Strategic Graphite 

A Survey

By EUGENE N. CAMERON and PAUL L. WEIS

CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1082-E

An appraisal of domestic resources

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1960
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

FRED A. SEATON, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington 25, D.G. - Price $1.25 (paper cover)
CONTENTS

	Page 

Abstract_______-_-_-_---_----_----_--- -___ __. ._.____ 201

Introduction. _ ___________________-__--_---__------__--____________ 202

The graphite problem--__-_____------- -----------_---_._____ 203

Scope of report____._______-_---__-_----_---___.___-.._____. 204

Previous investigations. .......................~................ 204

Sources of information_______________________________________ 205

Limitations._-__--_----_--___---------_----_---------.___---__ 205

Acknowledgments____-___-.__.---.-..-_-_-..------------...._. 206

Mineralogy_______-__-____.___-_-_-_-_.---------------._______. 206

Commercial types and geologic occurrence of natural graphite._-_.._._.___ 207

Minerals associated with various types of graphite.____________________ 208

Uses.._.._____.____...__----- . -----___ 209

Crucibles and refractory wares.___-__-___--__--.-_-__-_________ 209

Lubricating compounds__________-__--__--___________--_______ 216

Brushes___._._..____________________._____ 221

Nonstrategic uses_______.___-______._--_-_--------_--_--_.__. 221

Batteries_____..__.___________________._ 221

Foundry facings._-_-_-___-----_-------------------------._ 222

Steelmaking.........__....._..._.__-._.--_.--_.-.-_...._. 222

Pencils.___________.__-________________.._ 222

Paints_____________________________________ 223

Other uses.._._:__.__________________-___ 223

Production. ______________________________________ 224

Domestic production.___________--________--_____--_----_---___ 224

History_________________________________ 224

Factors influencing domestic production..____________________ 226

Domestic consumption___________________-_-__--______---___ 234

World production______._____-__-______-_-_-_--__---_----___ 234

4 ' Factors influencing world production.________________________ 238

Geology of graphite deposits in the United States__-_._________--.__- 241

Disseminated deposits in metamorphosed siliceous sedimentary rocks. . 242

Relative value of hardrock and weathered deposits_____---__ 245

Disseminated deposits in marble__________-_-_____-___-__--__-- 246

Deposits formed by metamorphism of coal or other highly carbonaceous sedimentary rocks--____-------_----_-----------__------ 246

^ Vein deposits__._____________-_-__--__------__------_----__- 247

Contact-metasomatic deposits in carbonate rocks._________________ 249

Graphite resources and reserves.__________________________________ 250

Domestic resources of graphite______._-_________-___-__--_-_- 250

Graphite districts_______________________--_--___.___-__-------_-- 252

Montana_____-____________----__--_-------__-------_------ 252

Texas_--___-__---_____-____-_-._._------------_---.-__.------ 255

Southwestern Graphite Co. mine____________________.--_-- 255

Other deposits__.__..__..___________.__-_-- 259

HI
IV CONTENTS

	Page 

Graphite districts Continued

Alabama___________-___-_---___-._-_-----__-_--_---_________ 260

Northeastern belt__________________________________________ 261'

Southwestern belt________________________________________ 263

Structural characteristics of the graphite deposits._____________ 264

Grades of graphite ore and yields of flake.______ _ _____^_^_____ 264

Geologic factors influencing mining.._________________________ 265

Mining and milling methods-----__-_---_-_-_____--_____.__-. 266

Selected deposits.._________________________________________ 266

Pennsylvania_ _ _______________________________________________ 277

Benjamin Franklin and Just mines..___._-._________ ._._____ 279

Anselma mine._-______---_-_-_--_--_______-___-___________ 282

Other deposits----.-----------------------------.---.----- 282

Summary.. _______________________________________________ 283

New York-...-..._.._-...-----------_-.---------------------- 283

History of graphite mining____-_____________________________ 284

General geology._._.___--__-____-__-___-___-_--__-__--_-___ 285

Types of graphite deposits._________________________________ 285

Selected deposits.__________________________________________ 287

Appraisal of graphite deposits of the Adirondack area_.--__.___ 302

Selected references, with annotations of selected items..________________ 303

Author index________________________________________________ 315

Index........._._-._--.---.--.-.__-.___-_--_-_---------------_---- 319

ILLUSTRATIONS

[Plates in pocket]

PLATE 8. World production of graphite, all grades, 1910-55.

9. Geologic map of Crystal Graphite mine, Beaverhead County, Mont.

10. Map of mine and treatment plant of Southwestern Graphite Co., 

Burnet, Tex.

11. Geologic map of the Benjamin Franklin and Just graphite mines, 

Chester County, Pa.

Page 

FIGURE 12. Map of localities of principal graphite deposits in the United

States..___-__--___-__--__--_._-___--___-----___--- 225

13. Flake graphite prices, 1910-56------__-_-___-_---_____--__ 229

14. Supply of strategic graphite for United States, 1910-48-.--__ 231

15. Graphite imports, 1910-54.-_-__.-_____.__._.-.__-___---_ 232

16. Graphite imports to the United States, 1910-54.-__.________ 235

17. Graphite supply for United States, 1910-54._-_---_------__ 236

18. Map of localities of principal graphite deposits of the world- _ _ _ 237 

Map of localities of graphite deposits of Ceylon_____-___--__ 239

Map of districts of principal graphite production of Madagascar. ._-___-__--_-__-__-__-___-_____-__--____-__--_ 240

Map of localities of graphite deposits, Llano and Burnet

Counties, Tex-___-____________-__-__.-_-__________-._ 256

Map of localities of graphite deposits of Clay, Coosa, and

Chilton Counties, Ala___..___._..__..._...-__.__..__.. 260

19.

20.

21.

22.
CONTENTS V

Page 

FIGURE 23. Map of localities of graphite mines and prospects in part of

Clay County, Ala-_--_-----_----------------_--------- 261

24. Map of localities of graphite deposits of parts of Coosa and

Chilton Counties, Ala.______________________________ 262

25. Map of localities of graphite deposits in parts of Chilton and

Coosa Counties, Ala.-___---_-------- -_---_______--____ 276

26. Map of localities of graphite mines in Phoenixville, Pa., area.. 278

27. Map of localities of principal graphite mines in the eastern

Adirondack Mountains area___---__-______-____--__-._. 284

28. Geologic map of Dixon-American Graphite Co. and Faxon

mine properties, near Graphite, Warren County, N.Y_____ 289

29. Geologic map of Hooper Bros, graphite deposit, near Whitehall,

Washington County, N.Y_____-_______.-_____._________ 293

30. Sketch map of underground workings of Lakeside mine,

Warren County, N.Y..._______________________________ 295

31. Geologic map of area of Bear Pond Mountain and Rock Pond

graphite deposits, near Chilson, Essex County, N.Y_______ 299

32. Cross section of Graphite Products Corp. mine area and

quarry, near Saratoga Springs, N.Y.__..____.._____._.__ 301

TABLES

Page 

TABLE 1. Consumption of natural graphite in the United States during

certain years from 1918 to 1953.._-.-_-_------____-___.. 233

2. Typical flake size and grade, Adirondack graphite deposits...-. 286

CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY

By EUGENE N. CAMERON and PAUL L. WEIS

ABSTRACT

Strategic graphite consists of certain grades of lump and flake graphite for 

which the United States is. largely or entirely dependent on sources abroad. 

Lump graphite of high purity, necessary in the manufacture of carbon brushes, 

is imported from Ceylon, where it occurs in vein deposits. Flake graphite, 

obtained from deposits consisting of graphite disseminated in schists and other 

metamorphic rocks, is an essential ingredient of crucibles used in the nonferrous metal industries and in the manufacture of lubricants and packings. 

High-quality flake graphite for these uses has been obtained mostly from 

Madagascar since World War I. Some flake graphite of strategic grade has 

been produced, however, from deposits in Texas, Alabama, and Pennsylvania. 

The development of the carbon-bonded crucible, which does not require coarse 

flake, should lessen the competitive advantage of the Madagascar producers 

of crucible flake.

Graphite of various grades has been produced intermittently in the United 

States since 1644. The principal domestic deposits of flake graphite are in 

Texas, Alabama, Pennsylvania, and New York. Reserves of flake graphite in 

these four States are very large, but production has been sporadic and on the 

whole unprofitable since World War I, owing principally to competition from 

producers in Madagascar. Deposits in Madagascar are large and relatively 

high in content of flake graphite. Production costs are low and the flake produced is of high quality. Coarseness of flake and uniformity of the graphite 

products marketed are cited as major advantages of Madagascar flake. In 

addition, the usability of Madagascar flake for various purposes has been 

thoroughly demonstrated, whereas the usability of domestic flake for strategic 

purposes is still in question.

Domestic graphite deposits are of five kinds: deposits consisting of graphite 

disseminated in metamorphosed siliceous sediments, deposits consisting of graphite disseminated in marble, deposits formed by thermal or dynamothermal 

metamorphism of coal beds or other highly carbonaceous sediments, vein deposits, and contact metasomatic deposits in marble. Only the first kind comprises deposits sufficiently large and rich in flake graphite to be significant 

potential sources of strategic grades of graphite. Vein deposits in several 

localities are known, but none is known to contain substantial reserves of 

graphite of strategic quality.

Large resources of flake graphite exist in central Texas, in northeastern 

Alabama, in eastern Pennsylvania, and in the eastern Adirondack Mountains 

of New York. Tonnages available, compared with the tonnages of flake graphite consumed annually in the United States, are very large. There have been

201
202 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

indications that flake graphite from Texas, Alabama, and Pennsylvania can be 

used in clay-graphite crucibles as a substitute for Madagascar flake, and one 

producer has made progress in establishing markets for his flake products as 

ingredients of lubricants. The tonnages of various commercial grades of graphite recoverable from various domestic deposits, however, have not been established ; hence, the adequacy of domestic resources of graphite in a time of 

emergency is not known.

The only vein deposits from which significant quantities of lump graphite 

have been produced are those of the Crystal Graphite mine, Beaverhead 

County, Mont. The deposits are fracture fillings in Precambrian gneiss and 

pegmatite. Known reserves in the deposits are small.

In Texas, numerous flake-graphite deposits occur in the Precambrian Packsaddle schist in Llano and Burnet Counties. Graphite disseminated in certain 

parts of this formation ranges from extremely fine to medium grained. The 

principal producer has been the mine of the Southwestern Graphite Co., west 

of the town of Burnet. Substantial reserves of medium-grained graphite are 

present in the deposit mined by the company.

In northeastern Alabama, flake-graphite deposits occur in the Ashland mica 

schist in two belts that trend northeastward across Clay, Goosa, and Chilton 

Counties. The northeastern belt has been the most productive. About 40 mines 

have been operated at one time or another, but only a few have been active 

during or since World War I. The deposits consist of flake graphite disseminated in certain zones or "leads" consisting of quartz-mica-feldspar schists and 

mica quartzite. Most of past production has come from the weathered upper 

parts of the deposits, but unweathered rock has been mined at several localities. Reserves of weathered rock containing 3 to 5 percent graphite are very 

large, and reserves of unweathered rock are even greater.

Flake graphite deposits in Chester County, Pa., have been worked intermittently since about 1890. The deposits consist of medium- to coarse-grained 

graphite disseminated in certain belts of the Pickering gneiss. The most promising deposit is one worked in the Benjamin Franklin and the Eynon Just 

mines. Reserves of weathered rock containing 1.5 percent graphite are of 

moderate size; reserves of unweathered rock are large.

In the eastern Adirondack Mountains in New York there are two principal 

kinds of flake-graphite deposits: contact-metasomatic deposits and those consisting of flake graphite disseminated in quartz schist. The contact-metasomatic deposits are small, irregular, and very erratic in graphite content. The 

deposits in quartz schist are very large, persistent, and uniform in grade. 

There are large reserves of schist containing 3 to 5 percent graphite, but the 

graphite is relatively fine grained.

INTRODUCTION

Several more or less similar terms that convey a particular meaning to people in the graphite industry are used in this report. Their 

meanings, as intended here, are defined below.

Type. Natural graphite is divided into three types, depending 

on the physical form of the graphite particles: (a) amorphous, (b) 

flake, and (c) lump and chip. Lump and chip graphite is sometimes 

referred to as amorphous lump and chip, sometimes as crystalline 

lump and chip, and, because it occurs exclusively in veins, it is also 

sometimes called vein-type graphite.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 203

Grade. Graphite in marketable form (of any "type") is classified into various categories depending on one or more characteristics such as percent graphitic carbon, particle size, amount of impurity, nature of impurity, and use. Such categories are called 

grades. There are, for example, several grades of lubricating flake 

graphite, distinguished from each other solely on the basis of flake 

size. The term "grade" is also used, somewhat loosely, to denote 

strategic and nonst-rategic grades that is, grades (again, of any 

type) that are considered of critical importance during a period of 

national emergency, as distinguished from those that are not of critical 

importance, as measured by the probable effect of their loss to 

critical industries and their availability.

"Grade" is also a miners' term and is applied to ore, either in 

the ground or after mining, but generally before concentration. In 

that sense, it refers to the content of valuable minerals in the material mined, and is synonymous with the term "tenor." Context 

of the sentence should make it clear in what sense the word "grade" 

is used.

Quality. Quality is a term used somewhat loosely by the graphite industry when referring to such properties of graphite as packing index, durability, density, and toughness. It may sometimes be 

said that graphite from one mine is of a different quality from 

graphite from another mine, when the speaker isn't quite sure just 

what that difference is but can only point to apparently identical 

products that perform differently in use.

THE GRAPHITE PROBLEM

Certain grades of graphite are of critical importance in American industry. Some of the graphite used in the United States has 

been supplied by intermittent production from domestic deposits, 

but since World War I certain grades of graphite have been supplied largely by imports from Madagascar and Ceylon. These are 

the strategic grades; they consist of flake graphite suitable for cru^ 

cible manufacture or for lubricating and packing materials, and 

high-purity amorphous lump graphite.

The reasons for our dependence on foreign sources for strategic 

graphite have been debated for many years, and there is a broad 

range of opinions on the subject. The debate hinges on whether 

strategic graphite can be obtained from domestic deposits in time 

of emergency. Some believe that domestic resources are adequate 

for all contingencies; others are convinced that domestic resources 

cannot yield substantial amounts of strategic grades. This is the 

basic problem of domestic graphite. An adequate solution to this 

problem requires detailed information on the size, tenor, and distribution of domestic deposits, their potential rates of yield, costs,
204 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

and the nature of the final products. Some of this information is 

at hand, but there is not enough for a complete solution of the 

graphite problem. One of the objectives of this report is to point 

out the strengths and weaknesses of present information and thereby 

contribute to an ultimate solution.

SCOPE OF REPORT

This report discusses the nature, commercial grades, and uses of 

graphite, the history of the domestic graphite industry and the 

factors influencing domestic production, and the characteristics of 

geologic types of graphite deposits. An appraisal of domestic 

graphite resources is given, followed by brief descriptions of those 

domestic deposits that are of actual or potential importance as 

sources of strategic graphite. An annotated selected bibliography 

is also included.

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

The literature of graphite is voluminous, and only a brief summary of some of the more important works will be given. The 

principal sources of statistical information are the volumes of 

, Mineral Kesources of the United States for 1913 to 1932, and the 

volumes of Minerals Yearbook for the period 1934 to 1954. The 

accounts given in these volumes are brief, but they are invaluable 

to anyone who attempts to trace the evolution of the domestic 

graphite industry.

The most comprehensive accounts in English of the occurrence, 

uses, and technology of graphite are those by Cirkel (1907) and 

Spence (1920). No comparable work of subsequent date is available, but excellent discussions of various aspects of the graphite 

industry have been given by Tyler (1929a, b, c, d; 1941), and briefer 

general discussions have been given by Miller (1933, 1937) and by 

Gwinn (1943, 1949).

Numerous papers deal with specific domestic deposits or groups 

of deposits. The graphite deposits of Montana were discussed by 

Winchell (1911a, b), Bastin (1912), Heinrich (1949a and b), and 

Ford (1954). Those of Texas were described by Paige (1911, 1912), 

Barnes (1940), and Chelf (1943). There is much literature on the 

graphite deposits and industry of Alabama. Among the more important papers are those by Prouty (19l7a, b, c; 1923), Brown 

(1925), Jones (1929), Clemmer and others (1941), Pallister and 

Smith (1945), and Pallister and Thoenen (1948). The first comprehensive account of the graphite deposits of eastern Pennsylvania 

was given by Miller (1912) in a report that also contains a discussion of the difficulties that beset the domestic graphite industry. The reports by Sanford and Lamb (1949) and Lamb and
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 205

Irving (1955) contain an account of later operations in this area.

Ailing (1917) gave the fullest report on the deposits in New 

York State. He described the deposits, discussed the industry based 

on them, and presented an analysis of the economic factors that 

influenced the continuance of the industry.

In addition to those cited above, there are a great many articles, 

most of them brief, dealing with special aspects of the occurrence, 

uses, and technology of graphite. These are listed in the bibliography.

There is also considerable literature on the occurrence and technology of graphite in foreign countries. An exhaustive survey of 

this literature is beyond the scope of the present investigation, but 

a few of the works to which reference has been made may be cited. 

Much information on developments in the graphite industry abroad 

is contained in the U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral Trade Notes. 

Accounts of the graphite deposits of Ceylon were given by Ferguson (1885), Diersche (1898), Bastin (1912), and Wadia (1943). 

The deposits of Madagascar were described by Shelley (1916), by 

Savanorin (1935), and by Besairie and others (1951). General 

accounts of European occurrences were given by Dammer and 

Tietze (1913) and by Stutzer and others (1933). The amorphous 

graphite in Mexico was described by Hess (1909) and Hornaday 

(1912). Canadian occurrences were discussed by Spence (1920). 

McLaren (1945) and Andersen (1954) reported on the occurrence 

and mining of graphite at the most productive Canadian deposit, 

the Black Donald.

SOUBCES OF INFORMATION

Information for the present report was drawn from many sources. 

Geologists of the U.S. Geological Survey provided information on 

certain graphite districts, and additional data were obtained from 

reports of the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The extensive literature on 

graphite has likewise been consulted freely. Acknowledgment of 

sources is made at appropriate places in the text. The information 

thus obtained was supplemented by a series of conferences with 

representatives of firms engaged in the production, processing, and 

consumption of graphite, and by examination, during the summer 

of 1950, of deposits in the major graphite districts of the United 

States Dillon, Mont., central Texas, eastern Alabama, eastern 

Pennsylvania, and the Adirondack area of New York.

LIMITATIONS

This report represents an attempt to bring together and analyze 

existing information on domestic graphite resources of actual or 

possible strategic importance. No comprehensive investigation of
206 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

domestic graphite resources was made. Much excellent work on 

graphite deposits has been done by geologists and mining engineers, but no graphite district of the United States has been fully 

mapped, fully studied, or otherwise investigated to a degree commensurate with the needs of a modern mineral resource appraisal. 

Much of the material available, furthermore, was written with reference to economic and technologic conditions different from those 

of the present day.

Deficiencies in data are in part related to distribution, size, and 

tenor of individual deposits. More serious, however, are deficiencies in data on the commercial grades of graphite that can be produced from various deposits and on their usability for industrial 

purposes. The lack of such information is the heart of the problem of domestic graphite resources.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to acknowledge the cooperation and courtesies extended 

by Mr. K. L. Miller, superintendent of the Southwestern Graphite 

Co.; Mr. W. L. Moore, vice-president, and Mr. N. L. Shumate, 

president, Alabama Flake Graphite Co.; Mr. C. J. Johnson, president, Ceylon Graphite Co.; Mr. W. W. Doe, treasurer, Alabama 

Machinery and Supply Co.; Mr. Charles Pettinos, president, and 

Mr. J. W. Lundgren, of Charles Pettinos, Inc.; Mr. R. A. Harris 

of Joseph Dixon Crucible Co.; Mr. H. Marvin Riddle, Asbury 

Graphite Mills; and Mr. Kenneth Buck, vice-president and treasurer, National Crucible Co. Discussions with these men have contributed greatly to clarification of the problems discussed in this 

report. Mr. H. D. Pallister of the Geological Survey of Alabama, 

and Mr. J. R. Thoenen, chief, Tuscaloosa Experiment Station, U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, have contributed useful information relative to 

the graphite deposits of Alabama.

MINERALOGY

Graphite is pure crystalline carbon. It crystallizes in the hexagonal system, but well-formed crystals are rare. It has a hardness 

of 1 to 2, specific gravity of 2.1 to 2.3, earthy to metallic luster, 

and black color and streak. It is opaque even on thinnest edges. 

It has a characteristic slippery feel that is due to its softness and 

excellent basal cleavage. It is sectile and flexible though not elastic 

and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Graphite is inert 

to the common chemical reagents, but if heated with a mixture of 

HNO3 and KC1O3 for several days it will form a golden-yellow 

compound called graphitic acid, which has the same form and 

shape as the graphite itself (Spence, 1920, p. 4). The test can be 

used to distinguish graphite from charcoal and diamond, the other
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 207

two allotropic forms of carbon. Charcoal (true amorphous carbon) forms a brown water-soluble compound when treated with the 

mixture; diamond, the other crystalline form of carbon, remains 

unaffected. The resistance of graphite to chemical alteration can 

be readily observed in residual soils formed from graphite-bearing 

rocks. The graphite thus liberated remains as bright, unaltered 

flakes.

Graphite melts at a temperature of about 3,500°C and vaporizes 

at a temperature of 4,500°C. In the presence of oxygen it decomposes slowly at a temperature of 600-700°C to form CC>2.

COMMERCIAL TYPES AND GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE 

OF NATURAL GRAPHITE

Three principal commercial types of natural graphite are recognized on the basis of their physical properties. They are lump 

and chip, flake, and amorphous. Each has one or more characteristic modes of occurrence.

Lump and chip graphite occur in veins cutting igneous or metamorphic rocks, as illustrated by the deposits of Ceylon. (Ceylon 

lump is sometimes referred to as "crystalline lump," sometimes as 

"amorphous lump.") Ceylon graphite forms masses consisting of 

coarse, platy intergrowths of fibrous or needlelike aggregates. It 

breaks into spear-shaped or irregular, sharp-cornered pieces composed of interlocking crystals or crystal fragments that are denser 

and tougher than other types of graphite (Thiessen, 1919, p. 508- 

542). Commercial grades of Ceylon graphite are classified according to size and purity (Tyler, 1929a, p. 26). Lump graphite 

is described as consisting of pieces ranging from the size of a walnut to that of a pea. It ordinarily contains 90 percent or more 

carbon. Chip graphite ranges from the size of a pea to a little 

less than the size of a wheat grain; it is ordinarily 90 to 92 percent 

carbon. "Dust" consists of fines, about 40- to 60-mesh size, and 

contains from 55 to 90 percent carbon.

Flake graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks, particularly in 

schists. This type of graphite, as the name implies, consists of 

isolated flat flakelike particles with irregular, rounded, or angular 

edges. The flakes range from a fraction of a millimeter to more 

than 2.5 cm in diameter; the average is probably 5 mm or less. 

Thickness, toughness, density, size, and shape vary from one deposit to another. In the most important deposits, flakes normally 

are disseminated through certain layers of metamorphic rock sequences. Flake graphite also occurs in contact-metamorphic and 

contact-metasomatic deposits in marble. Most commercial grades 

contain a minimum of 85 percent carbon. There are many subdivisions based on flake size and nature of impurities.
208 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Amorphous graphite is extremely fine grained, and individual 

flakes can be distinguished only with the aid of a microscope. The 

term "amorphous" is a misnomer, for all true graphite is crystalline. Amorphous graphite is found in a variety of geologic environments, including those that yield flake and lump, for the finest 

sizes of graphite from these sources are sometimes sold as amorphous graphite. Much of the production, however, is from coal 

seams that have undergone thermal metamorphism by nearby intrusive bodies. The graphite from these altered coals is extremely 

fine grained, soft, dull, black, earthy looking, and commonly somewhat porous; its purity depends largely on the,purity of the original coal seam. Material averaging 80 to 85 percent graphite has 

been mined in Mexico. Commercial grades are generally about 85 

percent carbon.

Amorphous graphite is also manufactured by an electric furnace process and marketed as "artificial" graphite. It is true graphite in every sense and can be used for any purpose for which natural amorphous graphite is used. The process is similar to that used 

in making carborundum, but the furnace temperature is raised to 

2,800°C, at which point the carbides are broken down and the metallic elements are volatilized. Manufactured amorphous graphite of 

extremely high purity can be produced.

MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS TYPES OF

GRAPHITE

The diversity of origin and occurrence that is responsible for the 

differences among the three commercial types of natural graphite 

is also responsible for differences in the associated minerals. The 

identity, amounts, and modes of occurrence of these associates are 

important because they may have as much effect on the commercial 

value of a particular graphite as the properties of the graphite 

itself.

Minerals commonly associated with graphite include quartz, feldspar, mica, calcite, clay minerals, iron sulfides, garnet, pyroxene, 

zircon, rutile, and apatite. Many others occur locally in small 

amounts. As might be expected, each type of graphite has its 

characteristic associates. Vein-type graphite commony occurs with 

quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, zircon, apatite, rutile, iron sulfides, and sometimes with calcite. Most of these minerals form 

isolated grains or pockets, rather than intimate intergrowths. Flake 

graphite is found with quartz, feldspar, mica, and iron sulfides in 

unweathered schists and quartzites, and with clay minerals and 

calcite in the weathered products from such rocks. It is not unusual to find mica, quartz, or even pyrite or feldspar intergrown 

with or included in the flakes. In contact-metamorphic and contactmetasomatic deposits flake graphite occurs with any of a variety of
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 209

minerals calcite, diopside, garnet, quartz, tremolite, actinolite, and 

sphene are common associates. Amorphous graphite contains clay 

and iron sulfides as its most common impurities, but quartz and 

other detrital minerals may also be found with it in places.

USES

Owing to its unique physical and chemical properties, graphite 

has become an essential constituent of a wide variety of manufactured articles. It is also used in several processes without entering 

into final products. Its softness, opacity, thermal and electrical 

conductivity, resistance to chemicals and heat, and ability to form 

a clinging film on metallic surfaces make it ideal for many entirely 

unrelated uses. The different commercial types of graphite differ 

in properties and find favor in different uses. However, they are 

interchangeable to some extent.

The principal uses of flake graphite are for crucibles and related 

refractory articles, for lubricants and packings, for batteries, and 

for foundry facings; the principal uses of lump and chip graphite 

are for crucibles and for carbon brushes and other articles that 

require graphite of high purity; the principal uses of amorphous 

graphite are for foundry facings, batteries, pencils, paints, and polishes. Flake, lump, and chip graphite, for crucibles, lubricants and 

packings, and carbon brushes is supplied largely from sources outside North America. These types of graphite, containing 85 to 98 

percent carbon, constitute the strategic grades.

The importance of graphite in industry is not measured in tons. 

Ordinarily, less than 5,000 tons of graphite of strategic grade is 

required annually by the industries of the United States; yet the 

elimination of this small tonnage would have far-reaching effects 

in several industries. Lump, chip, and flake graphite is therefore 

of great strategic importance.

CBUCIBLES AND REFRACTOBY WARES

The largest use of strategic graphite is in refractory wares, comprising crucibles, stoppers, covers, sleeves, nozzles, phosphorizers, 

retorts, and many special-purpose items. The nonferrous metal 

industry uses almost all these articles in smelting and metallurgical 

processes. The most economically important article manufactured 

is the crucible. Charges are put into the crucible, melted, and 

poured. The crucible must therefore have good heat conductivity 

and an extremely high resistance to heat, oxidation, and the corrosive effect of the melt. It must also be durable and inexpensive. 

For these purposes, graphite compounds are more nearly ideal than 

a-ny other material discovered. Lump and chip graphite was preferred at one time, but after Madagascar began producing quanti-
210 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

ties of coarse, high-purity flake, the manufacturers gradually 

changed over, and Madagascar flake graphite is now standard for 

the industry.

Two principal types of crucibles are in use, the clay-graphite and 

the carbon-bonded. The clay-graphite type has been in use for 

more than a hundred years. The carbon-bonded type was developed 

in the 1930's, and its use has increased greatly. Clay-graphite crucibles are composed of three essential constituents: clay, sand, and 

graphite. Small amounts of other materials may be added to give 

special properties. Graphite commonly makes up 40 to 50 percent 

of the total volume. For this purpose manufacturers desire flake 

that is fairly coarse (20-90 mesh), is tough enough to stand up 

under several hours of mixing, and has the maximum possible thickness and density. Thick dense flake requires less binder; hence, 

when it is used graphite can form a higher proportion of the article. Size distribution is important; uniform coarse flake is not as 

satisfactory as the proper mixture of coarser and finer sizes. The 

graphite gives the crucible its heat conductivity and its resistance 

to decomposition at temperatures necessary to melt the charge. 

Proper internal structure allows a certain amount of deformation 

during heating and handling (Spence, 1920, p. 119-J.44). The ideal 

structure has been found to be an overlapping scalelike orientation 

of the graphite flakes parallel to the crucible walls.

Exact specifications for flake for the manufacture of clay-graphite crucibles are trade secrets, and only general specifications can 

be given. The following are general specifications for Madagascar 

crucible flake:

Carbon content 85 to 87 percent on a wet basis. 

Mesh specifications:

Percent graphite On screen mesh 

(by weight) retained (U.S. standard)

1-3 _________ ____________________________________ +14

8-12 _________________________________________ +20 

30 __________________________________________ +30

40-45 ________________________________________ +40 

15 (maximum) ______________________________ +50 

2 (maximum)________________________________ 50

Mesh specifications vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. The 

following are general specifications of one manufacturer:

Percent graphite On screen mesh 

(by weight) retained (U.S. standard)

10 _______________________________________________ +20 

35 _____________________________________________ +30 

45 __________________________________________ +40 

8 ___________________________________________ +50

Remainder _________________________________ -50
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 211

During World War II, the War Production Board classified flake 

graphite according to the following schedule:

Grade

1A._._._._

1... ...... .

IB........

2..........

3..........

4..........

Percent (by weight) retained on screen mesh (U.S. Standard) 

+20

8

-20+30

20 

15 

5

-30 +40

40 

20 

30

-40+50

27 

60 

55

-50. +70

90

-70 +100

90

-100

100

Tolerance

5 

5 

10 

10 

10 

10

Carbon 

(percent)

85 

85 

85 

85 

80 

65

Grades 1A, 1, and IB would include the range of sizes of material normally regarded as crucible flake.

Graphite for clay-graphite crucibles must meet additional requirements for toughness, cleanness, thickness, and uniformity of 

flake, and for fusibility of ash. Packing index, a measure of volume per unit weight, must also be satisfactory. The index is determined by comparing volume against weight after the flake has 

been shaken down in a Ro-Tap machine or similar device. Toughness is measured in terms of the resistance of the flake to comminution and is determined by means of a ball mill or similar device.

At the time of writing (1955), most recent purchase of crucible 

flake for stockpile had been made under National Stockpile Specification P-22a-R (14 January 1953). The specification was:

P-22a-R

14 January 1953 

(Supersedes issue of 1 December 1947)

National stockpile material purchase specifications

Graphite crystalline flake (crucible grade)

1. Description:

These specifications cover crystalline flake graphite suitable for use, 

after usual industry processing, in the manufacture of crucibles.

2. Chemical and physical requirements:

Each lot of graphite purchased under these specifications shall conform

to the following requirements: 

a. Chemical requirements:

All graphite shall have a minimum graphitic carbon content of 85 

percent, on a moisture-free basis. The graphitic carbon content 

shall be the difference between 100 percent and the sum of the 

percentages of ash and volatile matter, 

b. Physical requirements:

All graphite delivered under any contract shall be uniform in

quality and free from foreign material.

Graphite, after processing in accordance with industry practices,

shall conform to the requirements of crucible manufacturers for

processed crystalline flake graphite, with regard to toughness of

flakes, freedom from oil, and freedom from thin or ragged edges.

A representative 50-gram sample, agitated 15 minutes on a Tyler

535373 O 60 2
212 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Ilo-Tap sieve shaker or equivalent machine, shall conform to the 

following sieve analysis:

Pass

U.S. standard sieve .Percent (by weight) 

No. 8 _____________________________ Minimum 99 

No. 20 _______________________________ Maximum 92 

No. 30 ______________________________ Maximum 66 

No. 40 _______________________________ Maximum 25 

No. 50 ______________________________ Maximum 5 

No. 60 ______________________________ Maximum 3

3. Packaging and marking: 

a. Packaging:

(1) Iron oxide contamination from the container shall be 

avoided. Any of the following containers are acceptable, 

but wooden barrels are preferred:

(a) Wooden barrels shall be equal to Grade No. 1, 

Federal Specification NN-B-109: Barrels, wood, 

slack, and shall have an overlapping inner liner 

on top, bottom, and sides which shall comply 

with requirements for Class B-3, Federal Specification UU-P-271b: Paper, wrapping, waterproofed kr'aft.

(b) Steel drums equal to Type 6D, Federal Specification RR-D-746: Drums, steel, may be used 

provided the drums are coated both inside and 

outside and lined as required by Section 3-ad)-(a).

(c) In an emergency, paper sacks equal to, or other 

type sacks equal in quality to, Nos. 2X, 9X, or 

14X, Federal Specification UU-S-48b: Sacks, 

paper, shipping, may be used.

(2) Material in substandard packages in the stockpile shall be 

repacked in wooden barrels, at first sign of container 

failure.

(3) All containers comprising any lot shall be of the same nominal size and shape, 

b. Marking:

Each container shall be permanently and legibly marked and shall 

include the name of the product, gross and net weights, Government contract number, and, where applicable, the number of 

containers. The containers shall not carry a security classification or any marking, other than the contract number, indicating 

National Stockpile ownership. Appropriate identifying documents shall accompany each shipment.

4. Inspection and analysis :

Each lot of graphite shall be subject to inspection and analysis by the 

purchaser or his designee.

So far as the writers are aware, no graphite of any type was 

being purchased for national stockpiles as of 1959. At that time,
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 213

the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization was the source of information on stockpile specifications.

Specification P-22a-R conforms, in a general way, to the specifications for clay-graphite crucible flake laid down by industry, but 

it is not fully satisfactory. There are no fixed standards for toughness or for smoothness of outline, and nothing is said about character of ash, packing index, thickness of flakes, or rate of oxidation. Graphite brought under this specification is not necessarily 

equivalent to standard Madagascar flake on which industry practices are based.

The difficulty is that at present (1959) no precise basis for framing specifications exists. A particular graphite may pass rigid inspection and standard laboratory tests but must still be tested in 

actual use. There is no quantitative basis for appraising the characteristics of flake graphite that determine its behavior under actual 

commercial conditions. Progress toward this end was made through 

investigations by Mackles and others (1953) and by Heindl and 

Mohler (1955), but the proof of usability of any given graphite 

still rests on successful use in industry.

About 1947 a new type of crucible, the carbon-bonded crucible, 

was developed by Mr. Kenneth E. Buck of the National Crucible 

Co. Carbon-bonded crucibles are similar to clay-bonded crucibles 

except that petroleum coke or coal tar and a highly refractory 

oxide or silicate, such as corundum, manganese oxide, alumina, chromite, or zircon, are added in small quantities. When this crucible 

is annealed at high temperature, a thin fused film of highly refractory material forms over the surface. The refractory material 

protects the graphite from oxidation and the result is a much more 

durable crucible.

According to Mr. Buck (oral communication, 1950), the carbonbonded crucible was first manufactured from "Bama flake," at one 

time one of the standard products of the Bama Graphite mine, 

which is near Verbena, Ala., and was owned (in 1951) by the 

Alabama Machinery and Supply Co. Mr. W. W. Doe, Sr., treasurer of the company, furnished the following information on the 

characteristics of Bama flake:

Volatile matter ______________________________ 1.64 percent 

Graphitic carbon _____________'.______________________ 93.14 percent

Ash _______________________________________ 5.22 percent 

Size _;___________________________________ -f60-mesh

According to Mr. Buck, Bama flake was consistent and uniform 

in characteristics and conformed approximately to the following 

size specifications:
214 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Percent graphite On screen menh 

(by weight) retained (U.S. standard) 

2 _____________________________________________________________ +30

7 ______________________________________________ -30+40 

49 __________________________________________ -40+50

16 __________________________________________ -50+60

17 __________________________________________ -60+80 

9 ___________________________________________ -80

A consignment of 600 tons of Bama flake from the Bama Graphite mine in the midthirties proved wholly satisfactory in the manufacture of carbon-bonded crucibles. When this supply was exhausted 

the manufacturing process was finally adjusted, after some difficulties, to use of Madagascar flake graphite as a substitute.

The carbon-bonded crucible requires less graphite and finer flake 

than the clay-graphite crucible. Actually, the lower limit of fineness permissible has not been determined, and there is no reason 

to suppose that finer flake than that defined above cannot be used. 

This is an important matter, for the carbon-bonded crucible appears to be displacing the clay-bonded crucible, and if this trend 

continues, the need for coarse flake will correspondingly diminish.

Several attempts have been made to determine whether commercial graphite from domestic sources is as satisfactory as that from 

foreign sources for the manufacture of crucibles. Thiessen (1919, 

p. 508) investigated the relation between the structural and textural characteristics of various foreign and domestic flake graphites 

and the structures and textures of clay-graphite crucibles made from 

them to find out why crucibles made from American flake were less 

durable than those made from Ceylon and Madagascar flake. Stull 

(1919, p. 208) tested graphite used in clay-graphite crucibles, but 

domestic flake was compared only with Ceylon flake. Stull and 

Bole (1923, p. 4) compared graphite from Madagascar and Ceylon 

with American graphite used in clay-graphite crucibles in the steel 

industry. As crucibles are now very little used in the steel industry and as the manufacture of clay-graphite crucibles was greatly 

improved during 1925-55, their findings are no longer of much 

significance.

R. S. Hodges studied the ash content of flake graphite from three 

Alabama mines (Jones, 1929, p. 19-21), but it is generally recognized that so long as crucible flake contains at least 85 percent 

carbon, the kind of ash is more important than the amount. A 

study of the burning rate of natural graphite by Coe (1943, p. 3) 

is likewise of limited significance, because burning rate is only one 

of the elements of the behavior of graphite that determine usability for the manufacture of crucibles.

Sanford and Lamb (1949, p. 15) cite a report of August 25, 

1944, by the Mica-Graphite Division of the War Production Board,
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 215

on tests of domestic flake used by five manufacturers of claygraphite crucibles. The graphite came from the Benjamin Franklin 

mine, Pennsylvania, and the Crucible Flake and Ceylon Graphite 

mines, Alabama. The results were decidedly adverse to the use of 

domestic flake in clay-graphite crucibles.

Heindl (1952) made tests with flake graphite from Madagascar, 

from Alabama graphite from the government stockpile, and from 

the Benjamin Franklin mine in Pennsylvania. Flake from each 

lot of graphite was prepared by separating it by screening into 

various size fractions and then combining the size fractions in proportions specified by two crucible manufacturers. Two manufacturers then made carbon-bonded and clay-graphite crucibles by 

standard commercial procedures, and sent them to six brass foundries 

for testing in normal use. The crucibles of both types made from 

domestic flake are stated to have given service equal or even superior to that given by crucibles made from Madagascar flake.

Heindl's work is an important step toward establishing the usability of certain domestic flake graphites for crucibles. Some questions still unanswered, however, have an important bearing on appraisal of graphite from the two domestic mines represented: First, 

what proportion of the total flake recoverable from the Alabama 

deposit is represented by the stockpile lot from which the test flake 

was prepared? Second, what proportion of the stockpile lot is 

represented by the test materials prepared? Similar questions arise 

for the graphite from the Benjamin Franklin mine, although a 

partial answer is given by the report (Lamb and Irving, 1955, p. 5) 

that 25 percent of the product of experimental mining and milling 

at the mine during 1953 and 1954 was +50-mesh flake, suitable for 

crucible flake.

Kesults of tests described above cannot be applied to domestic 

deposits as a group because only a few domestic flake-graphite deposits have been worked during the years 1925-55. Graphite available for testing during this period thus could come from only a 

small fraction of the total number of domestic deposits. General 

conclusions as to the usability of domestic graphite are therefore 

not possible at the present time.

It should be emphasized that crucible manufacture, either clay 

or carbon-bonded, is not a standardized procedure. Differences in 

the size, toughness, density, or other physical properties of any one 

of the ingredients may have a marked effect on the durability of 

the final product, and a change in one constituent may require 

changes in the others. For example, certain types of graphite work 

best only with a few types of clay; to change one requires changing the other as well. Differences in handling, drying, curing, and 

annealing may also affect the life of a crucible. The properties that
216 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

control the behavior of each ingredient, individually and in combination with the other ingredients, are not completely understood. 

Manufacturers try various combinations and proportions until they 

find a formula that yields an acceptable product. This formula 

often becomes a closely guarded secret, and how satisfactory it 

would be if substitutions were made may not be known. In a business as small and as highly competitive as the graphite industry, 

cost makes extensive experimentation almost impossible. Owing to 

this and to the secrecy that quite understandably surrounds successful formulas, the public record of the physical properties controlling 

the quality of the crucibles produced is incomplete, and the evaluation of graphite from any one source is correspondingly difficult. 

Some facts, however, are well known. Crucible graphite must be 

at least 85 percent carbon, and certain mineral impurities are recognized as being more detrimental than others. As quartz sand 

and clay are usually added in fabrication, their presence in moderate amounts is not objectionable, nor are small amounts of feldspar 

and zircon. Mica is considered the most undesirable impurity; it 

fluxes readily and causes pinholing in the crucible walls. Calcite, 

pyrite, and pyrrhotite are also detrimental. The calcite decomposes, 

and escaping CO2 causes blowholes in the crucible walls that, weakened, tend to crack when heated. The iron sulfides also decompose 

when heated, add sulfur to the charge, and cause holes, spots, and 

cracks in the crucible.

Similar problems and practices exist in the fabrication of other 

refractory products that contain graphite. In general, however, it 

may be said that while the problems are the same, they are less serious than those in crucible manufacture, mainly because the articles 

are subjected to less stress in use.

An additional refractory product that requires graphite is brick 

for furnace linings. This type of brick is heat-resistant and has 

the advantage of providing a furnace lining that does not react 

with slags or stick to them. Specifications for the graphite used 

in the bricks are not known to the authors.

LUBBICATING COMPOUNDS

Lubricating compounds absorb another large segment of the 

strategic grade of graphite. For this use a different group of properties is important. Spence (1920, p. 155), in summarizing these 

properties, says:

Graphite possesses a very low coefficient of friction, a property that it retains 

under practically all working conditions. In addition, it is soft and readily 

adheres to metallic surfaces under light pressure, filling up the pores in the 

metal and smoothing the microscopic roughness of the surfaces in rubbing contact. The surfaces thus coated are covered with a veneer of graphite which 

reduces their coefficient of friction to practically that of graphite itself and
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 217

also serves to protect them from the action of corrosive solution or vapours. 

This applies especially to cylinder lubrication, where high pressure steam, oil 

or gas is used. Under such conditions oil and grease tend to lose body or to 

char or vapourize under the action of the heat and vapour to which they are 

exposed, and graphite has now largely supplanted lubricants of the above nature 

for cylinder lubrication.

Graphite is used in lubricants wherever very high temperatures, 

corrosive materials, or extreme pressures are expected. It is also 

used wherever the presence of a liquid lubricant is undesirable, as 

in certain musical instruments, or where wooden surfaces are involved.

Requirements of composition and purity of graphite used for 

lubricants are quite different from those for crucible manufacture. 

Purity requirements are generally much higher, chiefly because the 

common impurities are abrasive. Such impurities as quartz, feldspar, zircon, garnet, and pyroxene would obviously be detrimental 

in a lubricant. Iron sulfides are also objectionable. They are 

abrasive and also break down to form sulfuric acid, which corrodes 

metal surfaces. Free sulfur is undesirable for the same reason, as 

is an unduly low pH of the compound. Calcite and clay are less 

abrasive but still undesirable. Mica is almost the only impurity 

that can be tolerated in significant amounts.

Lubricants made wholly or partly of graphite include a wide 

variety of products, the graphite in each of which conforms to 

specifications laid down by the manufacturer or worked out jointly 

by the manufacturer and supplier. These specifications, like those 

for crucible flake, are trade secrets, and there are no standard specifications to which one can refer. The lack of such data has inevitably hampered attempts to define, for purposes of stockpiling, what 

is meant by lubricant- and packing-grade graphite. Two principal 

points of view have been expressed. One view is that if flake 

comparable to the high grades of Madagascar flake (about 87 to 

90 percent graphitic carbon) is stockpiled, all necessary types of 

lubricant- and packing-grade graphite can be made therefrom by 

appropriate processing. A stockpile composed of this flake will 

have maximum flexibility, because the processing of the flake can 

be modified to produce types according to demand. The advocates 

of this procedure have stated that a single specification for graphite 

for stockpile would suffice and that there is no need for setting up 

a series of specifications for different grades.

This view is based to some extent on experience and practice in 

the preparation of lubricant- and packing-grade graphite from 

Madagascar flake, the principal source. In part, however, it is also 

based on the belief that for most commercial lubricants coarse flake 

is necessary. From this standpoint, Madagascar flake is ideal, owing to the large amount of coarse flake it contains.
218 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Others, however, question this view, believing that coarse flake 

is unnecessary for the majority of lubricants and packings materials. They maintain that, because in use the coarse flake rapidly 

breaks down into fine particles, there is no advantage in using the 

coarser, more expensive grades, and that, therefore, finer sizes of 

flake can be accepted for stockpiling. This has been a serious matter for the domestic graphite industry, because domestic deposits 

have yielded only a small proportion of + 50-mesh flake. If a 

single specification based on Madagascar flake had been set up, 

domestic graphite would automatically have been excluded from 

the stockpile, and an important potential outlet for domestic graphite would have been closed.

The controversy was settled by a canvass of consumers, which 

showed that large amounts of pulverized flake are used. The following specifications were therefore established for grades of graphite acceptable for the stockpile:

P-22b-R

16 December 1952

(Supersedes issue of

22 May 1951)

National stockpile material purchase specifications 

Graphite Crystalline Flake (Lubricant and Packing Grade)

1. Description:

These specifications cover five grades of crystalline flake graphite suitable for use in lubricants and graphite packings.

2. Chemical and physical requirements :

Each lot of graphite purchased under these specifications shall conform

to the following applicable requirements: 

a. Chemical requirements:

The graphitic carbon content shall be the difference between 100 

percent and the sum of the percentages of ash and volatile 

matter. The graphitic carbon content, on a moisture-free basis, 

for each grade shall be as follows:

Grade

A Large flake 

B Medium flake 

C Small flake 

D Fine flake 

E Extra fine

' The graphitic carbon content for Grade E may be a minimum of 95 percent with a maximum ash-plusvolatile content of 5 percent for graphite which has an abrasive loss of less than 4 milligrams; otherwise, the 

minimum graphitic carbon content shall be 96 percent.

b. Physical requirements:

Oil shall not show on the surface when a heaping teaspoon of

a representative sample is placed in a one-liter beaker of

distilled water. 

All graphite in any lot shall be uniform in quality and free

from foreign material. 

All graphite shall have an unctuous feel.

6- __-__--_____ -__

flake. __ _______ __

Graphitic carbon (minimum percent) n

________________ 95

-_-______.--____ 95

_____--__._--___ 95

__-_-__-_._--___ 95

__-___-___._-___ 196

Ash-plus-volatile (maximum percent)

5

5

5

5

4
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 219

Abrasion loss shall not exceed 5 milligrams of the weight of the 

brass disk when determined as specified in Section 4.

A representative 100-gram sample, agitated for the time specified 

on a Tyler-Ro-Tap sieve shaker or equivalent machine, shall 

conform to the following sieve analysis:

Pass U.S. standard 

Grade sieve Percent (by weight)

A Large flake (agitate 15 min.)----------- No. 20 Minimum 95

No. 50 Maximum 40

No. 100 Maximum 2

B Medium flake (agitate 15 min.)_________ No. 50 Minimum 95

No. 100 Maximum 15

C Small flake (agitate 15 min.)__.-_____- No. 100 Minimum 70

No. 200 Maximum 30

D Fine flake (agitate 30 min.)____________ No. 100 Minimum 98

No. 200 Minimum 95

E Extra fine flake (agitate 45 min.)__._-_ No. 100 Minimum 99}£

No. 200 Minimum 98

No. 325 Minimum 95

3. Packaging and marking: 

a. Packaging:

(1) Iron oxide contamination from the container shall be 

avoided. Any of the following containers are acceptable, 

but wooden barrels are preferred:

(a) Wooden barrels shall be equal to Grade No. 1, 

Federal Specification NN-B-109: Barrels, wood, 

slack, and shall have an overlapping inner liner 

on top, bottom, and sides which shall comply 

with requirements for Class B-3, Federal Specification UU-P-271b: Paper, wrapping, waterproofed kraft.

(b) Steel drums equal to Type 6D, Federal Specification RR-D-746: Drums, steel, may be used 

provided the drums are coated both inside and 

outside and lined as required by Section 3-a- 

(l)(a).

(c) In an emergency, paper sacks equal to, or other 

type sacks equal in quality to, Nos. 2X, 9X, or 

14X, Federal Specifications UU-S-48b: Sacks, 

paper, shipping, may be used.

(2) Material in substandard packages in the stockpile shall be 

repacked in wooden barrels at first sign of container 

failure.

(3) All containers comprising any lot shall be of the same

nominal size and shape, 

b. Marking:

Each container shall be permanently and legibly marked and 

shall include the name of the product, grade, gross and net 

weights, Government contract number, and where applicable, 

the number of containers. The containers shall not carry a 

security classification or any marking, other than the contract 

number, indicating National Stockpile ownership. Appropriate 

identifying documents shall accompany each shipment.
220 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

4. Inspection and analysis :

Each lot of graphite shall be subject to inspection and analysis by the

purchaser or his designee.

The abrasion loss test shall be as follows: Apparatus for the abrasion loss 

test shall consist of a smooth-bottom brass container 2^ inches in diameter and %-inch in depth. A brass disk 2 inches in diameter, polished 

on one face, and weighing approximately 60 grams, shall be connected 

to a shaft and rotated under a weight of 4 pounds. Any other suitable 

apparatus for determining abrasion loss may be used.

Thirty grams of a 15 percent suspension of graphite in oil complying with Grade 8, Federal Specification VV-O-581, shall 

be placed in the container and the polished, weighted disk 

shall be placed upon the graphite and connected to the shaft. 

The disk shall be rotated 2,000 revolutions at 100 rpm, removed, washed with chloroform, wiped clean, allowed to come 

to room temperature, and weighed to a fraction of a milligram. This procedure shall be repeated twice and the total 

loss in milligrams for the 6,000 revolutions shall be the abrasion loss.

For comparison, Air Force-Navy Aeronautical Specification ANG-24a, September 14, 1948, for one grade of lubricant graphite is 

summarized as follows:

Type of graphite: Natural or manufactured.

Must be free of abrasives or other undesirable impurities as defined below.

Ash content not greater than 2 percent by weight.

Graphite-carbon content not less than 96 percent by weight. Carbon content

is defined as 100-(ash+volatile matter). 

Acidity: pH not less than 5.0 nor more than 9.0. 

Abrasion : To be determined by the apparatus described below. Loss of weight

of brass disc shall not exceed 5 milligrams. 

Size: (a) No residue on 100-mesh screen.

(b) Not more than 2 percent retained on 200-mesh screen. Residue on 

200-mesh screen must be free from hard particles.

The apparatus for determining abrasion consists of a brass disc 

that is rotated under a load of 4 pounds at a speed of 100 rpm in a 

metal cup containing a weighed sample of graphite in an oil suspension. The disc is carefully cleaned and weighed before the test, 

then rotated for 1,000 revolutions, weighed again, and rotated once 

more. This procedure is continued for a total of 6,000 revolutions.

Flake of at least 92 percent purity is used for most lubricants 

that contain graphite. Some consumers, however, prefer either 

natural or artificial amorphous graphite to crystalline flake graphite, particularly for compounds having heavy oil or grease as a suspension medium. The finer sizes of graphite are essential in preparing very thin penetrating suspensions.

Graphite is also used in packings and bearings. Graphite packings have the same advantages as graphite lubricants. Bearings 

that contain graphite and are therefore partly or wholly self-
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 221

lubricating have also been made. These uses absorb small amounts 

as compared with lubricating compounds.

BRUSHES

The use of graphite in the manufacture of carbon brushes for 

electric motors is minor from the standpoint of tonnage but extremely important strategically. The softness and high electrical 

conductivity of pure graphite make it ideal for this purpose. Graphite for this use must be very pure and must contain no abrasive 

material that would quickly wear grooves in the soft copper of the 

commutators. High-performance electric motors, such as those used 

in aircraft accessories, consume a large part of the output of the 

carbon-brush industry. Graphite brushes are especially desirable 

in aircraft because they reduce sparking, particularly in the rarified 

atmosphere of high altitudes. They are also self-lubricating an 

important advantage, as any liquid lubricant tends to collect dust 

and grit, which may cause excessive wear.

In manufacturing, graphite for brushes is formed into slabs under high pressure, after which it is baked, cooled, and sawed into 

the desired shapes. Varying amounts of clay, petroleum coke, or 

coal tar may be added to act as a binder and to control the hardness.

NONSTBATEGIC USES

This report is concerned primarily, with the strategic uses of 

graphite, but brief descriptions of other uses are pertinent, because 

nonstrategic graphite is almost inevitably produced by operations 

for strategic graphite. The two uses of graphite are therefore elements of a single economic problem.

BATTERIES

A sizable quantity of graphite is used annually in dry cells for 

portable radios and flashlights. Graphite is added to manganese 

oxide to give the oxide better conductivity and to act as an absorbent material that furthers the chemical reactions of the cell.

Graphite for batteries must contain 85 percent or more carbon, 

must have a low Fe2O3 content, and must contain no metals, heavymetal oxides, or sulfides. Metals or sulfides, especially copper in 

any form, will cause reaction with the zinc in the batteries, with 

resulting loss of shelf life and poorer general performance. Comparatively inert minerals, such as quartz and mica, are not considered particularly detrimental. Fine material is normally preferred; 

both natural amorphous graphite and finer grades of flake and chip 

graphite have been used. Manufactured amorphous graphite is also 

satisfactory but is generally more expensive than natural graphite.
222 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

As specifications are not rigid and any fine graphite free of metals and sulfides can be used, battery-grade graphite is not considered strategic. Furthermore, most battery makers are now using 

compounds such as acetylene black in their better grades of batteries. Acetylene black gives better performance and longer shelf 

life, partly because of its finer size and greater absorbent capacity.

FOUNDRY FACINGS

The largest single use of graphite is for foundry facings. Graphite is applied to molds to provide smooth surfaces that will not 

adhere to the metal casting. The graphite is mixed with a small 

amount of clay and then suspended in an adhesive material such 

as glue or molasses water. The mixture is applied as a thin coating.

Flake graphite is preferred for foundry facings, but natural 

amorphous graphite is also used in large quantities, partly because 

of its lower cost. Purity requirements are low. Sulfides are objectionable in the material, but any of the other common mineral 

impurities are tolerated in considerable quantities. As impurities 

are not harmful, low-grade, low-cost, fine-grained flake or amorphous 

graphite can be used. These lower grades are readily available and 

are not considered strategic.

STEEL.MAKING

The tonnage of natural amorphous graphite used in recarburizing steel actually makes this an important use. High-purity graphite, however, is unnecessary for this purpose, and carbon in other 

forms (coal or coke) can be substituted.

PENCILS

This most familiar use of graphite is still of some quantitative 

importance. Pencil "leads" are formed by mixing graphite and 

clay. Stibnite, lampblack, or even metallic lead, are sometimes 

added to give special qualities. Mixtures are extruded from dies 

under pressure, then dried, fired, and placed in grooved pieces of 

wood to form the pencils. Hardness is controlled by varying the 

amount of clay and the firing temperatures.

Either amorphous or flake graphite can be used for pencils, and 

in the United States both Ceylon graphite and Mexican amorphous 

graphite are employed. Impurities are not important unless hard 

and gritty. Ordinarily, graphite containing at least 85 percent 

carbon is preferred, and it is ground as fine as possible to assure 

uniform texture and writing qualities in the final product. Manufactured amorphous graphite is also sometimes used.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 223 

PAINTS

Graphite has been used as a pigment in special purpose paints 

intended to protect surfaces from steam or corrosive smoke or 

fumes. Its chemical inertness makes it ideal for protecting smokestacks, tanks, pipes, railroad cars, roofs, and other metal surfaces 

exposed to unusually rigorous conditions.

Pure graphite mixed with a standard base, such as linseed oil, 

makes a very poor paint (Spence, 1920, p. 158-159). Graphite fine 

enough to be useful as a paint pigment will flow and spread very 

readily and form a film too thin to be of value as a protective coating. The use of impure graphitic rocks or the addition of other 

materials to the paint is necessary to eliminate the spreading characteristic. Impure graphitic slates are used extensively as paint pigments. The rock is ground to the desired fineness without concentration. Rocks containing as little as 25 to 30 percent graphite are 

thus used without treatment other than grinding. The only impurity that may cause rejection is iron sulfide; this will break down 

and form sulfuric acid which attacks the metal surface the paint is 

supposed to protect.

Natural amorphous graphite is the type most used in paints, but 

other types are equally satisfactory, provided some other inert 

material is added to prevent excessive spreading. Because of the low 

purity requirements, graphite for paints is available in large 

amounts from many sources and is not considered of strategic importance.

OTHER USES

Graphite is also used for a variety of other purposes, including 

electrodes, brake linings, coatings for tea leaves, coffee beans, and 

smokeless powder grains (to protect the grains from moisture and 

to make them flow easily), stove polish, fertilizer and hard rubber 

fillers, and many other minor uses, such as electrotyping and elimination of boiler scale. None of these uses requires large quantities 

of graphite or graphite of extreme purity, and they are therefore 

not considered strategic. The development of atomic piles resulted 

in rather extensive use of graphite for the insulating rods that 

absorb the radiation and control the rate of reaction. Manufactured amorphous graphite is used exclusively for this purpose, 

because of the very high degree of purity necessary.
224

DOMESTIC PRODUCTION 

HISTORY

The localities of the principal graphite deposits of the United 

States are shown in figure 12. Graphite production in the United 

States began between 1644 and 1648 at Sturbridge, Mass. (Haynes, 

1901), but between this time and about 1850 production, which came 

from scattered operations in New England, New York, and New 

Jersey, apparently was low and sporadic. During the period 1850- 

1900 deposits in New York, New Jersey, Alabama, Pennsylvania, 

Michigan, Texas, California, Nevada, and Rhode Island were explored and developed, and a domestic graphite industry came into 

being. From the 1850's to 1900, the mines of the Joseph Dixon Co. 

near Ticonderoga and Lake George, N.Y., were the principal domestic source of flake graphite, but about 1900 mines in Alabama and 

eastern Pennsylvania began intermittent production of substantial 

amounts of flake graphite. In 1911 Alabama took first place as a 

producer of flake graphite, a position that she maintained until 

after World War II. From about 1946 to 1954, Texas and Alabama 

produced nearly equal amounts of flake graphite. By the end of 

1954, however, only a deposit of amorphous graphite in Rhode 

Island was being mined; all flake-graphite production had stopped, 

although production in Texas was scheduled to be resumed in 1955.

Amorphous graphite was apparently first mined in quantity from 

deposits in Rhode Island, North Carolina, California, and Nevada, 

then later in Michigan, Wisconsin, and other States.

Records of domestic graphite production prior to 1882 are lacking. In 1882, 212.5 short tons, mostly from New York, was reported, 

and between 1882 and 1900 production increased irregularly to about 

2,750 short tons per year. The first record of amorphous graphite 

production shows a total output of 2,793 short tons during 1895. 

No satisfactory breakdown of figures for the year before 1909 is 

possible, because until then the flake-graphite production of Alabama 

and Alaska was erronoeously classified as "amorphous," and the 

low-grade graphitic slates of Georgia were also included under 

amorphous graphite. Figures 14 and 17 show total domestic production of amorphous graphite and strategic grades of graphite 

(flake) for the period 1910 to 1949, as far as figures are available. 

Data for the years 1929 to 1939 are approximate; the figures used 

are estimates based on averages given in the U.S. Bureau of Mines 

Minerals Yearbooks for these years. No graphite production is 

recorded for 1940 and 1941. The figures for strategic grades include 2,200 tons of lump (Ceylon-type) graphite produced in Montana between 1914 and 1937, mostly during the years 1914 to 1918.
-------I

&

f~~N

FIGURE 12. Map of localities of principal graphite deposits, areas of substantial yi
226 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

For the years 1942 to 1949, separate figures for production of 

amorphous graphite and flake graphite are not available.

The graphs emphasize the vicissitudes of the domestic mining 

industry. The irregular increase in production after 1900 culminated in the all-time record production of nearly 13,600 tons in 

1917. After 1917, both total production and production of strategic 

grades declined irregularly until 1932. In that year and until 1942 

total production was only a few hundred tons annually. In 1942 

World War II brought about a revival of the industry, and a peak 

production of 9,016 tons was reached in 1943. Production declined 

from 1944 to 1947. A sharp increase to 9,026 tons took place in 

1948, but from 1949 production declined. In 1953 production was 

about 5,000 tons.

FACTORS INFLUENCING DOMESTIC PRODUCTION

The principal factors which have contributed to the irregularity 

of domestic production have been competition from low-cost sources 

abroad, inability of single mines to produce a wide variety of acceptable grades of graphite, limitations of the market for graphite, 

inability of individual producers 'to assure the industry of a continuing supply of uniform graphite products, technological changes 

in the consuming industries, fluctuations in the general world level 

of economic activity, and strategic factors. All these factors are 

interrelated in some degree, but for convenience of discussion they 

are treated separately below.

Competition from sources abroad. The better domestic flakegraphite deposits are neither exceptionally high nor exceptionally 

low in tenor. In general they average from 2 to 8 percent flake 

graphite. Flake-graphite deposits in Madasgascar have been reported to yield ore containing as much as 60 percent flake graphite 

(Redfield, 1920, p. 258-262)), but 10-percent ore was considered 

workable as long ago as 1917 and ore carrying as little as 4 percent 

has been worked. Laplaine (1950) in a report on certain deposits of 

the east coast of Madasgascar stated that ore containing 5 to 8 

percent graphite was being worked at one mine, and ore containing 

4 to 5 percent-at another. In New York and Texas the deposits 

worked are in unweathered rock, but in Alabama and Pennsylvania 

weathered ore is available in quantity, as it is in Madagascar. It is 

commonly stated in the industry that a part of the problem is relaive cost of production. The low cost of labor in Madagascar is 

often cited as an important factor in the favorable competitive position held by that country in the flake-graphite market; however, it 

is not clear to what extent this has been a factor. Cost data for 

American mines currently active are not matters of publication, 

and data for the operations of the past are not on record. In 1956
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 227

standard Madagascar flake (85 to 87.5 percent carbon) sold at $235 

per metric ton, or approximately $0.11 per pound, f.o.b. New York. 

The price for Madagascar flake delivered in New York probably is 

not far different from the production costs per pound for average 

domestic flake, but average domestic flake does not command so 

high a price. Part of the differential in labor costs may be offset 

by the greater mechanization of American mines.

Much of the fluctuation in domestic production of flake graphite 

has been attributed to poorer quality of domestic flake compared 

with foreign graphite. Prior to World War I, the principal foreign 

source of graphite was Ceylon, which was considered to produce 

the best graphite available, especially for crucible use. Since World 

War I, the principal competition has been with Madagascar flake, 

although Ceylon graphite continues to be in limited demand for 

crucible manufacture and for special products, such as carbon 

brushes, which require lump graphite of high quality. Graphite 

from Ceylon and Madagascar is considered superior to domestic 

graphite in uniformity and is said to be more carefully graded. 

Furthermore, domestic operators have not been generally successful 

in producing high-carbon graphites, and Ceylon and Madagascar 

graphite has supplied the market with these grades.

Because of its superior thickness, toughness, and coarseness Madagascar flake has been preferred to domestic flake by industry for 

clay-graphite crucibles and as a base material for the manufacture 

of lubricant and packing grade graphites. Since World War I, 

domestic consumers have in general turned to domestic flake only 

when the supply of graphite from abroad has been curtailed. This 

has happened twice since World War I, during part of World 

War II and during the inception of a more active defense program 

in 1948. Both periods were marked by increase in domestic production.

Range of types of domestic flake. In normal times Madagascar 

flake graphite comes from ten or more mines. Some of these have 

produced graphite for many years, and the characteristics of their 

products are well known to the purchasers. Importers of graphite 

process the flake as received and also blend flake from different 

deposits; thus they produce a variety of grades and qualities of 

flake. Domestic production, on the other hand, is normally derived 

from only a few mines, and at the time of this report no domestic 

operator had produced from more than one mine. In competing 

with the imported graphite, the domestic operator's market is 

limited according to the characteristics of the flake in his deposit. 

Blending to obtain a wide variety of products is therefore impossible.

535373 O 60 3
228 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Limitations of the market for graphite. The market for graphite 

in this country is small. During the period 1910 to 1948, total 

domestic consumption of graphite ranged from about 8,000 tons to 

nearly 63,000 tons annually; average consumption of all grades was 

about 30,000 tons. Since 1940, consumption has ranged from 30,000 

tons to peaks of 63,000 tons in 1948 and 1951. Totals for both 

the latter years, however, include about 35,000 tons of amorphous 

graphite from Mexico, which in 1956 sold for $9 to $18 per metric 

ton, f.o.b. Mexico. This price provides an extremely favorable 

competitive position. Even if a domestic operator were able to 

furnish graphite of every grade required by industry and just the 

right proportions of the various grades, his potential market would 

not be great. If he could capture the entire market for natural 

graphite, his total sales would be a few million dollars per year. 

Actually, no operator is able to produce all these grades; hence, even 

if costs were of no significance, he could compete only in a limited 

part of the market. It seems probable that even maximum success 

could not result in sales of more than $2 million per year. The incentive toward large investment and toward the extended research 

and sales effort necessary to develop acceptable products and find 

markets for them is therefore not great. (See Tyler, 1929d, p. 1-2.)

An important factor determining the potential value of a graphite 

deposit is the range in prices of the possible marketable products. 

There are two ways to determine the value of graphite from a given 

deposit. One is based on the price that the graphite may bring 

after extraction, milling, and concentration, but with no further 

treatment: what may be termed crude graphite. The other way to 

determine its value is to estimate its sales price after the crude 

concentration has been separated into various marketable finished 

products, such as lubricating flake, crucible flake, and so on. Prices 

of flake graphite during the period 1910 to 1956 are given in figure 

13. Estimates of the market value of crude graphite can be made 

from the following more or less standard prices:

Flake graphite:

Standard Madagascar flake, 85 to 57 percent carbon, $235 per ton,

c.i.f. New York, 1956. 

Amorphous lump and chip (prices for 1949; later prices unavailable) :

Ceylon lump, 10 to 14 cents per pound, f.o.b. New York.

Ceylon carbon lump, 10 to 11 cents per pound, f.o.b. New York.

Ceylon chip, 8 to 9 cents per pound, f.o.b. New York.

Ceylon dust, 4 to 6 cents per pound, f.o.b. New York. 

Amorphous graphite:

Mexico amorphous, $9-$18 per metric ton, f.o.b. mine (1956).

These prices are significant to the domestic producer, however, 

only if he sells his product crude or semifinished to the importers 

of foreign graphite, in which case the prices he receives will depend
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 229

v

Q V)

\

I I I

8 »: ^ &

o * 

i «

 H ^

o 2

O> m

o S

05 «

6

O *

S H

f-I *

NOI d3d savmoa
230 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

on the quality of his product relative to that of the imported 

graphites. Because domestic flake graphite is, in general, in disfavor among consumers, he must sell at lower prices than those 

quoted for imported flake. Furthermore, much of his product will 

consist of the finer grades of flake and will command a price that 

may be as low as 4 cents per pound. Under these circumstances, the 

changes of profit are small.

The alternative is to enter into production of finished grades of 

graphite. This is difficult. He must first develop his processing 

methods to the point at which he can give assurance of uniform 

products; then he must establish their usability with individual 

consumers. The returns from such a venture can be learned only 

after a long period. Furthermore, prices for finished grades of 

graphite vary over a wide range, probably from 4 cents per pound 

to more than 40 cents per pound. There are no standards; most 

sale prices are the result of specific negotiations with various users. 

The producer must interest customers for all his products, and the 

sizes of contracts must be adjusted to the proportion of the various 

grades that he is able to produce. The producer's most likely opportunity for profit lies in the wide spread between the sales prices of 

crude graphites and those of finished graphites.

Inability to assure consumers of a steady supply of uniform grades 

of graphite. The history of the domestic graphite industry is now 

one of its principal liabilities. It is marked by a long succession of 

ventures, most of which have been short-lived failures. Domestic 

production consequently has fluctuated widely both in tonnage and 

grades of graphites produced. In contrast to this, the supply of 

the principal grades of graphite from abroad has been steady, and 

several organizations have specialized in converting the imported 

materials into the particular grades required by industry. Under 

these circumstances, the consumer is reluctant to place reliance on 

domestic sources, particularly because time-consuming and costly 

changes in his manufacturing processes must often be made if he 

changes his sources of material. A domestic operator newly entering into graphite production therefore faces a long and difficult 

struggle to convince potential consumers, first, of the quality of his 

products, and second, of his ability to furnish steady supplies of 

uniform materials. This necessity has unquestionably been a deterrent to domestic production.

Technological changes in the consuming industry. Technological 

changes in the industries that consume graphite have had a heavy 

influence on domestic production (figs. 14 and 15). The peak use of 

graphite was from 1912 to 1920. During this period the greatest 

use of flake was in the manufacture of crucibles for the steel and 

other metal industries (table 1). According to Gwinn (1949, p.
60

40

Data for domestic production, 1926-39, are approximate 

No domestic production recorded for years 1940 and 1941

Total domestic production of 

strategic grades of graphite

i 

20

/Total imports plus t

production of str

of graphite

1910 1920 1930 

FIGURE 14. Supply of strategic graphite for United States, 1910-48. Data from 

U.S. Bureau of Mines Minerals Yea
60

.40

20

Total imports 

of graphite

1910 1920 1930 

FIGURE 15. Graphite imports, 1910-54, by types. Data from U.S. Geological Surv

Yearbooks.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 233

427), the peak of crucible flake consumption was reached in 1912 

at 20,000 tons. Beginning about 1920, use of crucibles in the steel 

industry was abandoned, and their use is now largely restricted to 

the nonferrous metal industries. In addition, crucibles have been 

improved so that they will withstand more heat than formerly. 

Still a third factor is the development of the carbon-bonded crucible, 

which requires less flake than the clay-graphite crucible. The 

effect of these three technological changes has been a marked decrease in the use of crucible flake. In 1954 only about 2,715 tons 

was used for this purpose. As crucible manufacture was once one 

of the principal outlets for the better grades of domestic flake, the 

effect of this decrease, together with the increasing preference for 

Madagascar flake, has been detrimental to the domestic industry.

TABLE 1. Consumption, by uses and percentage, of natural graphite in the United 

States during certain years from 1918 to 1958

[Compiled from statistics of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, as listed in Mineral Resources of the United States 

(1918-31) and in the Minerals Yearbooks (1934-53)]

Use

All other.......... .................. ......

1918

45

(0

(05-10

2.5

25

(«)

10

2.5 ( )

«5-10

100.0

1923

12 5

1.3

(2)

1.9

13.3

37.0

.2

2.7

7.5

7.2

15.3

1.1

100.0

Y(

1924

10.7

1.0

(2)

1.3

15.1

43.1

.3

2.3

4.4

4.0

16.5

1.3.

100.0

;ar

1933

17.6 (')

(')

3.7

8.6

37.8 (')

11.2

12.1

3.4 («)

5.6

100.0

1949

12.5

6.2

(»)

0)1.1

33.9

16.1

15.3

5.2 (')

(')

9.7

100.0

1953

9.7 (')

(')

(<)

1.9

34.4

5.7

15.5

4.6

1.4 (»)

26.8

100.0

- ' Included in crucibles. 

2 Included in all other. 

' Included in retorts, stoppers. 

4 Included in paints, pigments.

The development of the carbon-bonded crucible may be beneficial 

to the domestic industry. This type of crucible does not require 

the coarse flake needed for clay-graphite crucibles; hence the inability of domestic operators to produce a high proportion of coarse 

flake should be less of a handicap than formerly. Whatever benefit 

they may derive from extension of the use of carbon-bonded 

crucibles, however, may be partly offset by a decline in the total 

amount of graphite used in crucibles.

The increase in consumption of graphite is largely due to increased 

use of amorphous graphite, chiefly that from Mexico. The strong 

competitive position of Mexican graphite, however, suggests that the 

domestic producer cannot hope to capture-any sizeable part of this 

market so long as the Mexican supply continues to be available at 

low prices.
234 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

There have been other changes in the industry, but none of such 

importance to the domestic industry as those listed.

Economic and strategic factors. A final factor influencing domestic production has been the overall level of domestic and worldwide 

industrial activity. Plate 8 and figures 16 and 17 show the effects of 

the great depression of the 1930's, when domestic production of all 

grades of graphite nearly ceased. In general, graphite production 

has risen as business has improved. Superimposed upon the effects 

of industrial activity, however, are the even greater effects of war. 

During both World Wars shipments of graphite from Madagascar 

and Ceylon were curtailed at the very times when industrial demand 

was highest. During these periods domestic production reached its 

peaks.

For a time after World War II, an additional factor contributing to the maintenance of a small domestic graphite industry was 

the emphasis on stockpiling strategic minerals. Part of the stockpile was supplied from domestic sources, and prices set under purchase contracts enabled the producer to make a profit. All contracts for stockpile objectives, however, were either filled or let by 

1953 (Lamb and Irving, 1955, p. 334). Barring actual conflict, the 

domestic operator's ability to survive will depend on his success in 

competing in the industrial market.

DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION

The history of domestic graphite consumption is parallel in some 

respects to the record of production but markedly different in 

others (fig. 17). From 1860 to 1953, domestic consumption exceeded and during most of the period it ranged from 4 to 8 times 

above production. The same was true, in general, for strategic 

graphite, except that most of the domestic strategic graphite produced from 1942 to 1949 was absorbed in stockpiles. The principal changes in domestic consumption are the relative decline in the 

use of crucible flake, the development of the carbon-bonded crucible, 

and the increase in consumption of amorphous graphite (table 1).

WORLD PRODUCTION

World production of all types of graphite, by countries, is given 

in plate 8 for 1910 to 1955. The principal producing localities are 

shown in figure 18. Two peaks of production were reached during 

the First and Second World Wars, and the highest production of 

all time was reached in 1943. After both wars there was a precipitous drop in production; the drop after the Second World War 

was particularly severe. A third peak, in 1955, was due largely to 

greatly increased production from Korea.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 235

 2 S

2 S S

08 S

Q o

5 S

2 S

fc. CJ

O

» &*

SNOi JO SQNVSnOHi
60

Data for domestic production, 1928-39, are app

No domestic production recorded for years 1940 

Total imports, all types, plus total 

domestic productio.n of graphite

iTQtaOmpprtJiQt g'r>iJhi;te:::::::::::

"

1920 1930 

FIGURE 17. Graphite supply for United States, 1910-54, including total imp

Geological Survey Mineral Resources volumes and U.S. Bu
AMORPHOUS LUMP AND CHIP GRAPHITE 

1. CEYLON

FLAKE GRAPHITE

2. MADAGASCAR 5. CZECHOSLOVA

3. GERMANY (BAVARIA) 6. CANADA (CALA

4. AUSTRIA (KREMS AREA) 7. ALABAMA

FIGURE 18. Map of localities of principal graphit
238 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Over the long run there have been marked changes in the proportions of graphite produced by various countries. Annual production from the deposits of Ceylon (fig. 19), if we discount the 

ups and downs of the chart that characterize the curve for total 

world production, was about the same from World War II to 1944 

but declined in 1945 and has not regained its previous level. Production from the deposits of Madagascar (fig. 20), which began 

about 1910, reached its peak during the First World War and a 

lesser peak in the 1920's but has since remained at a moderate level, 

only rarely exceeding 15,000 tons. The graphite industry of Czechoslovakia, important until 1930, virtually ceased production during 

the depression of the 1930's. It was revived by Germany during 

the Second World War but apparently has been dormant since 

1948. Bavarian production has diminished in importance, but Austria has regained her pre-World War II position as a leading producer of graphite. Coincidental with these declines in output from 

the earlier established sources, there has been a marked increase in 

production from Korea and some increase in production from Mexico. Production from Korea after the Second World War was for 

a time at a low level, but in 1955 it reached a record tonnage.

Production from Austria, Bohemia, Mexico, Italy, and Korea is 

mostly amorphous graphite, from Bavaria and Madagascar mostly 

flake; production from Ceylon includes significant amount of flake 

in addition to lump and chip types. As Germany normally consumes most of the Bavarian product, only Ceylon and Madagascar 

graphite have been important in world flake markets.

World production has been influenced both by local factors and 

by some of the same factors that have influenced the domestic industry. Ordinary competition among sources, as between Madagascar and Ceylon, and Korea and Mexico, has partly determined the 

proportions of the world market held by each country. Political 

developments, however, have had a heavy hand. The unsettled conditions and dismemberment of political units in Europe after each 

of the two World Wars have, in general, adversely affected production from Bavaria, Bohemia, Italy, and Austria for varying 

periods. The graphite industry of Europe received a considerable 

stimulus under the Hitler regime. Korean production under the 

Japanese occupation in the late 1930's and early 1940's has been 

exceeded since only in 1955.

In all countries production has been strongly influenced by general economic conditions (fig. 17). Exhaustion of reserves does 

not appear to have been a heavy factor, though undoubtedly the 

best deposits in those countries that have been producing for long
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 239

EXPLANATION

Position of graphite pits, 

operating and abandoned

Approximate boundary of workable 

graphite deposits

BA Y OF

Trincomalee

B ENGAL

Negombo 

Colombo

Kalutara

___^ L, , , , , -,- MilC8

Matara 

FIGURE 19. Map of localities of graphite deposits of Ceylon. After Wadia (1943).
240 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

A F R I C

0 100

I I I I I

200 Miles

15°S

Ambatondrazaka

» \

__ Tamatave 

AmbohidratimoV 

Miarinarivo * Tananarive

 O ^ » Moramanga 

Ambatolampy- Manjakandriana

" ^ Antsirabe /Vatomandry

Fianarantsoa

0 

Ifanadiana

[Farafangana 

Atengaindrano

Amboasary

\

FIGURE 20. Map showing graphite production of Madagascar. Solid circle indicates 

principal graphite-production district. From Bevillard (1934).
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 241

periods have been wholly or partly depleted. Conditions in Ceylon 

and Madagascar, the sources of greatest strategic importance to 

the United States, are of special interest. Production in Ceylon is 

said to be restricted only because of the limited demand. Eeserves 

are thought to be large (Wadia, 1943, p. 23-24), and there is an 

ample labor supply. The situation in Madagascar is somewhat different. Keserves in that country are believed to be almost limitless, 

although apparently no real effort has been made to estimate them. 

But it does not necessarily follow that production there can readily be expanded to meet unusual demands. This became apparent 

during 1945-49, when, although the demand for Madagascar graphite was at a record level, production increased only after 1948 and 

did not attain the prewar-peak level until 1951. There were several reasons: An abortive rebellion in 1947 resulted in destruction 

of machinery and equipment at some of the principal mines, and a 

typhoon in 1948 damaged the railroad over which graphite is 

shipped to the east coast port of Tamatave. A further difficulty, 

and one that has not been solved, is a shortage of labor. A final 

factor probably is the reluctance of the producers to see a rapid 

exapnsion that might prove to be overexpansion if there were a 

drop in world demand. Such a drop is not unlikely once stockpiling requirements are met and demand from that source declines. 

Changes in the domestic graphite-consuming industry (p. 30-33) 

have influenced foreign production. The use of Madagascar flake 

for crucibles adversely affected production from Ceylon. The rise 

in world consumption of amorphous graphite greatly stimulated 

production from Korea and Mexico and, for a time, production from 

European sources as well.

GEOLOGY OF GRAPHITE DEPOSITS IN THE UNITED

STATES

Graphite is widely distributed in many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks and, locally, in sedimentary rocks. The more important concentrations of graphite, however, are those in hydrothermal 

deposits and those in regionally or thermally metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. Graphite deposits in general are restricted to metamorphic terranes; there are five reasonably distinct groups that 

have been mined or prospected. These are, (1) deposits consisting 

of graphite disseminated in metamorphosed siliceous sedimentary 

rocks, (2) deposits consisting of graphite disseminated in marble, 

(3) deposits formed by thermal or dynamothermal metamorphism 

of coal beds or other highly carbonaceous sedimentary rocks, (4) 

vein deposits, and (5) contact-metasomatic deposits in marble.
242 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

The range of geologic conditions under which graphite is formed 

are reflected in corresponding variations in size, form, tenor, and 

character of graphite, and in character of associated minerals. All 

these factors markedly affect exploration and development, estimation of tonnages, processes of extraction, and commercial products 

obtainable.

DISSEMINATED DEPOSITS IN METAMORPHOSED SILICEOUS 

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

A large share of the world's strategic and nonstrategic graphite 

is obtained from disseminated deposits in metamorphosed siliceous 

sedimentary rocks. In this country these deposits are exemplified 

by occurrences in Texas, Alabama, Pennsylvania, and New York 

(fig. 12). The deposits have points of difference, but even brief 

comparison indicates that they have many geologic and economic 

characteristics in common.

The principal deposits consist of flakes of graphite disseminated 

in quartz-mica schists, micaceous quartzites, or micaceous feldspathic 

quartzites. These rocks occur in folded metamorphosed sequences 

of detrital sedimentary rocks. The deposits themselves are individual beds or lenses that are richer in graphite than associated 

beds. The size, form, and persistence of the deposits are functions, 

in part, of the thickness and extent of the original sedimentary beds, 

and in part, of deformation. Their attitudes are functions of local 

and regional deformation.

Individual deposits range from less than a foot to tens of feet in 

thickness. Certain deposits in Alabama and Texas are more than 

100 feet thick; they range in length from a few feet to as much as 

half a mile. A few deposits in Alabama and the eastern Adirondacks in New York may have lengths (in outcrop) measurable in 

miles, but they are commonly not uniform either in tenor or thickness throughout such distances. In general, however, deposits in 

this group are larger and more uniform and are more readily explored, sampled, developed, and mined than those of any other type. 

They therefore offer the best possibilities for low-cost quantity production of graphite, and it is largely for this reason that they have 

yielded the bulk of the domestic production in the past.

Few deposits of this group have been adequately explored; hence 

their over-all form and structural relations are not well known. The 

commonest form is a tabular or lenticular body of uniform or nearly 

uniform dip within a part of a graphitic bed on the limb of a major 

fold. Dips of most deposits worked range from vertical to 20 

degrees. Most of the deposits that have been worked are structurally simple, but some are complicated by minor folds. The deposit of the Southwestern Graphite Go. in (central Texas is a note-
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 243

worthy example. Here the graphitic beds are involved in minor 

folds ranging in amplitude from a few feet to tens of feet. The 

result is a deposit that is complex iii cross section.

The graphitic rocks in deposits of this group range from fine 

grained (phyllitic) to coarse grained (schistose). Most of the 

deposits worked are in schists, which have a wide range of composition. Quartz is an abundant constituent of all graphitic beds; 

biotite, muscovite, or both, are widespread throughout. Plagioclase 

and potash feldspars are present in many deposits. Some deposits 

contain garnet, magnetite, pyrrhotite, or pyrite. Pyrite is abundant 

in unweathered graphitic rock in Alabama.

An undesirable textural feature common in many graphitic schists 

is a parallel intergrowth of graphite with other minerals. Particularly objectionable are intergrowths of graphite and mica; their 

separation requires such fine grinding that the resulting graphite 

flakes are too thin and small to be acceptable for many uses. Intergrowths of graphite and other minerals, while also objectionable, 

generally do not require such fine grinding; the resulting graphite 

product is likely to be coarser than flake recovered from graphitemica intergrowths.

The belts of graphitic rock in Texas, Alabama, Pennsylvania, 

and New York contain many bodies of pegmatite, aplite, granite, or 

combinations of these rocks, which range from small dikes, sills, or 

lenses exposed in the workings in individual deposits, to features 

large enough to be shown on regional maps. Some bodies, particularly of granite, are sharp-walled crosscutting intrusions. Many 

of the bodies of aplite and pegmatite, however, are vaguely defined 

lenses that are more or less concordant to the foliation of the enclosing rocks. Gradations between such bodies and injection gneiss are 

particularly well shown in some of the deposits of Alabama and 

Pennsylvania. In some of these deposits the graphitic rocks appear 

to have been impregnated with pegmatitic and aplitic materials 

consisting mostly of quartz and feldspar. To the operator such 

bodies may appear completely objectionable, for they dilute the ore 

and below the zone of weathering may be tough and costly to mine. 

There is evidence, however, that the flake size of graphite is directly 

related to the degree to which these granitic bodies, particularly 

the pegmatites, are developed. Coarse flake apparently occurs only 

where there is abundant impregnation of the graphitic rocks with 

aplitic or pegmatitic material. The relation between coarseness of 

flake and degree of impregnation in the deposits of Alabama has 

been noted by W. S. White (written communication, 1941). The 

relationship is even more strikingly displayed in the graphite district of central Texas. The graphite deposits of this district occur 

in the Packsaddle schist. Where the schist is cut by abundant dikes

535373 O 60 4
244 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

of granite and pegmatite, as at the mine of the Southwestern 

Graphite Co., deposits of relatively coarse flake are found. In other 

parts of the district, as at the Texas Graphite Co. mine south of 

Llano, the schist contains neither granites nor pegmatites, and the 

graphite is so fine grained as to approach "amorphous" graphite.

In any given deposit in which there is pegmatitic material the 

coarsest flake is found either at the margins of small pegmatite 

lenses or in lenses of coarse quartz-rich material that apparently 

is related to the pegmatites. At the Benjamin Franklin mine, 

Chester County, Pa., quartz-rich lenses contain flakes as much as 

25 mm in diameter.

There has been some discussion as to whether the graphite was 

introduced into schists and quartzites at the time when pegmatitic 

material was developed. Many pegmatites in graphitic schists or 

quartzites contain disseminated flakes of graphite. W. S. White 

(written communication, 1941), however, has pointed out that in 

Alabama similar pegmatite bodies outside the graphitic schists contain no graphite. The writers' observations support this conclusion. 

The role of pegmatites is apparently that of stimulating recrystallization and coarsening the texture of graphite flakes present before pegmatite development. Movement of carbon during pegmatite development undoubtedly took place, but the distances involved appear to be only inches or feet.

L. W. Currier and R. H. Jahns (written communication, 1944), 

believe that the deposit near Pope Mills, St. Lawrence County, N.Y., 

has an origin quite different from that proposed for the deposits 

of eastern New York, Pennsylvania, Alabama, and Texas. They 

regard the deposit as due to partial hydrothermal replacement of 

quartzite beds by graphite, apatite, feldspar, and calcite.

The discussion of disseminated deposits thus far given applies to 

the graphite deposits of central Texas, the bedded deposits of the 

eastern Adirondacks, N.Y., and the unweathered parts of the deposits in Alabama and Pennsylvania. In Alabama and eastern 

Pennsylvania, however, much of the graphitic schist is intensely 

weathered to depths of 50 to 100 feet. Most of the graphite mined 

in the past has come from this weathered material. In these deposits iron sulfides have been oxidized to limonite; feldspars (especially plagioclase) have been changed to kaolin; garnet, biotite, and 

other ferromagnesian minerals have been converted to mixtures of 

clay and iron or manganese oxide. Where weathering is well advanced the original rock is converted to a soft, friable material consisting chiefly of clay minerals, iron oxides, and residual quartz and 

graphite. This material is easily mined by simple excavating 

equipment, and the graphite is recovered with a minimum of 

crushing.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 245

Graphite-bearing rocks in Alabama and eastern Pennsylvania 

exhibit all degrees of weathering, over a vertical range from a few 

feet to more than 100 feet. The average depth of weathering in 

most of the deposits is probably about 50 feet. Factors that influence depth and degree of weathering are rainfall, topography, 

drainage, rock structures, and geomorphic history. W. S. White 

(written communication, 1941) has pointed out the importance of 

these factors in estimating resources of weathered graphitic rock in 

Alabama. The writers' observations suggest that any appraisal of 

weathered ore will require close attention to all of the above factors, 

and particularly to the geomorphic history of the area.

RELATIVE VALUE OP HABDROCK AND WEATHERED1 DEPOSITS

By virtue of the condition of the material composing them, the 

weathered deposits are less expensive to mine, the material excavated is more readily and cheaply crushed, and the graphite 

more easily freed. Moreover, there may be a certain amount of 

enrichment of the rock due to chemical decay of the minerals associated with the graphite and to removal of soluble constituents in 

solution. A further advantage claimed for these deposits is that 

the graphite is less damaged in milling, as less crushing and grinding are required to free it. The clay fraction of the ore can be 

separated by simple washing. These advantages are given such 

weight that in Alabama unweathered rock in general is not considered workable, and most of the production of graphite in this 

area has been from weathered rock. However, the weathered deposits also have certain disadvantages. For one thing, tonnages of 

thoroughly weathered material in some of the deposits are limited. 

Furthermore, weathering is not a uniform process either vertically 

or horizontally; most deposits show considerable variation in this 

respect, and these variations are superimposed on whatever differences in rock composition were present before weathering. It follows that the feed to a mill treating weathered ore is far from uniform in its characteristics. This may explain some of the difficulties experienced in milling weathered ores.

In the hardrock deposits, variations in feed are only those due to 

differences in the texture and mineralogy of the original graphitic 

rock. Unweathered material therefore lends itself to more uniform 

treatment, and it is a fair question whether this may not result in 

products that are themselves more uniform than products won from 

weathered ore. Another advantage of the hardrock deposits is that 

operations in unweathered deposits of moderate or gentle dip can 

be carried to greater depths than those in weathered deposits. No 

quantitative data is available concerning the extra damage to the 

flake produced by milling hard ore. Opinions among operators
246 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

vary. At least one mine in Alabama appears to have operated for 

several years in hard ore, and the mine of Southwestern Graphite 

Co. in Texas is entirely in unweathered ore.

Provided that milling processes can produce satisfactorily uniform products from soft ore, the relative merits of hard ore as 

against soft ore are of no immediate strategic importance; reserves 

of weathered ore in Alabama are still large, and moderate reserves 

of such ore exist in eastern Pennsylvania. In the future, however, 

the question may be important, for resources of hardrock graphite 

are undoubtedly many times greater than those of soft ore.

DISSEMINATED DEPOSITS IN MARBLE

The Precambrian marble belts of the Appalachian Mountains, 

and the areas in northern New York, southeastern Ontario, and 

southwestern Quebec that are underlain by rocks of the Grenville 

series include layers of marble that contain disseminated graphite. 

Most such layers contain less than 1 percent graphite, but 5 percent 

or more flake graphite occurs locally. Many such occurrences have 

been prospected, particularly in Canada, but very few have been 

developed that contain sizable reserves of rock with 5 percent or 

more flake graphite. Operations in such deposits Ifave everywhere 

been short lived. The marble in which the graphite deposits occur 

has generally been folded. The deposits as a group are structurally complex and show marked variations in thickness and in 

content of graphite along dip or strike. Kinds and proportions of 

associated minerals also vary within ore bodies, and this apparently has complicated milling of the ore and recovery of graphite. 

Occurrences of this type appear to be of little economic importance.

DEPOSITS FORMED BY METAMORPHISM OF COAL OB OTHEB 

HIGHLY CARBONACEOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Deposits formed by metamorphism of coal or related highly carbonaceous sediments are further subdivided according to whether 

they are due to thermal metamorphism by igneous rocks or to regional deformation and metamorphism.

The best-known occurrences in the United States of the first type 

are in the Raton coal field of New Mexico, where coal beds have 

been intruded by sills of diabase and have locally been metamorphosed to amorphous graphite. E. S. Bastin (written communication, 1917) also described graphite in Chaffee County, Colo., 

interbedded with marble, schist, and quartzite; he regards them as 

beds of coal and highly carbonaceous shale that were metamorphosed 

by the heat of large masses of intruded granite. This type of deposit yields only amorphous graphite and has never been of much 

economic significance in the United States.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 247

Deposits formed by regional metamorphism of coal or highly 

carbonaceous shale are represented by the graphitic anthracite deposits of the Narragansett basin of Khode Island. These are beds 

of coal that locally have been converted into graphitic material by 

intense deformation. This material has been marketed as a lowgrade variety of amorphous graphite for foundry facings and paint 

pigment.

The most important deposits of amorphous graphite on the North 

American continent are those in the State of Sonora in northern 

Mexico. There beds of coal interlayered with sandstones have been 

folded and intruded by granite. According to Hess (1909), the 

metamorphism to graphite was caused by the heat of intrusion. 

The beds are considerably deformed, however, and have been thickened in some places and thinned in others. Folding may have 

contributed to metamorphism.

Graphite deposits formed by metamorphism of coal and highly 

carbonaceous rocks have yielded only amorphous graphite. The 

graphite particles are so fine grained that beneficiation other than 

hand separation of obvious larger impurities is scarcely feasible. 

The material must therefore be sold in the form in which it is 

mined; the graphite content will depend on the original carbon 

content of the beds involved and the degree of metamorphism. 

Mexico is preeminent in the production of amorphous graphite because in the productive district substantial parts of beds of high 

original purity have been uniformly altered to graphite.

As coal tends to deform plastically during folding, the structure 

of deposits such as those of Rhode Island and Mexico is complex. 

This gives rise to numerous problems in prospecting, exploration, 

and mining.

VEIN DEPOSITS

Vein deposits of graphite apparently are formed by simple filling 

of open fractures in the country rocks. The veins are commonly 

sharp walled, and the graphite fillings are partly or wholly crustified, except where later movement has deformed them. The simplest 

veins consist of two layers, one on either wall of the fracture, made 

up of parallel close-packed elongate plates of coarse graphite. The 

lengths of the plates vary with the thickness of vein and in places 

are as much as 10 cm. The central parts of some veins, particularly 

the thicker ones, consist of platy layers parallel to the walls of the 

fractures. Flaky graphite and masses of radiating elongate flakes 

are also found. Where movement has taken place, masses, lenses, 

or small pods of foliated, crushed, and slickensided graphite occur 

and fragments of the country rocks are incorporated in the veins. 

In some localities, such as Dillon, Mont., graphite is apparently the 

only vein mineral. In others, such as Ceylon, graphite is accom-
248 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

panied by quartz, pyrite, calcite, and minor amounts of biotite, 

orthoclase, pyroxene, apatite, allanite, molybdenite, and rutile (Bastin, 1912; Wadia, 1943, p. 16).

A noteworthy feature of these deposits is the virtual lack of 

alteration in the walls of the veins. Graphite may occur in the wall 

rocks for short distances from the veins but apparently only along 

grain boundaries or where subsidiary fractures extended from the 

main fissures into the walls.

The overall form of such deposits is dependent upon the pattern 

of pregraphite fractures. The veins range from single simple fissure 

veins to stockworks occupying complex fissure zones. Individual 

veins range from less than an inch to several feet in thickness.

The principal vein-type deposit in this country, near Dillon, 

Mont., has been explored to a depth of about 300 feet. The graphite 

veins of Ceylon, however, have been mined (Wadia, 1943, p. 23) to 

depths as great as 1,600 feet.

The domestic graphite deposits have many economically disadvantageous features. Single veins with minable widths over long 

distances have not been found. Pinching and swelling and complete 

pinchouts within short distances along dip or strike are common. 

The only hope of developing sizable tonnages of graphite in such 

deposits lies in discovering persistent groups of veins that collectively contain substantial reserves. Development work, which must 

consist largely of drifts, shafts, and crosscuts, is costly, and none of 

the vein-type graphite occurrences of North America thus far 

sustained the expense for any length of time.

There is a striking contrast between the textural and structural 

characteristics of the vein deposits, which suggest deposition in open 

fissures formed at no great depth, and the types of country rocks 

with which they are associated. The rocks are gneisses, schists, 

marbles, pegmatites, and grantiic rocks of the kinds that are commonly regarded as having formed under deep-seated conditions. 

This contrast is unexplained. The veins have been attributed variously to crystallization of veins of asphalt or other hydrocarbons or 

to deposition from solutions, or have been linked to the development 

of the pegmatites that form part of the country rock. The first 

hypothesis is untenable, as Bastin (1912, p. 439) pointed out, because 

in Montana, New York, and Ceylon the veins are younger than any 

intrusion or regional metamorphism that could be responsible for 

such a change. In addition, the textures of the veins are those of 

simple fracture fillings. The textural evidence given for a genetic 

relationship between graphite and associated pegmatites (Wadia, 

1943, p. 17; Heinrich, 1949a and b) is unconvincing (Ford, 1954, 

p. 41). As Ford points out, the graphite in Dillon veins occupies 

fissures that plainly were formed later than any of the associated
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 249

rocks, and the occurrence of graphite in small amounts in pegmatites 

at Dillon is no more significant than its occurrence in gneiss and 

other rocks at these localities. Small fractures control the occurrence of graphite in both groups of rocks. It seems probable that 

the interval between formation of host rocks and formation of 

graphite at Dillon was very long.

Vein deposits in Argenteuil, Labelle, and Hull Counties in 

Quebec, and in the Ticonderoga district of New York occur in 

silicated marbles that have been ascribed in general to the contactmetasomatic type of deposit described below and will be discussed 

with those deposits.

CONTACT-METASOMATIC DEPOSITS IN CARBONATE BOCKS

Concentrations of graphite are found at many places in the silicated marbles of the Grenville series of southeastern Ontario, southwestern Quebec, and the Ticonderoga district of eastern New York. 

Many of the occurrences have been prospected, and a few have been 

mined for short periods. One apparent variant of the type was for 

a time an important Canadian source of flake graphite. These 

occurrences are grouped under the heading of contact-metasomatic 

deposits in the present report, but as a group they are varied, 

inadequately known, and vaguely defined. They show gradations 

to hydrothermal replacement deposits, to the disseminated deposits 

in marble (p. 46), and to the fissure vein deposits.

The deposits that occur west and northwest of Ticonderoga, N.Y., 

near the eastern edge of the Adirondack Mountains, are found in 

irregular aureoles of silicated marble bordering small pegmatites. 

The marbles have been erratically altered to calcite, diopside, scapolite, sphene, wollastonite, and other minerals. Graphite occurs as 

flakes disseminated irregularly through the silicated rock, as sporadic 

nests and patches, or in veins associated with calcite and quartz; the 

veins show the characteristics described above for other vein deposits. 

This graphite is apparently a late-formed mineral. It occurs in flakes 

from a fraction of a millimeter to as much as 50 mm in diameter.

These deposits were prospected and mined on a small scale in the 

latter half of the nineteenth century and in the early part of the 

present century, but they have serious disadvantages that frustrated 

most attempts to exploit them. Small bodies of rock with 20 percent 

or more flake graphite are not uncommon in the deposits, but the 

distribution of graphite is highly erratic and the average tenor of 

large tonnages of rock is low; moreover, the ores are extremely 

variable in mineral content. It seems unlikely that they will be 

exploited again unless a need should arise for small amounts of 

extremely coarse flake graphite.
250 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Some of the contact-metasomatic deposits of flake graphite in the 

rocks of the Grenville series of southeastern Ontario and southern 

Quebec resemble those of the Ticonderoga district; others appear to 

be beds of silicated marble in which graphite has developed after 

silication. The mineral assemblages of such deposits resemble those 

of the other contact-metasomatic deposits, but structurally they have 

a closer resemblance to bedded deposits. Very few have yielded 

appreciable amounts of flake graphite. The most important Canadian deposit, that of the Black Donald mine at Calabogie, Ontario, 

is worked out. It was described by McLaren (1945) as a thickened 

lens of drag-folded ore, more than 1,000 feet long, 15 to 70 feet 

thick, and about 50 to 80 feet in height. It was a steeply dipping 

lens that plunged northeastward apparently parallel to the plunge 

of folds in the enclosing rocks, 'The ore in this lens is reported 

to have averaged 55 to 65 percent graphite (Spence, 1920). Most 

of the flake was fine grained; the coarsest product marketed during 

the main period of operation was +74-mesh size.

GRAPHITE RESOURCES AND RESERVES

The terms "resources" and "reserves" as used in this report have 

essentially the same meaning as those suggested by Blondel and 

Lasky (1956). Resources comprise all deposits of graphite-bearing 

rock regardless of their size or tenor or the quality of the material 

that can be produced from them. Resources thus include deposits 

that can be worked at a profit under present economic and technologic conditions, as well as those that cannot. Reserves include 

only those deposits that can be worked at a profit under present 

conditions.

In discussing graphite deposits in the United States we are concerned mostly with resources, not reserves. During the years 1920 

to 1955, operations based on domestic graphite deposits were generally submarginal or uneconomic. Subsidy prices during and after 

World War II supported a few operations for a time, and one 

domestic operator had some success in competitive markets, but on 

the whole, domestic deposits have not been able to compete with 

sources abroad. The reasons are many, and much of the present 

report is devoted to analyzing them.

There are two principal obstacles to an accurate estimate of 

graphite reserves and resources in the United States. One is that 

data for estimating reserves of graphitic rock in individual deposits
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 251

are too meager; the second is that even if the tonnages and grades 

were known for all deposits, these figures would still fall far short 

of giving the information that is needed to appraise the country's 

graphite resources in terms of requirements. The data needed are 

not those for overall tonnage and grade, but for tonnages of the 

commercial grades of graphite that can be produced from individual 

deposits or districts. These are the only estimates that are significant. At the present time no such estimate can be made for any mine 

in the country. The few figures for reserves that appear in the 

literature are therefore of little value as an indication of the ability 

of the United States to produce strategic grades of graphite.

An illustration of this point is the estimate by the U.S. Bureau of 

Mines of flake graphite in Alabama (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, 

p. 76-78) :

Weathered ore:

Measured (containing +50-mesh flake assaying > 85 percent carbon) :

Thousands of tons

Containing > 15 Ib of graphite per ton ______________ 2,399 

Containing 10-15 Ib of graphite per ton ______________ 1,575 

Containing 5-10 Ib of graphite per ton ______________ 7,085

Total _______________________________ 11,059 

Inferred ____________________________________ 3,351

Total _______________________________ 14,410 

Unweathered ore:

Measured __________;_____^__________________ 700 

Indicated ___________________________________ 6,798 

Inferred ____________________________________ 4,002

Total _______________________________ 11,500

Using 3 percent (or 60 pounds per ton) as the average recovery 

potential from all measured weathered graphite, Pallister and 

Thoenen concluded that, based on a need of 10,000 tons per year of 

processed graphite, about 35 years' supply of flake graphite had been 

blocked out in Alabama by the exploratory program of the U.S. 

Bureau of Mines at the time of their writing.

The present writers have seen most of the deposits represented in 

the above estimates and agree that in the Alabama districts the reserves of weathered graphitic rock averaging 3 percent recoverable 

graphite are very large. The existence of a 35-year supply of 

graphite, however, would depend upon the acceptance of Alabama 

graphite by industry, but at present industry is geared almost entirely to graphite from other sources. Furthermore, the percentage 

of graphite of strategic grade recoverable from the Alabama deposits 

has not been determined.
252 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Resources of flake and lump and chip graphite (all grades) potentially recoverable in the principal districts of the country are summarized in the following table:

Estimate of recoverable graphite 

District Type of graphite (in tons)

Dillon, Mont____-_-__ Lump and chip__. <5,000.

Southwest Texas _______ Flake _____________ In excess of 10 years' supply at

present district rate of production. 

Alabama. _____________ Flake.------._---_>300,000.

Chester County, Pa _ _ _ _ Flake .-_.________.> 10,000.

New York:

Deposits in schist_ Flake ________._-__>250,000.

Vein deposits._____ Lump and chip.___. Negligible.

The table indicates only the order of magnitude of domestic resources. It shows clearly, however, that the resources of flake 

graphite are large, whereas resources of lump graphite are small. 

No figures for amorphous graphite are given in the table because 

the United States possesses only negligible reserves of high-grade 

amorphous graphite.

GRAPHITE DISTRICTS

MONTANA

The Crystal Graphite mine in Beaverhead County, owned by the 

Crystal Graphite Co., is the only mine in Montana that has produced 

significant quantities of commercial graphite (pi. 9). It is in the 

south end of the Ruby Range, about 10 miles east of Dillon, in 

sees. 29, 30, 31, and 32, T. 8 S., R. 7 W. The principal workings are 

in sec. 31 at altitudes near 7,500 feet. They can be reached by a 

gravel and dirt road that is usually in good condition during the 

summer but may be blocked by snow in winter or by mud in the 

spring.

The deposit was discovered in 1899 by a Mr. Robbins, who later 

sold his interest to Pearl I. Smith of Dillon. Mr. Smith retained 

ownership until his death in 1937, when it passed to his heirs, Mrs. 

Pearl I. Smith and Ralph I. Smith of Dillon, and Rachael Smith of 

Istanbul, Turkey. The owners reorganized in 1949 or early 1950 

under the name Montana Graphite Co., with Ralph G. Smith as 

president.

The production records of the mine are not available, but the 

following figures are believed to be correct. The first shipment of 

about 50 tons came from the Birds Nest claim (fig. 13) in 1902, and 

from then until 1941 the total production is said to have been about 

2,150 tons, most of which was mined in 1918 and 1919. All later 

production came from the Groundhog claim. Only the highest grade
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 253

material was mined, and after a rough hand-cobbing it was shipped 

without further treatment. The mine was worked intermittently 

between 1920 and 1941, and produced about 50 tons. In November 

1941 the mine was reopened by the Crystal Graphite Co., and a mill 

was built. Between November 1941 and June 1945 about 150 tons 

of graphite was produced. Operations were stopped in 1946, but in 

1948 the mill was remodeled and the mine was reopened by the Montana Graphite Co. From January to August 1948, about 22 tons of 

concentrates, none of which had been sold as of July 1950, was 

produced.

The main workings are on four levels, as shown by the map and 

cross section in plate 9. Since the map was made, the Dubie and 

Antelope adits have been extended slightly and a 250-foot adit has 

been driven about 200 feet below the Badger discovery pit. These 

and the older workings total more than 3,500 feet of drifts, crosscuts, 

shafts, and raises, together with several stopes, prospect pits, and 

two adits each about 75 feet long. Parts of some of the older workings are caved and inaccessible, but for the most part they are in 

reasonably good condition and can be entered and examined.

The geology of the Crystal Graphite mine was described by 

Winchell (1910, p. 528-532 and 1911a, p. 218-230), Bastin (1912, p. 

419-443), Heinrich (1949b, p. 307-334), and Ford (1954, p. 31^3). 

The area near the mine was mapped in detail by F. C. Armstrong 

and R. P. Full (1946); the writers have drawn heavily on their 

data (pi. 9). The rocks on the property are a metamorphosed sedimentary series that has been correlated with the Cherry Creek 

group of Precambrian age. The structure and lithology are complex. Garnetiferous granite gtteiss, schists, marbles, and quartzites strike approximately N. 60°-75° E. and dip 70°-80° NW. but 

show local variation. They contain small pegmatitic bodies that 

range from nearly massive to markedly metamorphosed. Perry 

(1948, p. 14) and Heinrich (1949b) assigned the pegmatites to two 

different ages, the metamorphosed bodies to Precambrian, and the 

unmetamorphosed bodies to Laramide. Ford (1954), however, concluded that they are all of the same age because he found that all 

gradations between metamorphosed and unmetamorphosed rock occur 

in a single pegmatite.

The richest graphite ore in the deposit occurs as fracture fillings 

in pegmatite and gneiss. The fillings range from thin films to veins 

more than 2 feet thick, most ranging ^ to 4 inches in thickness. 

They are short, and very few reach lengths of 50 feet. In places the 

veins form closely spaced intersecting networks that resemble stockworks. The veins contain graphite as the only primary mineral, but 

movement along the fractures has dragged fragments of the wall 

rock into the veins in places, apparently both during and after
254 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

graphite deposition. The graphite occurs mostly as coarse interlocking plates as much as 1 inch long, but in places it shows welldeveloped comb or needle structure. Contacts between graphite veins 

and wall rock are sharp, and no alteration of the wall rock is evident.

Graphite also occurs as flakes, films, and rosettes disseminated in 

the pegmatites and the gneisses and is noticeably more abundant near 

the graphite veins. In the wall rocks the graphite occupies minute 

fractures between or within mineral grains and occurs as flakes 

formed by replacement of quartz or feldspar. Where the country 

rock is foliated, the graphite flakes are oriented parallel to the foliation. Although disseminated graphite is fairly common, it does not 

appear to be present in sufficient quantity throughout a large enough 

body of rock to be of economic interest. Only the vein ore is worth 

considering as a possible source of further production.

There is evidence that structural features have helped to localize 

graphite deposition. An isoclinal fold that strikes about N. 50° E. 

and dips about 45° NW. is described by Armstrong and Full (written communication, 1946). The nose of this fold plunges N. 20° W. 

at about 45 degrees. There is extensive fracturing around the nose 

of the fold both on the surface and in underground exposures. These 

fractures contain graphite that constitutes the richest ore body exposed in the deposit. Evidence for structural control is limited, however, and proof is lacking that such evidence can be used as a basis 

for estimation of reserves. Further investigation, either by drilling 

or drifting, should be aimed at checking the continuity and importance of the fracture zone, for such work would be a logical step in 

blocking out more ore. No large tonnage of rock containing abundant vein graphite is exposed.

The graphite produced from the deposit is vein-type graphite, 

ranging from coarse flake to lump to "needle" lump. Needle lump is 

abundant; it seems to occur where the veins were deformed by the 

evidently widespread movement that took place after deposition of 

the graphite. Most veins are less than 4 inches thick, although a 

single vein 6 feet thick reportedly yielded 50 tons of high-grade 

graphite during the early period of operation.

According to Armstrong and Full (written communication, 1946), 

during 1941 to 1945 the graphite was picked out of the veins with long 

iron hooks, collected in powder boxes, and taken to the mill for crushing and flotation. Mine-run ore, muck from old stopes, and dump 

material were also treated at the mill during this period. Mill concentrates averaged 87 percent carbon. Graphite of this carbon content 

could meet crucible specifications for purity, but it would also have to 

meet requirements for shape and toughness. If material of 95 to 97 

percent average carbon content could be produced, it might be acceptable for use in carbon brushes as a substitute for Ceylon graphite.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 255

How much high-purity graphite could be produced by careful 

mining, hand sorting, and special treatment is unknown. The 

graphite does not break cleanly from the wall rock of the veins, for 

films of graphite 14 to 1/2 incn thick remain on many vein walls in 

the stopes. This material evidently could not be hooked out. Wallrock fragments that have been dragged into the veins are an additional obstacle to the production of a very high grade concentrate. 

Separating these fragments would be difficult, and hand-sorting 

would be tedious and costly. Perhaps 10 to 20 percent of the hookeddown graphite might be hand sorted and concentrated to high-purity 

chip and lump. The cost would be high.

TEXAS

Parts of Llano and Burnet Counties (fig. 21), Tex., are underlain 

by the Packsaddle schist of Precambrian age, which has been intruded by bodies of granite. Certain zones in the schist are graphitic 

and have been mined or prospected in a number of places. The 

graphite ranges from extremely fine grained to medium grained; 

only the latter is capable of furnishing commercial flake.

The only deposit that has been mined for more than a few years 

is that of the Southwestern Graphite Co., in Burnet County. None 

of the other deposits of the area appears to contain sizable tonnages 

of rock with as much as 2 to 3 percent graphite coarse enough to 

be marketed as flake.

SOUTHWESTERN GRAPHITE CO. MINE

The mine and mill of the Southwestern Graphite Co., are in the 

Burnet quadrangle 7.9 miles N. 77° W. of Burnet, Tex., on the west 

side of Clear Creek (pi. 10). To reach the mine, take State Route 

29 west from Burnet for 3.4 miles, then turn right on the gravel 

road and drive 3.6 miles to a fork. Take the left-hand road for 1.9 

miles. The mine road, an all-weather dirt and gravel road, turns to 

the left at this point. Follow the road for 1.1 miles to the mine office.

The mine and mill lie within the Vernon Dorbant ranch but are 

on property owned by the Southwestern Graphite Co., (pi. 10). The 

property is said to have been worked first in 1913 by P. B. McCabe 

of Denver, Colo. The Southwestern Consolidated Graphite Co. assumed control of the property in 1917 and continued operations until 

1930. A mill built on the property in 1922 burned in 1927 but was 

replaced immediately by the present mill. The mine and mill were 

idle in 1930, but operations were resumed Sept. 1,1942, and continued 

with brief interruptions to 1955. The property was sold to the 

Southwestern Graphite Co. in 1935.

From 1917 to 1930 the products of the operation were sold to the 

battery and foundry-facing industries. Most of the graphite pro-
256 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

ii ill iiiiii

 a

03
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE; A SURVEY 257

duced from 1942 to April 1949 was sold to the foundry-facing industry, but after April 1949 the company marketed a diverse group of 

flake-graphite products. In October 1948 two Government contracts 

for a total of 1,900 tons of C flake (small), Munitions Board Spec. 

P-22-b, were awarded to the company, the graphite to be stockpiled. 

This contract was filled by the company.

The main working is an open pit about 1,000 feet long, 60 to 200 

feet wide, and 30 to 70 feet deep (pi. 10). This pit lies in the middle 

of the property in what is referred to as the main ore body. A 

second open pit, about 350 feet long, 150 feet in average width, and 

5 to 50 feet deep, was excavated in a second or south ore body. In 

addition, an open pit about 50 feet long, 50 feet wide, and 15 feet in 

maximum depth was opened in the third or north ore body during 

the summer of 1950. The total tonnage of rock moved from 1917 

to 1958 was probably 800,000 to 900,000 tons.

Mining by the company has been done largely in the main working. Two 16-foot benches are run simultaneously. Blast holes are 

cut by wagon drill. Much secondary shooting of boulders is required. 

Loading is by %-cubic yard power shovel into 2-ton trucks that haul 

the rock directly from the quarry faces to the mill. Processing of 

the ore was described by Needham (1946).

The deposit is in a sequence of rocks consisting of micaceous 

quartzite, quartz-mica schist, and injection gneiss. The.entire sequence is 130 to 160 feet thick, and graphite is present in all the 

layers. The graphitic rocks are overlain by a rock that ranges from 

hornblende and hornblende-biotite schist to hornblende and hornblende-biotite-feldspar gneiss. Contacts of the graphitic rocks with 

the hornblendic rocks are sharp; the hornblendic rocks apparently 

contain no graphite. The graphitic rocks form a belt through the 

middle of the property and beyond, which changes in trend from 

N. 75° E. at the southwest end to N. 11° E. at the northeast end. In 

the main opencut the southeast contact of the graphitic rocks with 

the hornblendic rocks is apparently simple in structure, although its 

dip ranges from 65° SE. to 65° NW. The northwest contact of 

the graphitic rocks with hornblende gneiss, however, is highly irregular and is involved in a series of isoclinal folds of different amplitudes. These folds have caused difficulty in mining, for in vertical 

cross section the contact weaves back and forth laterally. During 

mining it was necessary to leave considerable amounts of graphitic 

rock in the west wall in order to keep operations within the graphitic 

rocks. Fortunately, the part of the belt of the graphitic rocks nearest 

the northwest contact includes much of the leaner rock of the deposit.

Isoclinal folding on a small scale is evident at many places within 

the ore bodies. Axial planes vary in strike and dip; most folds have 

axial planes that dip 20° to 35° SE. and axes that plunge southward 

at gentle to moderate angles. Limited observations suggest that the 

deposit lies on the northwest limb of a major anticline.
258 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

The south ore body, in the southwestern part of the graphitic belt, 

has walls that dip steeply northwest to steeply southeast. The structure of the walls is for the most part fairly simple, although the 

southeast contact is locally isoclinally folded. The graphitic rocks 

of the north ore body are poorly exposed, and attitudes of the contacts with hornblende gneiss are unknown. The trend of this part 

of the belt suggests that it has a steep westerly dip.

The graphitic rocks are cut at the northeast end of the south ore 

body by a granite dike ranging from 65 to 240 feet in width. The 

dike probably has a steep dip. Part of a narrow northeasterly offshoot of this dike has been mined in the main workings. There are 

many other smaller granite dikes that cut the graphitic belt; they 

range from 1 inch to about 6 feet in thickness and occupy fractures 

having a wide range of attitudes. One horizontal body at least 5 

feet in maximum thickness capped the bench on the 955-foot level 

over part of the central section of the main working. Numerous 

granitic pegmatite dikes, most of them a foot or less in thickness, cut 

the graphitic rocks. Both granite and pegmatite are barren of 

graphite. In places they have been responsible for serious dilution 

of the ore, as they ordinarily cannot be mined separately and eliminated from the mill feed. Available exposures of the north ore body 

suggest that dilution by granite and pegmatite may seriously affect 

potential production of graphite from this body.

The graphitic rocks consist dominantly of quartz, muscovite, 

biotite, plagioclase feldspar, microcline, garnet, and graphite in various proportions. The most abundant rock type appears to be a 

graphitic micaceous quartzite, but small, thin lenses, layers, and 

knots of granitic and pegmatitic material are abundant in parts of 

the belt. Some of the rock is of the type commonly referred to as 

injection gneiss. Pyrite is a fairly conspicuous accessory mineral in 

parts of the graphitic series. The graphite content varies markedly 

from place to place; assays of churn-drill cuttings show from 0.15 

to 13.0 percent graphite. No systematic variation in graphite content 

from part to part of the graphitic belt has been detected. The 

graphite content cannot be estimated visually with any accuracy; 

however, in the main working the average graphite content of parts 

of the belt nearest the northwest contact appears to be abnormally 

low.

The graphite varies in texture. Flakes disseminated in micaceous 

quartzite and quartz-mica schist probably average 1 mm in diameter, 

but adjacent to the granitic and pegmatitic material the graphite is 

coarser. A few specimens with flakes 3 to 6 mm in diameter were 

seen. The graphite was apparently recrystallized during formation 

of the pegmatitic material.

In 1928 a serious effort was made to determine the amount and 

grade of graphitic rock then remaining in the deposit. At least 50
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 259

churn-drill holes averaging 75 feet in depth were put down, and test 

pits, trenches, and shafts were also made. The cuttings from the 

churn-drill holes were assayed at 5-foot intervals. Comparison of the 

assay data with actual yields from the rock mined suggests that the 

assays are reliable and that they can be used as a basis for estimating 

grade of ore now remaining. The rock drilled has been partly mined 

out, but as sizeable tonnage still remains above the bottoms of the 

drill holes. As of 1958, reserves available in the deposit are adequate 

for an extended period of operation.

OTHER DEPOSITS

Graphitic rocks occur in other places in Burnet and Llano Counties 

(Chelf, 1943; Barnes, 1940; Paige, 1912), and small amounts of 

graphite have been mined at a few of the localities. In Burnet 

County two belts of graphitic schist crop out in an area about 2 miles 

south of the Southwestern Graphite Co. mine (fig. 21). One of the 

belts has graphitic rock exposed intermittently over a distance of 

nearly 3 miles; the other has discontinuous exposures for about V/2 

miles. The longer belt is 10 to 120 feet wide at tjie surface, has a 

strike of N. 65°-80° E., and dips 30°-65° S. The second belt strikes 

about N. 40°-85° E., with various dips. The longer belt has been 

prospected on the Dorbant, Debo, Watson, and Garrett properties 

and was mined on the Garrett property. The rocks are coarsely 

banded feldspathic quartz schists and quartzites containing finegrained flake graphite.

At least six graphite deposits near Lone Grove in eastern Llano 

County have been reported. These are the Lillie Templeton, Louis 

Templeton, Logan Templeton, Letson Mill, Fitzsimmons, and Heath 

properties. The graphitic rocks at these places resemble those in 

Burnet County in that they are a series of feldspathic mica schists 

and quartzites. All the graphite seen by the writers was fairly fine 

grained; probably little or none is coarser than 50-mesh. Graphite 

content of the rocks is locally as high as 10 percent, but no estimate 

of average grade could be made without detailed exploration and 

sampling.

The extent, grade, and structure of the graphite-bearing rocks in 

Burnet and eastern Llano Counties are not known.

One and one-half miles south of the town of Llano is the mine and 

mill of the Texas Graphite Co. The mine workings consist of three 

open pits north of the mill, each about 20 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 

5 feet deep.

The graphite-bearing rocks strike N. 45° W., dip steeply, and are 

exposed over an area 800 feet long and 100 to 250 feet wide. The 

graphite-bearing layer is a graphitic quartz-mica schist that locally

535373 O 60 5
260 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

contains minor quantities of andalusite. The graphitic rocks are 

bordered on the southwest by marble. The rocks to the northwest 

are covered.

Graphite exposed at this mine is extremely fine grained; probably 

none could be marketed as flake. Graphite content of individual 

layers ranges from about 2 to 25 percent and averages about 18 percent. According to local report, operation of the mine was discontinued because of the fineness of the graphite.

Other graphite deposits are known in the Llano-Burnet Counties 

area, notably at Robinson State Park near Packsaddle Mountain; 

these were not visited by the writers.

ALABAMA

The flake-graphite deposits of Alabama occur in two belts that are 

on strike with one another and trend northeastward. The area of 

the deposits is shown in figure 22. The southwestern belt, which is 

about 35 miles long, extends from near Verbena in Chilton County

INDEX MAP OF 

ALABAMA

FIGURE 22. Map of the areas of graphite deposits of Clay, Coosa, and Chilton Counties, 

Ala. (Area A of fig. 22.) After Pallister and Thoenen (1948).
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 261

almost to Goodwater in Coosa County and lies within areas B and C 

of figure 22. The northeastern belt extends from Millerville (figs. 

22, 23) across Clay County to a point beyond Delta (Jones, 1929, 

p. 10), but, so far as the authors know, graphite mines and prospects 

exist only in the part of the belt included in area A of figure 22. 

The southwestern belt (fig. 24) extends about 40 miles from Goodwater to near Verbena.

NORTHEASTERN BELT

The northeastern belt (area A, fig. 22) is the better known and 

more productive of the two and includes the majority of the deposits 

that have been mined. The graphitic rocks of the belt are part of 

the Ashland mica schist of Precambrian age. Prouty (1923) showed 

the general geology of the belt on his geologic map of Clay County 

(fig. 23); the geology of the part of the belt north and west of Ashland was mapped and studied in more detail by Brown (1925).

EXPLANATION

Hillabee chlorite schist

R. 6 E

1. LIBERTY

2. W. L. SMITH PROPERTY

3. LINEVILLE

4. CARBON MOUNTAIN

5. PEERLESS

6. MONITOR

7. CRYSTALLINE FLAKE

8. JENNINGS

9. REPUBLIC

10. CLAY COUNTY

11. KING

R. 7E. 

MINES AND PROSPECTS

12. BARRETT

13. AMERICAN

14. NATIONAL

15. SOUTHERN

16. ACME

17. REDDING

18. ASHLAND

19. GREISSIMER

20. POCAHONTAS

21. ALABAMA 1

22. SOUTHERN STAR

23. MAY BROTHERS

4 Miles

24. AXTON-NOE

25. ALABAMA 2

26. C. B. ALLEN

27. JEFFERSON

28. OUENELDA

29. EAGLE

30. SUPERIOR FLAKE

31. CRUCIBLE FLAKE

32. EMPIRE

33. ATLAS

34. HOOD-GRAVES

FIGURE 23. Map of localities of graphite mines and prospects in part of Clay County, 

Ala. (Area of A of fig. 22.) After Palllster and Thoenen (1948).
262 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

5 Miles

R.18 E.

FIGURE 24. Map of localities of graphite deposits in part of Coosa County, Ala. 

(Area B of fig. 22.) After Pallister and Thoenen (1948).

Later, Griffin (1951) mapped the western part of the area of Ashland 

mica schist, including parts of the graphite belt, and studied the 

Hillabee chlorite schist (post-Carboniferous?) and Talladega slate 

(Precambrian? to Carboniferous?), which border the Ashland mica 

schist on the west and south.

Over most of the area underlain by the Ashland mica schist the 

foliation and bedding trend northeastward. West and southwest of 

the town of Ashland, dips in general are steep to the southeast, 

whereas northwest of Ashland the dips have a wide range. In the 

southern part of the schist area the strike swings sharply to southeast, and dips are generally to the northeast.

The Ashland mica schist consists of several layers of quartzmuscovite schist, quartz-muscovite garnet schist, graphitic quartvanadium mica schist, and graphitic quartz schist alternating with 

layers and lenses of hornblende schist and gneiss reported (Brown, 

1925) to enclose bodies of diorite and cortlandite. This assemblage 

has been invaded by quartz diorite, aplite, and pegmatite and has 

been impregnated with quartz and feldspar apparently related to 

the pegmatite bodies.

The outcrop area of the Ashland mica schist is 10 to 12 miles wide, 

but the graphite-bearing rocks within the schist occur in a belt 1 to 

2 miles wide. The graphite deposits occur on the crest and sides of
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 263

Candutchkee Ridge, which extends northeastward across the area. 

The graphitic rocks are lenses or layers of coarse siliceous mica schist 

containing 1 to 5 percent disseminated graphite flake. The lenses 

or layers are known to the mining industry as leads. Contacts of the 

leads with enclosing schists are apparently gradational. In most of 

the mines the limits of ore were assay boundaries, and sharp contacts 

between graphitic and nongraphitic rock are visible in only a few 

places.

In a structure section across Candutchkee Ridge and neighboring 

ridges, Brown (1925) distinguished 13 leads in the Ashland mica 

schist; five of these had been worked at the time of his study and a 

sixth, the Pocahontas lead, was being mined in 1950. The number of 

leads distinguished, however, is necessarily based on more or less 

arbitrary definition of their boundaries. Each of the main leads includes layers of barren rock; moreover, some of the rock separating 

the leads distinguished by Brown includes graphitic layers. Exposures outside the mine workings are poor, and none of the individual leads is fully exposed. The Pocahontas lead was traced by 

trenching for a distance along strike of about 4,000 feet, and 

Brown reported that he was able to trace a lead mined on the Griesemer property for a like distance. Certain other leads have been 

mined along strike for distances of more than 500 feet without 

exposing the ends. The total length of some of the larger leads may 

be measurable in miles, but the full length of a lead is not necessarily 

ore, for there is much variation in graphite content both along and 

across the strike. A typical section shows alternating layers of rocks 

of low graphite content, of high graphite content, and of intermediate graphite content. The individual layers range from fractions of an inch to 10 feet in thickness, but most of the leads mined 

consist of several layers, with aggregate thickness in some cases 

greater than 100 feet. Trenching is essential in determining the 

variations in thickness and grade of a lead along strike.

The structural significance of the presence of so many leads is unknown; some of the leads within the graphite belt may be repeated 

by folding. Furthermore, although both thrusts and normal faults 

are exposed in some of the mines, the effect of faulting on the distribution of leads within the graphite belt has not been determined.

SOUTHWESTERN BELT

The geology of the southwestern belt and the occurrence of graphite in it are not well known. The deposits, which are in the Ashland 

mica schist, resemble those of the northeastern belt in general characteristics and mode of occurrence. Most of the leads dip steeply or 

moderately steeply to the southeast. The only mines that have 

yielded large amounts of graphite are the Fixico, Ceylon, and Bama
264 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

mines. The Ceylon and Bama mines were visited by the writers and 

are described in a succeeding section. The Fixico mine was visited 

briefly but the workings were so deteriorated that little could be 

seen of the deposits exploited there.

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GRAPHITE DEPOSITS

The structure of the graphite deposits is largely determined by the 

structures of the leads. The simplest deposits are tabular and are 

parts of graphite leads that are of uniform width and are constant 

or nearly constant in attitude. Such deposits are represented by the 

Pocahontas, Redding, Alien, and Southern Star mines (fig. 23). At 

other mines the deposits are complicated by folding. Thus, in the 

open pit at the Crucible Flake mine the southeast lead shows intricate isoclinal folding of the lead and the enclosing rocks. The rocks 

there are further disturbed by faulting. Owing to these structural 

complications, the deposit narrows in width from about 140 feet at 

the southwest end of the cut to about 40 feet at the northeast end, in 

a distance of about 450 feet.

Faulting is responsible for numerous complexities of form. In the 

westernmost open pit near the old millsite of the Alabama No. 1 

mine, the northwest-trending tabular graphite lead .is offset progressively by a series of oblique-slip faults that strike N. 55°-65° E. 

and dip 65°-85° NW. Along each fault the hanging wall has moved 

upward. The form of the double lead at the Superior Flake mine 

is complicated by steep faults and low-angle thrusts.

GRADES OP GRAPHITE ORE AND YIELDS OF FLAKE

The ores mined in Alabama apparently have contained about 1 to 5 

percent graphite. The graphitic rocks exposed in the mine workings 

probably average about 3 percent graphite. Flake size in remaining 

rock varies from less than 1 to more than 5 mm, but most of the 

flake is 1 mm or less in diameter. Assays of samples from 32 graphite properties in the northeastern belt gave recoveries of flake as 

follows (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, fig. 4) :

Pounds of flake Retained on 

per ton of ore mesh size

6 to 40 ______________________________________ +50

7 to 38 ______________________________________ -50-1-100

8 to 70 ____________________________________ -100 

35 to 130 (total recovery)

The percentage of coarse flake ( + 50-mesh size) was greatest, on 

the average, in the samples from deposits in the southwestern part 

of the belt.

Flake content and size vary from place to place in each individual 

lead. Variations in content are presumably due to variations in the
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 265

carbon content of the original sediments. Size variations appear to 

be largely a function of the amount of injection and soaking by 

pegmatitic fluids. The writers agree with W. S. White (written 

communication, 1941) that the graphite was not introduced with the 

pegmatites, but that the pegmatitic fluids facilitated recrystallization 

of graphite and growth of larger flakes.

GEOLOGIC FACTORS INFLUENCING MINING IN ALABAMA

The geologic factors that determine whether a given deposit in 

Alabama can be mined are the physical condition, size, shape, attitude, and grade of the deposit. As exposures are poor, these factors 

must be determined by surface trenching across the leads, commonly 

at intervals of 50 to 100 feet. Supplementary information must be 

obtained by drilling.

The physical condition of the graphite ore is determined primarily 

by the degree of weathering. In typical pits in weathered rock the 

rock mined ranges from partly to thoroughly decomposed. Most ore 

mined is weathered to such an extent that it disintegrates readily 

and can be mined without blasting; weathered ore is therefore cheap 

to mine. Furthermore, weathering largely destroys the bonds between graphite and associated minerals, and hence reduces the 

amount of crushing needed in the milling process. It is said locally 

that weathered rock yields larger proportions of coarse flake than 

unweathered rock because the crushing necessary to unlock graphite 

from associated minerals in hard rock damages more of the flake. 

This view has not gone unchallenged, however, for a few operators 

have mined unweathered rock, and one operator interviewed by the 

authors said that there is little difference between the size of flake 

obtained from unweathered rock and that obtained from weathered 

rock of the same deposit. One advantage of the unweathered ore is 

that it furnishes a more uniform feed.

The depth of weathering of a deposit is governed principally by 

the position of the water table, which in turn is influenced by 

topography and by the attitude of the beds involved. W. S. White 

(written communication, 1941) has given an excellent discussion of 

the factors involved:

1. Where slopes are 5 degrees or less, weathering in the ridges is as deep 

and probably deeper than the level of the streams between ridges. Where 

slopes are steeper, the weathering may be deep or shallow, depending on other 

conditions. Ridges with broad tops will be more deeply weathered than those 

with narrow tops.

2. At most places, weathering seems to extend at least to the level at which 

ground water would drain from a given zone if all drainage were parallel to 

the schistosity. Leads which strike into slopes can drain at the level of the 

base of the slope and seem to have a weathering profile which rises gradually 

into the hill from the base. The only exception to this rule was noted at the
266 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

western pit of the American mine, where slivers of almost unweathered rock 

extend nearly to the surface on a hillside. Leads which strike parallel to a 

ridge may have deep or shallow weathering, depending on their dip. Where 

gullies cross leads which strike parallel to a ridge, weathering is locally the 

same as in situations where leads cross ridges.

3. Where the schistosity strikes parallel to a ridge, the depth of weathering 

seems to depend primarily on the direction of dip of the rocks. Drainage must 

be primarily through joints. In general, weathering is shallower on the slope 

of a ridge which dips in the opposite direction from the dip of the schistosity. 

At the Ceylon and Superior Flake mines, where the schistosity dips southeast, 

cross sections reveal that weathering is deeper below and southeast of the 

crest of the ridge than northwest of it. Where the schistosity dips from 50 to 

70 degrees southeast, weathering near the top of the southeast slope is from 

40 to 70 feet deep, and near the top of the northwest slope is from 20 to 40 

feet deep. On very steep slopes 50 to 100 feet vertically below the broad top 

of a high ridge, weathering may be only 10 to 20 feet deep regardless of direction and amount of dip. Where the dip of the rocks is 70 to 90 degrees, 

weathering averages 40 to 70 feet deep near the tops of ridges, and somewhat 

less farther down the slope.

4. Where the schistosity is flat or very gently dipping, as at the southeastern 

pit of the American mine and at the northern pit of the Clay County mine, 

the weathering is probably nearly parallel to the slope of the hill.

MINING ANX> MILLING METHODS

Open-pit methods exclusively have been employed in the Alabama 

graphite mines. The soil or overburden is stripped before mining. 

The ore is blasted down, or where sufficiently weathered, it is dug 

out with a power shovel and then loaded into cars or trucks and 

taken to a mill nearby. Mining is continued until the bottom of 

weathered ore is reached, until slumping from the sides becomes 

excessive as the pit is deepened, or until the ratio of overburden to 

ore, if the deposit is inclined, becomes excessive. The average depth 

of weathered ore mined is probably between 40 and 50 feet, but mining in weathered ore has been carried to depths as great as 80 feet.

Milling methods employed in Alabama during the Second World 

War were described in detail by Pallister and Thoenen (1948). The 

basic steps were crushing, sizing, flotation, and screening.

SELECTED DEPOSITS

Peerless mine. The Peerless mine (fig. 23) consists of several 

workings in the valley of a small creek south of the road that connects 

Pyriton with Lineville. The principal workings are on the south 

side of the creek, up the valley from the old millsite. The middle 

working is a bench, about 370 feet long and 15 to 60 feet high, cut 

into the south side of the valley. The bench trends approximately 

N. 60° E., roughly parallel to the strike of the beds, which dip 

10°-30° SE. into the hill. A thickness of at least 50 feet of graphitic rock is exposed, of which the lower 30 feet is estimated to contain 

3 to 4 percent flake graphite. The upper 20 feet is poorly exposed
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 267

but appears to contain less graphite. The upper 10 feet of the quarry 

face consists of weathered rock, which passes downward into nearly 

unweathered rock at the base of the cut. Most flake is 2 mm or less 

in diameter, but scattered flakes up to 4 mm in diameter are present. 

A sample from the lower 13 feet of beds yielded 48.00 pounds of 

flake per ton, from which 13.00 pounds of +50-mesh flake was recovered (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, p. 20).

The northwest pit is 285 feet long and 10 to 30 feet deep. Like 

the middle working, it is cut into the side of the valley, which here 

trends nearly north, and is roughly parallel to the valley. The beds 

strike N. 35°^0° E. and dip 40°-55° SE., but there are marked local 

variations in attitude. The thickness of graphitic rock mined is 

estimated to be about 50 feet. The upper 10 to 15 feet of rock in the 

face is weathered, but the rock in the lower part of the face is relatively fresh. The grade appears to be lower on the average than 

that of the rock at the middle working.

The deposits at the Peerless mine are of interest chiefly for the 

large potential tonnage available at the middle working, but much 

of the rock there is unweathered, and underground mining would be 

necessary for extraction of large amounts of ore.

Jennings mine. The Jennings mine is about 1.5 miles north of 

Ashland (fig. 23) in an area straddling the forks of a small southeastward-flowing stream. The mine workings consist of at least six 

open pits in several of the graphitic zones in the Ashland mica schist. 

The graphitic zones strike N. 48°-65° E. and dip 30°^8° SE. The 

southwesternmost workings are two small open pits, on separate 

leads on the southwest side of the southwest fork of the stream. The 

southeastern and larger cut is 120 feet long, 30 to 35 feet wide, and 

has a maximum depth of 25 feet. The total thickness of beds exposed 

is about 25 feet. The rocks in the base of the cut are unweathered. 

The material mined is a medium-grained quartz-muscovite schist with 

graphite in flakes 1 mm or less in diameter. The grade is estimated 

to be less than 3 percent graphite. Exposures in the smaller pit, 

which is estimated to be less than 3 percent graphite. Exposures in 

the smaller pit, which is 20 feet long by 15 feet wide, are poor; the 

pit is partly filled by debris.

Between the forks of the stream graphitic beds about 50 feet thick 

have been worked in an open pit. The rock exposed appears to be 

low in graphite content. Most of the graphite flakes are less than 

1 mm in diameter, although scattered flakes as large as 3 mm are 

present.

Northeast of the northeast fork of the stream are two parallel 

open pits separated by a narrow rock partition. The northwestern 

open pit is approximately on strike with the pit that lies between the 

forks of the stream. It is about 215 feet long, 75 feet in maximum
268 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

width, and 40 feet in maximum depth. Graphitic rock, about 35 

feet thick, comprising muscovite quartzite, quartz-feldspar-muscovite 

gneiss, and quartz-m'uscovite schist, is exposed in the headwall. The 

beds strike about N. 65° E. and dip 48° SE. A sample taken across 

25 feet of the graphitic rocks yielded 84.88 pounds of flake per ton 

of ore, of which 13.04 pounds was +50-mesh size (Pallister and 

Thoenen, 1948, p. 24, 28). The depth of weathering in the headwall 

is only about 15 feet.

The southeast pit is about 170 feet long, 60 feet in maximum width, 

and 38 feet in maximum depth. The headwall exposes about 24 feet 

of graphitic schist overlain by hornblende-biotite schist. The schist 

contains disseminated graphite flakes, many of which are between 

1 and 3 mm in diameter. A 25-foot sample across graphitic rocks 

yielded 68.68 pounds of flake per ton of ore, of which 8.20 pounds 

was +50-mesh flake (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, pp. 24, 28).

In addition to the workings described, there is a small cut in unexposed rocks north of the two main cuts.

Data from trenching by the Bureau of Mines suggests that the 

graphite leads explored by the two open pits northeast of the forks 

of the stream continue to the northeast for at least 400 feet across a 

low ridge, and data from drill holes suggest that along the axis of 

the ridge the depth of weathering is at least 50 feet. As much as 

50,000 tons of weathered ore may be present. Southwest of the creek 

forks, however, the graphite leads appear to be low grade, and their 

attitude is complicated in places by folds.

The deposit is less promising, both in size and in coarseness of 

graphite, than the deposits southwest of the gap in Candutchkee 

Ridge about 2*/2 miles west-northwest of Ashland (fig. 23).

National mine. The National mine (fig. 23) consists of an opencut 

about 225 feet long that extends northwestward into the southeast 

side of a prominent broad-topped ridge at a place nearly opposite 

the highest part of the ridge. The cut is about 80 feet in maximum 

width and about 45 feet in maximum depth. The open pit exposes 

graphitic schist that strikes northwestward, dips 23°-65° S., and is 

overlain by quartz-vanadium mica schist. The beds are locally 

folded, and at the rim of the headwall the structure is complex. The 

beds are offset along a series of normal faults that strike northeastward and dip 52°-85° SE.

The mine was explored by the U.S. Bureau of Mines during World 

War II (Pallister and Thoenen 1948, p. 26-27). Five trenches were 

dug at intervals along the ridge, transverse to its trend, and six 

diamond-drill holes were put down. Pallister and Thoenen concluded 

that the top of the ridge is underlain at shallow depth by a large 

almost horizontal ore body. However, after inspecting the drill-hole 

logs and examining the trenches, the writers concluded that graphitic
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 269

rock is cut only in limited parts of the trenches. The dip of the 

foliation varies within wide limits, and in places the structure is 

evidently complex. Where local folding is absent, the foliation in 

general strikes N. 5°-25° E. and dips 43°-90° E. Further exploration and detailed mapping would be necessary to establish the structure and the tonnage of ore available. No assays of the drill cores 

were given by Pallister and Thoenen, but the trench samples show 

0.5 to 3.0 percent graphite. On the basis of the data available this 

deposit appears to be one of the less promising deposits of the 

northeastern belt.

Southern mine. The Southern mine (fig. 23) consists of two open 

pits, presumably on the same graphite lead, on opposite sides of a 

small creek. The northeast cut is approximately 100 feet long, 55 

feet in maximum width, and 35 feet deep at the headwall. A series 

of layers of graphitic rocks with a combined thickness of 25 to 30 

feet were mined. The layering of the rocks strikes N. 70° E. and 

dips 30°-35° SE. A sample (sample A-36, which, contrary to the 

description given by Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, p. 44-45, is evidently from the northeast pit) across 12 feet of beds yielded 85.96 

pounds of flake per ton, of which 23.20 pounds was +50-mesh size. 

Pallister and Thoenen noted that the sample probably is not representative. The writers estimate that the rocks contain an average 

of about 3 percent flake graphite. The depth of weathering in the 

headwall of the pit is apparently not greater than 12 feet.

Northeast from the headwall the ground rises for a distance of 

about 500 feet to the crest of the ridge, which" is roughly 100 feet 

higher than the open pit. Additional graphitic schist is indicated 

in trenches and poor outcrops for a distance of at least 600 feet on 

strike to the northeast, but further trenching is needed to determine 

the continuity and grade of graphitic rock over this distance.

The southwest open pit is approximately 325 feet long, 65'feet in 

average width, and 12 to 35 feet deep. The graphitic beds mined are 

poorly exposed but are probably at least 30 feet thick. The layers 

strike N. 56°-69° E. and dip 32°-35° SE. over most of the length 

of the open pit, which is mostly in weathered rock but in places is 

in slightly weathered or unweathered rock. The graphite content 

appears to average about 3 percent, and flakes are mostly between 

2 and 4 mm in diameter. There is considerable range in grade and 

size of flake, however, from layer to layer.

Fifty feet from the southwest end of the open pit the ground drops 

off steeply to the bed of a small creek. Beyond the creek, farther to 

the southwest, the ground rises in the nose of a long, low ridge. 

Trenches along this ridge exposed graphitic rock along strike for 

about 400 feet southwest of the open pit and to within 300 feet of 

the highest point on the ridge. Exposures suggest at least a mod-
270 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

erate tonnage of weathered ore southwest of the open pit, but mining 

would require the removal of considerable overburden.

Northern group of deposits. A group of deposits, here termed 

"the northern group," consists of several graphite leads north of the 

old Talladega-Ashland road, on the west side of Enitachopco Creek 

(fig. 23). The leads strike N. 50°-75° E. and dip 25°-75° SE. The 

two most important leads are separated by about 50 feet of rock 

that is low or lacking in flake-graphite. Beginning at the northeast 

end, the following mines are located successively along the strike: 

Redding, Southern Star, May Brothers, Axton-Noe, and Alabama 

No. 2. The southeastern lead has been worked at all the mines and 

appears to have been the principal source of production except possibly at the Axton-Noe mine. The northwestern lead was mined or 

prospected at the Southern Star mine and probably at the AxtonNoe mine. At the Axton-Noe mine a third lead, northwest of the 

other two, has been worked.

The leads trend across a series of small valleys that drain eastsoutheast into Enitachopco Creek. In the ridges separating these 

valleys, the graphite leads are weathered to depths ranging from 20 

to 55 feet. Each mine, except where noted, consists of two open pits, 

one driven northeast, the other southwest into a ridge from a valley 

bottom.

The leads mined consist of flake disseminated in quartz-mica schist, 

which is more or less impregnated with thin layers and stringers of 

pegmatitic material. The southeast lead apparently ranges from 

25 to 50 feet thick, but its walls as exposed in the open pits appear 

to be assay walls.

A sample from the southeast lead at the Southern Star mine 

yielded 102.60 pounds of flake per ton of ore, of which 1.48 pounds 

was +50-mesh size (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, p. 47-48). A 

sample from the same lead at the Alabama No. 2 mine yielded 116.84 

pounds of flake per ton of ore, of which 22.08 pounds was +50-mesh. 

A sample from the northwestern lead at the Southern Star mine 

yielded 72.64 pounds per ton or ore, of which 25.04 pounds was 

+ 50-mesh size.

The southeastern lead was by no means mined out, and mapping 

and exploration probably would establish the existence of a tonnage 

of ore roughly comparable to that mined in the past. The northwestern lead is still largely unmined; its continuity and grade are 

not known, but southwest of the Redding mine a thickness of about 

55 feet of graphitic schist, apparently a continuation of the northwestern lead, is exposed for nearly 400 feet. There are several other 

areas along both leads that appear promising for prospecting. 

Samples taken from this group of leads by the Bureau of Mines, 

however, show a lower average percentage of coarse flake than
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 271

samples from a similar group of leads to the southeast (Pallister 

and Thoenen, 1948, fig. 4). The leads are likewise narrower than 

some of those to the southeast.

The fact that three leads were mined at the Axton-Noe workings 

suggests that prospecting across strike from the other mines might 

discover additional leads.

Quenelda and C. B. Alien mines. The Quenelda and C. B. Alien 

mines are south and west of the Alabama No. 2 mine, in a group of 

leads southeast of the northern group of deposits (fig. 23). The 

old Quenelda mine consists of 7 pits spaced along the strike of the 

leads for about 2,000 feet. The area was mapped, trenched, and 

sampled by the U.S. Bureau of Mines during World War II (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, p. 55-57). The mine workings are located 

where two graphite leads, 20 to 45 feet apart, intersect a series of 

spurs that separate small northwestward-draining valleys. The 

workings are almost entirely in weathered ore. Owing to the condition of the workings, the thickness of graphitic rock mined was 

difficult to determine. The southeast lead is estimated to range from 

40 to 65 feet thick and the northwest lead from 50 to 80 feet thick. 

The leads strike N. 55°-75° E. and at most places dip 55°-85° SE. 

Locally, however, the leads are vertical or dip steeply west.

Most of the weathered ore in the 2,000-foot interval along which 

the workings are located has been mined out. The principal reserves 

indicated by the exploratory work of the Bureau of Mines are in a 

group of leads southwest along strike for about 2,000 feet. There is 

probably a large amount of graphitic rock here, but the analyses 

indicated that the grade of rock in general ranges from 1 to 3 percent graphite. The proportion of coarse flake is also low, but Pallister and Thoenen suggested that sampling of the deeper material 

would show a higher proportion of coarse flake.

The C. B. Alien mine is on a lead northeast of the Quenelda leads. 

The mine is an open pit about 200 feet long, 50 to 55 feet wide, and 

25 feet deep at the southwest end (headwall). The layers of graphitic rock mined have a total thickness of about 35 feet, but the lead 

is probably at least 50 feet thick. The weathered ore probably extends at least 15 feet below the floor of the open pit. Trenching, 

drilling, and sampling by the Bureau of Mines indicate that the lead 

extends both northeastward and southwestward from the open pit 

and has an overall length of at least 2,000 feet. About one-third of 

this length is in valley bottom and would probably be difficult to 

mine, but substantial reserves probably are present in the remainder. 

Samples yielded 2.5 to 6 percent of graphite, of which about a third 

was +50-mesh size.

In terms of richness and coarseness of flake, the C. B. Alien mine 

appeared to be one of the more promising properties of the area.
272 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Alabama, No. 1 and North Griessemer mines. The Alabama No. 1 

and North Griessemer mines are roughly on strike with one another 

and are either on the same lead or the same group of leads, northeast 

of the lead worked in the C. B. Alien mine (fig. 23). The pit of the 

Alabama No. 1 is 325 feet long, 12 to 65 feet deep, and 95 feet in 

maximum width. It was driven about N. 68° E. roughly along the 

strike of the graphite lead into a ridge that rises abruptly beyond 

the headwall and then drops off sharply to a small valley 250 feet 

northeast of the open pit. The graphitic beds mined strike about 

N. 60°-68° E. and dip 52°-60° SE. The limits of the rock mined 

were evidently assay limits, for the rock structurally above and beneath them carries graphite. The depth of weathering at the head 

of the open pit is between 40 and 45 feet; the lower portion of the 

headwall is partly concealed by fill but is evidently little weathered.

A sample of graphite rock from the south side of the pit yielded 

83.6 pounds of flake per ton of ore, of which 39.92 pounds was +50- 

mesh size (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, p. 51).

The ridge in which the mine is developed probably contains only 

a small tonnage of weathered ore, but a sizeable extension of the lead 

beyond the valley northeast of the mine is possible.

The North Griessemer mine consists of an open crosscut leading 

to an opencut about 380 feet long and 16 to 45 feet deep. The open 

pit is along a graphitic bed 35 feet thick which strikes N. 72° E. and 

dips 65°-73° SE. A sample taken across the northeast face of the 

cut yielded 86.12 pounds of flake per ton of ore, of which 15.20 

pounds was +5Q-mesh size (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, p. 50). 

The face at the southwest end is about 45 feet high and is entirely 

in weathered rock. The ground rises steadily to the southwest at an 

angle of about 4 degrees, and scattered exposures indicate that 

graphitic schist extends on strike for at least 360 feet. To the northeast there may be an even greater extension.

Middle Griessemer mine. The middle Griessemer mine is at the 

summit of Candutchkee Kidge. The mine consists of a crosscut leading to an opencut 290 feet long, 45 to 60 feet wide, and 32 feet in 

maximum depth. The cut trends N. 65° E., roughly parallel to the 

strike of the foliation of the schists exposed in it. Opposite the 

crosscut, which is at the southwest end of the open pit, a tunnel was 

driven 100 feet to the southeast slope of the ridge.

A layer of graphitic schist about 55 feet thick is exposed in the 

northeast face of the pit, where the foliation strikes N. 66° E. and 

dips 82° SE. The face is 25 feet high and is entirely in weathered 

rock. Southwestward the opencut narrows, and the layer mined near 

the southwest end is about 25 feet thick. At the southwest end the 

deposit is complexly faulted; mining evidently was stopped here for 

this reason.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 273

Large reserves of unweathered ore may remain to the northeast of 

the open pit. Graphitic schist is exposed at intervals along the strike 

for 180 feet to the northeast. Beyond this, however, heavy brush 

conceals the bedrock, and the full extent of the graphite lead is 

therefore unknown.

A sample taken from the open pit yielded 69.28 pounds of flake 

per ton of ore, of which 17.40 pounds was +50-mesh (Pallister and 

Thoenen, 1948, p. 50).

Pocahontas mine. The Pocahontas mine of the Alabama Flake 

Graphite Co. is about 2,000 feet south of the crest of Candutchkee 

Ridge (fig. 23). In 1950 it was the only graphite mine in operation 

in Alabama. The mill is in the valley of a small creek that cuts 

across the graphite leads. The workings consist of two parallel opencuts extending northeast from the valley. These were abandoned 

after thick kaolinized dikes cutting the graphite leads were intersected. A third opencut was being excavated southwestward across 

the valley along what appeared to be the northwestern of the two 

leads originally mined. In July 1950 this opencut was 135 feet long 

and 45 to 50 feet wide at the base; the working face was 40 feet high 

and was entirely in weathered rock. The lead in the headwall was 

at least 50 feet thick; the northwest limit of ore had not been disclosed by mining. The foliation of the schist in the cut varies in 

attitude from place to place but generally dips steeply southeast. 

The operators stated that the ore averaged 4 to 5 percent flake 

graphite.

About 100 feet southeast along the slope from the third open pit, 

a second graphite lead is indicated by exposures. Presumably this 

is the extension of the lead worked in the southeastern pit across 

the valley.

This property was extensively explored by the U.S. Bureau of 

Mines (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, p. 51-52); the work included 

trenching, sampling, and drilling. Graphite schist was shown to 

extend for about 2,400 feet southwest from the third opencut, and 

the depth of weathering in places may exceed 80 feet. The ground 

rises rapidly from the rim of the third opencut and remains at a 

high level, relative to the creek bottom, for about 1,500 feet.

Samples taken by the Bureau of Mines from trenches southwest 

of the valley yielded 1.7 to 3.7 percent flake. The yield of +50- 

mesh flake per ton of ore ranged from 1.16 to 17.96 pounds (Pallister and Thoenen, 1948, p. 29, 30).

From the standpoint of reserves and ease of mining, this property 

is one of the best in the Albama graphite district.

Crucible Flake mine. The Crucible Flake mine is on the south 

side of Candutchkee Ridge (fig. 23). It was worked during 1942 

and 1943 by Haile Gold Mines, Inc., after extensive trenching and
274 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

drilling had indicated a sizable tonnage of ore. According to Pallister and Thoenen (1948, p. 62), 5,700,000 pounds of refined graphite was produced, of which 15.5 percent was grade IB, 17.5 percent 

grade 2, 17 percent grade 3, and 50 percent grade 4 (War Production Board specifications). Two large opencuts were made in 

parallel northeastward-trending leads. The southeast opencut is 

580 feet long, 8 to 56 feet deep, and 87 feet in maximum width. The 

northwest opencut is irregular in outline. It is 250 feet long, 100 to 

200 feet wide, and 20 to 55 feet deep.

The structure of the deposits at this mine is complicated by folding and modified to some extent by faulting. A substantial tonnage of ore remains, but no estimate can be made until detailed 

geologic mapping and further exploration have been done. In the 

event of a shortage of graphite, however, this deposit would appear to merit careful consideration from the standpoint of reserves.

Ceylon Graphite Co. mine. The mine and mill of the Ceylon 

Graphite Co. are in the NW*4 sec. 16, T. 24 N., E. 19 E., about 8 

miles west of Good water, Coosa County (fig. 24). It is one of the 

largest graphite mines in Alabama. Production began in 1916 and 

continued until 1929. No mining was carried on between 1929 and 

1939. The property was purchased in 1936 by C. J. Johnson, who 

built a new mill and treatment plant; production was resumed in 

1939. The mine was in continuous operation from 1939 until it was 

closed in 1947.

Exact production figures are not available. For the period 1926- 

27, the average production was 100 tons of finished graphite per 

month (C. J. Johnson, oral communication, 1950). The graphite 

was marketed in a variety of grades and was used for crucibles, 

foundry facings, and lubricants. An appreciable amount of this 

production came from unweathered ore.

The workings consist of a large open pit 925 feet long, with a 

maximum width of 300 feet and maximum depth of 70 feet. The 

pit is on two levels 10 feet apart.

The graphite deposit consists of one or more layers of graphitic 

rock which have an average strike of N. 50° E. and dip 40°-60° 

SE; the graphite layers appear to pinch and swell along strike. 

The changes in the beds along strike are not known, but the continuity of graphitic layers is obvious enough to permit an estimate 

of reserves.

The structure is apparently simple. Minor variations in strike 

and dip do not seriously affect the size or location of the ore body. 

The only fault seen is in the lower level near the northwest end of 

the center cut. It strikes N. 70° W., dips 79° S., and has an apparent displacement of about 30 feet. The south block is downthrown.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 275

The rock mined is a quartz-muscovite schist, which contains minor 

amounts of biotite and 2 to 6 percent graphite. It averages about 

3 percent graphite. The flakes average about 2 mm in diameter, 

but a fairly high proportion is 3 mm or more in diameter. Pyrite 

is present in places. The rock in the west half of the center entryway crosscut is fresh and hard, as is the rock exposed in knobs left 

in the center of the northeast segment of the pit and near the center 

of the southwest segment. Elsewhere the rock is partially to almost completely weathered. The footwall rocks are intensely 

weathered hornblende-biotite schists and hornblende-biotite-feldspar 

gneisses. The hanging wall is quartz-muscovite schist. Reserves of 

ore are believed to be large.

Bama mine. The Bama mine is in Chilton County (fig. 25) near 

the southwest end of the southwestern graphite belt. In 1951 the 

mine was owned by the Alabama Machinery and Supply Co., Montgomery, Ala. According to Mr. W. W. Doe, Sr., treasurer of the 

company, the mine was operated from 1925 to 1930; in 1930 the mill, 

which had a capacity of 3 tons of graphite per day, burned. Five 

grades of graphite were produced: Special Bama, 96 percent carbon; special Bameco, 95 percent carbon; Bama, 93 percent carbon; 

Bameco, 93 percent carbon; and M-2, 70 percent carbon. The Bama 

grade was +60-mesh flake, the Bameco grade was 60+80 mesh, and 

the M-2 grade was -80 mesh. The Bama flake is of particular 

interest because carbon-bonded crucibles were first manufactured 

with it, and Madagascar flake was used for these crucibles only when 

Bama flake became unavailable.

The main working at this mine is an open pit 625 feet long, 150 

feet in average width, and 30 to 74 feet in depth to main floor 

level. The cut trends about N. 30° W. Three crosscuts through 

the east wall of the openpit were used as entrances. The open pit 

is separated into two segments by a discontinuous partition of 

slightly weathered schist. An area 275 feet long and 30 to 90 feet 

wide in the bottom of the southwestern part of the cut is flooded.

The rocks mined are medium-grained muscovite-biotite-quartz 

schists containing disseminated flake graphite. The foliation in 

general strikes N. 16°-25° W. and dips 50°-60° SW., but in places 

there is much minor folding. The north end of the open pit is a 

fault surface thai; strikes N. 16° W. and dips 58° SW. The rock 

beyond the fault is graphitic. The rock ranges from partially 

weathered and firm to soft and thoroughly decomposed; some layers are weathered to much greater depths than others, but most of 

the rock at the base of the highest parts of the walls of the openpit 

is partly weathered.

A substantial tonnage of weathered to partly weathered rock 

probably remains in the deposit worked in the main open pit, but

535373 O 60 6
276 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

R.15E. R.16 E.

FIGURE 25. Map of localities of graphite deposits in parts of Chilton and Coosa 

Counties, Ala. (Area C of fig. 22.) After Pallister and Thoenen (1948).

actual estimates cannot be made until the deposit and the surrounding area have been mapped in detail and the leads explored. 

Some ore remains northwest of the working, but its extent is uncertain owing to faulting and minor folding in this part of the 

deposit. To the southeast a large tonnage of weathered ore may 

be present on strike with the southwestern section of the deposit. 

The ground elevation rises in this direction but falls along the 

northeastern section of the working.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 277

The tenor of the ore remaining in the deposits is not known. 

Three samples were taken by the U.S. Bureau of Mines (Pallister 

and Thoenen, 1948, p. 75). One of these, taken across 20 feet of 

the east side of the north face of the cut, yielded Y3.96 pounds of 

flake graphite per ton of ore, of which 15.56 pounds was +50-mesh. 

A second sample, taken across 20 feet of the west side of the north 

face, yielded 85.84 pounds of flake per ton of ore, of which 17.04 

pounds was +50-mesh size. These two samples represent the two 

layers last mined. The third sample, taken across 20 feet of the 

south face, yielded 157.16 pounds of flake of low-carbon content per 

ton of ore; this sample seems of dubious significance despite the 

authors' statement that the poor assay of the sample may explain 

why mining was stopped at this end (p. 75). Further sampling is 

needed.

Some smaller, parallel openpits, northeast of the main working, 

apparently in narrow graphite leads, do not appear promising.

PENNSYLVANIA

The graphite deposits of Pennsylvania occur in the metamorphic 

rocks of the Piedmont Plateau area, in the southeastern part of the 

State. Miller (1912) described the deposits and the mine operations and workings as they appeared at that time. Graphite has 

been mined in Berks, Bucks, Lehigh, and Chester Counties, but the 

principal deposits are west of Phoenixville, in Chester County (fig. 

26). The most important localities are in the valleys of French 

and Pickering Creeks, where two nearly parallel northeastwardtrending areas of gneisses and schists contain graphitic layers.

The deposits near Pughtown in the valley of French Creek have 

not been worked since about 1920. Only one mine, the Eynon-Just, 

produced a significant amount of graphite.

The belt of graphite deposits in the valley of Pickering Creek 

is the largest and best known in Pennsylvania. The mines in this 

area were operated intermittently between 1890 and 1914 and then, 

like those in other areas of domestic-graphite production, experienced a boom during World War I. No production was recorded 

between 1920 and 1940 (Sanford and Lamb, 1949). Between 1943 

and 1947 the Benjamin Franklin and Just mines were operated 

intermittently; later they were explored and sampled by the Bureau 

of Mines.

The deposits are in the Pickering gneiss of Precambrian age, a 

metamorphosed sedimentary sequence, consisting of orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, and biotite, with hornblende and other minerals 

as accessories. Variations in proportions of mineral constituents 

are common. Most of the rock at or near the surface is intensely
1. E

2. G

3. A

4. C

5. R

6. F

7. C

8. J

9. B

10. A

11. P

12. P

13. P

14. A

FIGURE 26. Map of localities of graphite mines In Pho
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 279

weathered, and kaolin, carbonates, and iron oxides constitute much 

of the rock. Certain layers or zones contain graphite, which in 

places makes up as much as 10 percent of the rock. These graphitic 

layers occur for about 8 miles along the south side of the gneiss 

area from about 1 mile southeast of Kimberton almost to the village of Byers. The graphitic layers have not been fully traced out, 

but the distribution of mines suggests there are several belts of 

graphitic gneiss.

The belts of gneiss trend approximately N. 65° E. and in general 

dip 30°-60° SE. Much local variation in attitude, the result of 

small-scale folding, is visible in some of the mines. Some largescale faulting has been recognized. Rocks exposed in certain of the 

old workings show extensive injection of pegmatitic material, and 

the phenomenon is present to some degree in all mines. Some of 

the pegmatitic material contained sufficient graphite to justify mining. The flake graphite in the pegmatites is normally coarser than 

that in the enclosing gneiss; in some pegmatites the flakes are as 

much as 25 mm in diameter. Most of the larger pegmatites contain 

graphite only in the outer parts. The pegmatites and gneiss are 

markedly weathered where exposed in mine workings.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN AND JUST MINES

The Benjamin Franklin and Just mines (pi. 11) are on the crest 

of a low ridge south of Pickering Creek, 1 mile N. 50° E. of Anselma, in West Pikeland Township, Chester County.

The Benjamin Franklin property, including TO acres of mineral 

land and a treatment plant, was purchased by the U.S. Government 

in 1942, and in 1943 the construction of a mill was authorized by 

the War Production Board. The Just property, which includes an 

area of 15 acres, adjoins the Benjamin Franklin mine on the northeast. The properties are separated by a gravel road that provides 

access to both.

After construction of the treatment plant in 1943, the Benjamin 

Franklin mine was leased to the Benjamin Franklin Graphite Co., 

which owned the Just mine. This company produced 398 tons of 

graphite from the Just mine in about 5 months in 1943. All operations were halted in November 1943.

In April 1946 the Benjamin Franklin mine and mill and Just 

mine were leased by the newly formed North American Graphite 

Co., and operated the mine and mill for 4 months in 1947 and produced 58 tons of graphite. Messrs. Hess and Schmehl subleased the 

properties in October 1947 and produced 120 tons of graphite (Sanford and Lamb, 1949, p. 4) before shutting down operations in 

January 1948.
280 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

In 1948 the Benjamin Franklin and Just properties were explored by the U.S. Bureau of Mines (Sanford and Lamb, 1949). 

Nine trenches and three diamond-drill holes were made, samples 

were collected and assayed for graphite content, and flake size and 

depth of weathering were determined. The graphitic zone was 

found to contain an average of about 1.5 percent graphite and the 

depth of weathering was found to be as much as 120 feet. In 1950 

geology and topography of a small area around the two mines was 

mapped by the writers (pi. 11).

There are two principal open pits on the properties. One, just 

northeast of the mill on the Benjamin Franklin property, is 240 feet 

long, 30 to 100 feet wide, and 40 feet deep at its deepest point; the 

other, on the Just property, is 600 feet long, 25 to 200 feet wide, and 

40 feet in maximum depth. Other workings consist of the trenches 

dug by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1948.

The general geology of the deposit is fairly simple. The graphitic 

rocks form a zone that has been traced along strike for about 3,200 

feet, but, as neither end of the zone has been located, its total length 

may be considerably greater. The zone is exposed in trenches and 

workings over widths ranging from 200 to 400 feet, but the total 

width is not known. The zone trends about N. 64° E. Dips of 

foliation range from 20° SE. to as much as 60° SE. The overall 

attitude is obscure, owing to lack of key horizons and to locally 

intense minor folding. The zone is exposed only in the trenches and 

mine workings.

The graphitic rocks within the zone consist of micaceous quartz 

schist, nearly pure quartzite, and feldspathic quartz-muscovite gneiss. 

The three rock types grade into one another. The graphite content varies markedly across strike. Thin lenses of coarse granitic 

to pegmatitic material are abundant in parts of the graphitic zone 

and are commonly arranged parallel to the foliation. A few pegmatites as much as 5 feet in thickness occur in the gneiss.

Weathered graphitic quartz and mica schist interlayered with 

quartzite, barren feldspar gneiss, clayey material, and pegmatite are 

exposed in the southwest wall of the Just open pit. Graphitic layers 

range from a few inches to more than 10 feet in thickness. Individual graphite flakes are 1 to 6 mm in diameter. A layer of nearly 

pure graphite ~y2 to 2 inches thick is along the footwall of one small 

pegmatite. Southwest of the quarry face, where an area roughly 

120 feet wide by 230 feet long has been stripped of overburden, the 

rocks show numerous small folds, but the general continuity does 

not appear to be affected.

The rocks exposed in trenches between the open pit on the Just

property and the open pit near the mill are similar in composition

1 to those in the Just open pit. There is much small-scale variation
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 281

in rock type and graphite content across the strike. Locally, thin 

lenses of pegmatitic material are abundant. The graphite occurs 

as disseminated flakes 1 to 6 mm in diameter, parallel or subparallel 

to the foliation. The flakes are noticeably coarser near the coarse 

granitic or pegmatitic material but probably do not average more 

than 3 or 4 mm in diameter. Graphite content of individual bands 

and layers ranges from y2 to more than 10 percent. Assays of samples taken by the Bureau of Mines show an average tenor of about 

1.5 percent graphite.

The graphitic rocks in the open pit north of the treatment plant 

are somewhat more uniform in structure and graphite content than 

those on the Just property. Much of the rock here is graphitic 

quartz-mica schist, although other rock types also occur.

Southwest of the mill, trenches and stripped areas show rocks 

similar to those exposed in the open pits. As far as the authors 

could determine from available exposures, the geologic structure 

there is relatively simple; less small-scale folding is visible than in 

the pits. The rocks toward the southwest end of the property 

appear to contain a higher proportion of quartz, and the flake size 

of the graphite in the rocks appears to increase. No quantitative 

estimate of flake size or graphite content was made, but the average 

graphite content apparently diminishes in this direction.

The rocks enclosing the graphitic zone do not form outcrops on 

either property. Test pits and trenches gave only limited information on the composition and structure of the rocks. In general 

they are hornblende gneiss or hornblende-biotite schist that appear 

to have the same general attitude as the graphitic rocks. Some 

small-scale folding was noted.

The rocks on the Benjamin Franklin and Just properties are 

deeply weathered at most places, and mining has largely been confined to the weathered ore. Feldspar has decomposed to form clay, 

the mica has been bleached and altered, and hornblendic rocks have 

been changed to a soft reddish-brown clay. Only the thicker layers 

of quartz and the graphite flakes seem unaffected by weathering

The value of the deposits on the properties depends to a large 

extent on the suitability of the flake sizes of strategic uses. Assays 

by the U.S. Bureau of Mines (Sanford and Lamb, 1949, p. 12) show 

that although the average graphite content of the ore is only about 

1.5 percent, nearly one-third of the concentrates produced during 

World War II consisted of flake coarser than +50-mesh size. On 

this basis the properties would therefore appear to offer more promise for the production of standard clay-graphite crucible flake than 

is indicated by the figures for grade alone. The results of tests of 

the flake for crucible use have been discussed in a previous section 

(p. 14-15). The value of the flake for lubricant and packing-grade
282 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

materials has not been determined; the true value of the property 

is therefore still in doubt. The presence of a modern mill and 

equipment, together with a sizeable tonnage of graphitic rock, is a 

definite asset. Future operation of the plant, however, will create 

a problem of tailings disposal, as the area used for this purpose in 

the past is now almost entirely filled.

ANSELMA MINE

The Anselma graphite mine (fig. 26), which has not been operated since World War I, is one-fourth mile east of the village of 

Anselma and about one-half mile southwest along strike from the 

Benjamin Franklin mine. Five inclines of unknown depth and one 

small open pit 20 by 60 feet make up the workings. Graphitebearing quartz-schist containing 3 to 5 percent graphite, in flakes 

ranging from 0.5 to 18 mm in diameter, is exposed in the inclines. 

Material of this grade, however, is shown only in one very limited 

exposure. The inclines were caved or filled with water to within 

short distances of the surface and could not be explored. The hanging wall, which is exposed in only one place in the open pit, consists of fine-grained pegmatitic gneiss, which contains feldspar and 

quartz but no graphite. As the footwall is not exp9sed, the thickness of the graphite zone could not be determined.

The rocks exposed at the mine are similar to those of the Benjamin Franklin mine and are schists that have been modified by 

the addition of coarse massive quartz in lenses and stringers parallel to the schistosity. In exposures, schistosity and bedding strike 

N. 58°-75° E. and dip 45° SE.

No estimates of reserves are possible without more information. 

This property appears to justify further investigation, however, 

because of the unusually rich coarse-flake graphite it contains. The 

mine is only a short distance along strike from the Benjamin 

Franklin mine and is presumably on the extension of the same 

broad zone of graphitic rock.

OTHER DEPOSITS

Two other deposits in the Pickering Creek graphite belt were examined by the writers. They presumably are a continuation of the 

graphitic rocks at the Benjamin Franklin, Just, and Anselma mines, 

as they occur approximately along the projected strike of the belt.

The workings of the Chester Graphite Co. mine (fig. 26), last 

operated in 1918, are one-half mile south-southeast of the village of 

Chester Springs. They consist of an irregular open pit, about 400 

by 300 feet in maximum dimensions, and two caved inclines of unknown depth. Several small prospect pits are east and northeast of 

the large pit.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 283

The workings are badly slumped and overgrown and the nature 

or occurrence of the mined material could not be determined. E. S. 

Bastin (written communication) described the rock mined as weathered quartz-feldspar-graphite schists of medium coarseness, in part 

containing muscovite. Locally the rock is granitic injection gneiss.

The open pits one-fourth mile south of the village of Byers (fig. 

26) probably represent the mine of the Pennsylvania Graphite Co. 

They are badly slumped. Three very large irregular open pits, 300 

to 500 feet long and 150 to 300 feet wide, were filled with water. 

Underground workings at the property were inaccessible. The 

graphitic layer is reported to be about 10 feet thick (Bascom, 1938, 

p. 128). Very little graphitic material could be seen, and it was 

impossible to draw any conclusions as to the nature and amount of 

graphite remaining.

SUMMARY

Graphite is found in four counties in Pennsylvania, but an area 

in Chester County about i/2 mile wide and 8 miles long, on the 

south side of the valley of Pickring Creek, is the only one that 

appears to be worthy of attention as a potential source of commercial and strategic graphite. The graphitic rocks of Pennsylvania 

do not crop out except in the vicinity of the Benjamin Franklin and 

Just mines. There the graphitic schists appear of sufficient richness 

to warrant further attention and more detailed investigation. The 

proportion of coarse flake in the graphite of this area may well be 

greater than at any other locality in the United States.

NEW YORK

The principal graphite deposits of New York are in the eastern 

Adirondack Mountains, in Essex, Warren, Saratoga, and Washington Counties (fig. 27). Graphite is also found near Suffern in 

Rockland County, and near Pope Mills in St. Lawrence County 

(fig. 12). The last two deposits are of minor importance, although 

the deposit at Pope Mills was in operation during both World Wars. 

The greatest number of mines and deposits and by far the largest 

reserves of graphite are in the eastern Adirondacks.

The area has a relief of 2,700 feet. Hills reach an elevation of 

3,000 feet within a short distance of Lake George and Lake Champlain, which are only about 300 feet above sea level. Most of the 

land is heavily forested. Several excellent highways cross the district, but many of the mines are some distance from good roads.

The graphite deposits of New York were investigated in much 

the same manner as the other areas covered in this report. In gen: 

eral, only the larger deposits were visited, although certain of the 

others were seen for purposes of comparison. No detailed mapping
284 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

LIST OF MINES

1. BUCK MOUNTAIN POND

2. LEAD HILL

3. BEAR POND MOUNTAIN

4. ROCK POND

5. DIXON-AMERICAN FLAKE 

GRAPHITE CO

6. FAXON

! N E W \

7. LAKESIDE

8. INTERNATIONAL GRAPHITE CO.

9. HOOPER BROTHERS

10. ROWLAND GRAPHITE CO. 

1 1. SACONDAGA

12. FLAKE GRAPHITE (EMPIRE)

13. GRAPHITE PRODUCTS CORP.

 J

ESSEX

Crown Point c

YORK ,*

3* *2

Lake'*' WASHINGTON

George

I

^ 

i

i *

/: /*

*

o

FIGURE 27. Map of localities of principal graphite mines of the eastern Adirondack

Mountains area.

was attempted. Ailing (1917) is the best source of information on 

the deposits, and much of the material given below is taken from 

his work.

HISTORY OF GRAPHITE MINING

Graphite was first mined in the Adirondacks in the 1850's (Ailing 

1917, p. 8-9). From then until the early 1920's the mines of the 

area produced over 5,000 tons of flake. Large tonnages of graphitic 

rock remained, but a number of unfavorable economic factors dis-
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 285

couraged mining activity after World War I. In 1950 no mining 

equipment or mill buildings remained anywhere in the area. Mines 

ranged from mere prospect pits to extensive underground workings. 

The largest mine was that of the Dixon-American Graphite Co. at 

Graphite.

The mines were worked for the most part by subsurface methods. 

A vertical, inclined, or horizontal opening was made in the graphitic 

layer, and the ore commonly was removed by modified room-andpillar methods. Treatment plants were crude. Modern flotation 

reagents and techniques were not known at the time the mines were 

operated, but several of the operations were nevertheless successful 

for a time.

GENERAL GEOLOGY

The Adirondack Mountains are underlain chiefly by Precambrian 

igneous and metamorphic rocks. Their structure and stratigraphy 

is complex and not completely understood. The graphite deposits 

are confined to a series of metamorphosed rocks paraschists, paragneisses, quartzites, amphibolites, and marbles assigned by Ailing 

(1917, p. 42) to the Grenville series. These are sedimentary rocks 

that have been folded, metamorphosed, and invaded by igneous rocks.

TYPES OP GRAPHITE DEPOSITS

There are three distinct kinds of graphitic deposits in New York. 

Graphite-bearing veins have been found along the shores of Lake 

Champlain, between Ticonderoga and Split Rock Point. Contactmetamorphic deposits have been found chiefly in southern Essex 

County. Deposits consisting of graphite disseminated in schist 

make up the third and most important type.

Vein deposits in general contain only small reserves. They consist of fine to coarse platy graphite, commonly with accessory quartz, 

feldspar, calcite, and biotite (Ailing, 1917, p. 31). The veins are 

fracture-fillings in several kinds of country rocks.

The contact-metamorphic deposits are in marble adjacent to intruded pegmatites. The marble has been irregularly recrystallized 

and silicated, and graphite is found in both the marble and the silicate rocks. Facies of extremely coarse material are present in 

places, and these may contain graphite flakes as much as 5 cm in 

diameter and calcite crystals 15 cm or more in length. Diopside, 

scapolite, phlogopite, and minor amounts of sphene and tourmaline 

are commonly associated with the calcite and graphite. The graphite occurs as coarse flakes disseminated in the marble and silicate 

rock or as nests, bunches, and radiating aggregates in the silicate 

rock. It also appears a veinlike concentrations in association with 

coarse calcite and rounded quartz crystals in silicate rock or marble.
286 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

It is also present as large flakes along crystal boundaries in the 

pegmatites or in small, local concentrations near the contacts between 

pegmatite and country rock. The rocks locally include patches that 

are rich in graphite, but the average graphite content of most deposits is probably less than 1 percent. The boundaries between 

pegmatite and country rock are very irregular, and the occurrence 

of graphite is extremely erratic; hence it is difficult to block out 

ore in these deposits.

The graphitic schist deposits consist of quartz and graphite, commonly with feldspar and mica. Other minerals are present locally, 

but only a few are recognizable in hand specimens. The schists 

are layered and show variations in the proportions of quartz, feldspar, and graphite from one layer to another. In some deposits the 

graphite content is 5 to 7 percent of the rock and grade and flake 

size are both remarkably uniform in the graphitic layers (table 2). 

Flakes more than 3 mm in diameter are rare. The flakes are elongate or rounded and are well oriented parallel to bedding or banding. Graphitic layers range in thickness from less than a foot to 

more than 12 feet. Because of their origin as metasediments, graphitic layers exhibit considerable continuity along strike, and large 

tonnages can be blocked out where exposures are adequate to show 

the structure. Upper and lower contacts of the graphitic layers 

with the country rock are commonly gradational through short distances. In many deposits both hanging-wall and footwall contacts 

are shear surfaces or narrow shear zones, parallel or nearly paralTABLE 2. Flake size and graphite content of Adirondack graphite deposits

[After Ailing, 1917]

Deposit

Lead Hill.......... ......

ite Co.

Hooper Bros....^...-...

Co. . Flake Graphite Co......

Source of material

Thin section.... ____ ..

Ore'.......-. ..........

Ore z.. ....... .............

Ore ................ .......

Ore*.-. ....... ............

Ore*.... ............ _.__..

Thin section.. ............

Ore «---.---...--.......

Percent 

graphite 

(by 

weight)

6.0

5.2

7.8

6.7

8.7

9 1

7.7 

5.7

89.00

7.1

4.5

7.0

90.80

7.7

Maximum 

flake size 

(mm)

'6.80

2.80

3.50

2.50

1.11

1.10

2.70

1.20

.85 

1.20

1.05

1.70

.92

2.40

.91

1.30

.600

.831

Minimum 

flake size 

(mm)

0.32

1.50

.34

.40

.23

.25

.60

.30

.20 

.30

.21

.40

.30

.50

.20

.30

.133

.233

Average 

flake size 

(mm)

0.38

1.84

1.10

1.03

.37

.66

1.20

.71

.44

.68

.33X.65

1.03

.SOx.68

. 76 x 1. 10

. 42 x . 58

.75

. 205 x . 437

. 268 x . 451

1 Coarse.

2 Thin section.

3 Hand specimen. 

* No. 2 flake.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 287

lei to the bedding. In most places these do not affect the thickness 

of the potential ore, but in some deposits the graphitic layers show 

pinching and swelling related to the shears. Structure of the graphitic layers in general is simple. Changes in attitude are mostly 

gradual, and vertical or cross-cutting faults of large displacement 

are rare. Lack of exposures commonly prevents tracing of the 

graphitic layers away from existing mine workings, but in some 

places layers overlying or underlying the graphitic layers can be 

traced for long distances. For example, in the area west of Lake 

George a distinctive garnet-feldspar gneiss associated with the 

graphite schist forms a nearly continuous exposure on slopes of 

more than a few degrees. In other places, however, hanging-wall 

rocks are less resistant, and little was learned of the structure or 

probable extent of graphitic rock.

SELECTED DEPOSITS

Lead Hill. The Lead Hill deposit lies 3 miles northwest of Ticonderoga, in the southeast corner of Essex County (fig. 27); it is 

on the south slope of a hill about 500 feet north of State Route 73, 

a paved road between Ticonderoga and Severance. The access 

road is now (1950) impassable to a car.

The mine is in the first graphite deposit known to have been 

worked in the State. It was operated as early as the 1850's by the 

Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. (Ailing, 1917, p. 24).

The workings of the mine are scattered over an area more than 

1,200 feet long and nearly,800 feet wide. They include many small 

prospect pits and two larger openings known as the Woodchuck and 

Young Lyon workings. The rocks exposed near the mine include 

coarse calcite marble, medium-grained quartz-feldspar pegmatite, 

massive quartz, and diopside-scapolite and phlogopite rocks. Several pegmatite bodies are believed to be present, but their position 

and size are not known. The bedding in the marble trends west, 

parallel to the hill slope.

The deposits are of interest only because they exhibit the characteristic features of contact-metamorphic graphite deposits. Graphite is irregularly developed along contacts of pegmatite with marble 

and silicated marble consisting of diopside, phlogopite, sphene, calcite, and scapolite in various proportions. It occurs disseminated 

or patchily distributed in marble, silicated marble, and pegmatite, 

and in quartz or quartz-calcite fissure veins that cut the other types 

of rock. The graphite content varies markedly from place to place, 

without recognizable pattern.

The reserves of the Lead Hill mines are probably small. There 

are local pockets and zones that are very rich, but the overall average graphite content of any large volume of rock is very low. The
288 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

distribution of the richer parts is extremely erratic. Large-scale 

mining would not be possible.

Buck Mountain Pond. The Buck Mountain Pond property is in 

Essex County, and extends for 1,000 feet west from Buck Mountain 

Pond. To reach it, drive 4 miles north on State Route 8-9N-22 

from Ticonderoga to Street Road, then west on a county road 1.5 

miles to a small stream and an abandoned mine road. The mine is 

11/2 miles northeast along the abandoned road. The mine was operated for a short time around 1900 but yielded little graphite. 

There are two principal workings and many prospect pits scattered 

over a distance of about 1,200 feet along the north and west sides of 

a small hill. The eastern working is an opencut 40 feet long and 

20 feet in maximum height driven into the north slope of the hill 

about 25 feet above the old millsite. The western working is about 

1,000 feet from the old millsite, at the west end of the hill. It 

consists of two broad inclined openings 60 feet apart that open 

downward into opposite ends of a single partly flooded slope that 

is at least 50 feet deep at the north end.

Graphitic marble and silicated marble cut by pegmatite are exposed in the workings. The graphite content of these rocks varies 

erratically from 0 to as much as 20 percent, but the average grade 

is very low. Most of the graphite is in marble but no sizeable tonnage of material containing more than 1 percent graphite is indicated. Flake size varies from 0.1 to 5 mm.

Quartz veins containing scattered flakes of coarse graphite are 

found in several pits between the two workings.

Like the deposits of Lead Hill, those at Buck Mountain Pond 

appear too irregular in form and erratic in graphite content to be of 

any economic interest.

Dixon-American Graphite Co. mine. The Dixon-American Graphite Co. mine is in Warren County, 44/2 miles west of Lake George 

and a quarter of a mile west of the village of Graphite (fig. 27). 

It can be reached by car on State Route 8. The mine was operated continuously for over thirty years by the Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. Its total production is unknown, but it probably was the 

largest and most productive graphite mine in the State. There are 

two sets of workings (fig. 28). The main workings are about 900 

feet northwest of the highway. According to Ailing (1917, p. 45), 

a main haulageway was driven for nearly one-half mile southwestward along the strike of a southeastward-dipping bed of graphitic 

schist; stoping was done both up and down the dip from the haulageway. Stoping was carried downward to the southeast for as 

much as a quarter of a mile, where the graphitic bed was cut off 

by a fault. The southern workings, known as the Summer Pit, lie 

about 30 feet south of the highway and are an open pit that trends
± 

j 

FIGURE 28. Geologic map of Dixon-American Graphite Co. and Faxon mine 
290 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

N. 45° E. and is about 660 feet long. Inclines from the Summer 

Pit lead south, down the dip of the bed of graphitic schist worked, 

into an extensive series of stopes. The partly flooded stopes extend 

at least 100 feet down the dip from the opencut.

According to Ailing (1917, p. 40), the general geology and stratigraphic sequence of this locality are about the same as for all localities in the eastern Adirondacks where disseminated graphite deposits in schist occur. Ailing gives the following names and sequence of lithologic units of the Grenville series:

hock type Name

Para-amphibolite ________________ Beech Mountain amphibolite 

Graphite schist ________________ Bear Pond schist 

Sillimanite schist ________________ Catamount schist 

Limestone (marble) ______________________

Quartzite _____________________ Swede Pond quartzite 

Limestone (marble) ______________ Faxon limestone 

Graphite schist __________________ Dixon schist 

Garnet-sillimanite para-gneiss ________ Hague gneiss 

Syntectic rock _________________ Trumbull gneiss

The Dixon schist of Ailing (1917) is the graphitic bed worked 

at the Dixon-American Graphite Co. mine. According to Ailing 

(1917, p. 46), his Dixon schist consists of two layers of graphite 

quartz schist separated by garnet-sillimanite gneiss similar to the 

underlying Hague gneiss. The lower graphite layer, from 2% to 

15 feet thick, is the more important of the two on the property of 

the Dixon-American Graphite Co., and the Summer Pit is probably in the up-faulted segment of this layer. The layer consists of 

quartz, oligoclase-andesine, biotite, and graphite, with accessory pyrite, apatite, zircon, sphene, and tourmaline. According to Ailing 

(1917, p. 48), the graphite in the Dixon schist is almost always 

associated with biotite and commonly interleaved with biotite and, 

in places, with pyrite. The three minerals occur in bands parallel 

to the schistosity, but at the Dixon-American Graphite Co. mine 

the mica content is very low. The graphite content was reported 

by Ailing (1917, p. 49) as 5.2 to 7.8 percent, and the average flake 

diameter as 0.67 to 1.79 mm. Apart from scattered patches or lenses 

of pegmatitic material, the ore is remarkably uniform in grade.

As shown in figure 28, a fault runs between the main workings 

and the Summer Pit and is responsible for duplication of the outcrop of the bed. The main workings are partly terminated against 

this fault, and the segment of the graphitic bed worked in the 

Summer Pit must likewise terminate westward against the fault. 

The bed in the Summer Pit was shown by Ailing (1917) to be cut 

by still another fault near the west end of the pit.

In the Summer Pit the graphite layer is characterized by pinching and swelling due to movement along or subparallel to its upper
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 291

and lower contacts. These contacts are almost everywhere slickensided surfaces, and the original gradational contacts with overlying 

and underlying gneiss are shown only in a few places. The graphitic layer ranges from Zy2 to 9 feet in thickness, and much of this 

variation appears a consequence of movement. Similar relationships 

in the main workings have been reported, but Ailing gave the average thickness of the graphite bed there as 15 feet. /

Reserves remaining in this mine have not been clearly indicated 

in published information. Ailing estimated that reserves in the 

main mine in 1917 were small. The graphite bed may extend down 

dip from the workings of the Summer Pit, however, and reserves 

here may be very large.

Faxon property. The Faxon property joins that of the DixonAmerican Graphite Co. on the southwest, as shown in figure 28. 

There has been little mining, but the property was prospected and 

diamond drilled. Ailing showed an extension of the graphitic zone 

of the Dixon-American mine on his geologic map, and data from 

the diamond-drill holes indicate that the Dixon schist continues 

across the Faxon property (see Ailing, 1917, p. 43, 52). The upper 

graphite layer, with a thickness of 18 to 20 feet, apparently is the 

more important here. The lower layer is much thinner.

The Wheeler lot, which joins the Summer Pit on the south, was 

part of the Faxon property in 1918. The continuation in depth of 

the ore zone mined in the Summer Pit was explored by drilling, 

and a thickness of 151/2 feet of graphitic rock was intersected in one 

drill hole.

The Faxon property probably contains reserves much larger than 

those of the Dixon-American Graphite Co. property, and if the 

graphitic rock is of comparable richness, thickness, and continuity, 

future production from this area could probably be most easily won 

from the Faxon holdings. North Pond and Faxon Pond could furnish ample water for milling.

Rowland Graphite Co. mine. The Rowland Graphite Co. mine is 

about one-half mile east and 1 mile south of the village of Johnsburg, Warren County (fig. 27). The mine workings are about 300 

yards northwest of a farmhouse. The workings consist of an open 

pit 120 feet long and 15 to 20 feet wide that trends S. 86° W. An 

incline and other subsurface workings of unknown extent are below the west end of the pit (Ailing, 1917, p. 84). The underground 

workings are flooded.

The graphitic zone is a layer of quartz schist 7 feet thick that 

contains accessory feldspar, mica, and graphite. Ailing (1917, p. 

87) reported that the layer lies in the trough of a syncline. He 

calculated reserves at about 105,000 tons of rock containing an 

average of 5 percent graphite.

535373 O 60 7
292 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Hooper Bros.'1 mine. The Hooper Bros.' mine is 4 miles west of 

Whitehall in the Township of Dresden, Washington County. It 

can be reached by following a town road iy2 miles south along the 

west side of South Bay, Lake Champlain, then turning west and 

continuing 1 mile to the top of the hill. The mine property is onefourth mile to the south on the ridge crest; it is about 2,000 feet 

long and 1,000 feet wide (figs. 27, 29).

The main workings consist of an open pit, a nearly horizontal 

adit 150 feet long, and a small stoped area. There are also several 

small prospect pits. The adit is driven into the graphitic layer in 

a southwesterly direction but curves to the west within a distance 

of about 30 feet and becomes nearly parallel to the strike. It continues for 100 feet, then leads back to the surface along a small 

stope or incline 75 feet long.

The graphitic rock is quartz schist, with accessory feldspar and 

mica. The graphite forms an estimated 5 to 6 percent of the rock 

and occurs as disseminated flake with a maximum diameter of 2.5 

mm. In the main workings biotite is moderately abundant both as 

isolated flakes and as intergrowths with graphite.

Feldspar bands and lenses are found locally in the schist. Pyrite 

is present in minor amounts as scattered grains or as veinlets. The 

graphitic rock appears fairly uniform in grade, but there are local 

bands as much as 2 inches in thickness that are of lower grade. The 

footwall contact is not exposed, and in most places the hanging wall 

is inaccessible. The graphitic rock in the main workings is probably at least 15 feet thick.

The strike changes gradually from N. 43° W. at the south end of 

the property to N. 81° W. in the main workings, and the dip ranges 

from 22° to 27° south. No bedding-plane shearing was seen.

The mine is in the north or lower limb of an overturned isoclinal 

syncline (Ailing, 1917, p. 72). The axis of the fold is probably 

about one-quarter of a mile south-southeast of the mine. Erosion 

has removed most of the upper limb, and the graphitic layer pinches 

out along the strike to the west. That part of the lower limb that 

contains the thicker part of the graphitic layer is nearly flat-lying 

and appears to have no appreciable small-scale folding or faulting 

that might complicate further mining operations.

The property appears to contain large reserves, but the value of 

the ore may be affected by the abundant mica, which might be difficult to separate.

International Graphite Co. The International Graphite Co. mine 

is in Chester Township, Warren County, 3y2 miles west-northwest 

of Pottersville, 200 feet east of the junction of Trout and Alter 

Brooks (fig. 27). It can be reached by road. The property was
FietJRE 29. Geologic map of Hooper Bros, graphite mine, near Whitehall, Wa
294 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

worked for a few years beginning about 1898, but production was 

small.

Workings include an inclined shaft, a vertical shaft, a small open 

pit, and underground workings (Ailing, 1917, p. 80). At the time 

of the present writing the underground workings are not accessible, 

and the open pit is filled with debris. Exposures in the vicinity of 

the mine are poor, and the only indications of the rock mined are 

in the remains of a dump or ore pile near the old millsite and in 

scattered specimens near the open pit. The ore was apparently a 

quartz-feldspar-mica schist containing from 1 to 15 percent fairly 

coarse flake graphite. Pyrite is unusually abundant in the specimens examined. Coarse calcite marble and pegmatitic material were 

also seen. Both contain coarse-flake graphite. Ailing (1917, p. 81) 

reported that the graphitic zone was 18 to 30 feet thick but that its 

graphite content was very erratic because of redistribution related 

to the intrusion of pegmatite. He also stated that an abnormally 

high percentage of mica in the rock made milling and separation 

difficult and in part was responsible for abandonment of the property. The close proximity of a sizable stream, Trout Brook, made a 

great deal of pumping necessary to prevent flooding of the underground workings. The problem of handling so much water, the irregular distribution of the graphite, and the presence of abundant 

mica in the graphitic rock all- suggest that this property offers little 

promise for future production.

Lakeside mine. The Lakeside mine is 600 feet west of Lake 

George, behind the old Trout House at Hague, in Warren County 

(figs. 27, 30). It can be reached easily by a short walk up the hill 

from the end of a street that follows the old mine road.

The mine was opened some time before 1900 and was worked intermittently by the Joseph Dixon Co. for several years. The workings are much less extensive than those at Graphite, but a substantial tonnage was probably mined.

The workings consist of three nearly parallel adits, which extend north into the hillside along a graphitic bed (fig. 30). They 

are very nearly parallel to the surface of the ground, and the accessible parts of the lower two probably are within 25 feet of the 

surface. All three adits trend slightly down dip and consequently 

contain water too deep to allow access for more than about 150 feet 

from the entrances. The adits are connected by an irregular open 

pit cut into the graphitic layer.

The lower adit, which trends N. 33° W., can be entered for 200 

feet; only the upper 9 feet of the graphitic layer is exposed in it. 

The strike of the layers is N. 16° E., and the dip averages 20° W., 

with minor variations.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 295

The graphitic layer is a fine-grained weathered quartz schist containing 3 to 6 percent graphite and small amounts of altered feldspar. It is thin bedded and soft. The graphite is in disseminated 

flakes less than 1.5 mm in diameter. The upper 4 feet of graphite 

schist contains many thin siliceous bands that are remarkably continuous. The writers noted one 94-inch thick band that had no 

change in attitude or thickness for 75 feet. Similar siliceous bands 

constitute about 10 percent of the lower part of the graphite schist.

FIGURE 30. Sketch map of underground workings of Lakeside mine, Warren County, N.Y.

Shearing along the bedding planes is indicated by slickensided 

surfaces and gouge layers near the top of the schist. The shearing 

very closely parallels bedding wherever exposed. The thickness of 

the schist is apparently not affected.

The middle adit trends N. 28° W., is accessible for 175 feet, and 

continues for at least another 75 feet. The rock layers in general 

strike N. 24° E. and dip 30° W. The bedding is regular; a 2-inch 

thick quartzite band was traced without change or break from the 

portal to the limit of the accessible workings. The jointed and thin-
296 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

bedded hanging wall caves rather easily. It has covered the lower 

part of the drift with debris; only the upper 3 feet of the graphitic 

zone is exposed. This part of the graphite schist contains fewer 

quartzite bands than the corresponding part of the lower adit, and 

the schist appears to contain a higher percentage of graphite. The 

graphite content here was estimated to be 6 percent. Near the upper 

contact a weathered 6-inch layer that contains pyrite forms a pronounced zone of weakness.

The upper adit trends N. 6° W. and is accessible for 200 feet. Two 

inclines of unknown depth filled with fallen rock extend about 20 

and 60 feet, respectively, down to the west from the portal. Seventyfive feet from the portal an area about 100 by 50 feet has been 

stoped out up-dip along the adit. The southern part of this stope 

connects with the open pit at the surface, as indicated on the sketch 

map (fig. 30). This set of workings may be more extensive than 

the other two.

A total thickness of 12 feet of graphitic rock is exposed in the 

upper adit. The lower contact is not visible but is probably very 

close to the floor of the workings. This graphitic layer strikes N. 

'39° E. and dips 24° NW; it is more uniform in appearance and 

grade than the graphitic layer in the lower workings. It is a quartz 

schist containing an estimated 6 percent fine-flake graphite. Disseminated sulfides are present in small quantities, but the rocks here 

are in general less altered than those of the other workings.

Some shearing along bedding planes has taken place. A crushed 

zone 1 to 2 feet thick can be traced for 30 feet along the upper wall 

of the stope. The bedding is also crumpled badly, but there is no 

pinching and swelling of the graphitic zone as a result of shearing. 

The property appears to contain very large reserves, and no structural complications that might hamper mining are known. The 

average graphite content is apparently about 5 to 6X percent, and 

the graphitic zone is probably as much as 9 feet thick. The graphite 

flakes are small but not much smaller than those at the DixonAmerican mine at Graphite, and the schist is unusually low in mica. 

Crushing of the soft weathered schist in the lower and middle workings should be easy.

The Lakeside property would appear to be one of the more promising deposits in the Adirondacks.

Flake Graphite mme. The Flake Graphite (Empire) mine is 2*4 

miles west of Porter Corners in the Township of Greenfield, Saratoga County (fig. 27). It is 1*4 miles west of the end of a private 

road but can be reached along an abandoned mine road that continues west from the private road. The mine road and mine location are shown on the topographic map of the Saratoga quadrangle.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 297

The mine was worked between 1900 and 1918. Total production 

is unknown but was probably fairly large.

The workings consist of an open pit 200 feet long, 10 to 25 feet 

deep, and 20 to 40 feet wide. Two inclines extend down the dip of 

a layer of graphitic rock. One is caved, the other filled with water. 

Ailing (1917, p. 97) reported that they extend to a depth of 207 

feet. He also recorded a third incline, which has probably been 

covered by slumped material, along the wall of the open pit.

The rocks of the area are much the same as those associated with 

other schist deposits of the southern Adirondacks. The graphitic 

rock is a quartz-biotite-feldspar schist containing 4 to 8 percent fine 

flake graphite. Ailing (1917, p. 102) reported the biotite content 

as ranging from a trace to as much as 7 percent. The hanging wall 

is a quartz-feldspar schist that contains 10 to 20 percent bleached 

biotite. The footwall rocks are not exposed.

The graphitic schist is 14 feet thick where best exposed and is 

unusually uniform in appearance and grade. Ailing (1917, p. 98) 

stated that there is an upper graphitic zone 10 to 14 feet thick and 

below it another graphitic layer 4 to 5 feet thick separated from 

the upper layer by a 4-foot thickness of quartzite and thin-bedded 

limestone. The graphitic rock crops out along a belt extending 

for 1,500 feet west from the workings. The graphitic schist in the 

opencut strikes N. 86° W. to N. 66° W. and dips 30°-50° S. Slipsurfaces and gouge material were seen in a few places near the upper contact of the graphite layer. The displacement does not appear 

large, and the thickness of graphitic rock is unchanged.

Reserves available in this deposit may be large, but folding and 

invasion by metagabbro and granite have so complicated the structure that a substantial amount of exploration would be needed to 

determine the distribution and extent of the graphitic beds.

Sacandaga mine. The Sacandaga mine is 1*4 miles west of 

Conklingville, Saratoga County, and 1 mile west of the dam of 

Sacandaga Reservoir (fig. 27). The mine workings are one-fourth 

mile up the hill on the east side of a small valley that enters the 

valley of the Sacandaga River from the north.

The mine was opened in 1906 and operated intermittently until 

about 1916. Production was small.

The accessible workings consist of three open pits or trenches cut 

into the nose and upper (northeast) limb of a syncline. In the 

southern pit the graphitic rock has been removed for about 40 feet 

along the trough of the syncline. The strike of the beds on the 

southwest limb is west, and the dip is 36° N. The beds on the 

northeast limb strike N. 56° W. and dip 55° N. The trough of the 

fold plunges 20° N. 26° W. The rock enclosing the graphitic layer
298 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

is a quartz-mica-feldspar rock containing several thin bands of 

highly siliceous material. The graphitic rock has been entirely 

removed from the pit, and exposures at the ends of the pit are poor.

The middle pit, on the upper limb of the syncline, is about 40 

feet long. A water-filled adit or incline extends south from the 

south end of the pit for an unknown distance. The graphitic rock 

strikes N. 4° W., dips 48° NE., and ranges in thickness from 5 to 8 

feet; variations are due to shearing and folding along the hanging 

wall. The rock is a very thin bedded feldspathic schist, which contains quartz, mica, traces of pyrite, and not more than 4 or 5 percent graphite. The flakes are from 1 to 3 mm in diameter, and 

some layers are much lower in graphite content than others. Small 

local "patches" show intense folding and crumpling.

The north pit extends for about 60 feet along the upper limb of 

the syncline. The graphitic layer strikes N. 66° W. at the northwest end, but near the midpoint of the pit it bends rather sharply 

and at the south end strikes N. 1° W. It dips 75°-85° NE. Both 

of the contacts are slip surfaces, and movement along them causes 

pinching and swelling of the graphitic rock, with the result that the 

layer ranges from 6 to 9 feet in thickness.

The graphitic rocks are part of a syncline with nearly parallel 

limbs. This fold is overturned to the southwest and pitches to the 

northwest. Parts of the graphitic layer now exposed show a highly 

feldspathic schist, with quartz, mica, and an estimated 3 to 10 percent graphite. Ailing (191Y, p. 95), however, reported a "very rich 

zone" of graphite.

This property probably contains moderate reserves of graphitic 

rock, but there are several features that detract from its value. The 

structure is likely to hinder mining, and shearing along one or both 

contacts has produced irregularities in the thickness of the zone. 

The graphite content varies from place to place. The average 

graphite content is apparently 4 percent or less. The flakes average 

1 mm in diameter, about the same as those in other schist deposits 

in the region.

Bear Pond Mountain. Graphite deposits have been mined or 

prospected on the north, south, and west sides of Bear Pond Mountain (figs. 27, 31). They are more inaccessible than most of the 

other graphite mines in the region. To reach them follow a dirt 

road iy2 miles southwest from the town of Chilson, then walk li/2 

miles along the old mine road to Bear Pond. The Ely, Joan, and 

Eutoka prospects are south and southwest of Bear Pond. The Rock 

Pond mine is on the north shore of Rock Pond, and can be reached 

by a foot trail that parallels the east side of Bear Pond Mountain.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 299

 8

a X

its t
300 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Ailing (1917) showed that there are two separate deposits in the 

area. The Ely, Joan, and Eutoka prospects are on a graphitic schist 

bed, the Bear Pond schist, about 30 feet thick. Ailing described 

this as a quartz-feldspar-mica schist with accessory pyrite and 5.5 

to 6.5 percent graphite averaging 0.73 to 1.23 mm in diameter. The 

bed is folded into an isoclinal syncline and anticline, both plunging 

westward and both cut by cross-faults. Ailing estimated the tonnage as being large but pointed out that the steep attitude of the 

bed is unfavorable. In addition, the graphite is intergrown with 

biotite.

The Rock Pond mine was in a pyritic metamorphosed micaceous 

arkose containing 0.4 to 2.7 percent graphite in flakes averaging less 

than 0.66 mm in maximum diameter. The structure of the deposit 

was obscure even at the time of Alling's work, but he suggested that 

the mine is in a block of ore bounded by faults on all sides.

Graphite Products Corp. , mine. The Graphite Products Corp. 

mine is 3*4 miles north of Saratoga Springs, in Saratoga County. 

It is one-half mile west of U.S. Highway 9, in a small, narrow 

valley (fig. 27). An old mine road leads to the workings, but it is 

passable only to trucks or jeeps.

Ailing reported (1917, p. 105) that the mine was first worked in 

1910 by the Saratoga Graphite Co. It was later sold to the Graphite 

Products Corp., which did most of the mining. The mine was still 

in operation in 1917. From the extent of the exposed workings, this 

mine appears to have been one of the largest in the Adirondack area; 

it probably ranked second only to the Dixon-American Graphite Co. 

mine at Graphite.

The property has two sets of workings (fig. 32), on two roughly 

parallel belts of graphite schist that Ailing regarded as fault-segments of a single bed. The northern working is an open pit 250 

feet long, 20 to 80 feet wide, and at least 30 feet deep (Ailing, 

1917). The southern workings consist of an open pit 500 feet long 

with 14 inclines extending down the dip of the graphite schist to 

an unknown depth. Ailing reported that the inclines connect downward with drifts driven along the strike. The subsurface workings 

are now flooded.

The rock mined is a graphitic quartz schist with subordinate mica 

and feldspar. Ailing (1917, p. 107) determined the graphite content as nearly 8 percent. The flakes average less than 1 mm in 

diameter. The thickness of the bed is apparently between 15 and 

20 feet. The footwall is quartz schist interlayered with quartzite 

and biotite schist. The hanging wall is limestone. The graphite 

bed is injected in places by lenses and knots of pegmatitic material.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 301

Soil N.

Horizontal and vertical scale 

EXPLANATION

Pegmatite

Metagabbro

Para-amphibolite

Swede Pond quartzite*

\ Siliceous limestone

Graphitic quartz schist 

Dashed where inferred

Hague gneiss*

Hague gneiss* 

Inferred

Crystalline limestone

Contact

Dashed where inferred

Fault 

Approximately located

'Geologic names used 

by Ailing (1917)

FIOORB 32. Cross section of Graphite Products Corp. mine area and quarry, near Saratoga Springs, N.Y. After Ailing (1917).

Alling's interpretation of the structure is shown in figure 32. In 

the northern workings the graphitic schist in general strikes N. 81°- 

89° W. and dips 35°-40° S. In the southern workings the graphitic schist strikes N. 83°-85° E. and dips 35°-43° S. The bed is cut 

by a few vertical faults of small displacement that strike N. 43° E. 

West of the south working, diabase dikes cut across the outcrop of 

the graphitic schist (Ailing, 1917, p. 109).

Reserves of graphite in extensions of the graphitic bed along 

strike may be large, but exploration is needed to determine this.

Long Valley Ore Co. The Long Valley Ore Co. mine is in the 

Hammond quadrangle, Township of MacComb, in western St. Lawrence County, iy2 miles south of Pope Mills (fig. 12). The property is in the Grenville lowland area. The workings are on the 

north side of a valley, about 500 feet west of the highway.

This mine was first operated by the MacComb Graphite Co. in 

1906, but production at that time was only about 100 tons a year. 

It was also operated on a small scale in 1915, 1916, 1938, and 1939; 

in 1940 it was operated under lease by the Long Valley Ore Co. 

and in 1941 was under control of Charles Pettinos of New York 

(L. W. Currier and E. H. Jahns, written communication, 1942). 

At about this time the deposit was mapped and studied for the 

Geological Survey by Currier and Jahns.

The deposit consisted of a northward-trending body of graphitic 

schist and quartzite that was originally exposed along the southeast 

flank of a low ridge. The wall rocks include quartzites and feldspathic and calcareous quartz-rich rocks. An open pit has been
302 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

exacavated along the trend of .the graphitic rock for about 630 feet. 

The width of the pit ranges from 15 feet at the northeast end to 

60 feet near the center. In 1950 the pit was nearly filled with water, 

but Currier and Jahns (written communication, 1942) reported it 

to have a maximum depth of 40 feet below water level. Owing to 

flooding and to removal of most of the graphitic rock, the form and 

structure of the deposit are no longer clearly indicated. The northwest side of the cut shows vitreous, fairly coarse quartzite for about 

200 feet from the southwest end. From this point to the northeast 

end of the cut, the wall consists of layers of quartzite containing 

from a trace to as much as 20 percent graphite. These rocks in 

general strike about N. 84° E., but they vary markedly from place 

to place in dip, from about 50° SE. at the southwest end to 80° 

NW. at the northeast end.

The beds exposed in the pit are involved in a series of isoclinal 

folds and associated small-scale crumples. According to Currier and 

Jahns (written communication, 1942), the pattern of minor folds 

indicates that the deposit consisted of graphitic rocks lying on the 

southeast limb of an anticline. Exposures at the northeast end of 

the cut suggest, however, that the graphitic rocks mined in this part 

of the deposit lay along the trough of an open, nearly upright syncline, the limbs of which are complicated by minor folding.

Little of the high-grade graphitic rock remains above water level. 

A few thin bands exposed along the footwall contain an estimated 

15 to 20 percent extremely fine flake graphite. The rock mined was 

reported to have run 20 to 30 percent graphite, all very fine grained. 

It was concentrated to about 85 percent graphite and sold chiefly as 

foundry-facing material. Production figures are not available. 

Currier and Jahns estimated that about 25,000 tons of graphitic 

rock remained at the time of their study, but much of this has since 

been mined. All buildings have been taken down. The property 

does not appear to offer much promise of further production.

APPRAISAL OF GRAPHITE DEPOSITS OF THE ADIRONDACK AREA

Graphite deposits of possible commercial interest in the Adirondack area are all of the so-called schist type. These have several 

features in common that probably account for the lack of exploitation at present. Among these are small flake size, relatively high 

mica content, and the necessity of subsurface mining. In addition, 

most of the graphitic rock is fresh and hard and would be expensive to crush. The graphite properties of Pennsylvania and Alabama have a more favorable competitive position because they contain 

much graphitic rock that is soft and can be mined by inexpensive 

open-pit methods. Activity rin the Adirondack area might conceiv-
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 303

ably be stimulated, however, if it could be shown that graphite 

satisfactory for lubricating flake and for carbon-bonded crucibles 

can be produced.

The reserves of graphitic rock in the Adirondack area are probably large. Ailing (1917, p. 140) estimated that reserves in the 

Hooper Bros., Faxon, Flake Graphite, and Graphite Products Corp. 

properties alone are between 10 and 13 million tons of ore.

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STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 305

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306 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

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v. 9, pt. 2, p. 171-266. 

Ferguson, H. G., 1917, Graphite in 1916: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources

U.S., 1916, pt. 2, p. 43-59. Gives a detailed description of Clay and Coosa

Counties, Ala.

 1921, Graphite in Alabama Geological Survey statistics of the mineral 

production of Alabama, 1918. Tuscaloosa, .Alabama Univ. Gives a few 

analyses, some simple tests, crucible heats; lists producing mines. See 

also statistics for 1914-17, 1920.

Fitzgerald, F. J., 1902, The conversion of amorphous carbon to graphite: 

Franklin Inst. Jour., v. 154, p. 321-348.

 1905, The Ruthenburg and Acheson furnaces: Electrochem. Metall.

Industry, v. 3, p. 416-417. 

Ford, R. B., 1954, Occurrence and origin of the graphite deposits near Dillon,

Montana: Econ. Geology, v. 49, p. 31-43. 

Frazer, Persifor, Jr., 1881, Relation of the graphite deposits of Chester County,

Pa., to the geology of the rocks containing them: Am. Inst. Mining Metall.

Engineers Trans., v. 9, p. 730-733.

 1883, Geological notes in the several townships of Chester County: 

Pennsylvania Geol. Survey, 2d Ann. Rept. C-4, p. 215-345.

Frolich, Werner, 1932, Graphite for crucibles: Chem.-Zeitung, v. 56, p. 809- 

810. Comparison of graphite from different sources, reasons for differences.

Gale, H. S., 1910, Supposed graphite deposits near Brigham, Utah: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 430-J, pt. 1, p. 639-640.

Ganrud, B. W., Coe, G. D., Benfleld, C. S., and Skelton, I. N., 1934, The flotation of Alabama graphite ores: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 3225, 20 p.

Gaylord, W. M., 1953, Carbon and graphite: Indus. Eng. Chemistry, v. 45, 

p. 2182-2183.

Glasnapp, M., 1912, Die Alibert Graphitgruben in Siberen: Riga Industrie 

Zeitung, April 30, p. 123.

Grandedier, G., 1915, L'lndustrie mine'rale a Madagascar: Rev. g£n. sci., v. 26, 

p. 643, Paris.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 307

Griffin, R. H., 1951, Structure and petrography of the Hillabee Sill and associated metarnorphics of Alabama: Alabama Geol. Survey Bull. 63, 74 p.

Gruender, W., 1948, Tiber Bergbau und Aufbereitung von Graphite in Suedenboehmen: Zeitschr. Erzbergbau u. Metallmettenwesen, v. 1, p. 109-112. 

Discussion of deposits in southern Czechoslovakia.

Grundlung, F., 1900, Uber die Mineralvorkoinmen von Ceylon: Zeitschr. Kryst, 

v. 33, p. 220-229.

Gupta, B. C., 1949, Graphite: Indian Minerals, v. 3, no. 1, p. 17-31.

Gwinn, G. R,, 1943, Graphite natural and manufactured: U.S. Bur. Mines 

Inf. Circ. 7266, 26 p.

 1949, Graphite: Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 2d ed., Am. Inst. Mining Metall. Engineers, p. 417-435.

 1957, Graphite for manufacture of crucibles: Am. Inst. Mining Metall.

Engineers Trans., v. 173, p. 583-586. 

Hader, R. N., Gamson, B. W., and Bailey, B. L., 1954, Graphite electrodes:

Indus. Eng. Chemistry, v. 46, p. 2-11. 

Haenig, A., 1911, The application of graphite to the production of crucibles for

melting metals: Brass World, v. 7, p. 307-312. Abstract from German

monograph "Der Graphite"; gives excellent summary of qualities necessary in crucible manufacture. 

Hall, C. E., 1881, The geology of Philadelphia County and of the southern part

of Montgomery and Bucks: Pennsylvania Geol. Survey 2d Ann. Rept.

C-6, 145 p. 

Hashimoto, Seiji, 1950, On the nickel-bearing and graphite deposit at Oshirabetsu, Tokachi Province: Hokkaido Univ. Faculty Sci. Jour., set. 4, v. 7,

no. 3, Sapporo, Japan. 

Hatch, M. C. M., 1916, Graphite in locomotive valve chambers and cylinders:

Ry. Mech. Eng., v. 90, p. 118-119. 

Hayes, C. W., and Phalen, W. C., 1908, Graphite deposits near Cartersville,

Georgia: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 340-M, pt. 1, p. 463^65. 

Haynes, G. H., 1901, The tale of Tantiusque, an early mining venture: Am.

Antiq. Soc. Proc., ann. mtg., Oct. 31: reviewed in U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources U.S., 1913, pt. 2. Describes the first mining venture in the

United States. 

Heindl, R. A., 1952, Foundry crucible service life: Am. Foundrynmn, y. 22, p.

40-43. 

Heindl, R. A., and Mohler, N. F., 1955, Oxidation studies of some natural

graphites: Am. Ceramic Soc. Jour., v. 38, p. 89-94. 

Heinrich, E. W., 1949a, Pegmatite minerals in Montana: Montana School

Mines Mem. 28, p. 32-36.

 1949b, Pegmatites in Montana: Econ. Geology, v. 44, p. 307-334. 

Heinsch, W., 1911, A new mode of formation of graphite [abs.]: Jour. Soc.

Chem. Industry, v. 30, p. 488. English abstract from Monatscheft Chemie,

v. 32, p. 229-235. Describes graphite formed in brick and pottery pores

after a few centuries, 

Herr, Irving, 1917, Clay County graphite district of Alabama: Eng. Mining

Jour., v. 103, p. 693-697. 

Hess, F. L., 1909, Graphite mining near La Colorado, Sonora, Mexico: Eng.

Magazine, v. 38, p. 36-48. 

Hoffman, M. K., 1927, A carbon crucible stable at very high temperatures:

Zeitschr. Elektrochemie agnew. phys. Chem., v. 33, p. 200-202. Graphite

coated with A12O3 was stable at 2,000° for 2 hours.

535373 O 60 8
308 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Hopkins, T. C., 1898, Descriptions of graphite properties near Chester Springs, 

Chester County, Pa.: Mineral Industry, v. 3. Describes Pettinos and 

other mines.

 1899, Description of the occurrences of graphite in Berks County, Pa.: 

Mineral Industry, v. 8, p. 350.

 1901, Graphite and garnet: Mines and Minerals, v. 21, p. 352.

Hornaday, W. D., 1912, The Santa Maria graphite mines, Mexico: Mining 

Eng. World, v. 37, p. 1041-1043.

Hubler, W. G., 1924, Concentrating graphite in southern California: Eng. 

Mining Jour., v. 125, p. 1059-1060.

Hyde, F. S., 1900, Discussion of assay of graphite by blast and fusion: Mineral Industry, v. 9, p. 380-383.

 1907, On some characteristics of natural graphite: Minera^ Industry, 

v. 16, p. 574-575.

 1908, Some characteristics of natural graphite: Eng. Mining JOUF., v.

85, p. 255-256.

Ihne, F. W., 1908, General discussion of graphite and graphite mining: Mineral Industry, v. 17, p. 489-497.

 1909a, Graphite in the South: Manufacturers' Rec., v. 54, p. 134-138.

 1909b, Graphite in the United States: Min. Sci., v. 60, p. 297-298. 

Jamison, C. E., 1911, Mineral resources of Wyoming: Wyoming State Geol.

Bull. 1, ser. B, p. 34. 

Jenny, W. P., 1903, The chemistry of ore deposition: Am. Inst. Mining Metall.

Eng. Trans., v. 33, p. 455-457.

Johnson, Helgi, 1941, Graphite prospects Chester Springs, Pa.: New Brunswick, N.J., Rutgers Univ., 11 p. 

Jones, R. W., 1916, Graphite industry in New York: Eng. Mining Jour., v.

102, p. 773. 

Jones, W. B., 1929, Summary report on graphite in Alabama: Alabama Geol.

Survey Circ. 9, 27 p., Tuscaloosa, Alabama Univ.

Judd, E. K., 1906, Graphite Pennsylvania: Mineral Industry, v. 14, p. 311. 

Kalb, W. C., editor, 1946, Carbon, graphite, and metal-graphite brushes: National Carbon Co., 115 p. 

Kemp, J. F., 1904, Graphite in the eastern Adirondacks, New York: U.S. Geol.

Survey Bull. 225, p. 512-514. 

Knight, C. L., 1946, Graphite: Australian Min. Res. Survey Summ. Rept. 5,

23 p. 

Knight, W. C., 1893, Geology of the Wyoming experimental farms, and notes

on the mineral resources of the State: Wyoming Expt. Sta. Bull. 14, p.

103-213. 

Kupletskii, B. M., 1926, A petrographic sketch of the Alibert graphite deposits:

Contr. Study Nat. Resources U.S.S.R., no. 55, p. 41-92. 

Ladoo, R. B., 1925, Nonmetallic minerals; occurrence, preparation, utilization:

New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 686 p. 

Lamb, F. D., and Irving, D. R., 1955, Graphite: U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 556,

lip. 

Lang, A., 1917, Oxidation products of various graphites [abs.]: Chem. Abs.,

v. 11, p. 1611. 

Laplaine, Louis, 1950, Etude ge"ologique des feuilles Moramanga Brickaville:

Madagascar, Bur. Geol. Travaux 14, 93 p. Processed; illustrated. 

Lavilla, L., 1923, Graphite: First Commercial Fair, Tananarive, Madagascar.

Pamphlet.
309

Law, E. S., 1906, Notes on useful minerals: Mineral Collector, v. 12, p. 169-

173, 180-184. 

Lee, W. T., 1913, Graphite near Raton, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.

530-L, p. 371-374.

Levingston, K. R., 1953, "Graphite Consolidated" mine, Collinsville: Queensland Govt. Mining Jour., v. 54, no. 615, p. 50-52.

Lincoln, F. C., 1907, Magmatic emanations: Econ. Geology, v. 2, p. 258-274. 

Linnell, L., 1917, Treating boiler scale with graphite: Elec. Rev., v. 71, p.

776-777. 

Long, G. E., 1918, Ceylon vs. Alabama graphite: Eng. Mining Jour., v. 105,

p. 884. A protest against embargoes. States only 15-25 percent American

graphite, mixed with Ceylon graphite, can be used for crucibles. 

Lyon, D. A., 1921, The work of the ceramic station of the Bureau of Mines

at Columbus, Ohio, in behalf of the ceramic industry: U.S. Bur. Mines

Rept. Inv. 2212, 9 p. 

McCalley, Henry, 1897, Report on the valley regions of Alabama: Alabama

Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 862 p., Montgomery. 

McCallie, S. W., 1910, A preliminary report on the mineral resources of

Georgia: Georgia Geol. Survey Bull. 23, p. 110. 

McLaren, D. C., 1943, Concentration of flake graphite ores: Mining Mag., v.

69, no. 2, p. 73-76.

 1945, Black Donald graphites: Canadian Mining Jour., v. 66, p. 763-772.

McNaughton, M., 1917, The crucible situation: Am. Inst. Metals Jour., v. 11, 

p. 208-212. Describes problems in using domestic clay and graphite.

Maberg, C., 1916, Lubrication with oils and with colloidal graphite: Jour. 

Indus. Chemistry, Sept. 13, p. 717-723.

Mackles, L., Heindl, R. A., and Mong, D. E., 1953, Chemical analyses, surface 

area, and thermal reactions of natural graphite, and refractoriness of the 

ashes: Am. Ceramic Soc. Jour., v. 36, p. 266-272.

May, J. W., 1917, Llano County graphite, its formation and uses: Texas Mineral Resources Bull., September, p. 4.

Meeks, Reginald, 1908, Discussion of market for graphite: Mineral Industry, 

v. 17, p. 497-500.

Menardi, H. B., 1928, Modern flotation plant for graphite: Rock Products, v. 

31, no. 18, p. 74.

Millar, W. T., and Sanford, R. S., 1949, Investigation of Suffern graphite deposits, Rockland County, New York: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 4438, 6 p.

Miller, B. L., 1894-1917, Graphite: Mineral Industry, 1893, v. 2, p. 335-342; 

1897, v. 6, p. 387-390; 1898, v. 7, p. 382-387; 1899, v. 8, p. 348-352; 1900, 

v. 9, p. 378-383; 1901, v. 10, p. 367-373; 1902, v. 11, p. 343-353; 1903, v. 

12, p. 183-187; 1905, v. 14, p. 311-312; 1907, v. 16, p. 567-575; 1908, v. 17, 

p. 488-500; 1909, v. 18, p. 384-390; 1911, v. 19, p. 345-349; 1912, v. 20, 

p. 378-384; 1913, v. 21, p. 427-439; 1914, v. 22, p. 361-371; 1915, v. 23, p. 

371-382; 1916, v. 24, p. 356-364; 1917, v. 25, p. 369-380. Annual volumes 

compiled by Engineering and Mining Journal.

 1912, Graphite deposits of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Topog. and 

Geol. Survey Rept. 6, 147 p. Detailed descriptions of Pennsylvania deposits, mining methods.

 1933, Survey of the world graphite situation: Mining Metall. Soc. 

America Bull., v. 26, p. 101-112.

 1937, Graphite: Industrial minerals and rocks, Am. Inst. Mining Metall. 

Engineers, p. 333-352.
310 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Miller, W. J., 1914, Geology of the North Creek quadrangle, Warren County, 

N.Y.: New York State Mus. Bull. 170, p. 12-14, 25, 82-83.

Mills, F. S., 1908, The economic geology of northern New York: Eng. Mining Jour., v. 85, p. 306-308, 397. Description of a graphite deposit in 

Macomb Township, St. Lawrence County.

Mills, J. C., 1908, The graphite mines of Santa Maria [Mexico]: Mines and 

Minerals, v. 29, p. 98-100.

Moffit, F. H., 1907, The Nome region: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 314-G, p. 139-140.

 1913, Geology of the Nome and Grand Central quadrangles, Alaska:

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 533, p. 135-136.

Morgan, P. G., 1919, Graphite in New Zealand: New Zealand Jour. Sci. Technology, v. 11, no. 3, p. 198-209. 

Moses, F. G., 1918, Refining Alabama flake for crucible use: U.S. Bur. Mines

War Minerals Inv., ser. 8, 11 p. 

Murphy, J. R., 1949, Use of graphite in metal-finishing operations: Metal

Finishing, v. 47, no. 3, p. 51-55.

Nason, F. L., 1899, Geological studies of the Archean rocks: New Jersey Geologist Ann. Rept, p. 27-29, 64-65. 

Needham, A. B., 1946, Mining and milling operations of Southwestern Graphite

Co., Burnet County, Tex.: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 7339, 9 p. 

Newland, D. H., 1904-1913, The mining and quarry industry of New York

State: New York State Mus. Bull. 93, 102, 112, 120, 132, 142, 161, 166, and

179. Annual production statistics; mine descriptions. 

Nicholas, F. C., 1908, A novel graphite-washing plant: Mining World, v. 28,

p. 18. Describes Empire Graphite Co. plant at Saratoga Springs, N.Y. 

Ogilvie, I. H., 1905, Geology of the Paradox Lake quadrangle, New York:

New York State Mus. Bull. 96, p. 461-508. 

Osann, A., 1899, Two Canadian occurrences of graphite: Canada Geol. Survey

Ann. Rept., new ser., v. 12, p. 66-82. 

Otte, Herman, 1944, The expanding mineral industry of the Adirondacks:

Albany, New York Dept. of Commerce, p. 47. 

Paige, Sidney, 1911, Mineral resources of the Llano-Burnet region, Texas:

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 450, p. 77-81.

 1912, Description of the Llano and Burnet quadrangles [Texas]: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 183, 16 p.

Pallister, H. D., 1948, Mineral resources of Alabama and her economic position 

among the States: Alabama Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 20, 6 p.

Pallister, H. D., and Smith, R. W., 1945, Alabama flake graphite in World 

War II: Am. Inst. Mining Metall. Engineers Trans., v. 173, p. 480-490.

Pallister, H. D., and Thoenen, J. R., 1948, Flake graphite and vanadium investigation in Clay, Coosa, and Chilton Counties, Ala.: U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. 

Inv. 4366, 84 p.

Paredes, Trinidad, 1920, El carbon y graphita del Estado de Sonora: Bol. 

Minero, Sec. de Ind. Com. y Trabajo, u. 9, nos. 5 and 6, p. 608-613. Describes location, character of products; gives analyses.

Parsons, C. S., 1928, The concentration of flake-graphite ores: Canadian 

Mining Jour., v. 19, no. 39, p. 778-781.

Paterson, J. N., 1942, Mining plumbago in Ceylon: Compressed Air Mag., v. 47, 

no. 6, p. 6756-6759.

Pavlov, M. A., 1926, Graphite deposits in the Russian Far East: Geol. Com. 

Russian Far East Ann. Rept., supp. 4; Vladivostbck, Geol. Com. Russian 

Far East Recs., no. 50, p. 48-50. In Russian.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 311

Perry, E. S... 1948, Talc, graphite, and vermiculite in Montana: Butte, Mont.,

Bur. Mines and Geol., School of Mines, 44 p. 

Petraschek, W., 1927, Austrian graphite and its sources: Eng. Mining Jour.,

v. 123, p. 568. 

Pettinos, Charles, 1912, Mining and sorting graphite in far-off India: Foundry,

v. 40, p. 315-319. 

Porter, B. H., 1943, Forms and uses of graphite (natural, electric furnace,

powdered, and colloidalized graphite) : Canadian Chem. Process Industries,

v. 27, no. 3, p. 132-133. 

Pratt, J. H., 1902, The mining industry in North Carolina during 1901: North

Carolina Geol. Survey Econ. Paper 6, 102 p. See also Papers 4, 7, 8, 9,

11, and 14.

 1904, Graphite: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources U.S., 1903, pt. 2, 

p. 1121-1129. Se also Mineral Resources U.S., 1904, pt. 2, p. 1157-1167. 

Describes process for manufacture of artificial graphite.

Prouty, W. F., 1917a, Extent and development of the flake graphite resources 

of Alabama: Manufacturers' Rec., v. 71, no. 16, p. 66-67.

 1917b, Flake graphite in Alabama; its location, its history, and its 

value to the State: Birmingham Age-Herald, Jan. 28.

 1917c, Geology and distribution of graphite in Alabama: Alabama 

Geol. Survey Bull. 19, 29 p.

 1919, Crystalline graphite deposits of Alabama [abs.]: Geol. Soc. 

America Bull. 30, p. 112-113.

 1923, Geology and mineral resources of Clay County, Ala., with special

reference to the graphite industry: Alabama Geol. Survey County Rept. 1,

190 p. 

Ramachandra, M. B. Rao, 1948, Notes on geophysical prospecting f-or graphite

near Mavinahalli, Mysore district [India]: Mysore Geol. Dept. Recs.,

v. 44, p. 59-72. Method did not prove successful. 

Redfleld, A. H., 1922, Foreign graphite in 1919: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral

Resources U.S., 1919, pt. 2, p. 81-86. 

Rice, W. N., and Gregory, H. E., 1906, Manual of the geology of Connecticut:

Connecticut Geol. Survey Bull. 6, p. 127. 

Richards, J. W., 1902, The electrochemical industries of Niagara Falls, The

International Acheson Graphite Co.: Electrochem. Industry, p. 52-54.

Detailed description of manufacturing process. 

 1911, What electrochemistry is accomplishing: Smithsonian Inst. Ann.

Rept., 1911, p. 165. 

Ries, Heinrich, 1947, Economic geology: New York, John Wiley and Sons,

p. 283. 

Rogers, H. D., 1840: Pennsylvania Geol. Survey, 4th Ann. Rept., Harrisburg,

Pa., p. 14.

Rowe, J. P., 1908, Graphite deposits in Montana: Mining World, v. 28, p. 839. 

Rowe, R. C., 1920, Concentration of graphite ores, past and present: Canadian

Mining Jour., v. 41, no. 3, p. 676-679. 

Ruhl, F. F., 1949, Carbon-graphite parts: Production Eng., v. 20, no. 2, p. 81-85.

Descriptions and applications of molded carbon-graphite bearings. 

Rynearson, G. A., 1945, Graphite deposits in Siskiyou County, Calif.: U.S.

Geol. Survey Inf. Service, Nov. 29, 1 p. 

Ryschkewitsch, Eugen, 1939, The combustibility of certain graphites: Chem.

Zeitung, v. 63, p. 21-23, 43-44. Experiments on various graphites show

coarse flake is more resistant to burning. Glazing greatly reduces combustion rates.
312 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Sanderson, L., 1943, Graphite and some of its applications: Metallurgica, v. 28,

no. 166, p. 185-186.

Sanford, R. S., and Lamb, T. D., 1949, Investigation of the Benjamin Franklin (Gov't owned) and the Just graphite mines, Chester County, Pa.: U.S.

Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 4530, 17 p.

Savanorin, Andre, 1935, Graphite and mica: Rev. Madagascar, no. 11, p. 7-31. 

Sellards, E. H., 1930, Graphite: Austin, Texas Bur. Econ. Geology, Mineral

Resources Circ. 1, 8 p. 

Seymore, John, 1952, A Ceylon graphite mine: Mine Quarry Eng., March,

p. 85-87. The only new and reasonably detailed description of a Ceylon

mine found.

Shannon, E. V., 1926, The minerals of Idaho: U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 131, 483 p. 

Shelley, J. W., 1916, Graphite in Madagascar: Mining Magazine, v. 14, p. 324-

330, London.

Smith, E. A., 1902, Graphite in Alabama: Mineral Industry, v. 16, p. 567-568. 

Smith, E. A., and McCalley, Henry, 1904, Index to the mineral resources of

Alabama: Alabama Geol. Survey, p. 59. 

Smith, G. O., 1906a, Graphite in Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 2850, p. 480-

483.

 1906b, Graphite: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources U.S., 1905, pt. 2, 

p. 1265-1269. See also Mineral Resources U.S., 1907, pt. 2, p. 1139-1143.

Smith, P. S., 1908, Investigations of the mineral deposits of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 345-E, p. 250.

 1909, Recent developments in the southern Seward Peninsula, Alaska:

U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 379-F, p. 300-301. 

Smith, R. W., and White, W. S., 1942, Flake-graphite deposits in Clay, Coosa,

and Chilton Counties, Ala.: U.S. Bur. Mines War Minerals Rept. 15, 8 p. 

Spatzek, H., and Frank, G., 1956( Austrian graphite miners use new chemical

and flotation methods: Mining World, v. 18, p. 56-59. 

Spearman, Charles, 1919, The graphite industry: Canadian Mining Jour., v. 40,

p. 87-88. See also v. 41, p. 498-500. 

Spence, H. S., 1920, Graphite: Canada Dept. Mines Bull. 511, 202 p. Excellent

detailed survey of the graphite industry. Descriptions of Canadian deposits. Bibliography. 

Standish, Alfred, 1908, The electric furnace, p. 142-149. Good summary of

principles and processes in manufacturing artificial graphite. 

Stansfield, John, 1912, Certain mica, graphite, and apatite deposits of the

Ottawa Valley: Canada Geol. Survey Summ. Rept. 1911, p. 280-285.

 1913a, On the origin of graphite: Canadian Mining Inst, v. 16, p. 401- 

411. Description of Buckingham, Ontario, deposits, conclusion that they 

are of igneous origin.

 1913b, Mineral deposits of the Ottawa district: Canada Geol. Survey 

International Geol. Gong. Guidebook 3, p. 101-111. Descriptions of Walker 

and Dominion mines.

Steiger, George, 1915, Analyses of rocks and minerals from the laboratory of 

the U.S. Geol. Survey, 1880 to 1914: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 591, p. 40.

Stonier, G. A., 1904, Graphite mining in Ceylon and India: Inst. Mining Engineers Trans., v. 27, p. 536-545.

Struthers, Joseph, 1903, Graphite Pennsylvania: Mineral Industry, v. 11, 

p. 347-348.

Stull, R. T., 1919, Behavior under brass foundry practice of crucibles containing Ceylon, Canadian, and Alabama graphite: Am. Ceramic Soc. Jour., 

v. 2, p. 208-226.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 313

Stull, R. T., and Bole, G. A., 1923, Graphite for steel-melting crucibles: U.S. 

Bur. Mines Kept. Inv. 2512, 12 p.

Stull, R. T., and Schurecht, H. G., 1919, On briquetting graphite: Am. Ceramic 

Soc. Jour., v. 2, p. 391-399.

Stutzer, 0., Wetzel, W., and Himmelbauer, A., 1933, Die wichtigsten Lagerstatten der "Nicht Erze": Berlin, v. 5, p. 98-202. Comprehensive description of European occurrences.

Thiessen, Reinhardt, 1919, Structure of graphite in relation to crucible making: 

Am. Ceramic Soc. Jour., v. 2, p. 508-542. Excellent discussion of physical 

properties; photomicrograph illustrations.

Thomas, P. W., 1914, Making anthracite culm piles pay a big dividend: Black 

Diamond, Oct. 17, p. 302. Waste used in manufacture of artificial graphite.

Thompson, P. D., 1929, Import duties on mica and graphite entering the United 

States: Kept, of American Vice Consul, Tananarive, Madagascar, Aug. 1, 

14 p.

Thomson, William, 1930, Methods of treating Madagascar graphite: Eng. 

Mining Jour., v. 130, p, 4-6.

Tilley, C. E., 1921, The graphite rocks of Sleaford Bay, South Australia: 

Econ. Geology, v. 16, no. 3, p. 184-198.

Tone, F. J., 1916, Electric furnace development at Niagara Falls: Mining 

World, May 13.

Townsend, C. P., 1901, The artificial production of graphite: Elec. World Engineer, v. 37, p. 546-550. Excellent review of methods, including chemistry.

Townsend, W. P., 1839, A report on the minerals of Chester County that are 

used in the arts: Read before the West Chester Lyceum, West Chester, 

Pa., May 30, 10 p.

Trillo-Figueroa, A. C., 1918, Grafitos de la provincia de Huelva: Rev. miner a 

metall. y ingeniera, v. 69, p. 215-217. Discussion of milling methods, possible use of graphite as catalyst in fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

Tyler, P. M., 1929a, Graphite. General information: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. 

Circ. 6118, 45 p.

 1929b, Graphite domestic and foreign: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 6122, 

25 p.

 1929c, Graphite utilization: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 6123, 20 p.

 1929d, Graphite status of American industry: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf.

Circ. 6124, 14 p. 

 1941, Graphite-marketing: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 7177, 12 p.

Udden, J. A., 1916, Review of the geology of Texas: Texas Univ. Bull. 44,

p. 32, 102, 142. 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1924-1931, Mineral Resources of the United States.

Annual volumes.

 1934-1954, Minerals Yearbook. Annual volumes. 

U.S. Geological Survey, 1883-1923, Mineral Resources of the United States.

Annual volumes. 

U.S. Patent 1,620,940. "In forming conduits or receptacles, artificial graphite

is used, and is repeatedly impregnated with asphalt and baked to fill the

voids of the graphite."

Vanuxem, Lardner, 1825, Experiments on anthracite, plumbago, etc.: Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., ser. 1, v. 5, pt. 1, p. 17-27. 

Venkateswarlu, D., 1944, Refining of Indian graphite for dry cell production:

Indian Chem. Soc., India and news ed., v. 7, p. 96.
314 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Veselovskii, V. S., Pertsov, V. N., and Lyutin, L. V., 1935, The technology of 

graphite: All-Union Sci. Research Inst. Econ. Mineralog. U.S.S.R. Trans. 

78, 179 p. English summary. Exhaustive review; many references on 

theory and methods of production, uses.

Vosburgh, F. J., 1941, Uses of carbon and gi-aphite: Steel, v. 109, no. 11, p. 66, 

68, 176-179.

Wadia, D. N., 1943, A brief account of the mineralogy of graphite deposits 

of Ceylon a note on the origin of graphite: Ceylon Recs. Dept. Mineralogy Prof. Paper 1, p. 15-24, Colombo, Ceylon Govt. Press.

Wagner, P. A., 1916, Graphite-bearing xenoliths from the Jagersfontein diamond 

mines: Geol. Soc. South Africa Trans., v. 19, p. 54-56.

Walcott, C. D., 1899, Precambrian fossiliferous formations: Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., v. 10, p. 227.

Walker, J. A., 1906, The manufacture and use of lead pencils: Graphite 

Tradesman, Aug. "15, Joseph Dixon Crucible Co.

Ward, L. K., and Jack, R. L., 1918, Report on the Graphite-bearing deposit in 

section 2AE2, Hundred of Ule Eyre's Peninsula: South Australia Dept. 

Mines Mining Rev. no. 28, p. 36-43.

Watson, T. L., 1907, Mineral resources of Virginia: Jamestown Exposition 

Committee, p. 188-190.

Wayland, R., 1951, The graphite of the Passan area, Bavaria: Amer. Inst. 

Mining Metall. Engineers Trans., v. 190, p. 166-172.

Weinschenk, E., 1900, Zur Kenntniss der Graphitlagerstatten, 3, Die Graphitlagerstatten der Insel Ceylon: Zeitschr. prakt. Geologic, Akad. d. Wiss., 

pt. 2, cl. 21, p. 281-335.

 1901, Me'moire ur Fhistoire g6ologique Internationale, v. 1, p. 447-457. 

Author concludes origin of graphite is from igneous action decomposing 

hydrocarbons.

 1903, Welters Beobachtungen uber die Bildung des Graphites, speziell

mit Bezug auf dem Metamorphisms der Alpinen Graphitlagerstatten:

Zeitschr. prakt. Geologic, v. 9, p. 1624. 

White, David, 1908, Some problems in the formation of coal: Econ. Geology,

v. 3, p. 298. Suggests igneous origin of Precambrian graphite. 

Wiard, E. S., 1917, Grading of graphite, gunpowder, and malt: Metall. Chem.

Eng., v. 16, p. 654-655. 

Wilson, M. E., 1916, The mineral deposits of the Buckingham map area, Que-

.bec: Canadian Mining Inst. Trans., v. 19, p. 349-370. 

Wilson, M. E., 1920, Mineral deposits of the Ottawa Valley: Canada Geol.

Survey, Summ. Rept. 1919, p. 19-44. 

Winchell, A. V., 1911a, A theory for the origin of graphite as exemplified by

the graphite deposit near Dillon, Montana: Econ. Geology, v. 6, p. 218-230. 

 1911b, Graphite near Dillon, Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 470-K,

p. 528-532. 

Winter, L. L., and Alexander, F. L., 1948, New graphite developments for

electronic applications: Elec. Manufacturing, v. 41, no. 1. 

Yates, R. F., 1916, Combining graphite with alloys in the manufacture of

self-lubricating metal: Sci. Am., v. 115, p. 318-319. 

Zemanek, R. J., 1942, Amorphous graphite in open hearth: Steel, v. 3, no. 20,

p. 98, 99, 101; no. 21, p. 86, 87, 89. 

Ziegler, V., 1914, The minerals of the Black Hills: South Dakota School of

Mines Bull. 10, p. 45.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 315

Zimraerman, Maurice, 1920, La production du graphite dans le monde: Ann.

G<5ol., Ann<5e 160, v. 29, p. 304, 306. 

Anonymous, 1906, Varieties of Ceylon graphite and their uses: Imperial Inst.

Bull., v. 4, no. 4, p. 355-360, London.

: 1907, Ceylon graphite and its uses: Imperial Inst. Bull., v. 5, no. 1, 

p. 17-88, London.

 1912, The proper handling of graphite crucibles: Mech. World, Aug. 12, 

p. 106.

 1936, Nonmetallic mineral resources of Washington: Washington Dept. 

Conserv. Devel. Div. Geology Bull. 63, p. 47-49.

 1937, Mines and minerals of Los Angeles County: Kept. California 

State Mineralogist, 1927, v. 23; v. 33.

 1938, Long Valley Ore Company: graphite plant operating 24-hour day: 

Rock Prod., v. 41, p. 46.

 1939, Mines and minerals of San Diego County: Repts. California 

State. Mineralogist, 1925, v. 21; 1934, v. 30; v. 35.

 1944, Graphite mill, born in World War I, reopened to supply current 

demand: Pit and Quarry, v. 37, p. 52, 53, 62. Description of equipment 

and methods at Southwestern Graphite Co., Burnet, Tex.

 1947, Carbon and graphite: Machine Design, v. 19, no. 7, p. 157-160.

 1956, The nuclear applications of graphite: Mining Jour., v. 246, p. 204-

205.

AUTHOR INDEX TO REFERENCES

Studies on treatment, properties, and use: 

Adie, R. J., 1946. 

Berns, M. H., 1943. 

Bierbaum, C. H., 1916, 1917. 

Bleininger, O. V., 1918. 

Blondel, F., and Lasky, S. G., 1956. 

Bodevan-Griffith, C. L., 1948. 

Brooks, L. W., 191T. 

Brummel, H. P. H., 1909. 

Cameron, E. N., 1956. 

Carter, F. W., 1916. 

Chamberlin, R. T., 1909. 

Chizhevskii, N., and Krassavin, E., 1930. 

Cirkel, Fritz, 1907. 

Clark, T. H., 1921. 

Coe, G. D., 1943. 

Dammer, B., and Tietze, O., 1913. 

Donath, Ed., 1928. 

Downs, W. T., -1900. 

Dub, G. Dr , 1918.

Dub, G. D., and Moses, F. G., 1920. 

Frolich, Werner, 1932. 

Gwinn, G. R., 1943, 1949, 1957. 

Haenig, A., 1911. 

Hatch, M. C. M., 1916. 

Haynes, G. H., 1901. 

Heindl, R. A., 1952. 

Heindl, R. A., and Mohler, N. F., 1955 

Heinsch, W., 1911. 

Hoffman, M. K., 1927. 

Hopkins, T. C., 1901. 

Hyde, F. S., 1900, 1907, 1908. 

Ihne, F. W., 1908. 

Jenny, W. P., 1903. 

Kalb, W. C., editor 1946. 

Ladoo, R. B., 1925.

Studies on treatment, properties, and use 

Continued

Lamb, F. D., and Irving, D. R., 1955.

Lang, A., 1917.

Law, E. S., 1906.

Lincoln, F. C., 1907.

Linnell, L., 1917.

Long, G. E., 1918.

Lyon, D. A., 1921.

McLaren, D. C., 1943.

McNaughton, M., 1917.

Maberg, C., 1916.

Mackles, L., Heindl, R. A., and Mong, 

D. E., 1953.

Meeks, Reginald, 1908.

Menardi, H. B., 1928.

Miller, B. L., 1933, 1937.

Murphy, J. R., 1949.

Parsons, C. S., 1928.

Bowe, R. C., 1920.

RuJil, F. F., 1949.

Ry^chkewitsch, Eugen, 1939.

Saiiderson, L., 1943. 

, Sellards, E. H., 1930.

Sjpearman, Charles, 1919.

Spence, H. S., 1920.

Stiill, R. T., 1919.

Stull, R. T., and Bole, G. A., 1923.

Stull, R. T., and Schurecht, H. G., 1919.

Thiessen, Reinhardt, 1919.

Thompson, P. D., 1929.

Tyler, P. M., 1929a, b, c, d, 1941.

Vanuxem, Lardner, 1825.

Venkateswarlu, D., 1944.

Veselovskii, V. S., Pertsov, V. N., and 

Lyutin, L. V., 1935.
316 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Studies on treatment, properties, and use 

Continued

Vosburgh, P. J., 1941. 

Walcott, C. D., 1899. 

Walker, J. A., 1906. 

Welnschenk, E., 1901, 1903. 

White, David, 1908. 

Wiard, E. S., 1917. 

Winter, L. L., and Alexander, F. L.,

1948.

Yates, R. F., 1916. 

Zemanek, R. J., 1942. 

Zimmerman, Maurice, 1920. 

Anonymous, 1912, 1947. 

United States (general; miscellaneous deposits) :

Ashley, G. H., 1915.

Bastin, E. S., 1909.

Brewer, W. M., 1896.

Chester, F. D., 1909.

Connolly, J. P., and O'Harra, C. C.,

1929.

Currier, L. W., 1942. 

Emerson, B. K., 1898, 1917. 

Ferguson, H. G., 1917. 

Gale, H. S., 1910.

Hayes, C. W., and Phalen, W. C., 1907. 

Ihne, F. W., 1909a, b. 

Lee, W. T., 1913. 

McCallie, S. W., 1910. 

Miller, B. L., 1894-1917. 

Mofflt, F. H., 1907, 1913. 

Pratt, J. H., 1902, 1903. 

Rice, W. N., and Gregory, H. E., 1906. 

Ries, Heinrich, 1947. 

Shannon, E. V., 1926. 

Smith, G. 0., 1906a, b. 

Smith, P. S., 1908, 1909. 

Steiger, George, 1915. 

Watson, T. L., 1907. 

Ziegler, V., 1914. 

Anonymous, 1936. 

Alabama:

Brown, J. S., 1925.

Clemmer, J. B., Smith, R. W., Clemmons, B. H., and Stacy, R. F., 1941. 

Ferguson, H. G., 1921. 

Gandrud, B. W., Coe, G. D., Benfleld.

C. S., and Skelton, I. N., 1934. 

Griffin, R. H., 1951. 

Herr, Irving, 1917. 

Jones, W. B., 1929. 

McCalley, Henry, 1897. 

Moses, F. G., 1918. 

Pallister, H. D., 1948. 

Pallister, H. D., and Smith, R. W., 1945. 

Pallister, H. D., and Thoenen, J. R.,

1948.

Prouty, W. F., 1917a, b, c, 1919, 1923. 

Smith, E. A., 1902. 

Smith, E. A., and McCalley, Henry,

1904.

Smith, R. W., and White, W. S., 1942. 

California:

Beverly, Bert, Jr., 1934. 

Bradley, W. W., 1935. 

Hubler, W. G., 1924.

California Continued

Rynearson, G. A., 1945.

Anonymous, 1937, 1939. 

Montana :

Ford, R. B., 1954.

Heinrich, E. W., 1949a, b.

Perry, E. S., 1948.

Rowe, J. P., 1908.

Winchell, A. V., 1911a, b. 

New Jersey :

Bascom, Florence, 1909.

Bayley, W. S., Salisbury, R. D., and 

Kummel, H. B., 1914.

Cook, G. H., 1868, 1879.

Darton, N. H., Bayley, W. S., Salisbury, 

R. D., and Kummel, H. B.,. 1908.

Nason, F. L., 1899. 

New York :

Ailing, H. L., 1917.

Bastin, E. S., 1910.

Bayley, W. S., 1908.

Beck, L. C., 1842.

Buddington, A. F., 1934.

Jones, R. W., 1916.

Kemp, J. F., 1903.

Millar, W. T., and Sanford, R. S., 1949.

Miller, W. J., 1914.

Mills, F. S., 1908.

Newland, D. H., 1904-1913.

Nicholas, F. C., 1908.

Olgilvie, I. H., 1905.

Otte, Herman, 1944.

Anonymous, 1938. 

Pennsylvania:

Bascom, Florence, and Beach, L. M., 

1924.

Bascom, Florence, and Stose, G. W., 

1938.

Beattie, H. M., 1912.

Carpenter, G. W., 1828.

Frazer, Persifor, Jr., 1881, 1883.

Hall, C. E., 1881.

Hopkins, T. C., 1898, 1899.

Johnson, Helgi, 1941.

Judd, E. K., 1906.

Miller, B. L., 1912.

Rogers, H. D., 1840.

Sanford, R. S., and Lamb, T. D., 1949.

Struthers, Joseph, 1903.

Townsend, W. P., 1839. 

Texas:

Baker, C. L., 1935.

Barnes, V. E., 1940.

Chelf, Carl, 1943.

May, J. W., 1917.

Needham, A. B., 1946.

Paige, Sidney, 1911, 1912.

Udden, J. A., 1916.

Anonymous, 1944. 

Wyoming:

Ball, H. S., 1907.

Jamison, C. E., 1911.

Knight, W. C., 1893. 

Foreign :

Adams, F. D., 1926.

Anderson, A., 1954.
STRATEGIC GRAPHITE A SURVEY 317

Foreign Continued 

Andersen, C., 1916. 

Bastin, E. S., 1912. 

Besairie, H., and others, 1951. 

Betheras, F. N., 1950. 

Bllharz, O., 1904. 

Breitschoff, J., 1910. 

Brummel, H. P. H.,' 1907, 1920. 

Bunting, R. F., 1928. 

Contanciel, P., 1912. 

Coomaraswamy, A. K., 1900. 

Diersche, Max, 1898. 

Dunstan, B., 1917. 

Ferguson, A. M., 1885. 

Glasnap, M., 1912. 

Grandedier, G., 1915. 

Gruender, W., 1948. 

Orundlung, F., 1900. 

Gupta, B. C., 1949. 

Hashimoto, Seiji, 1950. 

Hess, F. L., 1909. 

Hornaday, W. D., 1912. 

Knight, C. L., 1946. 

Kupletskii, B. M., 1926. 

Laplaine, Louis, 1950. 

Lavilla, L., 1923. 

Levingston, K. R., 1953. 

McLaren, D. C., 1945. 

Mills, J. C., 1908. 

Morgan, P. G., 1919. 

Osann, A., 1899. 

Paredes, Trinidad, 1920. 

Paterson, J. N., 1942. 

Pavlov, M. A., 1926. 

Petraschek, W., 1927. 

Pettinos, Charles, 1912. 

Ramachandra, M. B. Rao, 1948. 

Redfleld, A. H., 1920. 

Savanorin, Andre, 1935.

Foreign Continued

Seymore, John, 1952.

Shelley, J. W., 1916.

Spatzek, H., and Frank, G., 1956.

Stansfleld, John, 1912, 1913a, b.

Stonier, G. A., 1904.

Stutzer, O., Wetzel, W., and Hlllelbauer, 

A., 1933.

Thomson, William, 1930.

Tilley, C. E., 1921.

Trillo-Figueroa, A. C., 1918.

Wadia, D. N., 1943.

Wagner, P. A., 1916.

Ward, L. K., and Jack, R. L., 1918.

Wayland, R., 1951.

Weinschenk, E., 1900.

Wilson, M. E., 1916, 1920.

Anonymous, 1906, 1907. 

Manufactured graphite:

Acheson, G. E., 1899, [1900?].

Acheson, W. W., 1915.

Arsen, W. C., 1911.

Davies, F. H., 1912.

Electrochemical and Metallurgical 

Industry, 1909.

Fitzgerald, F. J., 1902, 1905.

Gaylord, W. M., 1953.

Gwinn, G. R., 1943.

Hader, R. N., Gamson, B. W., and 

Bailey, B. L., 1954.

Porter, B. H., 1943.

Pratt, J. H., 1904.

Richards, J. W., 1902, 1911.

Standish, Alfred, 1908.

Thomas, P. W., 1914.

Tone, F. J., 1916.

Townsend, C. P., 1901.

U.S. Patent 1,620,940.

Anonymous, 1956. 

INDEX

A Page 

Acknowledgments _........................ 206

Adirondack Mountains area, appraisal of reserves.......___.--.-........ 302-303

Air Force-Navy Aeronautical Specification

AN-G-24a_....._...____._____.___ 220

Alabama, geology of graphite deposits........ 242-

246,260-277 

grade and yield of ore_............... 264-265

previous investigations................... 204

graphite districts....................... 260-277

graphite resources..........._........ 251,252

Alabama No. 1 mine, description............. 272

Alabama No. 2 mine......................... 270

Alien, C. B., mine, description......._..... 271

Amorphous graphite, geologic occurrence..... 208

Anselma mine, description................... 282

Ashland mica schist.................... 261-263,267

Austria, graphite production....___...... 238

Author index.._...................__... 315-317

Axton-Noc mine__......................... 270

B

"Bama flake" graphite..................... 213-214

Bama mine, description.................... 275-277

Batteries, use of graphite......-...-.---.... 221-222

Bear Pond Mountain deposits, description... 298-

300 

Bearings, use of graphite...-..-.-.-.......- 220-221

Benjamin Franklin mine, description._.-..- 279-

282, pi. 11

Black Donald deposit, previous investigations............................. 205

Brake linings, use of graphite................. 223

Bricks for furnace lining, use of graphite.----- 216

Buck Mountain Pond mine, description_-.. 288 

Burnet County, Texas, graphite deposits..... 256,

259, 260 

C

Canada, geology of graphite deposits........ 249,250

previous investigations.................... 205

Ceylon, competition with domestic graphite -. 227 

geology of graphite deposits.... ..... 248

previous Investigations.._............. 205

production...___............... 238,239,241

Ceylon Graphite mine, description....._. 274-275

Chester Graphite mine, description......... 282-283

Chip graphite, geologic occurrence............ 207

Colorado, amorphous graphite................ 246

Competition from foreign sources, factor influencing domestic production.. 226-227 

Consumption of graphite.--...-........ 233,234,235

Contact-metasomatic deposits, in carbonate

rocks.......................... 249-250

New York.......................... 285-286,287

Crucible Flake mine, description........... 273-274

Crucible graphite, unsuitable impurities...... 216

Crucibles, types. __.................... 210

use of graphite..-......-..-------...... 209-216

Page 

Crude graphite, market value.... ___... 228

Crystal Graphite mine, description... 252-255, pi. 9 

Czechoslovakia, graphite production.....__ 238

D 

Definition of terms..................... 202-203,250

Deposits formed by metamorphism of carbonaceous sedimentary rocks.. 246-247 

Disseminated deposits, in marble............. 246

in metamorphosed siliceous sedimentary

rocks.....------.....-.......... 242-246

Dixon.American Graphite mine, description.. 286,

288-291 

Dixon schist................................. 290.291

Domestic consumption of graphite.......... 234,235

Domestic production of graphite, factors in.

fluencing-...................... 226-234

history................................ 224-226

E

Economic factors, Influence on domestic pro.

duction........................... 234

influence on world production.......... 238-241

Electrodes, use of graphite..--..-........ 223

Faxonmine, description.....-...-----....-286,291

Fertilizer, use of graphite.-....-.---------.-- 223

Flake graphite, geologic occurrence........ - 207

prices, 1910-55..-- --.-.-.-------- 228-229

tests for suitability for crucibles..--...... 215

yield of Alabama mines................. 264-265

Flake Graphite mine, description...... 286,296-297

Foreign sources of graphite, factor influencing

domestic production_......... 226-227

Foundry facings, use of graphite ....-...--. 222

G

Geologic factors influencing mining in Alabama..-.-. ..- - 265-266

Geology, Alabama No. 1 mine......... ... 272

Anselma mine....... - - ...-.- 282

Bama mine.-.------------- ----- -- 275

Bear Pond Mountain deposits.......... 299-300

Benjamin Franklin mine.- - 280-281, p. 11 

Ceylon Graphite mine.........------- 274-275

Crucible Flake mine. 264,273-274

Crystal Graphite mine............ 253-254, pi. 9

Dixon.American Graphite mine........ 289,291

Faxonmine..... . 289,291

Flake Graphite mine...--------------- 297

general, Adirondack Mountains.....___ 285

graphite deposits in the United States.. 241-250 

graphite deposits of Canada. __.. . 249,250 

Graphite Products mine.. 300-301 

Hooper Brothers' mine.------.-------- 292,293

Jennings mine_._- _ --- 267-268 

Justmine..... -------- 280-281, pi. 11

319
320 INDEX

Geology Continued Page 

Lakeside mine......--.-.....-.-----..-- 295-296

Long Valley Ore mine.______._. 301-302 

Middle Griessemer mine.... ___..... 272-273

National mine..........---.----.-.--..- 268-269

North Griessemer mine_ .- -----_._... 272

northeastern belt, Alabama....- 261-263,265-266

Peerless mine....--..-.......---.-.-.-.. 266-267

Pocahontas mine.-.....-....-.-......-. 263,273

Rock Pond mine............---.~~~- 299-300

Sacandagamine...__.___-____ 297-298 

Southern mine----.---..------------ 269-270

southwestern belt, Alabama.... 263-264,265-266

Southwestern Graphite mine. _ 257-259, pi. 10 

"Grade" of graphite, definition............... 203

Graphite deposits, Alabama, description.... 266-277

localities.................... 260,261,262,276,284

types, New York...-...-.--.--......... 285-286

Graphite districts---...........-.-.- ---. 225-303

Graphite problem, definition.... __.__-._ 203-204

Graphite Products mine, description.... 286,300-301

H

Hardrock and weathered graphite deposits,

relative value..___.. .--.. 245-246 

Hillabee chlorite schist...__________ 262 

Hooper Brothers' mine, description..... 286,292,293

Imports of graphite................. 231-232,235,236

Index, author.............................. 315-317

Information, sources.._____.. . .. 205 

Instability of graphite industry, factor influencing domestic production.... 230

International Graphite mine, description.. 286, 292

294 

J

Jennings mine, description. ...... ___... 267-268

Just mine, description.......____ 279-282, pi. 11

Lakeside mine, description.......__.. 286,294-296

Lead Hill mine, description.-...-...-.- 286,287-288 

Limitations, of market, factor Influencing

domestic production... __. __ 228-230 

of report._______......_____ 205-206

Llano County, Tex., graphite deposits..___ 256,

259,260 

Localities, principal graphite deposits in the

United States................. 224-225,

256, 260-264, 276, 277-278, 284 

world graphite deposits.___....___ 237

Long Valley Ore mine, description...._.. 301-302

Lubricant-grade graphite, specifications.... 218-220

unsuitable impurities.._____.____ 217 

Lubricating compounds, use of graphite.... 217-221

Lump graphite, geologic occurrence-..--...... 207

M

Madagascar, previous investigations......_ 205

production...___........__... 238,240,241

Madagascar crucible flake, general specifications...____._____..__. 210 

Madagascar flake, competition with domestic

flake -.__..________. 226-227

ideal for lubricant-grade graphite......... 217

Page 

Market value of crude graphite....... . 228

May Brothers' mine...___... 270 

Mexico, previous investigations .. ...... 205

source of amorphous graphite..-.------ 233

State of Sonora, amorphous graphite.... 247

Middle Griessemer mine, description. 272-273

Milling methods, Alabama.. . . 266

Mineralogy, Anselmamine. 282

Ashland mica schist............._ ~.~ 262

Buck Mountain mine.....__ ... 288

Crystal Graphite mine... . 253 

Dixon-American Graphite, mine..... - - 290

Flake Graphite mine.-------------------- 297

general, graphite deposits_ .-.. -- 206-207

New York graphite deposits...--- 285-286

Hooper Brothers' mine--------. --.----- 292

Lakeside mine........ . .... - 295-296

Lead Hill mine............... 287

Sacandagamine-...--__ - 298 

Southwestern Graphite mine........... 257-258

Minerals associated with graphite..... 208-209

Mines, Alabama_-..--....-.. -...-.-...- 261

Adirondack Mountains area.. - 284 

Phoenixville, Pa., area.... ------------- 278

Mining, geologic factors influencing, Alabama. 265-

266 

methods, Alabama...______......... 266

history, New York............ ..... 284-285

Montana, geology of graphite deposits,------- 247,

248,249,252-255

graphite deposits, previous investigations. 204 

graphite district... ...._ .... 252-255

graphite resources....------------------- 252

N

Narragansett basin, Rhode Island, amorphous

graphite__.___._...-__. 247

National mine, description..__-_-_.._.... 268-269

National Stockpile Specifications... 211-212,218-220

New York, geology of graphite deposits... 242-244,

248,249,250,283-303

graphite districts.....________... 283-303

graphite resources..-..________*.. 252

previous investigations.. _______... 205

North Griessemer mine, description.. ____ 272

O 

Occurrence, geologic..-.__.__.___... 207-208

Packing-grade graphite, specifications..__ 218-220 

Packings, use of graphite.-.--.._..._... 220-221 

Packsaddle schist...._._._._______ 255

Paints, use of graphite..._.____.___.. 223 

Peerless mine, description...........___ 266-267

Pencils, use of graphite.....__.__.___ 222

Pennsylvania, geology of graphite deposits. 242-245,

277-283 

graphite districts..____.........._ 277-283

graphite resources...____._____. 252 

previous investigations..____....... 204-205

Plckerlng gneiss......-.......--------...-.-- 277

Pocahontas mine, description._____..... 273

Previous investigations..__.___...._ 204-205
INDEX 321

Page

Prices, flake graphite, 1910-55............... 228-229

Production, domestic........._......._ 224-234,

236,252-253,255,257,263,264,274,302 

world..----..-..................-. 234-241, pi. 8

Prospects, localities, Alabama....._._... 261

Q

"Quality" of graphite, definition............. 203

Quenelda mine, description....._.__.__ 271

R

Range of types of domestic flake, factor influencing domestic production._.. 227 

Raton coal field, New Mexico, amorphous

graphite.......................... 246

Redding mine................_.........._ 270

Refractory wares, use of graphite........-.- 209-216

Reserves, Adirondack Mountain area, appraisal....----------...-........ 302-303

C. B. Alien mine..-...-.................. 271

Ceylon................................... 241

Ceylon Graphite mine._._............ 275

Crucible Flake mine..................... 274

defined.--------.-.-.-.-.-.....--.......-. 250

Dlxon-American Graphite mine.--------- 291

Faxon mine..-__._....-..-..--.-.-.-- 291

Hooper Brothers' mine................_ 292

Jennings mine....__....._.._.__ 268

lakeside mine__........................ 296

Lead Hill mine........................ 287-288

Madagascar..-...-.-.--.............-.... 241

Middle Griessemer mine................. 273

Pennsylvania graphite deposits........... 283

Pocahontas mine._...._.............. 273

Quenelda mine.---.-..-...-.-.-..-------. 271

Rowland Graphite mine_...-...--..-.- 291 

Southwestern Graphite mine............. 259

Resources, defined......_.._.......__... 250

estimate of domestic...........---.-.... 250-252

Rhode Island, amorphous graphite.....-.--.. 247

Rock Pond mine, description........_.... 298-300

Rowland Graphite mine, description......... 291

Peerless mine....__.__.........__. 267

Sacandaga mine, description................ 297-298

Scope of report.....--_.__................ 204

Selected references, with annotations..--.-- 303-315 

Southern mine, description........... ___ 269-270

Southern Star mine...___......._...... 264,270

Page 

Sources of information..... . 205

Southwestern Graphite Co., geology of graphite deposit.......... 242-243,244,255-259

Southwestern Graphite mine, description.. 255-259,

pi. 10 

Specifications, flake graphite.....-- 210-212,218-220

Spence, H.S., quoted..........-.........--- 216-217

Steelmaking, use of graphite.. ... . 222 

Stockpile specifications, strategic graphite.. 211-212,

218-220 

Stove polish, use of graphite...... ....... 223

Strategic factors, influence on domestic production......-.-.---..-------- 234

Structural characteristics of Alabama graphite

deposits.. 264

Supply of graphite for the United States... 231-232,

235, 236 

T 

Talladega slate................... ...... 263

Technological changes, factor influencing domestic production 230-233

Texas, geology of graphite deposits..__ 242-244,

255-260 

graphite district. 255-260

graphite resources.................... 252

Texas Graphite mine, description...... 244, 255-260

"Type" of graphite, definition................ 202

Types of graphite, commercial.___....... 207-208

Types of graphite deposits, New York.._ 286 286 

in the United States......-.--.--.---- 225

U

Uses of graphite, nonstrateglc... .. . 221-223 

strategic . 209-221

Vein deposits.................. 247-249, 252-255, 285

W

Weathered and hardrock graphite deposits,

relative value .......-... 245-246

White, W. S., quoted............:.......... 265-266

Yield, Alabama deposits.-.......-..-.-.. 264-265,

267, 268, 269, 270, 272, 273, 274, 277 

New York deposits...........-..----.- 286, 288,

290, 292, 294, 295, 297, 298, 300, 302 

Pennsylvania deposits.......__...... 281, 282

Texas deposits..................... 258, 259, 260

o

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1960 0 S3S373