" Some Rare-Element 

' Mineral Deposits

^

in Mainland China

By K. Y. LEE

^ CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1312-N

A digest of the published literature, 

^including interpretations of 

geologically similar environments 

in mainland China

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1970
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

WALTER J. HICKEL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

William T. Pecora, Director

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 74-607065

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 25 cents (paper cover)
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract_______________________________________________________ Nl *?*

Introduction______________________________________________________ 1

Acknowledgments ___-___--____-_-__-_-----___._-___---____--___-__ 3

Yin-shan Range____-_____-______-__-__--_--__-----_____-_--__-__ 3

 \ Regional geology.--------------------------------------.!--.--- 3

Stratigraphy . _--.__-__ __-.-_-_.. 7

Structure---_-----_----___-__-_.------__---__----._.-_-_.- 8

Ore deposits..-.------.._..-.____..._.._...._______.__ 9

Occurrence and areal distribution..-___----__--___._.____.__. 9

Rare-earth-bearing iron ores._--_---_--_--______-_-_-___ 10

Fluorite, quartz, and carbonate veins____-__-________--_. 11

Pegmatites. ___--_--___-----------------_---_-_------_ 11

Mineralogy._-____________-_____--_-_-____--_-___.__-__-._ 13

Mineralization.___________________________________________ 14

Nan-ling Range.____________-_____--____--_-_-_-_---_--_-____----- 15

"* Regional geology.________-____---_-_-_----_-----------------_. 15

Stratigraphy-._.______.__.--____--_--_.-_--.--___-__--_--- 18

Structure_ .__-___---._____-_----.------_--.------__--.--_ 19

Ore deposits._________-_-_____-___--------__---_------__-__--_ 20

Occurrence and areal distribution............________________ 20

Tungsten-quartz veins.____-_---_--_-__--__-___-_----__ 21

Pegmatites. _____-_--__--_-----_--------_--__----__--- 22

Disseminated grains in granodiorite.._.______-._______--_ 22

Tin-bearing placers._____-------_--_----_----_----__--_ 22

* Mineralization........____--_-_---_--__---------.--_----.. 23

Similar areas of rare-element mineral deposits_________________________ 24

Areas of fissure-filling or replacement carbonate veins._____________ 24

, Feng-huang______________._--____--__--________-__--___. 24

' Tzu-chin-shan, Hu-yeh-shan, P'ing-yang, and Lin-hsien-Hsingtai_______________________________------ 25

Areas of pegmatites_____-_------------------------------------ 27

> Altai Mountains_________________________________________ 27

Hai-ch'eng.__________--_.__---.--_----.---_--_- 28

Area of disseminated grains in niobium-bearing granite.____________ 28

Some rare-element minerals--------------------------------- __..-- 29

References cited_______._________-__--_------_-----_----___ 31

in
IV CONTENTS

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

FIGURE 1. Index map showing locations of some rare-element mineral de- N2 

posits in mainland China_______________________________

2. Generalized geologic map of the Yin-shan Range, north China. 4

3. Generalized geologic map of the Nan-ling Range, south China. 16

TABLE

Page 

TABLE 1. Chemical composition of some rare-element minerals from

mainland China___________________________________ N6
SOME RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL 

DEPOSITS IN MAINLAND CHINA

By K. Y. LEE

ABSTRACT

This report is a summary of the rather fragmentary published literature on 

rare-element mineral deposits in mainland China. In the Tin-shan Range of 

north China these deposits occur in tabular iron ore bodies, in fissure fillings of 

veins, and in pegmatites. The iron ores and veins were emplaced in upper Precarnbrian limestone and dolomite, and the rare-element minerals consist of 

aeschynite, baotite, beiyinite, fluorite, monazite, niobo-aeschynite, oborite, parisite, and other cerium- and yttrium-group minerals. The pegmatites occur in 

lower Precambrian gneiss, schist, and granites, and the rare-element minerals 

are allanite, ampangabeite, apatite, beryl, broggerite, chrysoberyl, columbite, 

euxenite, fergusonite, ferrithorite, fluorite, ilinenorutile, jiningite, monazite, 

samarskite, sinicite, sphene, tantalian aeschynite, thorite, toddite, tysonite, uranothorite, xenotime, yinshanite, yttrotantalite, and zircon.

In the Nan-ling Range of south China the rare-element minerals occur 

chiefly in tungsten-quartz veins, in tin placers, and as disseminated grains in 

granodiorite. The veins are of hypothermal. and less productive hydrothermal 

varieties, and were emplaced in fracture zones of Mesozoic granites and preDevonian metasedimentary rocks during Cretaceous orogeny. The principal known 

rare-element minerals of the vein deposits:are beryl, fluorite, helvite, monazite, 

xenotime, and uranium and thorium minerals. The disseminated grains in granodiorite include allanite, fergusonite, monazite, thorite, and xenotime. The tin 

placers contain monazite, phosphuranylite, and uraninite.

Other areas of rare-element mineral deposits in mainland China are postulated on the basis of similar geologic environment and mineral association. The 

cerium and yttrium groups and thorium are the major fare elements in the vein 

deposits of Shansi and Hunan provinces and in the pegmatites of the Altai 

Mountains and Hai-ch'eng areas. The yttrium group, thorium, and uranium are 

the principal rare elements in the Kwang-hai niobium-bearing granite.

INTRODUCTION

The rare-element mineral deposits of the Yin-shan Range, north 

China, and the Nan-ling Range, south China, are well known (fig. 1). 

They occur in tabular magnetite iron ores; in fissure fillings of fluorite,

Nl
N2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N3

quartz, and carbonate; in tungsten-quartz veins; in muscovite, biotite, 

and biotite-muscovite pegmatites; in tin placers; and as disseminated 

grains in granodiorite. The cerium and yttrium groups and thorium 

characterize deposits in the Yin-shan Range. The yttrium group, 

thorium, and uranium are the most common rare elements in deposits 

of the Nan-ling Range (table 1). Several similar areas of rare-element 

mineral deposits have also been studied.

The purpose of this report is to provide a digest of the published 

literature for each type of rare-element mineral deposit and to ascertain the mode of occurrence in relation to the mineral association and 

geologic environment. As information in the literature is generally 

fragmentary, the writer has added interpretations of some deposits.

Because several of the minerals listed in this report are named for 

localities in mainland China and are generally unfamiliar to Western 

readers, a section in which these minerals are described has been 

included (p. N29).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to the following persons in the U.S. Geological Survey : L. D. Bonham for encouragement and advice during my research, 

Michael Fleischer for suggestions on mineralogy, and J. C. Olson 

and J. W. Adams for technical review. The research that led to this 

report was supported by the U.S. Department of Defense.

YIN-SHAN RANGE 

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

The Yin-shan Range (figs. 1, 2) is in the west-central part of the 

Inner Monogolian Autonomous Region and separates the Mongolian 

Plateau on the north from the North China Plain, dissected mountains, and hills on the south. The range consists of Lang-shan, Sheiten-o-la, Wu-la-shan, and Ta-ching-shan, the last three of which are 

included in this discussion. These mountains, separated by broad 

valleys and basins, trend east-west and attain altitudes that range 

from 1,500 to 1,900 meters. They are structurally a part of the eastwest Inner Mongolian anteclise (Academia Sinica, Institute of 

Geology, 1959, p. 23). This landmass has been stable since the late 

Precambrian. It is flanked by the Mongolian geosynclinal fold belt on 

the north and the north China platform on the south. The basement 

rocks are widely exposed Precambrian metamorphic rocks penetrated 

by granite and pegmatites. A sporadically exposed marine sedimentary 

sequence of Paleozoic rocks unconformably overlies the Precambrian 

metamorphic rocks. These Paleozoic rocks are generally intercalated 

with volcanic rocks in the lower part and penetrated by igneous rocks.
N4 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N5

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TABLE 1. Chemical composition of some rare-element minerals 

fin first column, symbols In brackets indicate the cerium and yttrium groups. Oxides, in weight percent. 

1 Calculated from cell dimensions and chemical composition.

1. Kuo (1953). Chi-ning, Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region.

2. Chang (1968). Pai-yun-o-po, Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region.

3. Peng and Llu (1962). Feng-huang, Hunan.

4. Wang (1964). Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region

5. Kuo (1959). Chi-ning, Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region.

6. Chang (1962b). Yin-shan, Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region.

7. CWang (1962a). Yi

8a. Kuo (1953). Inner 

8b. Chen and others 

9. Kuo and Chiing (

10. Chang and Tung 

,11. Kuo and Chung (

12. Kuo (1958b, 1959)

Allanite Aeschynite

CaO.-. ......... ..

MgO........ .......

MnO . ....

PbO...... .........

FeO.. . ............

Fe,08 . . 

Al,03 .- 

[Y]203 

CeO,... ....... ..... 

CesOj.. ..--.-.... ..

[Ce]jOj... ...........

UO....... ...........

UOj.. ......... ....

U203 ....

U308 .... .....

Th02 .._ ........

TiO2

ZrO,.... ... ......

SiO2 .. ..............

SnO2

KjO... .............

Na2O. ...... .. .. .

ScjOa- -- - ---- ....

SrO.... .............

PjO»... .............

NbsOj.... ...

Ta2O 5 _ .. .......

Vi05 .............

CO2.... .......... ...

HjO+

H2O-__. .... ....

Total-. ...

Specific gravity

1

10.56

1.94

.62

9.50

6.76 ..

17. 16

.27 

11.14 -.

9.28

.25

.81

.13 ..

30. 80

.31 ..

.77

.27

100. 57

3.395

2

0.75

.58

Tr. ..

Und.

2.83 ..

.06

10.99 

9.58

15. 17

4.29

20.57 ..

.13

.08 ..

.42

32.71 ..

.37 ..

1.57

.28

100.38

4.90

Fenghuangite

3

10.43

0.08

.10

.31

1.36

.66 

. 12. 98

J20. 07J

.40

19.64

13.76

.25

..50

6.32

2.62

5.49

4.82

, 99.79

15.123

Ferguso- Jiningite Monazite

nite

4

0.64

.26

.07

.35

.35 ..

1.47

.95

31.66

5.30 ..

3.35 ..

2.12 ..

2.10

2.50 - _ _

.77

40.18 ..

4.10 ..

2.54

.52

99.23

- 4.8-5.4

Niobo- Sarnars

aeschynite

5 6

7. 43 0. 65

0.49 . Tr.

Tr. Tr.

.52 ..........

17.28 .16 ...

1.48 -...-....

7 8a

3. 54 2. 63

.05 .18

Tr: 1. 02

Und. 1. 24

6. 12 . 52

.......... 12.55

.15 .32

1 | .23 .70 13. 05 

h.84 J ...... . -.... . 

| I 33.84 11.56 ............

 .... 33.69

.46 ..........

44. 83 .34

.95 .. .. .

7. 13 Und. .

6.08 28.00 ...

.97 ...... .......

7.05- ) 2Q7

2. 84 ) '

99. 35 98. 98

4. 01 . 5. 043

19. 61 1. 21

.......... 6.61

.. ...- 6.24

.83 ............

2. 15 . 36

12. 13 2. 18

. -... .32

.55 .25

.......... .11

41. 13 39. 19

. 51 9. 73

74 J2. 12

74 \ .22

99. 77 100. 05

5.056 NA

1

5. 

I
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N7

In addition, a continental sedimentary sequence of Mesozoic and 

Tertiary rocks covers the older rocks in most of the lowlands. Most 

of these clastic rocks are capped by late Tertiary olivine basalt flows. 

Loose Quaternary alluvial, eolian, and glacial deposits conceal the 

bedrock in scattered areas. East-west folds in the bedrock range from 

broad to tight and overturned. The bedrock is cut by many east-westtrending deep-seated block 'faults, thrust faults, and tear faults.

STRATIGRAPHY

The basement rocks consist of lower and upper Precambrian metamorphic complexes. The lower Precambrian rocks form the core of 

the Inner Mongolian anteclise and consist of eugeosynclinal sequences 

of the Sang-kan and Wu-tai Series (Academia Sinica, Institute of 

Geology, 1959, p. 24). The Sang-kan Series is made up of pelitic, 

siliceous, and calcareous biotite schist; hornblende schist; marble; 

granitoid gneiss; garnet-biotite gneiss; and augite gneiss; these are 

intruded by granite and pegmatite. The Wu-tai Series is made up of 

mica schist and sericite schist, which are intercalated with banded and 

laminated magnetite layers containing quartz and hornblende aggregates and with volcanic rocks; this series is intruded by granite, 

pegmatite, and hornblendite (Lee and others, 1957, p. 260; Academia 

Sinica, Institute of Geology, 1959, p. 24). The Sang-kan and Wu-tai 

granites, which occur as sills, dikes, and stocks, are even grained 

to porphyritic and consist chiefly of orthoclase, microcline, sodaplagioclase, quartz, biotite, hornblende, and some hypersthene.

Lower upper Precambrian rocks are represented by a miogeosynclinal sequence of the Pai-yun-o-po Group, which consists of quartzite 

and slate in the lower part; calcareous quartzite, siliceous and clayey 

limestone and dolomite in the middle part; and slate that contains 

interbeds of quartzite in the upper part. This group is locally intercalated with hornfels and mica, sericite, rutile, cordierite, and garnet 

schists (Lee and others, 1957, p. 245-253; Young and others, 1957; 

Academia Sinica, Institute of Geology, 1959, p. 24; Ting, 1933, p. 54). 

Total thickness of this group is 3,010 meters in the Pai-yun-o-po area. 

Upper upper Precambrian rocks are made up of quartzite and shale in 

the lower part, siliceous limestone that contains oolitic hematite 

layers in the middle part, and siliceous limestone in the upper part. 

Thickness ranges from 400 to 700 meters. These rocks occur sporadically along the southern flank of the anteclise.

The Paleozoic Era is represented by marine sedimentary and volcanic sequences of Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and 

Permian age. The Cambrian deposits of clayey and oolitic limestone 

and a basal breccia are exposed only in the foothills southwest of the
N8 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Wu-la-shan. Outcrops of Silurian and Devonian rocks occur north 

of Pai-yun-o-po and in nearby areas. The principal rock types of * 

Silurian and Devonian age are basalt, andesite, diabase, and tuff; 

these are intercalated with phyllite and slate in the lower part and 

with quartzite, phyllite, and sericite schist that contains some clayey 

crystalline limestone in the upper part (Show and Liu, 1962, p. 384). 

Lower Carboniferous deposits of conglomerate, conglomeratic sandstone, sandstone, andesitic tuff, limestone, and shale occur only in the ^ 

northern flank of the Inner Mongolian anteclise, but upper Carboniferous conglomerate, coarse-grained sandstone, sandy shale that contains coal beds, and shale are scattered throughout the Yin-shan * 

Eange. These sedimentary rocks were intruded by a variety of plutonic rocks ranging in size from dike to batholith. Alkalic granite, 

syenite, and some gabbroic rocks are found mainly in the Pai-yun-o-po <% 

and Wu-la-shan areas, whereas augite peridotite and dunite were emplaced north, northwest, and northeast of Pai-yun-o-po. Conglomerate, sandstone, and shale of Permian age occur only in the areas 

northwest and northeast of Pai-yun-o-po. Red beds of Carboniferous 

and Permian age or Permian and Triassic age, mainly continental 

facies, are exposed in scattered areas of the Ta-ching-shan. All these -* 

rocks unconformably overlie the Precambrian rocks.

The Mesozoic Era is represented by a continental sedimentary sequence of Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous age. Principal rock types 

are conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone, clay, and shale that contains 

coal beads; these rocks occur mainly in intermontane basins. During 

the Tertiary Period, most of the lowlands throughout the Yin-shan 

Range were covered by a continental sequence of conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone, and clay, locally capped by amygdaloidal olivine 

basalt. Quaternary alluvial, eolian, and glacial deposits of clay, silt, 

sand, and gravel are present in lowlands.

STRUCTURE

The east-west Inner Mongolian anteclise was formed during a large- ^ 

scale deformation at the end of the early Precambrian (Academia 

Sinica, Institute of Geology, 1959, p. 24). The east-west folds of lower 

Precambrian beds were subsequently cut by strike-slip faults, in which ^ 

the movement was generally parallel to the strike of the regional 

foliation in the gneiss and schist. The deformation was accompanied 

by granite and pegmatite injection and intense synkinematic mig- ^ 

matization. Foredeeps were formed along the northern flank of the 

anteclise and later were filled by the Pai-yun-o-po sediments. Prior to 

the late late Precambrian marine transgression, both broad and over- ^
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N9

turned east-west folds formed in the Pai-yun-o-po beds, which were 

then truncated by thrust faults.

After the deposition of the Pai-yun-o-po sediments, this anteclise 

became more stable, and emerged above sea level to remain a landmass 

during late Precambrian, Cambrian, and Ordovician times. During 

an early Paleozoic deformation, there was local subsidence in this 

area, related to formation of the Mongolian geosyncline to the north. 

Late Paleozoic deformation involved two major episodes. The first 

episode is indicated by the unconformable contact between the Devonian and lower Carboniferous strata, and the second by the unconformity between the upper Carboniferous and Permian beds to the 

north, northwest, and northeast (Show and Lieu, 1962). Broad to tight 

and overturned folds formed in the upper Paleozoic beds and were 

cut by strike-slip faults and thrust faults. These movements were 

accompanied by the emplacement of alkalic plutonic rocks in the Paiyun-o-po and Wu-la-shan areas and ultrabasic intrusive rocks elsewhere to the north, northwest, and northeast. During that time, many 

intermontane basins were formed.

Late Mesozoic deformation is clearly indicated by the east-west 

isoclinal and overturned folds of Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata which 

were broken by imbricate thrust faults, as indicated in the Ta-chingshan area (fig. 2). During most of the Tertiary, the Yin-shan Kange 

was subject to erosion and denudation accompanied by uplift, and 

locally it was cut by block faulting; eruption of basalt occurred in late 

Tertiary time.

ORE DEPOSITS

OCCURRENCE AMD AREAL DISTRIBUTION

Deposits of rare-element minerals in the Yin-shan Range are found 

in tabular bodies and irregular bands of iron ore; in pegmatites; and 

in fluorite, quartz, and carbonate veins. The iron ores are in the Precambrian limestone and dolomite of the Pai-yun-o-po Group in the 

vicinity of Pai-yun-o-po on the north and in Wu-la-shan on the south. 

The principal iron ore minerals are magnetite, specularite, and hematite, which are associated with disseminated rare-earth minerals. The 

most common rare-element-bearing vein deposit is iregular in shape 

and is generally confined to a north-south belt between Pai-yun-o-po 

and Wu-la-shan (fig. 2). The vein deposits are concentrated adjacent 

to the rare-earth-bearing iron ore bodies. The rare-element-bearing 

pegmatite deposits are in the Precambrian metamorphic complexes of 

the Sang-kan and Wu-tai Series and are confined to an east-west belt 

along the southern flank of the Yin-shan Range. This belt extends 

approximately from the south of Chi-ning on the east to Wu-la-shan
N10 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

proper on the west (fig. 2). The distribution pattern of all these types 

of deposits generally conforms to the regional alinement of the eastwest shear zones.

RARE-EARTH-BEARING IRON ORES

The Pai-yun-o-po and Wu-la-shan areas are well known for their 

magnetite-specularite ore deposits. The Pai-yun-o-po area (approx lat 

41°44' N., long 109°52' E.) is about 90 miles due north of Pao-t'ou 

(lat 40°36' N., long 110°03/ E.) in the west Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. The Wu-la-shan area (approx lat 40°45' N.; long 

109°25' E.) is about 30 miles N. 70° W. of Pao-t'ou. The ore deposits 

of both areas generally are large tabular bodies and blocks that contain lenticular bands and stringers and are in siliceous and cherty 

limestone in the Pai-yan-o-po area and in dolomite in the Wu-la-shan 

area. These bodies are in general concordant with the bedding of the 

carbonate country rocks but in detail have irregular outlines and crosscutting metamorphosed contacts. According to Cheng (1953, p. 127), 

the ore bodies of the Pai-yun-o-po area are locally in contact with 

biotite schist. Stratification of the limestone and schistosity of the 

schist are preserved to some extent in the ore bodies.

Contact metamorphism of the carbonate rocks is generally present, 

and the calc-silicate hornfels zones are less than 100 meters across. 

The metamorphosed limestone generally contains quartz-filled cavities and disseminated minerals, including diopside, aegirine-augite, 

lepidolite, apatite, iron oxides, calcite, quartz, barite, fluorite, epidote, 

and niobo-aeschynite and other rare-earth minerals. Some of the 

disseminated minerals are locally replaced 'by iron ore minerals and 

fluorite. In the biotite schist, magnetite and fluorite are commonly 

present.

The principal ore body in the Pai-yun-o-po area is more than 1,000 

meters long and several hundred meters wide. The ore mineral is chiefly 

magnetite in association with hematite, dark-violet fluorite, beiyinite, 

oborite, aegirine, aeschynite, kataphorite, barite, and cerium-group 

oxides and other rare-earth minerals. According to Cheng (1953 p. 

127), this iron ore contains 40-65 percent iron, 0.2-1 percent phosphorus, variable sulfur, and 2-7.2 percent cerium-group oxides. The 

high-grade iron ore is generally in the central part of the ore body and 

contains only minor amounts of rare-earth minerals. The low-grade 

iron ore has a rich rare-earth content, in some parts more than 1.5 percent (elemental). Principal rare-earth elements known to be present 

are cerium, lanthanum, yttrium, and erbium.

The iron ore bodies of Wu-la-shan were described by Lee (1957). 

The deposits consist chiefly of magnetite and specular hematite in association with accessory minerals similar to those of the Pai-yun-o-po
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA Nil

area. Locally apatite, dolomite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, galena, 

sphalerite, and molybdenite are also present. The contact zone between 

the ore body and dolomite country rock is rather wide and contains as 

principal disseminated minerals aegirine, aegirine-augite, kataphorite, 

and albite, in association with niobo-aeschynite and other rare-earth 

minerals.

FLUORITE, QUARTZ, AND CARBONATE VEINS

The rare-element-bearing veins are generally in alinement with the 

east-west shear zones. The veins pinch and swell abruptly, cut across 

the iron ore bodies, and penetrate the country rock of the Pai-yun-o-po 

Group. In the Pai-yun-o-po area, the principal fluorite vein is about 

1 meter wide and about 500 meters long (Ting, 1933, p. 57). Fluorite 

is the principal constituent and is associated with very fine grains of 

magnetite, pyrite, barite, aeschynite, beiyinite, oborite, and parisite 

(Ho, 1935, p. 279; Wang, T. F., 1958, p. 401). In the Wu-la-shan area 

additional minerals in the fluorite veins are aegirine, aegirine-augite 

kataphorite, and albite (Lee, 1957).

The quartz veins generally cut across the slate, quartzite, cherty 

limestone, and dolomite of the Pai-yun-o-po Group. Quartz and iron 

oxides form the bulk of the veins; however, veins in carbonate country 

rock contain mainly quartz, aegirine, aegirine-augite, kataphorite, albite, and oligoclase in association with aeschynite, niobo-aeschynite, 

calcite, dolomite, phlogopite, biotite, apatite, and barite, and, in places, 

some pyrite, pyrrhotite, baotite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, and 

molybdenite (Chang, 1958,1962a; Lee, 1957).

The carbonate veins consist chiefly of calcite, iron dolomite, barite, 

and siderite, and contain a minor amount of thorium-poor monazite, 

magnetite, and unidentified rare-earth minerals of the cerium and 

yttrium groups (Chang, 1962b).

PEGMATITES

The rare-element pegmatites in the Yin-shan Range occur in the 

Sang-kan and Wu-tai metamorphic complexes of biotite granitoid 

gneiss, hornblende gneiss, garnet gneiss, mica schist, and equigranular 

to porphyritic granites. Structural discordance of pegmatites and 

country rock is characteristic. Although the pegmatites generally follow east-west structural alinement, locally they deflect toward the 

northwest and the northeast. The dip angles of pegmatites are generally 

over 70° and in places are vertical. Pegmatites in the gneisses and 

schists have generally sharp contacts with country rock, whereas those 

in the granites have gradational contacts. The known exposed width 

of pegmatites ranges from 1 to 6 feet (Sun, 1934, p. 76). Three principal rare-element-bearing types are recognized in this belt (Kuo, 1957,
N12 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

1958a) : (a) biotite pegmatite, (b) muscovite pegmatite, and (c) biotite-muscovite pegmatite. The first two types are generally abundant 

and widely distributed; they may be associated with aplite dikes and 

cut by Tertiary diabase dikes. The biotite-muscovite pegmatites, found 

locally between the other types, are transitional.

The bulk mineralogical composition of the biotite pegmatites consists of microcline, perthite, quartz, biotite, allanite, magnetite, and 

fergusonite, in association with some hematite, specularite, martite, 

yinshanite, amazonite, muscovite, epidote, apatite, pyrite, limonite, 

kaolinite, calcite, manganese oxides, samarskite, euxenite, sinicite, 

ampangabeite, monazite, zircon, titanite, thorite, uranothorite, and 

broggerite (uraninite). The most common minerals of the muscovite 

pegmatites are microcline, perthite, plagioclase, kaolinite, quartz, muscovite, cleavelandite, black tourmaline, garnet, topaz, and beryl, in association with accessory biotite, chalcedony, epidote, apatite, fluorite, 

cassiterite, magnetite, hematite, martite, specularite, tysonite, pyrite, 

limonite, calcite, jiningite, manganese oxides, samarskite, sphene, 

ilmenorutile, monazite, columbite, yttrotantalite, chrysoberyl, toddite, 

spodumene, killinite, lepidolite, lithium tourmaline, tantalian 

aeschynite, and variscite. The biotite-muscovite pegmatites consist 

chiefly of microcline, perthite, quartz, biotite, and muscovite, in association with plagioclase, cleavelandite, amazonite, topaz, garnet, black 

tourmaline, epidote, fluorite, magnetite, hematite, specularite, columbite, martite, pyrite, limonite, kaolinite, calcite, manganese oxides, 

samarskite, fergusonite, sinicite, monazite, zircon, toddite, sphene, 

ilmenorutile, xenotime, thorite, broggerite, beryl, ferrithorite, and 

uranothorite. Characteristic minerals of these three types of pegmatite 

are allanite, zircon, euxenite, uranothorite, and ampangabeite for 

the biotite type; chrysoberyl, spodumene, lepidolite, lithium tourmaline, variscite, columbite, yttrotantalite, and cassiterite for the 

muscovite type; and xenotime, ferrithorite, thorite, uranothorite, 

and intergrown sinicite and beryl for the biotite-muscovite type.

The internal structure of the pegmatites consists of units of contrasting mineralogy or texture or both. Such units for pegmatites in 

general have been classified as zones, replacement units, and fracturefilling units (Cameron and others, 1949). Zonal distribution in the 

three pegmatite types under discussion was given by Kuo (1957,1958a) 

and Sze (1957), but detailed information concerning the mineral sequence and structural position of the border, intermediate, and wall 

zones in each pegmatite type is generally lacking. When Kuo and 

Chung (1957a) investigated the toddite deposits in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Kegion, they described the zonal distribution in 

the muscovite type of pegmatite: coarse-grained potassium feldspars
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N13

are the principal minerals of the border and wall zones; muscovite is 

the common mineral of the intermediate zone; and blocky quartz is 

the chief constituent of the core. The blocky quartz zone occupies about 

one-fourth to one-third of the total thickness of the muscovite pegmatite, locally as much as half of the thickness. Toddite is present 

generally in the potassium feldspar zone. The country rocks are commonly mineralized with garnet. According to Kuo (1958a, p. 93), the 

highest concentrations of zirconium, hafnium, titanium, uranium, 

thorium, niobium, and some beryllium occur in the potassium feldspar 

zone or at the contact between the potassium feldspar zone and the 

blocky quartz zone in all three types of pegmatites.

Irregular to lenticular bodies of replacement units occur only in the 

muscovite type of pegmatite (Kuo, 1958a, p. 94). Principal minerals 

in these replacement units are albite, muscovite, lepidolite, beryl, lithium tourmaline, and cassiterite. As compared with the biotite and 

biotite-muscovite pegmatites, the muscovite type has a higher content 

of beryllium, lithium, cesium, niobium, tantalum, and tin and a lower 

content of uranium, thorium, titanium, zirconium, and hafnium.

Tabular or veinlike bodies fill fractures in the preexisting pegmatites. These units are locally associated with spherical cavities which 

vary from 2 to 3 feet across (Sun, 1934). The cavities are commonly 

partly filled with red or yellowish-red clay in which smoky quartz 

with attached greenish-blue beryl or topaz is embedded. Principal 

minerals of the fracture-filling units are quartz, biotite, and muscovite.

The areal distribution of these three types of pegmatites in relation to the granite intrusive bodies was further defined by Kuo (1958a, 

p. 95). The biotite type occurs generally near the granite body and contains abundant allanite as well as zircon, monazite, samarskite, and 

euxenite, all found chiefly in parts of the pegmatites rich in potassium 

feldspar. Allanite is less common in biotite pegmatites farthest from 

the granite. Biotite-muscovite pegmatite containing beryl lies outside 

the zone of biotite pegmatites that contain yttrotitanite and chrysoberyl. Locally the zircon-or samarskite-bearing biotite type is in direct 

contact with the muscovite type, in which the blocky quartz zone is 

well formed and beryl is the characteristic rare-element mineral.

MINERALOGY

Most of the known minerals in the deposits of the Yin-shan Eange 

are typical of magnetite ore deposits, fluoride-oxide and sulfide-carbonate veins, and pegmatites. Magnetite, specularite, and hematite are 

abundant in the iron ores. Fluorite, quartz, calcite, dolomite, aegirine, 

kataphorite, albite, and oligoclase are the principal constituents of 

the veins. Microcline, perthite, quartz, biotite, muscovite, beryl, and

378-978 70 3
N14 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

other silicates are characteristic minerals of the pegmatites. The rareelement minerals in all these deposits are chiefly aeschynite, allanite, 

ampangabeite, apatite, baotite, beiyinite, beryl, broggerite, chrysoberyl, 

columbite, euxenite, fergusonite, fluorite, ferrithorite, jiningite, monazite, niobo-aeschynite, oborite, parisite, samarskite, sinicite, tantalian 

aeschynite, thorite, sphene, ihnenorutile, tysonite, toddite, uranothorite, xenotime, yinshanite, yttrotantalite, and zircon. Other minor constituents are aegirine-augite, amazonite, barite, black tourmaline, 

cleavelandite, cassiterite, chalcedony, chalcopyrite, diopside, epidote, 

galena, garnet, hornblende, kaolinite, killinite, lepidolite, lithium tourmaline, limonite, manganese oxides, martite, molybdenite, plagioclase, 

pyrite, pyrrhotite, phlogopite, sphalerite, siderite, spodumene, topaz, 

and variscite.

MINERALIZATION

The rare-element mineral deposits in the Yin-shan Eange were 

formed in two principal periods of mineralization, accompanied by 

large-scale tectonic deformation. The first period is represented by the 

emplacement of rare-element-bearing pegmatites in the Precambrian 

metamorphic rocks 'at about the end of early Precambrian time and 

before deposition of the Pai-yun-o-po Group (Kuo and others, 1957, 

and Li, Pu, 1965, p. 1664). The second period is indicated by radiometric ages to have occurred approximately in late paleozoic time (Li, 

Pu, 1965, p. 1668). During that period, synkinematic emplacement of 

large masses of rare-earth-bearing iron ores in the Pai-yun-o-po limestone and dolomite and in Precambrian schists was brought about by 

high-temperature alkalic solutions. This metasomatism was followed 

by fissure fillings of rare-element-bearing fluorite, quartz, and carbonate minerals, The sequence of mineralization in each principal period 

is very complex, as shown by the spatial relations of minerals and by 

the structural relations among iron ore bodies, veins, and various types 

of pegmatites. Generally speaking, the paragenesis of the rare-element 

minerals indicates simultaneous deposition, replacement, and alteration of mineral species.

The alkalic carbonate- and iron-rich solutions from which the iron 

and rare-element minerals were precipitated by oxidation are genetically related to the alkalic granites, syenite, and gabbroic rocks 

throughout the mineralized belt (fig. 2). The solutions contained much 

lanthanum, cerium, niobium, fluorine, sodium, and phosphorus. The 

sequence of the mineral-forming process is tentatively believed to be as 

follows:

1. Large-scale deposition of iron ore minerals with simultaneous infiltration-diffusion replacement of the carbonate country rocks to 

form diopside, -aegirine-augite, apatite, and lepidolite.
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N15

2. Wholesale chemical reaction with country rock and main ore bodies 

by rather mobile alkalic carbonate and iron fluids that contained 

much sulfur and silicon, causing partial or, more likely, complete 

replacement of pyroxenes and apatite by magnetite and fluorite in 

the contact-metamorphic zone between the carbonate country rock 

and iron ore bodies; the formation of vugs (Holland and Borcsik, 

1965, p. 368); and further enrichment of rare-earth deposits in 

the iron ore bodies, accompanied by fluorite mineralization elsewhere and locally by deposition of pyrrhotite, magnetite, pyrite, 

chalcopyrite, and other sulfide minerals.

3. Fissure fillings precipitated from a residual alkalic carbonate and 

iron solution, which transported substantial amounts of silicon, 

calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and aluminum to produce 

quartz-aeschynite veins; and subsequently, formation of carbonate veins.

The pegmatites are genetically related to the late-stage magmatic 

differentiation of the nearby Precambrian granite instrusive bodies. 

The paragenesis of rare-element minerals of these pegmatites is given 

by Kuo (1958a, p. 93): allanite and monazite-»zircon-->fergusomte-» 

samarskite-»euxenite-»xenotime-»yttrotantalite >columbite » tantalite-»sinicite-»beryl-»spodumene-*lithium tourmaline->beryl (second 

generation) -»lepidolite. As to the time and space relations of mineralization, variation in mineral sequences occurred in each type of pegmatite, but monazite deposition was generally concentrated in an early 

stage of mineralization and persisted throughout the sequences. Allanite, zircon, and samarskite are the relatively high-temperature minerals of the biotite pegmatites. The intermediate-temperature minerals 

are sinicite and beryl, which characterize the biotite-muscovite pegmatites. Lepidolite, lithium tourmaline, and beryl are the low-temperature minerals of the muscovite pegmatites. Most of the rare-element 

minerals are concentrated in the potassium feldspar zones or in the 

contact between the potassium feldspar and quartz zones in all the 

pegmatite types.

NAN-LING RANGE

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

The Nan-ling Eange (figs. 1, 3) forms an east-west divide in south 

China, separating the Yangtze drainage system on the north from the 

Chu-chiang system on the south. The range includes primarily the 

mountains and hills between north Kwangtung and southeast Hunan 

but also includes the Ghu-kwang-shan and Kwang-young-shan in east 

Hunan 'and west Kiangsi and the Ta-yu-ling and Chiu-lien-shan in 

south Kiangsi and north Kwangtung. The Chiu-lien-shan is the
N16 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N17

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N18 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

easternmost extension of the Nan-ling mountain chain, and it deflects 

toward the northeast to join the Wu-yi-shan in east Kiangsi and west 

Fukien. Altitudes range from 1,270 to 1,900 meters.

The mountains are structurally a part of the Cathaysian anteclise 

(Academia Sinica, Institute of Geology, 1959, p. 56). The basement 

rocks are generally well exposed in the Nan-ling proper and consist 

of pre-Sinian slightly metamorphosed rocks. Sinian (upper Precambrian) rocks are found in scattered areas in the southwest part of 

the Nan-ling Kange. A continental sequence of lower Paleozoic rocks 

and a marine sequence of upper Paleozoic rocks are widely distributed 

and unconformably overlie the pre-Sinian metamorphic rocks. These 

sedimentary rocks are locally penetrated by Caledonian biotite 

granites. Most hilly and lowland areas are covered by marine Triassic 

limestone and shale as well as a continental sequence of Jurassic to 

Tertiary clay, shale, sandstone, and in places coal beds. A large-scale 

orogenic movement took place during late Mesozoic time, when most 

of the older rocks were folded and faulted and granite intrusion was 

widespread. Quaternary alluvial red clay, sand, and gravel conceal 

the bedrock in some of the lowland areas. The generally broad but 

locally overturned folds of these older rocks were cut through by many 

northeast-trending normal faults and north- or northeast-trending 

thrust faults.

STRATIGRAPHY

The exposed basement rocks are pre-Sinian flysch-metasedimentary rocks phyllite, slate, quartzite, sandstone, mica schists, and 

gneiss in south Kiangsi, east and north Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous 

Region, and south Hunan (Academia Sinica, Institute of Geology, 

1959, p. 56). The thickness of these rocks ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 

meters. The Sinian rocks occur only in north Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region and southwest Hunan of the southwest Nan-ling 

Range. They consist of sandstone, tuffaceous sandstone, and conglomerate in the lower part; and cherty limestone, shale, and locally 

tillite in the upper part. Thickness ranges from 100 to 600 meters.

Paleozoic rocks are widely distributed throughout the Nan-ling 

Range and are represented by continental and marine sedimentary 

sequences of Cambrian through Permian age. Pre-Devonian rocks 

exposed in south Kiangsi are principally phyllite, slate, quartzose 

sandstone, and phyllitic shale, having a total thickness of about 2,000 

meters. Micaceous sandstone and shale, 300 meters thick, are found in 

east Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region. Phyllite, slate, sandstone, 

and shale, more than 2,000 meters thick, are exposed in south Hunan. 

The pre-Devonian rocks exposed in north Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region are represented by Cambrian and Ordovician carbona-
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N19

ceous and sandy shales in the lower part, and cherty and thick-bedded 

limestone with interbeds of shale and sandstone in the upper part; 

total thickness is about 1,800 meters.

Devonian rocks are sandstone and shale in the lower part and cherty, 

thin- to thick-bedded limestone with interbeds of shale in the upper 

part. Thickness ranges from 20 meters in south Kiangsi to more than 

1,000 meters in north and east Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Eegion 

and south Hunan. Carboniferous and Permian rocks are widespread 

in the northwest and southwest Nan-ling Range. They consist of shale 

and sandstone with coal beds in the lower part and cherty, bituminous, 

thick-bedded to massive, crystalline limestone in the middle part, 

which grades into shale and sandstone with coal beds in the upper 

part. Thickness of this sequence is as much as 1,400 meters. The permian rocks are generally sparse in the north Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region, whereas the Carboniferous sequence of limestone and 

shale attains a thickness of more than 1,200 meters in this area.

The Mesozoic rocks are represented by a Triassic marine sedimentary sequence and a Jurassic and Cretaceous continental sedimentary 

sequence. The Triassic rocks occur only in south Kiangsi, south Hunan, 

and east Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region and consist of thinbedded clayey dense limestone with interbeds of shale. Thickness 

ranges from 40 to 300 meters. The Jurassic rocks are exposed in the 

same general areas, and consist of shale, sandstone, and conglomerate 

with coal seams. Thickness ranges from 300 to 600 meters. Cretaceous 

rocks crop out only in south Kiangsi, adjacent to the northeast part 

of the range, where they attain a thickness of about 1,000 meters. Principal rock types are conglomerate, sandstone, quartzite, phyllite, shale, 

tuffaceous sandstone, and, in places, rhyolite flows.

Most lowlands throughout the Nan-ling Range are covered by a 

Tertiary continental sequence of red beds, which consists chiefly of 

variegated shale, clay, sandstone, basal gravel, and locally breccia. 

Quaternary alluvial red clay, sand, and gravel are well formed along 

stream valleys.

STRUCTURE

The Nan-ling Cathaysian anteclise was formed during several periods of tectonic deformation from late Precambrian to early Paleozoic 

time and became stable at about the close of the Caledonian deformation. The northeast-trending tight folds of pre-Sinian beds were 

locally intruded by ia titanium-bearing biotite-muscovite granite. The 

absence of Sinian sedimentary rocks in most of the Nan-ling Range 

indicates emergence during this time, but large-scale subsidence and 

deposition of early Paleozoic sediments followed. During Caledonian 

deformation, the early Paleozoic rocks underwent tight folding accom-
N20 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

panied by marked subsidence in the northwest and southwest Nanling Range 'and by granite intrusion elsewhere. Peneplanation throughout south China preceded the deposition of Devonian rocks. The Hercynian deformation involved chiefly epeirogenic movements, as indicated by the nature of the sedimentary sequence as well as by the discomformable contacts in the late Paleozoic sedimentary rocks.

Early Mesozoic deformation is locally marked by unconformable 

contact of Upper Triassic and Lower Jurassic rocks and by biotite 

granite. Effects of the late Mesozoic orogenic movement are very conspicuous throughout the Nan-ling Range; the orogeny is clearly indicated by the north- or northeast-trending, locally overturned folds 

of Paleozoic and Mesozoic beds and by widespread volcanic activity 

and large-scale granite intrusions. These folds were severely truncated 

by north-trending normal and blockfaults and northeast-trending 

thrust faults. As a result, composite joint systems were formed that 

have east, north-northwest, and north-northeast trends. The easttrending joint set is generally well formed and played a major role in 

ore mineralization. Tension joints are more abundant than shear joints. 

During most of the Tertiary, the Nan-ling Range was subjected to 

erosion and denudation, accompanied by local uplifting and block 

f aultings. Basalt eruption occurred only along the coastal areas.

ORE DEPOSITS

OCCURRENCE AND AREAL DISTRIBUTION

Rare-element minerals in the Nan-ling Range occur in fissure-filling 

tungsten-quartz veins, in pegmatites, in tin-bearing placers, and as 

disseminated grains in granodiorite. Of these, the tungsten-quartz 

veins are widely distributed 'and form a mineralized 'belt that extends 

approximately from Ohung-hsin (lat 24°13'N.; long 114°44'E.), north 

Kwangtung, on the south, to the vicinity of Ta'i-o (lat 26°48'N., 

long 114°56'E.), south Kiangsi, on the north. Pegmatites are of the 

muscovite variety and are sporadically present. The tin-bearing placers 

are confined to a belt that extends approximately from Fu-chung 

(Ohung-shan; lat 24°32'N., long 111°18/E.) on the north to Ho-hsien 

(lat 24°20'N., long 111°39'E.) on the south, northeast Kwangsi 

Ohuang Autonomous Region. The disseminated-grain deposit is probably in a granodiorite intrusive body, about 10 miles S. 47° E. of Kungch'eng (lat 24°50'N., long 110°49/E.), northeast Kwangsi Chuang 

Autonomous Region. The distribution pattern of the tungsten-quartz 

veins conforms closely to the regional alinement of shear and tensionjoint zones.
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N21 

TUNGSTEN-QUARTZ VEINS

These veins consist of hypothermal and less productive hydrothermal 

varieties (Hsii and Ting, 1943). The hypothermal veins are welldefined tabular bodies that fill preexisting fissures in granite or in the 

pre-Devonian metasedimentary rocks near the granite. They are generally regular in strike and dip; major trends are east and northeast. 

Zonal arrangement of the ore minerals is common. In any one of these 

veins, wolframite occupies a lower zone that the bismuth minerals and 

a higher zone than molybdenite; arsenopyrite is dominant in places, 

and cassiterite seems to be richer in the upper zone. Maximum width 

of the veins is 3.5 meters, but most of the productive veins range from 

0.1 to 0.5 meters in width. Lateral and vertical variation in width is 

common, but us a rule the wide veins maintain their width for long 

distances. Branching is not common and generally does not obscure the 

apparent regularity of the veins. Most veins are a hundred to several 

hundred meters long; only a few are several meters to tens of meters 

long. The vertical extent of veins in sedimentary rocks generally is 

greater than that of veins in granite. Principal minerals are wolframite, scheelite, cassiterite, molybdenite, bismuthinite, stibnite, and 

quartz, in association with tungstdte, fluorite, topaz, lepidolite, microcline, speoularite, rutile, hematite, zinnwaldite, calcite, zircon, bismite, 

molybdite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, native bismuth, beryl, monazite, biotite, bismutite, smithsonite, psilomelane, xenotime, pyrolusite, chlorite, 

zeolite, urariinite, and thortveitite and other rare-element minerals.

Hydrothermal replacement veins are generally associated with zones 

of greisen in the form of irregular patches, lenses, pockets, and rudely 

tabular bodies in greisenized granites in the upper part of granite 

cupolas. The width of the greisenized zone is nowhere more than 3 

meters and mostly less than 1 meter (Wu, 1957). Zonal distribution 

in these veins is indicated by both lateral and vertical changes in mineral assemblages in the greisenized granite at Ta-yu-ling (Wu, 1957; 

Tu and Liu, 1965, p. 266). A quartz zone is the core of the vein and 

is followed successively by a muscovite zone, muscovite-quartz zone, 

mica-enriched greisen zone, quartz-enriched greisen zone, and alkalifeldspar-enriched granite. The main body of the vein includes the 

quartz zone through the muscovite-quartz zone with its vugs, and contains potassium feldspar, carbonates, cassiterite, beryl, wolframite, and 

sulfides. The veins are widest in the middle parts and become narrower 

both upward and downward. In the upper parts, the most common 

minerals are cassiterite, beryl, molybdenite,'micas, topaz, and quartz 

that has comb structure. The middle parts are characterized by more
N22 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

abundant potassium feldspar, carbonate minerals, helvite, wolframite, 

and quartz; vugs are larger. The lower parts are marked by the appearance of abundant sulfide and carbonate minerals. Principal minerals of these replacement veins are lepidolite, muscovite, potassium 

feldspar, quartz, tourmaline, topaz, and fluorite, in association with 

beryl, helvite, magnetite, xenotime, titanite, pyrite, spinel, chalcopyrite, stibnite, arsenopyrite, protolithionite, epidote, cassiterite, wolframite, molybdenite, and, in places, apatite.

PEGMATITES

The pegmatites consist predominantly of the muscovite variety, and 

are irregular dikes and pockets in small granite intrusions or in marginal parts of batholiths. The most common minerals are orthoclase or 

microcline, quartz, muscovite, lepidolite, tourmaline, fluorite, and topaz, in association with wolframite or scheelite, garnet, cassiterite. 

molybdenite, and minerals of uranium, thorium, and beryllium.

DISSEMINATED GRAINS IN GRANODIORITE

This type of deposit occurs in a Triassic granodiorite body in the 

southwest Nan-ling Eange, northeast Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous 

Kegion. The granodiorite is in metamorphosed contact with the Devonian marine Tung-kung-ling limestone and Hsiao-shan sandstone, 

which are unconformably overlain by the Jurassic continental sequence of shale and sandstone with coal beds and fergusonite-bearing 

basal conglomerate. Study of this conglomerate led to discovery of the 

fergusonite granodiorite (Wang, T. F., 1964). The granodiorite body 

has a fergusonite-rich marginal zone that contains fluorite, perthite, 

anorthoclase, and plagioclase of high Ab content; pegmatitic masses 

generally appear within this zone. The intermediate or transitional 

zone is characterized by abundant monazite. The inner zone is rather 

porphyritic and contains perthite and abundant sphene. Principal 

rock-forming minerals are perthite, anorthoclase, orthoclase, albite, 

oligoclase, quartz, biotite, and fergusonite, in association with sphene, 

fluorite, magnetite, zircon, allanite, monazite, xenotime, thorite, and 

apatite. Oligoclase and biotite are commonly replaced by fergusonite ; 

in the marginal zone, oligoclase is replaced in part by fluorite, quartz, 

and fergusonite.

TIN-BEARING PLACERS

The tin-bearing placers were formed as valley fill and extend northnorthwest to .south-southeast for about 24 miles in northwest Kwangsi 

Chuang Autonomous Region. The older 'alluvial tin-bearing deposits 

of red clay, sand, and gravel form high terraces generally 30 to 40 

meters, locally more than 100 meters, above the river bed (Hsieh, 1943,
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N23

p. 81-82). These deposits are locally 70 or more meters thick. The 

more recent alluvial deposits of tin-bearing sand and gravel form 

lower terraces 20 to 50 meters 'above the river bed and range in thickness from 10 to 40 meters. Alluvial fans extend to 100 or 200 meters 

above the river; these well-stratified deposits are the principal source 

of the placers that yield rare-element minerals. The placers are of the 

cave and fissure types in limestone terrain. Most of the ore-mineral 

concentrates occur in the lower part of the placers where the principal 

ore minerals are cassiterite and stannite in association locally with 

phosphuranylite, uraninite, and monazite (Nan and Wu, 1944). These 

minerals were apparently derived from the granites to the north.

MINERALIZATION

The tungsten-quartz veins and pegmatites are genetically related to 

the granite intrusions throughout the Nan-ling Kange, particularly 

the late Mesozoic granites. These granite stocks generally contain 30 

to 46 percent potassium, 13 to 30 percent plagioclase (An6 -i0 ), 30 to 38 

percent .quartz, and a trace to 12 percent biotite and muscovite. Accessory minerals include garnet, zircon, rutile, magnetite, apatite, allanite, 

and monazite (Hsii and others, 1963, p. 20-23). Greisenization, muscovite enrichment, albitization, and dissemination of fluorite characterize the hydrothermal alteration of these granites. Principal oreforming elements of these late Mesozoic granites are W, Sn, Mo, Bi, 

Li, Be, Sr, Pb, Ga, Zr, Ti, Sb, Zn, Cu, La, Y, Yb, Nb, and U. The 

major phase of mineralization took place in the Early Cretaceous during the second phase of late Mesozoic deformation. It resulted in enrichment of tungsten, tin, lead, zinc, and antimony, in association with 

rare-element metals. Hsii, Sun, Wang, and Hu (1963) stated that the 

wolframite-quartz veins were formed under hypothermal conditions 

and were followed by the formation of mesothermal scheelite-wolframite-quartz veins and epithermal stibnite-wolframite-quartz veins or 

scheelite-fluorite-calcite-quartz veins. The mesothermal and epithermal 

sequences of mineralization were generally accompanied by hydrothermal alteration. Later, Tu and Liu (1965, p. 263) confirmed Hsii's 

observation and mentioned that some late Mesozoic granites have a 

much higher content of tungsten, bismuth, mobybdenum, and tin than 

the early Mesozoic granites. These authors believed that vertical zoning 

of wolframite deposits in replacement veins of the granites was the 

result of metasomatic interaction between polyascendant mineralizer 

solutions and minerals of the granitic wallrock. Deposition of sulfide 

minerals (including molybdenite) preceded that of wolframite and 

helvite, and these were followed by deposition of cassiterite, beryl, 

and late molybdenite.
N24 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

The disseminated type of rare-earth mineral deposit in Triassic 

granodiorite was formed by magmatic fractionation. Owing to the 

presence of pegmatitic masses and the spatial relation of mineral 

grains in the marginal zone, it is believed that these deposits, which 

contain an anomalous concentration of uranium and thorium minerals, were formed during the late stage of magmatic differentiation.

SIMILAR AREAS OF RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS

Several other areas of rare-element mineral deposits (fig. 1) are 

postulated by the author on the basis of regional geology described 

in the literature. Areas of fissure-filling or replacement carbonate 

veins, pegmatites, and disseminated grains in alkalic granite will be 

discussed. Fissure-filling carbonate veins occur in the vicinity of 

Feng-huang in Hunan Province and Tzu-chin-shan, Hu-yeh-shan, 

Lin-hsien-Hsing-tai, and P'ing-yang in Shansi Province. Areas of 

pegmatites are at Hai-cheng in Liaoning Province and in the Altai 

Mountains of the Sinkiang TJighur Autonomous Kegion. The disseminated type is represented by the Kwang-hai niobium-bearing granite 

in Kwangtung Province. Scanty information is available on rareelement minerals in iron ores, fissure-filling veins, and placers on 

Hainan Island, and in Tertiary gravel beds and Quaternary lacustrine 

deposits in the Sinkiang Uighur Autonomous Region. Both areas, 

however, have yielded a large amount of uranium and thorium ores 

in the past (Li, Yang, 1967, p. 1-2).

AREAS OF FISSURE-FILLING OR REPLACEMENT CARBONATE VEINS

FENG-HUANG

The area of rare-element minerals deposits extends from the vicinity 

of Feng-huang, Hunan Province (lat 27°54' N., long 109°36' E.), 

southwestward for a considerable distance. A northeast-trending fold 

system involves rocks of Sinian and Cambrian age. The Sinian rocks 

are represented by calcareous shale with interbeds of clayey limestone 

in the lower part and thin-bedded and cherty limestone in the upper 

part. This sequence grades upward into Lower Cambrian shale and 

limestone. These strata are overlain by Upper Cambrian thick-bedded 

limestone with interbeds of calcareous shale. Broad to tight folds in 

these strata are cut by a northeast-trending fracture system and were 

penetrated by an alkalic igneous complex probably during Caldedonian deformation. This igneous complex consists of stocks of nepheline 

syenite, urtite, aegirine-augite syenite, and biotite-augite syenite. Dikes 

are made up principally of urtite, which is coarse grained and consists chiefly of euhedral brick-red nepheline, black melanite, and lesser 

amounts of aegirine, orthoclase, fenghuangite, and sphene (Peng and
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N25

Lieu, 1962, p. 677). Nepheline is largely sericitized and has a hematite 

coating; orthoclase is generally fresh.

The rare-element-bearing carbonate-silicate veins, quartz veins, and 

some alkalic dikes are found in Cambrian limestone and are locally 

associated with metasomatic replacement zones. The contact-metamorphic zone, which is more than 10 meters wide in places, contains 

disseminated diopside, vesuvianite, melanite, biotite, lepidolite, epidote, allanite, zircon, sphene, and apatite (Peng, 1959). Many veinlets 

of aegirine-augite, potassium feldspars, and melanite are present and, 

in places, contains as much as 0.612 percent Nb2 05 ,1.61 percent Zr02 , 

and 0.22 percent rare-earth oxides. The carbonate-silicate veins were 

emplaced in the composite fractures of Cambrian limestone, which are 

generally in alinement with the northeast tectonic trend. The veins are 

nearly vertical and are 1 to several meters wide. Mylonitization and 

brecciation have occurred locally within the veins. The bulk composition of these veins includes potassium feldspar, albite, strontium calcite, thorite, and thorogummite. Associated minerals include manganese spar, sphene, rutile, hematite, quartz, biotite, lepidolite, sericite, 

chlorite, augite, melanite, pyrite, galena, and limonite. The rareelement-bearing quartz veins consist chiefly of thorite, thorogummite, 

and quartz in association with minerals of cerium and lanthanum 

earths. The rare-element-bearing urtite dikes occur chiefly in nepheline 

syenite. The urtite consists chiefly of nepheline and melanite with 

accessory minerals of aegirine, orthoclase, fenghuangite, and sphene.

These deposits are genetically related to the alkalic igneous complex. 

It is believed that the sequence of mineralization was the formation of 

silicate minerals during the early phase of alkalic magma f ractionation 

followed by carbonatization and rare-earth mineralization through 

intense infiltration and diffusion by residual alkalic magma fluids.

TZU-CHIN-SHAN, HU-YEH-SHAN, P'lNG-YANG, AND 

LIN-HSIEN-HSING-TAI

Tzu-chin-shan (approx. lat 38°10' N., long 110°58' E.) (Wang, C. 

C., 1947) is 100 miles N. 75° W. of Tai-yuan in the northeastern part 

of the Shensi-Shansi loess uplands. An alkalic igneous complex and 

Mesozoic clastic rocks form broad anticlines cut by north-trending 

graben faults. The five principal rare-element-bearing rock groups, 

from youngest to oldest, are: tinguaite dike, brecciated syenite volcanic neck, nepheline syenite, augite syenite, and trachyandesite. The 

tinguaite dikes consist chiefly of sanidine, orthoclase, nepheline, alkalic 

pyroxene, and amphibole; they cut across older rocks in alinement 

with northwest- and northeast-trending fracture systems. The syenite 

volcanic neck, in the central part of the area, is intensely brecciated, 

and the broken blocks are cemented by vesicular sanidine trachyte and
N26 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

other alkalic rocks. The nepheline syenite occurs as scattered dikes and 

stocks in augite syenite and consists of sanidine, orthoclase, anorthoclase, nepheline, aegirine, and biotite. The augite syenite forms laccoliths that cover a large part of the area; it consists chiefly of oligoclase, albite, anorthoclase, barkevikite, and aegrine-augite. The augite 

syenite was locally brecciated, and lamprophyric rocks cement the breccias. The trachyandesite, which covers most of the area, contains 

andesine (Ab5G , An44 ), hornblende, diopside-augite, and some anorthoclase and orthoclase (Wang, C.C. 1947, p. 233-234). These alkalic rocks 

were derived from an akeritic magma (Nystrom, 1947, p. 91).

Hu-yeh-shan (lat 38°00' N., long 111°58' E.) is about 40 miles due 

west of Tai-yuan in central Shansi Province. A southeast-trending 

anticline is cut by a northeast-trending fracture system. The folded 

strata consist of Sinian cherty limestone, slate, and quartzite, Cambrian and Ordovician limestone, a Carboniferous coal series with interbeds of limestone, and Permian sandstone and shale. An alkalic igneous 

complex in laccoliths, stocks, and volcanic necks cuts the Ordovician 

limestone and was formed in two distinct sequences (Nystrom, 1947, p. 

86-87). The early sequence is represented by the akerite intrusion. This 

rock is medium grained and consists of orthoclase, andesine, oligoclase, 

albite, hornblende, diopside, and accessory minerals of sphene, quartz, 

magnetite, and zircon. As differentiation continued in the akeritic 

magma, nordmarkite was formed. This rock is more silicic and alkalic than the akerite, as indicated by its higher sodic plagioclase content 

and by the presence of aegirine-augite. The late sequence of intrusion 

is indicated by the appearance of highly alkalic aegirine-augite syenite 

that is characterized by the absence of sodic-calcic feldspar and the 

presence of accessory melanite, noselite, and sodalite. The syenite also 

contains more K2O and Na2O than rocks of the early sequence, and 

it has a large amount of primary S03 and Cl. Many dikes of aegirineaugite syenite and pegmatites cut across the akerite and country rock.

The P'ing-yang deposits (approx lat 35°59' N., long 111°45' E.) 

are about 20 miles southeast of P'ing-yang (Lin-fen), south Shansi 

(Nystrom, 1947, p. 87-89). Upper Ordovician limestone here is penetrated by akerite stocks and volcanic necks. The akerite is remarkably 

similar to the Hu-yeh-shan akerite, except that a series of derivatives 

from the P'ing-yang akerite consists of granite-aplite, felsic porphyries, and banatite porphyry. The quartz-porphyry contains phenocrysts of perthitic potassium feldspars in a groundmass of quartz, alkalic feldspar, some plagioclase, and a few grains of other minerals. The 

banatite porphyry is a variety of diorite that consists chiefly of oligoclase, potassium feldspar, quartz, and common hornblende. A highly 

analcitized aegirine-augite syenite, however, was formed during the 

late stage of akeritic magma differentiation. In short, the P'ing-yang
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N27

intrusive rocks are characterized by greater differentiation along granitic and dioritic trends than are those in the Tzu-chin-shan and Hu-yehshan areas.

Lin-hsien-Hsing-tai (approx lat 36°00'-37°00' N., long 113°45'-114° 

40' E.) is an area elongated north-south at the junction of Shansi, 

Hopeh, and Honan Provinces. Thin- to thick-bedded dolomitic and 

argillaceous Ordovician limestone in this area forms part of a northeast-trending anticlinal system. Syenite stocks and dikes, which intrude the limestone, are generally similar to the P'ing-yang akerite but 

are in part granitic and dioritic. Many north-south and east-west fractures cut across the alkalic pluton and limestone country rock.

Although information on rare-element minerals in these areas is 

not available, the author believes that the volcanic necks of brecciated 

syenite in the Tzu-chin-shan, Hu-yeh-shan, iand P'ing-yang alkalic 

plutons are very likely similar to necks of porphyritic cancrinite syenite in the Bearpaw Mountains, Mont. (Pecora, 1962). The latter are 

part of a composite alkalic stock in which the silicate-carbonate-sulfide minerals are chiefly cancrinite, aegirine, biotite, muscovite, potassium feldspar, zircon, calcite, burbankite, pyrochlore, pyrrhotite, 

pyrite, apatite, and ilmenite. These minerals were formed by early 

crystallization of silicate minerals in a magma capable of producing a 

residual fluid high in C02 , S, F, P, Ca, Fe, Mg, Si, Al, K, and Na. 

Later fractionation of this fluid, relatively rich in C02 and H2S, formed 

a great variety of mineral assemblages (Pecora, 1962, p. 99-101).

Carbonate fissure-filling or replacement veins most likely occur in the 

Ordovician limestone in the areas of Hu-yeh-shan, P'ing-yang, and 

Lin-hsien-Hsing-tai. An allanite-bearing contact zone was found 

between limestone and syenite in the Lin-hsien-Hsing-tai area (Liu, 

1959). The allanite had a high content of uranium, cerium, and 

lanthanum.

On the basis of radiometric dating (Cheng and Li, 1964, p. 665), 

emplacement of the alkalic plutons and rare-element mineralization in 

Shansi is believed to have taken place in Cretaceous time.

AREAS OF PEGMATITES

ALTAI MOUNTAINS

The Altai Mountains (lat 480 0(T N., long 90°00/ .E.) are in the 

northeast part of Sinkiang Uighur Autonomous Eegion at altitudes of 

1,000 to 3,500 meters. The core rocks consists of Precambrian granitoid 

gneiss, schist, migmatites, aplite dikes, and granite plutons. These 

basement rocks are unconformably overlain by marine Ordovician and 

Silurian phyllite slate, quartzose sandstone, and limestone in the north 

and by marine Devonian shale, sandstone, and limestone with inter-
N28 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

layers of volcanic tuff and flows in the central part and in the south. 

Marine Carboniferous shale, sandstone, limestone, tuff, and lava flows 

are also present in the central part and in the south, unconformably 

overlying the Devonian beds. Folding of these strata took place mainly 

during the Hercynian deformation and was accompanied by largescale granite intrusion and well-formed pegmatitic injection. Along 

the flanks of these folds, northwest-trending block faults are common. 

Rare-element minerals occur predominantly in muscovite pegmatites 

(China Bureau of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Geology, 1957). 

Mineral assemblages consist of quartz, microcline, muscovite, tourmaline, apatite, garnet, beryl, chrysoberyl, bismuthinite, and columbitetantalite. These are associated with fluorite, lepidolite, phenakite, 

monazite, samarskite, topaz, ilmenorutile, spodumene, and some lithium 

tourmaline.

HAI-CH'ENG

At Hai-ch'eng (lat 40°52' N., long 122°45' E.), Liaoning Province, 

Precambrian Ta-shih-chiao dolomite, gneiss, schist, and migmatites 

were subjected to pervasive granitic intrusion, accompanied by wellformed pegmatite injection and migmatization in pre-Sinian time. The 

trend of pegmatites is parallel to a conspicuous east-west fracture 

system.

The rare-element minerals occur in biotite and muscovite types of 

pegmatites (China Bureau of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Geology, 

1957). The biotite pegmatites occur in gneiss and hornblende schist 

and consist of microcline, perthite, quartz, biotite, allanite, fergusonite, euxenite, and thorogummite, in association with samarskite, betafite, epidote, magnetite, hematite, specularite, calcite, kaolinite, 

ampangabeite, xenotime, sphene, zircon, thorite, and uranothorite. The 

muscovite pegmatites are generally found in biotite schist, and contain 

microcline, perthite, quartz, muscovite, topaz, garnet, black tourmaline, 

columbite, yttrotantalite, beryl, and chrysoberyl, in association 

with spodumene, fluorite, lepidolite, lithium tourmaline, monazite, 

samarskite, ilmenorutile, sphene, kaolinite, and cassiterite.

AREAS OF DISSEMINATED GRAINS IN NIOBIUM-BEARING GRANITE

The Kwang-hai deposits (approx lat 21°59' N., long 112°43' E.) 

about 4.5 miles northwest of Kwang-hai, Kwangtung Province are 

in niobium-bearing granite. The granite is in contact with Holocene 

marine beach sand and alluvial clay, silt, sand, and gravel on the east; 

metamorphosed Cambrian fine-grained sandstone on the north; and 

Cretaceous granite on the west and south. The niobium-bearing granite 

is an elongate intrusive mass that occupies about 1-2 square miles and
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N29

trends north; it is equigranular, albitized, and deeply weathered. 

Mineralogically, it is composed of 43 percent microcline, 23 percent 

albite and other alkalic feldspars, 29 percent quartz, 'and 5 percent 

biotite and muscovite. Principal rare-element minerals are samarskite, 

columbite, yttrocolumbite, xenotime, monazite, zircon, and thorite, in 

association with cassiterite and wolframite (Chen and others, 1964, p. 

454-455).

SOME RARE-ELEMENT MINERALS

These notes are intended to provide information on newly discovered or unusual properties of minerals that are named for localities 

in mainland China and are generally unfamiliar to Western readers. 

Baotite(Pao-t/ou-k/uang) :Ba4Ti,Nb) 8 (Si4 012 )C10i6 . Tetragonal. 

A rare silicate of barium, titanium, and niobium with chlorine. 

10.8-11.5 percent Nb2O5 . In carbonate veins, and with galena 

and pyrite in quartz veins associated with alkalic rocks. Fleischer 

and Chao (1960, p. 754); Parker and Fleischer (1968, p. 32). 

Beiyinite: A rare-earth fluocarbonate that contains 29.10 percent 

Ce2O3 , 35.71 percent [Ce] 2O3 , and 0.18 percent [Y]203 . Tetragonal. 

As very fine aggregates in association with oborite, aeschynite, 

and parisite; mainly in iron ore and fluorite veins. Color yellowish 

brown; green yellow in thin section. Cleavage (001) perfect. 

Hardness 4.5. Anisotropic; o>= 1.7169, e= 1.7910. Weak pleochroism. Uniaxial positive. Insoluble in hydrochloric acid but 

slightly soluble in hot strong sulfuric acid with effervescence. 

Infusible. No inclusions. Resembles bastnaesite, except for 

lower index of extraordinary ray. Ho (1935); Wang (1958). 

Fenghuangite (Fenghuangshih) (table 1): (Ca,Ce,La,Th) 5 [(Si,P,C)04]3 

(OH) as given by Fleischer (written commun., 1968); a variety 

of thorium-rich britholite. Incorrectly given as fenghuanglite in 

Western literature (Fleischer, written commun., 1968). As 

yellow to brown aggregates. Generally metamict, but recrystallization occurs at temperatures of 800° to about 900° C. Fracture 

conchoidal. Luster waxy. Hardness about 5. Basal cleavage 

distinct. Uniaxial negative. Rarely, weak birefringence. Index of 

refraction 1.65-1.75, increasing to 1.78 or more after heating. 

Dissolves slowly in cold dilute hydrochloric acid with slight 

effervescence, readily in concentrated hydrochloric, sulfuric, and 

nitric acids. Peng and Liu (1962); Fleischer (written commun., 

1968); Frondel, Fleischer, and Jones (1967, p. 18); Fleischer and 

Chao (1960, p. 754-755).

Jiningite (table 1): A variety of thorite high in ferric oxide. As tabular 

crystals in association with zircon, tysonite, microcline, muscovite,
N30 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

quartz, and garnet in muscovite pegmatite. Color reddish brown. 

Fracture conchoidal. Luster resinous. Hardness about 4. Soluble 

in hot phosphoric acid with color change to yellow. Kuo (1959); 

Frondel, Fleischer, and Jones (1967, p. 38); Fleischer and Chao 

(1960, p. 755).

Niobo-aeschynite (table 1): (Ce,Y,Ca,Fe,Th)(Nb,Ti) 2O6 . Niobium 

analog of aeschynite. As tabular crystals and aggregates in radiated form. Associated with aegirine, magnetite, martite, 

pyrite, barite, calcite, and phlogopite within contact-metasomatic carbonate rocks near iron ores. Color black. Translucent 

in small fragments. Cleavage (010) perfect. Streak brown. 

Luster adamantine. Fracture conchoidal. Brittle. Nonmagnetitic. 

Biaxial negative. 2V is about 80°. Pleochroism from dark brown 

to yellowish red. Average index of refraction greater than 2. 

Dispersion v greater than r. Generally anisotropic but X-ray 

pattern indicates it is amorphous. After heating 6 hours at 

950°C, shows orthorhombic symmetry; powder X-ray pattern 

shows strongest lines (relative strength indicated in parentheses) 

at 3.01 i (9), 2.91 I (10), and 1.55 I (8). Chang (1962a, 1963); 

Frondel, Fleischer, and Jones (1967, p. 56); Parker and Fleischer 

(1968, p. 35).

Oborite: (Ce,La,Nd . . .) PO4 , containing 30.43 percent Ce203 , 

0.32 percent [Y] 203 , and 34.41 percent [La,Nd,Pr] 2O3 . Similar 

to monazite but is uniaxial and hexagonal. As very fine aggregates 

in association with beiyinite, aeschynite, and parisite; mainly 

in iron ores and fluorite veins. Color greenish yellow. Cleavage 

(1011) perfect. Hardness 4.5. w=1.7948, =1.8500. Uniaxial 

positive. Solubility in hydrochloric acid much lower than that 

for beiyinite. Infusible. A few gas inclusions. Ho (1935); T. F. 

Wang (1958); Fleischer (written commun., 1968).

Sinicite (table 1): A variety of aeschynite enriched in uranium; an 

alternative formula given by Fleischer (written commun., 1968): 

(Ce,Y,U,Th)(Ti,Nb) 2 (O,OH) 7 . As masses mainly in blocky 

potassium feldspar zone of biotite pegmatites. Associated with 

potassium feldspar, albite, quartz, biotite, muscovite, topaz, and 

rare-element-bearing minerals. Color dark brown to reddish 

brown. Fracture conchoidal. Brittle. Streak reddish brown. 

Luster resinous. Hardness about 6. Kuo and Chung (1957b); 

Fleischer (written commun., 1968); Frondal, Fleischer, and Jones 

(1967, p. 36); Parker and Fleischer (1968, p. 32); TV F. Wang 

(1958).

Tantalian aeschynite (table 1): (SCe,Ca,SY)(Ti,Nb,Ta) 206 . As 

irregular platy crystals in pegmatites and alluvial sand; muscovite pegmatites are probably the main provenance. Commonly
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N31

associated with columbite, samarskite, yttrotantalite, and 

potassium feldspar. Color yellowish brown, but earthy 

yellow on weathered surface. Luster resinous. Fracture conchoidal. 

Index of refraction greater than 2. Fluorescent X-ray spectrographic analysis indicates the following values, in percent: La, 

4.6 ;Ce, 24.4; Pr, 6.3; Nd, 18.5; Sm, 6.6; Eu, 0:3; Gd,4.7;Tb, 0.6; 

Dy, 3.4; Ho, 1.0; Er, 1.8; Tm, 0.2; Yb, 1.4; Lu, 0.2; and Y, 7.5. 

Chang and Tung (1964).

Toddite (table 1): [Fe,Mn(UO)](Nb,Ta)206 . A mixture of samarskite 

and columbite. Orthorhombic. As tabular or blocky crystals in 

muscovite pegmatites; associated with muscovite, potassiumfeldspar, albite, quartz, chrysoberyl, beryl, monazite, black tourmaline, specularite, garnet, and samarskite. One toddite-bearing 

pegmatite 0.7 to 1.6 meters in width and about a hundred meters 

in length, emplaced in Precambrian biotite gneiss, strikes N. 80° W. 

and dips 25° NE. The contact between pegmatite and country 

rock is generally sharp; locally the country rock is partly mineralized with abundant garnet, in part replaced by biotite. Toddite 

crystals occur commonly at the contact between potassiumfeldspar and blocky quartz zones, and in the upper part of the 

potassium feldspar zone, associated with muscovite, beryl, and 

chrysoberyl. Crystals are 2 to 3 millimeters wide and 1 to 3 

centimeters long. Color -black. Hardness about 6. Streak black. 

Fracture subconchoidal. Compared to columbite or tantalite, the 

ratio of ferric oxide to ferrous oxide is high, probably as result of 

oxidation of ferrous iron. Kuo and Chung (1957a); Frondel, 

Fleischer, and Jones (1967, p. 35).

Yinshanite (table 1): A calcium-rich variety of thorite. Incorrectly 

given as Yanshainshynite (Fleischer, 1961). New calcium-rich 

thorium mineral found in biotite type of pegmatite. Compared 

to thorite and calcium-thorite, high in PzC^ and CaO; compared 

to phosphothorite, contains considerable CaO and UsOg. Kuo 

(1958b, 1959).

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Academia Sinica, Institute of Geology, 1959 [Geotectonic frameworks of China]: 

Peking, Sci. Press, 2 v. (320 p.) (in Chinese; Russian translation in 1962).

Cameron, E. N., Jahns, R. H., McNair, A. H., and Page, L. R., 1949, Internal 

structure of granitic pegmatites: Econ. Geology Mon. 2, 115 p.

Chang, P. S., 1958 [Aeschynite from Inner Mongolia, China]: Ti Chih Lun 

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1962, no. 10, p. 42-44 (in Chinese).

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v. 43, no. 1, p. 90-97 (in Chinese).
N32 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Chang, Ching, and Tung, Wu, 1964 [Tantalian aeschynlte] : K'o Hsiieh T'ung 

Pao (Scientia) 1964, no. 1, p. 71-73 (in Chinese).

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no. 5,p.452-455 (in Chinese).

Cheng, Y. C., 1953 [Problems on prospecting iron ore deposits in China]: Acta 

Geol. Sinica, v. 33, no. 2, p. 120-133 (in Chinese).

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T'ung Pao (Scientia) 1964, no. 8, p. 659-666 (in Chinese).

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occurrence and prospecting]: Ti Chih Chih Shih [Geol. Knowledge] 1957, 

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and 10, p. 1200-1201.

Fleischer, Michael, and Chao, E. C. T., 1960, New mineral names: Am. Mineralogist, v. 45, nos. 5 and 6, p. 753-756.

Frondel, J. W., Fleischer, Michael, and Jones, R. S., 1967, Glossary of uraniumand thorium-bearing minerals [4th ed.]: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1250, 69 p.

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Geol. Soc. China Bull., v. 14, no. 2, p. 279-282 (in Chinese with English 

summary).

Holland, H. D., and Borcsik, Maria, 1965, On the solution and deposition of calcite in hydrothermal systems, in Symposium Problems of postmagmatic 

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Prague, 1963: Prague, Czechoslovakia Geol. Survey, v. 2, p. 364-374.

Hsieh, C. Y., 1943, Tin placer deposits in Fuhochungkiang area, northeastern 

Kuangsi and southern Hunan, and with a note on the distribution of tin 

belts in China: Geol. Soc. China Bull., v. 23, nos. 1, 2, p. 79-93.

Hsii, K. C., and Ting, I., 1943 [Geology and tungsten deposits of southern 

Kiangsi]: China Geol. Survey Mem., ser. A, no. 17, 360 p. (in Chinese with 

English summary).

Hsii, K. 0., Sun, Nai, Wang, T. T., and Hu, S. C., 1963 [Investigation of the 

polycyclic granite intrusions of southern China, with special notes on their 

ages of intrusions, distribution, characteristics, and their genetic relations 

to mineral deposits]: Acta Geol. Sinica, v. 43, no. 1, p. 1-26; no. 2, p. 141- 

155 (in Chinese with English summary).

Huang, T. K., 1948, Kueilin: China Geol. Survey, General geological map 

of China NG-49, scale 1:1,000,000.

Kuo, C. C., 1953 [Study on some rare-earth minerals of Sui-yuan Province] : Acta 

Geol. Sinica, v. 33, no. 2, p. 134-143 (in Chinese).

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(Scientia) 1957,no. 1, p. 20 (in Chinese).

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T'ung Pao (Scientia) 1958, no. 3, p. 93-95 (in Chinese).

 1958b [Some problems of the study of rare-earth minerals and geochemical 

researches]: Ti Chih Lun P'ing [Geol. Review], v. 18, no. 5, p. 338-350 (in 

Chinese).

 1959 [Jiningite new variety of thorite]: K'o Hsiieh T'ung Pao 

(Scientia) 1959, no. 6, p. 206-207 (in Chinese).
RARE-ELEMENT MINERAL DEPOSITS, MAINLAND CHINA N33

Kuo, C. C., and Chang, Ching, 1957 [Study on the thorium minerals in China]:

K'o Hsiieh T'ung Pao (Scientia) 1957, no. 3, p. 92 (in Chinese). 

Kuo, C. C., Chang, Ching, and Li, M. W., 1957 [Age of the pegmatites in south

Inner Mongolia]: K'o Hsiieh T'ung Pao (Scientia) 1957, no. 12, p. 377-378

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Parker, R. L., and Fleischer, Michael, 1968, Geochemistry of niobium and

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N34 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

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