (Schiffer 1987). 

Macrobotanical and Pollen Samples 

Seven pollen samples and one macrobotanical sample were submitted for analysis to 

PaleoResearch Laboratories, Golden, Colorado. Two of the pollen samples were from the 

present ground surface in the area of the site. The remaining five samples were collected 
during excavation in Blocks A and C. Four of the samples (FS 412-108, 109, 169, 170) come 

from Block A and were selected for analysis because of their association with dark stains in 

Feature 1 (Figure 6). The flotation sample (FS 412-1 85) was also taken from Block A 

(Figure 6). The seventh pollen sample (FS 412-320) was collected during excavation of Block 

C from an area associated with a concentration of fired rock (Figure 8). 

The results of the pollen and macrobotanical analysis of the samples from Block A 

indicate Chenopodium seed processing in the area southwest of the hearth (Curnmings 1991). 

The presence of Chenopodium pollen and pollen aggregates in samples FS 412-108, 109, 170 

support this interpretation, as does the presence of charred seeds and seed fragments in the 

flotation sample. The availabilty of this plant for processing either as greens or seeds extends 

from the spring to fall, suggesting occupation of the site during this period. Other plant 

species are present in the samples but do not occur in frequencies large enough to suggest 

prehistoric use (Curnmings 199 1). 

Wood charcoal was recovered in the flotation sample. This material was predominantly 

from Pinus contorta, suggesting the selection of local resources for fuel (Cummings 1991). 

The pollen sample from Block C (FS 412-320) was excavated from 20 cm below 

surface, but pollen frequencies in this sample were similar to those of the present ground 

surface and sample FS 412-170 (Cumming 1991). The deflated nature of the hearth, the lack 

of charcoal stain associated with the concentration of fired rock, and the location of the feature 

in an open area may be factors in this similarity. The lack of a charcoal stain and the deflated 

nature of the hearth may be the result of bioturbation in the area, which caused an alteration 

of the pollen distribution. There was a small amount of Cheno-am pollen recovered in this 

sample, but the amount is not sufficient to determine whether it resulted from plant processing 

or from the growth of these plants in the area (Cummings 1991). 

Faunal Material 

A small amount of bone was recovered during the processing of flotation samples. 

Except for two fish vertebrae, the majority of the bone was from samples taken from Feature 

1 in Block A. A great deal of this material is calcined, some is burnt, and all of it is crushed. 

It was not possible to identify any of the material beyond determining that it was from a 

medium to large mammal. The two fish vertebrae were recovered from Feature 3, the historic 

hearth in Block B. 

Historic Artifacts 

Jenny and String lakes have been the focus of considerable activity in the Historic 

period. Even before the establishment of Grand Teton National Park in 1929, there was a 

thriving tourist industry in the region. In the late nineteenth century, a dude ranch was 
established about 300 m south of the site identified as 48TE412. Danny's Ranch, as it was 

originally known, eventually became the Jenny Lake Lodge. Another early structure, the 

Crandall Studio, was originally built about 400 m to the northeast of the site. The Square G 

Lodge was also built to the northeast of site 48TE412 at a distance of about 800 m. 

Given a century of Euroamerican activity in the near region, it was expected that some 

historic material would be recovered during the excavation of 48TE412. This was indeed the 

case. Two historic artifacts were collected from Feature 1. The first is a .22 caliber rimfire 

cartridge case found on the surface. The headstamp of the cartridge case identifies it as the 

product of the Peters Cartridge Company (now the Peters Cartridge Division of the Remington 

Arms Company). The headstamp style dates before 1946 (White and Munhall 1977:28). The 

other artifact is a roughly triangular-shaped iron fragment that is obviously part of some larger 

item-perhaps some form of heavy machinery. No further identification has been made. 

Only one artifact was collected from Feature 2. This consists of the central part of the 

end of a hole-in-cap can. The cap itself is unusually small, being only 718 of an inch (about 

2.25 cm) in diameter. Unfortunately, no other technological indicators of this can were found. 

The hole-in-cap can was developed circa 1820 and dominated the canning industry until 1903, 

when the sanitary can was developed (Rock 1984). Even after the development of the sanitary 

can, however, the hole-in-cap can persisted in use until about 1920. Sanitary can fragments, 

aluminum foil fragments, a plate glass sherd, and several wire nails were found in Feature 2 

but not collected. 

Although the sanitary and the hole-in-cap cans overlap from 1903-1920, the presence 

of aluminum foil in Feature 2 suggests that the hearth feature was used more than once. 

Aluminum foil was produced as early as the mid-1920s (Smith 1988:202), but it was a 

specialty item at that time and was used to package cigarettes and food items. The aluminum 

foil fragments found in Feature 2 were present in sufficient quantities to suggest that they 

originated in a later period, when aluminum foil was available as a bulk product. 

Four sherds of partially melted glass were collected from Feature 3. Rust fragments 

were also found, but they were not collected. Two sherds possessed the remains of a widemouth, external thread, jar finish. The remaining two sherds are apparently from a jar body 

and have embossed lettering. One of the embossed sherds has a cursive, lower-case letter "r" 

above two printed, upper-case letters "NG" with quotation marks behind the "G." This 

appears to be part of a Kerr brand self-sealing mason jar. According to Toulouse (1969:43), 

the words "self sealing" in small letters and with quotation marks did not become part of the 

Kerr jar embossing scheme until around 1920. The other embossed sherd has a large, lowercase, printed "e" on it. This is suggestive of the "Presto" brand of mason and fruit jars, 

which date from 1925- 1946 (Toulouse 1969:64). Presumably, the rust fragments found in this 

feature were all that remained of the lids from these jars. 

Two additional historic artifacts were collected on this site. A clear glass sherd with 

a slight amber discoloration was found in Shovel Test Unit 1G. The amber discoloration is 
characteristic of the presence of selenium in the glass. Selenium was widely used as a 

clarifying agent in glass from 19 17-1 930 (IMACS 1988). The remaining artifact was a brass 

tent slip found in Shovel Test Unit 3G. Presently, no time range can be assigned to this 

artifact. 

Summary 

The historic artifacts from 48TE4 12 primarily originated in the early to mid-twentieth 

century, during which time the area was transformed into a national park. Most of the artifacts 

are probably associated with camping or picnicking episodes in the String Lake area. It is 

reasonable to conclude that these activities were associated with the nearby Danny RanchIJenny 

Lake Lodge, Crandall Studio, or Square G Lodge. Other artifacts, such as the large iron object 

and the plate glass sherd, are suggestive of long-term occupations in the area. In general, the 

material is very limited, and it is difficult to see any advantage to be gained by further 

research. However, the possibility exists that there are subsurface features in the area, and an 

archeologist should monitor any future work here. 

POSTDEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT 

A review of postdepositional processes affecting the archeological record at site 

48TE412 is presented below in order to develop an understanding of the environmental 

processes affecting preservation at the site. There is a specific set of conditions governing the 

preservation of different materials and features within an archeological site. For many 

materials the governing conditions have been observed both experimentally and ethnographically. For comprehensive overviews of research in the field of postdepositional studies see 

Schiffer (1 987) and Wood and Johnson (1 978). 

Processes affecting the archeological record at 48TE412 include fire, trampling, and 

bioturbation. Each of these processes can add to or subtract from the archeological record, and 

an understanding of their effects is therefore necessary. The following is a brief summary of 

these processes and the manner in which they influence site integrity. 

Background 

Fire plays a significant role in the environment of the Jackson Hole area (Clark 1981). 

Fires start a successional sequence leading to a renewing of the vegetative mosaic, which in 

turn provides habitats for a greater variety of species (Clark 1981). During the past three 

centuries, major (crown) fires in the area are known to have occurred infrequently, while 

ground fires appear to have been quite numerous. While rare, the larger, more intense fires 

are thought by Clark (1981:68) to have had the greatest effect on the different biological 

communities in the Jackson Hole area. 

The occurence of large fires in the recent past, and the climatic conditions that preceded 

them, can be investigated and dated using dendrochronology. According to Clark (1981:64- 

68), tree rings indicate large fires in the 1760s, 1840s, 1850s, and periodically from 1878 

through 1898. He believes that much of the extant forest in the valley has developed since 

burns that occurred between 1856 and 1879. 

Forest fires may leave identifiable traces on archeological sites that are distinguishable 

from cultural fires (Connor et al. 1989). The morphological changes wrought on archeological 

artifacts by incidental burning are well documented (Connor et al. 1989:Table 1). Only 

recently has investigation into the effects of fire on archeological sites been undertaken. 

The effects on sites, as described by Connor et al. (1989), are manifested in several 

ways and depend upon burn conditions in the area. These include mosaic burn patterns, 

morphological changes in artifacts restricted to the burned layer, localized oxidation features, 

and ash or fired-rock pockets. For a discussion of the mechanisms for producing the above 

patterns, see Connor et al. (1989). 

Trampling may have only played a minor role in the development of the archeological 

record at 48TE412. It should be noted, however, that prime conditions exist for the 

. 
development of a significant trampling effect. In sandy soils mixed with clasts ranging from 

gravels to boulders, there is ample opportunity for edge damage to develop on lithic materials. 

Knudson (1977) documents the postdepositional effects of trampling by domestic livestock on 

glass fragments scattered around a stocktank. She found that the trampling created 

morphologic attributes on the glass fragments that closely resemble use wear and retouch. Her 

study illustrates the importance of an awareness of the postdepositional processes affecting an 

assemblage, and she cautions against the broad application of the terms use wear and retouch. 

Postdepositional rodent disturbance causes considerable damage to archeological sites. 

Rodent disturbance has been found to size-sort artifacts (Schiffer 1987; Bocek 1986), create 

artificial and misleading artifact lines (Erlandson 1984), and act as an agent of soil deposition 

(Wood and Johnson 1978). 

Soil deposition by rodents can exceed as much as 20-40 tons per acre annually. In 

Texas, ground squirrels and gophers are estimated to turn 15-20 percent of the soil surface over 

per season (Wood and Johnson 1978). Thorp (1949: 188) describes the deposition of "rodent 

eskers" in Wyoming, where burrows excavated through snow by rodents are filled with 

sediment from below-surface burrows. In the spring, these "eskers" are deposited on the 

ground surface, often containing cultural material. In very shallow sediments, such as those 

at 48TE412, a complete churning of the soil could take place often, completely obliterating soil 

horizons and archeological stratigraphy (Wood and Johnson 1978). 

Size-sorting of artifacts may occur where rodent activity is considerable. Bocek (1986) 

documented the mechanisms for this in a study of an archeological site in California. She 

found that rodent activity changes the vertical position of material according to size. Smaller 

items (less than 2.5 cm) will be pushed upward by the rodents, while larger items remain 

stationary or settle to the bottom of the rodent activity zone (Bocek 1986; Erlandson 1984). 

Postdepositional Processes at 48TE412 

As stated above, fires are part of the Jackson Hole environment, and there is evidence 

of large fires in the area over the last three centuries. In a map of vegetation surrounding 

Jackson Lake area (Brandegee 1899, reproduced in Connor et al. 1989:Figure 3), recent burn 

locations are identified along the western shore of String Lake. During excavation in Block 

C, evidence of these fires was found in the form of charred fragments of tree roots intermixed 

with fired rock. Connor et al. (1989) describe the accumulation of fired rock in the blowdown 

root cavities, as well as in the root system of dead trees burning below the surface. While 

these finds do not rule out the existence of a prehistoric or historic hearth in this location, they 

do provide alternative explanations for the presence of charred wood. Without more data, the 

task of archeological interpretation on this point is difficult. 

Compounding the effects of fire are the effects of rodent activity at the site. As stated 

above, the soils are very shallow, 10-15 cm in some places, with a very dense clast-on-clast 
glacial outwash beneath. In the spring, "eskers" are deposited on the surface as evidence of 

continual burrowing. When walking across the site, it is not uncommon to sink several 

centimeters as subsurface tunnels collapse. Much of the surface soil is being churned annually. 

Rodent churning may account for the buried fired-rock concentration in Blocks A and 

C. The larger pieces sink to the bottom of the rodent activity zone as new tunnels are created 

and old ones collapse (Bocek 1986). Extensive rodent disturbance also erases traces of soil 

oxidation related either to forest fires or to cultural hearths, or to pit features containing 

macrofloral or pollen specimens. Only in the two hearths associated with historic material was 

there indication of oxidation and staining. Finally, rodent disturbance increases the rate of 

weathering on organic materials like bone, and macroflorals. 

Summary 

Extensive rodent disturbance can substantially alter a site by obliterating spatial 

associations, erasing stains, exposing materials to weathering, and mixing macro- and microsediments that may otherwise contain paleoenvironrnental and subsistence information. 

Fortunately, 48TE412 was not disturbed evenly across the site, and we may have obtained 

undisturbed pollen and flotation samples from Block A. 

Site history suggests that a moderate amount of trampling occurred during the historic 

ranch period, and some has also been caused by recent visitors to the Park. The existence of 

historic hearths at the site also suggests some recreational use, but the extent of this usage is 

unknown. The effect of trampling is significant for the analysis of lithic material. Twenty 

percent of all flakes recovered from the site show signs of edge modification. Edge 

modification was cataloged as present, absent, or not applicable for tools. This was done in 

part to avoid the term "utilized" as a label for flakes with signs of edge damage and the 

implication of a cultural origin for the attribute of the flake. 

Postdepositional processes at 48TE412 have played a significant role in the formation 

of the archeological record at the site. The effects of fire, trampling, rodent disturbance, soil 

chemistry, and the recreational collection of artifacts have resulted in a diminished archeological record at 48TE412. It is nevertheless possible to answer some of the questions put forth 

in the research design by taking these processes into consideration. There is sufficient lithic 

material in the collection to analyze for technological indicators, and the diagnostics will aid 

in the determination of cultural affiliation. Materials collected for pollen analysis, flotation, 

radiocarbon-dating, and particle-size analysis were from areas where rodent disturbance was 

minimal and provide absolute-dating and subsistence information. Obsidian sourcing can still 

be conducted using surficial material from the site. The analysis of tool use through 

microscopic inspection is seriously handicapped, however, by an inablity to distinguish between 

cultural modifications and the results of postdepositional trampling or other forms of 

disturbance. However, even considering the extent of disturbance at the site the amount of 

information gained from the site will be significant. 

DISCUSSION 

Site 48TE412, although extensively disturbed through natural and historic events, is 

capable of providing information regarding the prehistoric occupation of the String Lake area 

and Jackson Hole. By using portions of the research design developed for the Jackson Lake 

Archeological Project (National Park Service 1987) in relation to data recovered from 

48TE412, our understanding of the occupation history and the past lifeways in Jackson Hole 

can be expanded. Although six research objectives were orginally designed for the Jackson 

Lake Project, only five are applicable to this project: (1) refinement of the cultural history and 

cultural chronology of the area; (2) definition of subsistence patterns; (3) definition of the 

aboriginal settlement patterns and determination of site function; (4) investigation into the 

extent of trade and movement of raw materials; and (5) refinement of the paleoenvironrnental 

sequence. 

Site Chronology 

Uncertainties remain concerning the cultural history and chronology of occupations at 

48TE412, partly because different methods were used in an attempt to determine the dates of 

occupation. The projectile point typology and the obsidian-hydration dating results suggest a 

Late Prehistoric occupation, while radiocarbon dates suggest a more recent use. 

Two projectile points (FS 412-208, 210) are similar to points recovered from Level 34 

of Mummy Cave (Husted and Edgar 1968). These two String Lake projectile points also 

compare favorably to points recovered from site 48TE1067 on Beach 4 at Jackson Lake 

(Connor et al. 1991). The third point (FS 412-002) is comparable to material from Level 30 

of Mummy Cave. 

The uncalibrated radiocarbon dates from three features at 48TE1067 cluster between 

1600 and 1700 years ago. These dates are 1615 f 70 B.P. (A.D. 335; Beta 25728, ETH 4001), 

1670 f 100 B.P. (A.D. 280; Beta 23263), and 1680 + 80 B.P. (A.D. 270; Beta 24059). A 

radiocarbon date from Level 34 of Mummy Cave of 2050 f 150 B.P. (100 B.C.) also dates 

similar projectile points to a period ranging between 2100 B.P. and 1950 B.P. The calibrated 

dates (Klein et al. 1982) have an overlap of approximately 160 years and a possible 1000-year 

temporal duration for the projectile point type and a mid-point span falling into the range of 

about 100 B.C. to A.D. 400. 

The median hydration date for obsidian from 48TE412 is A.D. 236 f 60 years 

(Table 4). This compares favorably to the radiocarbon dates reviewed above for certain 

projectile point types, and a Late Plains Archaic or early Late Prehistoric occupation of the site 

is indicated. 

Radiocarbon dates from 48TE412 suggest a more recent occupation of the site. The 

material collected from the feature in Block A was dated to 160 f 80 years B.P. (A.D. 1790; 
Beta 41 161). The material submitted by Wright from the hearth excavated in 1976 dated to 

210 + 80 years B.P. (A.D. 1740; 1-9648). 

Radiocarbon results, obsidian-hydration results, and approximate ages of the projectile 

points indicate two episodes of use during the last 2000 years. The obsidian-hydration dates 

and the projectile point typology suggest a Late Plains Archaic or an early Late Prehistoric 

occupation beginning about 2000 B.P., while the radiocarbon dates suggest a more recent use 

of the area. It has been documented that the site was used as a historic-era picnic site and 

campground. Perhaps these activities can account for the recent radiocarbon dates. There is, 

however, no evidence to be found among other sources of information for a very late 

Prehistoric occupation. More hydration and radiocarbon samples are required to refine further 

the occupational history of the site. 

Subsistence and Site Function 

Plant Processing 

Evidence of plant processing at 48TE412 is present in the form of both pollen and 

macrobotanical remains recovered in association with the complex charcoal stain around 

Feature 1 in Block A. Elevated levels of Chenopodium pollen, charred seeds, and seed 

fragments suggest the use of this plant as a food source during occupation of the site 

(Curnmings 1 99 1). 

Bone Grease Processing 

While the faunal remains at 48TE412 constitute a very small portion of the collection, 

the condition of the bones provides some evidence of activities related to subsistence and site 

function. Crushed and calcined animal bone is found throughout much of the Northern Plains 

and is a by-product of rendering bone grease (Vehik 1977). Bone grease is high in fat and also 

a very concentrated source of energy (Vehik 1977). It also has a long storage life and is a 

means by which to exploit the more difficult to process parts of a carcass (Vehik 1977). Much 

of the information regarding the production of bone grease comes from ethnographic sources. 

Tribes which are cited as producing bone grease include the Cheyenne, Blackfoot, Crow, 

Chippewa, Ojibwa, and Chukchee (Vehik 1977). 

Bone grease was used as an ingredient of pemmican, as a condiment, and to tan hides 

(Leechman 195 1; Vehik 1977). While very few sources indicate the seasonal scheduling of 

bone grease production among the Crow and Ojibwa, it appears to have been a late autumn and 

winter activity (Vehik 1977). Leechrnan (1951:355) also notes the production of bone grease 

occurring within one day of butchering the animal, to prevent the grease from having a strong 

taste. While this is in reference to only one ethnographic source and may not be found crossculturally, it is important to note. 
Production is described by both Vehik (1977) and Leechman (1951) as being both a 

male and female activity. The males crushed the bones into small "fingernail size" fragments 

with stone mauls. The women prepared the bone for crushing and simmered the crushed bone 

in vessels of water. According to ethnographic sources, simmering was carried out in metal 

pots, but prehistorically this would have been done in ceramic or skin vessels that were heated 

using a stone boiling technique or by the direct application of heat (Bonnichsen 1973; 

Leechman 195 1; Vehik 1977). The quantity of grease obtained would be determined by the 

animal, the bone elements processed, the amount of bone processed, and the time of year 

(Vehik 1977). Schoolcraft (cited in Leechman 195 1 :355) describes the process of bone grease 

rendering and estimates that the bones of two bison are required to render 12 pounds of grease. 

After the initial production of the bone grease, it could be cooled and formed into cakes, or 

poured into skin containers for storage of up to three years (Leechman 1951). 

Bone grease processing has the capacity to be highly visible archeologically. Evidence 

of bone grease processing includes burnt and unburnt crushed bone, the presence of 

hammerstones, mauls, and anvils, and the occurrence of hearths, ceramics, and fired rock. The 

context in which this material is recovered is also important regarding other aspects of site 

function (Vehik 1977). Vehik (1977: 173) suggests how the context of this material may 

generally be indicative of either a special-activity area or a base camp. At a special-activity 

area, the artifactual remains would ideally include only materials related to the activities 

conducted at the site. The site would have a limited temporal occupation and would be areally 

confined. 

In a base camp, material would be present from a broader range of activities, sites 

would be larger, and occupation of the site may be longer. The ability to identify activity loci 

in a base camp setting would be more difficult than in a special-activity camp. Overlap in the 

spatial organization of activities in base camps would result in a less distinct pattern than that 

which might be expected at a special-activity camp (Vehik 1977). The pattern at base camps 

would be further obscured by the dumping of refuse away from the activity areas (Schiffer 

1 976). 

At 48TE412, the context of material remains is somewliat clouded by postdepositional 

disturbances and by the limited preservation of faunal material. Cultural material recovered 

from the site, including faunal material, high frequency of fired rock scattered across the site, 

and broken quartzite cobbles, suggests that bone grease production may have been an activity 

conducted at the site. Projectile points, broken bifaces, and stone tool production debris 

suggest hunting, the processing of meat, and tool maintenance activities at the site. As noted 

above, processing of bone grease was typically carried out in conjunction with the hunt. The 

patchy distribution of material across the site suggests an occupation history similar to that of 

a special-activity location rather than a base camp (Vehik 1977). Reoccupation of the site 

through time may explain the scattered distribution of material. 

This interpretation is contrary to that of Wright and Marceau (1977), who rely on 

negative evidence and describe the settlement and subsistence of Jackson Hole as based on the 
harvesting of plant resources and fish, with very little emphasis on hunting. The material 

recovered from 48TE412 and other sites in the area (e.g., those around Jackson Lake and 

Blacktail Butte), however, suggests a broader subsistence pattern based on the procurement of 

meat and meat byproducts, as well as fish and plant resources. The presence of three 

diagnostic projectile points and several projectile point fragments can also indicate the 

importance of meat in the diet (Connor 1986). 

However, inferring site function from the presence of several tools that are used in a 

certain activity is almost as difficult as relying on negative evidence to determine site function. 

The same postdepositional processes that created an environment unsuitable for the preservation 

of bone would also have made it unsuitable for the preservation of plant remains. 

While the interpretation of 48TE412 as a special-activity site may be correct, the nature 

of the activity is in question. To date, there is no indication that plant resources were targeted 

in the way suggested by Wright and Marceau (1977). Evidence of plant or aquatic resource 

utilization would include macrobotanical and fish remains, pollen, and the presence of tools 

used in the processing or harvesting of plant or aquatic resources. While there is evidence of 

plant use in the form of charred seeds and pollen, this evidence does not suggest a reliance on 

this resource for subsistence. On the contrary, it suggests the use of only one plant in a very 

limited area. 

Without detailed use-wear analysis of the tools, it is difficult to assess their function. 

Furthermore, the plants Wright and Marceau (1977) believe to have been targeted by the site 

occupants have not been shown to require lithic tools for processing. While evidence for the 

exploitation of animal resources occurs across the site and is represented by the presence of 

bone, butchering tools, and projectile points, the degree to which this resource was the primary 

focus of the site occupants is unknown, because there is no means by which to determine the 

extent of plant resource use. 

Tool Production and Site Use 

Analysis of chipped stone from 48TE412 indicates two means of tool production were 

used that were closely related to the two primary lithic material types on the site. Bifacial 

production of volcanic glass suggests the existence of an organized and well-maintained tool 

kit. Bipolar production of quartzite flakes suggests a less organized flake technology. 

Binford (1979) refers to flake production for immediate use as an expedient technology. 

Expedient technologies are made up of tools manufactured, used, and discarded as needed, and 

assemblages would consist of simple and unpatterned tools (Binford 1979; Parry and Kelly 

1987). Bifacial tools are produced to accomplish a variety of functions, and in anticipation of 

future needs. They generally have a formal shape, are hafted, maintained, and when they can 

no longer function for their intended purpose, may be recycled to perform another function 

(Kelly 1988; Parry and Kelly 1987). 
Variation in lithic technologies may be related to the degree of organization in the 

settlemenVsubsistence adaptation of hunting and gathering groups (Binford 1980). Groups 

using bifacial technologies are thought to correspond to logistically organized (collector) 

groups. Groups using flake technologies are thought to be found in conjunction with foragers 

(Binford 1979). Collectors and foragers differ in that collectors organize the acquisition of 

resource operations around a semi-permanent base camp, with groups of collectors bringing 

resources in from special-purpose sites. Foragers move their camp to resources as they become 

available in a particular area (Binford 1980). Since the production of bifacial tools requires 

a certain degree of planning and the tools are more apt to be curated, their presence in a site 

is thought to be indicative of a group practicing a collector strategy. Flake production is linked 

to the forager strategy because of the expedient nature of the technology (Binford 1979). 

Contrary to Binford's interpretation, Parry and Kelly (1987) believe that in highly 

mobile groups bifacial technologies would be more adaptive, since they require less stone to 

be carried and provide a fairly adaptive toolkit. They support this position using archeological 

and ethnographic evidence which documents a shift from bifacial technologies to expedient 

core technologies, corresponding to shifts from mobile hunting and gathering to more sedentary 

subsistence strategies. 

Another consideration may be the proximity of lithic resources and how that affects the 

type of technology (Parry and Kelly 1987; Bamforth 1986). Bamforth (1986) documents two 

factors of biface production, tool maintenance and recycling, as they are related to curation. 

He provides evidence that the distance from lithic sources influences the amount of 

maintenance and recycling the toolkits receive. Parry and Kelly (1987) also discuss the 

differential treatment of stone when it is readily available compared to when it is harder to 

obtain. They show how biface manufacture is advantagous to mobile groups due to increased 

portability and the ability to provide more cutting edges for a given weight of stone (Parry and 

Kelly 1987). 

A third factor affecting the differential treatment of stone may be the variation in the 

tasks performed by tools made from the different materials. At 48TE412, a majority of the 

formal tools as well as tool fragments are produced from the volcanic glass materials, while 

the quartzite exhibits very little formal shaping. This same pattern is seen in the assemblage 

of material from sites around Jackson Lake (Connor 1986; Connor et al. 1991) and sites in 

Yellowstone National Park (Kenneth Cannon, personal communication 1991). This bias may 

be the result of differential workability or differences in edge qualities. While the projectile 

point type classification suggests a specific shape and function (that of a projectile), when 

hafted, these tools can be and often are used for a variety of light cutting tasks (Kelly 1988). 

They also require special flaking to reduce their size and to shape them. The edges observed 

on the quartzite items are not as sharp or refined as those on the obsidian and vitrophyre 

specimens, but they are sturdier and would hold up longer when used against hard materials, 

such as wood or bone (Semenov 1964). 
The existence of obsidian bifacial production blanks and the evidence derived from 

debitage analysis suggest that production of bifacial tools was one of the activities occurring 

at the site. The presence of quartzite bipolar cores, flakes, and debitage at the site suggests that 

a second means of producing tools was also taking place at the site. According to Parry and 

Kelly (1987) and Bamforth (1986), the pattern suggested by the use of different technologies 

linked to different material types, given the availability of those material types in the area, is 

what might be suspected. 

The abundance of quartzite in the area renders it a cheap resource to be used in the 

production of expedient tools and then discarded. The less accessable volcanic glasses, on the 

other hand, are curated in the form of bifacial tools, and the presence of biface production at 

the site is related to proximity of the lithic source. Along the west side of Jackson Hole, 

obsidian artifact density decreases as distance from the Teton Pass source increases (Wright 

and Marceau 1977). If Bamforth (1986) is correct in linking curation of tools to availability 

of lithic materials, then the further the sites are from the sources, the less production will be 

visible, and more evidence of maintenance and recycling will be present. 

The nature of production as it is linked to the different material types also suggests 

differences in the use of the different tools. The volcanic glasses produce tools with sharp 

brittle edges that often need to be worked further before they can be used without crushing. 

Obsidian and vitrophyre are also fairly easily worked into a variety of shapes. Quartzite, on 

the other hand, is more difficult to work into controlled shapes but produces a sturdy sharp 

cutting edge, which can be used on a wide range of materials before breaking down. This 

same pattern is seen throughout the region (Connor et al. 1991; Kenneth Cannon, personal 

communication 199 1). 

Knowledge of tool production methods allows us to speculate on the settlement and 

subsistence pattern for the surrounding area. Hunter and gatherer subsistence patterns have 

been described as being that of collectors or that of foragers, with a wide range of variation 

separating the two extremes (Binford 1980; Chatters 1987). Tool use by the two groups has 

also been discussed, with the intention of discerning patterns in the assemblage from 48TE412. 

At String Lake, the availability of resources and the types of tools present suggest a mobile 

hunting and gatherering group. The site may have been occupied on a seasonal basis or only 

a few times over the span of prehistory. 

Tool Use 

Lithic materials from the site suggest a wide range of activities. Our inability to 

distinguish between postdepositional wear and use wear prevents definition of the precise 

nature of those activities through lithic analysis. All flaked-stone material coded as edgemodified was viewed under low magnification to determine the nature of the edge modification. While many pieces demonstrated edge rounding, grinding, step fracturing, and striations, 

the location of these attributes were by no means patterned along what would be expected to 

be a working edge. Dorsal ridges on flakes showed signs of rounding, deep striations were 
observed on flat flake surfaces away from working edges, edges were uniformly rounded or 

ground, and step fractures were inconsistently present along tool edges. The occurence of these 

attributes in the locations described suggest a high degree of postdepositional damage to the 

flakes resulting from soil movement and trampling. 

Mobility and Trade 

Lithic raw material types represented at the site include the volcanic glasses (80 

percent), quartzite (13 percent), chert (5 percent), and other (2 percent). The Precambrian 

quartzite occurs naturally on the site in the form of glacial cobbles and required little transport 

effort. The reduction of this material using bipolar methods and the high frequency of broken 

quartzite cobbles at the site suggest expedient use. 

Tensleep quartzite, represented by two artifacts, outcrops in Jackson Hole in several 

areas, the closest of which is the southern end of Blacktail Butte (Love 1972; Wright and 

Marceau 1977). The occurrence of this material at the site represents the utilization of other 

areas of Jackson Hole by the site inhabitants. As described by Reeve (1976) and Wright and 

Marceau (1977), the area south of Blacktail Butte is also a primary source of sego lilies 

(Calochortus nuttallii), an important wild food crop. The proximity of the two resources may 

be clues to both the scheduling for procurement and the season of occupation at the site. 

Chert occurs at the site in low frequencies. The two chert cores have been altered by 

heat, either intentionally or as a result of natural fires. Without a large comparative sample, 

source identification is difficult. The chert flakes collected at the site do not appear to be the 

same material as the cores. The flakes are not hackled from heat treatment and are an 

orangehuff color, compared to the bluelgray of the cores. 

Some of the cherts, as well as some of the volcanic glasses, may be from secondary 

deposits occurring either in the glacial outwash or the current stream channels. The obsidian 

core (FS 4 12- 160) had smootli rounded cortical surfaces indicating water tumbling. While 

none of the cherts had cortical surfaces, there may be sources in the gravel bars of the Snake 

River for this material type. 

Eighty percent of the lithic material at the site is represented by the volcanic glasses. 

Obsidian sourcing provides a means to investigate the movement of raw materials into 

48TE412. Twenty-two pieces of obsidian and vitrophyre were submitted for sourcing to 

Richard Hughes. The results of this analysis indicated that 77 percent of the material submitted 

for sourcing was from the Teton Pass source (Hughes 1991). 

The lithic material suggests very little trade or mobility, since all of the material, except 

for 23 percent of the obsidian sourced, can be obtained from within the Jackson Hole area. 

While lithic material is not the only indicator of trade or mobility, it is the only one available 

for this analysis. From the data available, neither the extent of trade nor the mobility of the 

group utilizing 48TE412 can be discerned. 
Summary of Discussion 

Based on the lithic assemblage, the obsidian-hydration dates, and the diagnostic 

projectile points, the site was most likely occupied by mobile hunters and gatherers between 

approximately 2000 and 1500 B.P. Its access to resources and the lithic assemblage suggest 

an emphasis on the procurement and processing of animals. There is also some indication of 

plant use. The site was a small camp that may have been revisited seasonally for short 

durations. In the recent past, the site has been used for recreation by park visitors. 
MANAGEMENT SUMMARY 

Mitigation of impacts to site 48TE412 is complete. The lack of evidence for significant 

subsurface material resulted in less excavation than originally planned. Our investigations 

clearly determined that the site is much larger than originally believed, that it is primarily a 

surface concentration, and that subsurface material at the site is probably the result of 

postdepositional processes. 

After her visit to 48TE412 in 1988, Connor (1989) recommended that the site be 

considered eligible for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places. She made this 

recommendation based on criteria developed for the Jackson Lake Project, which were partially 

applicable to 48TE4 12. The research objectives developed for the Jackson Lake Project 

(National Park Service 1987) and identified in the Data Recovery Plan (National Park Service 

1990) include: (1) definition of the culture history and area chronology; (2) definition of 

aboriginal settlement patterns; (3) definition of subsistence patterns; (4) refinement of the 

paleoenvironmental sequence; and (5) determination of the extent of trade. 

As this document attests, the research potential of 48TE412 is high. While there may 

not be subsurface deposits at this location, research questions regarding most of the objectives 

identified by Connor are still applicable to 48TE412. The existence of areas at the site outside 

the current project impact area are also capable of containing information regarding the Jackson 

Lake Project research objectives. In light of the existence of these areas, the status of the site 

in regard to its eligibility for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places should not 

be changed. 

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1978 A Survey of Disturbance Processes in Archaeological Site Formation. In Advances 

in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 1, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 3 15- 

381. Academic Press, New York. 

Wright, Gary A. 

1984 People of the High Country: Jackson Hole Before the Settlers. Peter Lang, New 

York. 

Wright, Gary A., and Thomas E. Marceau 

1977 Archeological Reconnaissance in Western Jackson Hole. Manuscript on file, 

National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln. 

1981 Report on Excavations at Blacktail Butte, Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. 

Manuscript on file, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln. 

Wright, G.A., T. Marceau, F.A. Calabrese, and Melodie Tune 

1978 Greater Yellowstone Cooperative Regional Transportation Study: Regional 

Assessment, Archeological Report. National Park Service, Midwest Archeological 

Center, Lincoln. 

Wright, Gary, Susan Bender, and Stuart Reeve 

1980 High Country Adaptations. Plains Anthropologist 25(89): 18 1 - 197 
Table 1. Summary of shovel test depths and results. 

Transects 

Shovel Test A B C D E F G 

X signifies positive shovel tests. 

Depths are measured in centimeters. 

Table 2. Lithic raw material frequency at 48TE412. 

Material Number Percent 

Obsidian 

Vitrophyre 

Quartzite 

Chert 

Other 

Total 393 100 
Table 3. Results of obsidian-hydration band analysis from 48TE412, from Origer (1992). 

Lab Catalog Description Measurements Mean* Source 

No. No. (microns) 

Point fragment Teton Pass 

Flake tool Teton Pass 

Biface fragment Teton Pass 

Biface fragment Teton Pass 

Debitage Teton Pass, 

Variety 2? 

Biface Teton Pass, 

Variety 2? 

Point - - - NVB Teton Pass 

Flake tool 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 Teton Pass 

Core 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.6 Teton Pass 

Biface fragment 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 Teton Pass 

Debitage 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 Teton Pass 

Point 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.9 Teton Pass 

Point fragment 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.2 Teton Pass, 

Variety 2? 

Debitage Teton Pass 

Biface fragment Teton Pass, 

Variety 2? 

Debitage Teton Pass 

Debitage Teton Pass 

Utilized flake Teton Pass 

Biface fragment Teton Pass, 

Variety 2? 

*DH = diffuse hydration, NVB = no visible hydration band 
Table 4. Time calculation on 13 Teton Pass obsidian samples. 

The hydration rate equation is x2=kt, where: 

x is hydration rim thickness, mean measurement in microns 

k is hydration rate (Michels 1981) 

t is time in years. 

The time distribution (t) has a 

mean of 2133 years, a standard 

deviation of 993 years, and 

a median of 1756 years. 

The error is + 600 years. 

The median value is used to 

determine date; so the sample 

age is 1756 600 years from 

the testing date (1992): 

A.D. 236 + 600 years 

Table 5. Lithic material distribution for flaked tools. 

Projectile Biface Core Multipurpose1 

Point Composite Total 

Obsidian 3 

Vitrophyre 0 

Quartzite 0 

Chert 0 

Totals 3 12 9 1 25 
Figure 1. Topographic map showing location of 48YE412, the String Lake site. 

Figure 2. Construction plan map indicating the centerline of the new road, rehabilitation work on the existing road, and 

the location of the two components of 48TE412, based on the 1992 construction design. 

58 

'-. .:::··-:::. ... :::::: ....... 

............ ::::-::_: ........... . r,..o,, ........_ --..:··· .......... -.: ................................... 

'-.. 

Log Curbing (obliterated) 

Rock Barrier (obliterated) 

III Old String Lake Road (obliterated) 

-----

0 50m 

==--
Figure 3. Map of site 48TE412. 

X X 

. 

• X 

0 

X 

X 

• X 

0 

x Artifact 

o Shovel Test 

• Fire-Crocked Rock 

Figure 4. Site map showing the location and orientation of shovel tests at 48TE412. 

59 

0 20m 

0 Shovel Test 

c Excavation Unit 

088 

9Bo 

Datum E New 

Ci~CB G:::/:~4 o oG6 

C70 D 

C6 o 135/75 

038 

cso 48 0 

C40 58 ° F19 0 

68 OC3 o3A 

078 

0 OC2 o4A 

DB AQc1 aoSA 

o7A 

0 8 Datum D 

6A 

o1B 

o2B 

·-·-·-----.................... ." \ 

\ 

' c 

140/22 

A 

. 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

8 Datum F ' \ 

\ 

\ 

\ 
Figure 5. Surface map of unit 105N/101W and the north profile cross section of Feature 1. 

Light Charcoal Stain 

with Occasional Flecks 

,.' .".P *, 

;; +,.,'T ;': 

- ,, 

Fire-Cracked G) 

.* . OCk J 

105N/101 W 

Surface to 10cm 

Profile of North Wall 

Unexcavated 

A-1OYR 3/3 Dark Sandy Loam with Roots 

B-1OYR 3/3 Dark Sandy Loam with Occasional Small 

Gravels and Charcoal (Possible Feature Fill) 

C- IOYR 4/4 Dark Yellowish Brown Sandy Loam with 

Numerous Gravel Cobbles 

O.M.* - % Organic Material 
Figure 6. Composite map of Excavation Block A and profile of the west wall of 

the excavation. 

61 

A A' ,---------------~---------------+--------------~104 .. 

)?;,. (5 !.~:;;_ >· 

\b .. 

.. .. ,.\> 

103 

-"-

.. ,, --.":.. " '! ~ · .. -" ~. , ··-;:c; -,~ Charcoal Stain 

'~r';~~~. ~~'- ~ ,.1 r<~ ~~:~~-~~:1.,-~,t.':~\ -~;~~--:~~~ ~ / ,,1'<{• ....,"{ /<;-::·-~).'-V. ""\"': -~.:.~ "l·'"""·-!~y.-·)~ 

\;~ ;y~-::;· ~t~ ·-~--~~~~~:~:~~;~~>-~·;:-~- .. •J;:-·(i 3 ?-' '..~' J <"; .... -~<-;£ r..J'.,...~Q~ .... ;\,~ ~o-,: .. 1 M 

" t'J -~--~ ··t~:l ·~~Cf)~·'f{\ :\,_:~r~,, 102 ~-~,--.... ':7i.i -.:r ;a.':"'""c-.;:::'71-',~;·;,-.. ~ 

~.;:' ~/)~,~~:·. ~ ~~~~ .~~·~~·~:~~ :./~ .. ~/ (·.: J ~-!!'; 'f''-'i'rq ,, ¢]:, ,, --\"' 1~ @ 0 

\"~<: -,:~~·;-., .,·:;J!Y:' ,, .. ;.,\ ~ ·.; .. :'-- ~-;'J,~ 0 

~; ·'1'•,-:-'.J'· T q~~q;:, :.r---:l'' . .,::.·;.. ,._ ''"'"'r.~'"'-_--1~<.":' •::,-.. , (·.....:;-, ·-~" '<..J 

.. "-<t.:/-~_-'..\ «fJ,fE>''(fA'' ~~;-: :, . ~~ - 0 

~'.t··-<'" ,'I~--.. ~,_ X~'- -~4 'f.'.':'- CJ '\.v -·~·l;.~-·l(r~ 'I ~,. ... .,' , .... , }} 0 

':~~t4tf~~!tt·$l' ~::;~'f;r.-~ -o-

·;p_i;..: ~'.<:wj 1 

. -:'.>. : _j;' :.<I_, .. 

<:) L ----- ,,,_-y 101 

.. 

.. 

0 ° G L---------------~---------------+--------------~100 I/) <D 

0 0 

0 50cm >-N '======---

1-Pollen Sample 108/109 3-Pollen Sample 170 

2-Pollen Sample 185 4-Pollen Sample 169 

" Obsidian Flake 43 Fire-Cracked Rock 

Profile of West Wall 

A A' 

I/) <D r--- '<t 0 0 0 0 

Unexcavated 0~==--...;.SOcm 

A- 1 OYR 3/3 Dark Brown Sandy Loam with Occasional Gravel 

B-7.5YR 3/4 Dark Brown Sandy Loam with Small Cobbles 

Increasing in Size and Density Toward Bottom of Level 
Figure 7. Composite map of Excavation Block Band profiles showing the cross section of the hearth and the west 

wall of the excavation block. 

62 

A 

A' .---------------~--------------~~104 

0 

0 

B' 

103 

0 

~--------------~~--------------~102 

oi===-=....;.40cm 

A 

0 20cm Unexcavated 

Melted 

B Glass B' 

Obsidian 

Flake 

0 20cm =· Unexcavated 

A- 1 OYR 4/3 Brown to Dark Brown Sandy Loam 

B- 1 OYR 2/2 Very Dark Brown Sandy Loam (Feature Fill) 

pH 

5 

~ I 

C- 1 OYR 3/4 Dark Yellowish Brown Sandy Loam with Large Cobbles 

'C) Fire-Cracked Rock 

O.M.* - % Organic Material 

O.M. * 

6 0 10 

( 
Figure 8. Composite map of Excavation Block C. 

r-------------v~--------------------, 141 

Q 0 

• 

0 

0 

<':) 

0 0 

)( 

I? 0 

\:J )( 

0 

N 

~ 

140 

@ '\) () 

0 () 

DoV o 

rf} (j} a xo 

(:) Wood X () X 

?~:~~~ D .... <· _o_:(j_·CD_>_11_· .. ''',_•,,•••_,,•.,_o_o----+---------l 139 

10\1 ; [) 0 

't._t;, 

)( 

V' 

1-Pollen Sample 320 

X Flake 

• Core 

0'====---SOcm & Fire-Cracked Rock 

..,.'---------------------', 138 

0 0 

Figure 9. Log frequency of obsidian flake size distribution at 48TE412. 

63 

~ c 

Q) 

::J 

30 

20 

r::1' 10 ~ u.. 

8' 

_J 

5 

3 

10 15 20 25 30 

Flake Size (mm) 

35 
Figure 10. Lithic artifacts representing biface production stages: (a) Stage I, FS 412-299; (b-d) Stage 

II, FS 412-003, 293, 080; (e-g) Stage III, FS 412-302, 010, 093; (h) Stage IV, FS 412-164; (i-n) Stage 

V, FS 412-210, 046, 208, 050, 002, 264. 

64 

a b 

c 

e f 

g h 

0 3in 

0 7cm 
Figure I 0, continued. 

j 

k 

0 

Figure II. Lithic artifacts: (a) worked quartzite flake 

tool, FS 412-117; (b) multiple-use chert tool, FS 412-147. 

65 

a 

b 

0 3in 

0 7cm 
Figure 12. Cores: (a) chert, FS 412-155; (b) bipolar quartzite, FS 412-191; (c) bipolar quartzite, 

FS 412-291; (d) obsidian, FS 412-160; (e) bipolar quartzite, FS 412-074; (f) chert, FS 412-033; 

(g) bipolar quartzite, FS 412-327; (h) bipolar quartzite, FS 412-117. 

66 

a 

b 

c 

d 

0 3in 

0 7cm 
Figure 12, continued. 

67 

e 

f 

h 

REPORT CERTIFICATION 

Icertifythat "Archeological Investigations at Site 48TE412, String Lake, 

Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming: By James V. Winfrey 

has been reviewed against the criteria contained in 43CFR Part 7 (a)(l) and upon recommendation of the Regional Archeologist has been classified as 

available 

Regional Director Date 

Classification Key Words: 

"Availablem-Making the report available to the public meets the criteria of 43CFR 7.18 (a) (1). 

"Available (deletions)"-Making the report available with selected information on site locations 

and/or site characteristics deleted meets the criteria of 43CFR 7.18 (a)(l). A list of pages, 

maps, paragraphs, etc. that must be deleted for each report in this category is attached. 

"Not Available"-Making the report available does not meet the criteria of 43CFR (a)(l).