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# Counter-Disinformation Literature Review

July 2023The Global Engagement Center (GEC) conducted an extensive literature review to better understand external research on disinformation. Capacity building and media literacy (i.e. defensive measures) were more prominently covered in the literature than those related to punitive actions (i.e. offensive measures). The review helped validate the GEC’s focus on resilience, prevention, and mitigation. Recommendations include strategies to increase collaboration with allies and partners.

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## Background

In summer 2022 the GEC launched an extensive literature review. The objective was to map the spectrum of research on measures against information manipulation by foreign malign actors, including research on interventions the Department could take or has taken. The review helped establish an evidence-based strategic and operational framework to optimize the Department’s efforts to confront disinformation and its negative effects globally, as well as understand knowledge gaps and potential areas of further study.

## Findings

                  - Research on addressing preventative and defensive measures is more prevalent than on punitive or offensive ones.
                  - Many of the defensive interventions recommended by the literature are already being undertaken by the GEC. 
                  - More research is needed on malign actor exposure activities and the efficacy of this intervention.
                  - 65% of the reviewed literature did not focus on a specific threat actor, but Russia was by far the most scrutinized country.

## Recommendations

**Offensive measures policymakers should consider:**

              - Establish standard norms, common definitions, and a formal global code of conduct.
              - Pursue sanctions, if they’re executed in a timely, targeted, and well-coordinated way.
              - Coordinate with likeminded governments on cyber operations as disinformation responses.

**Defensive measures policymakers should consider:**

              - Invest in resilience activities, such as fact-checking, media literacy, and capacity building.
              - Use a “whole-of-society” approach to detection and monitoring.
              - Emphasize pre-bunking, positive and factual messaging, and amplification.

## Research Questions

                      - What does the literature suggest are effective measures the Department can take against disinformation?
                      - Which key areas associated with Learning Agenda sub-questions 5.1 (offensive measures) or 5.2 (defensive measures) does this literature cover the most?
                      - What are the most common responses that the literature considers to be a responsibility of the government?

## Approach, Methods, & Data

The GEC started the literature review following the Question 5 kick-off in summer 2022. The GEC attempted to answer the following question on the Department of State’s 2022-2026 Learning Agenda:

“How should the Department confront the rise of global disinformation and its negative effects on the security and prosperity of the United States?” 

First, the team compiled a guide on the goal, objectives, and timeline of the literature review. Next, along with an internal dive into existing GEC research and literature products, the GEC collaborated with the Department’s Bunche Library to build a reading list consisting of over 100 leading articles by think tanks, governments, and scholars on propaganda and disinformation threats and policies. The GEC categorized the articles in terms of whether they applied to Learning Agenda 5.1 or 5.2 sub-questions. Delegates representing a dozen Department offices volunteered to read a sub-set of the articles and fill out surveys between August and September 2022. 

Finally, the GEC synthesized review inputs on the literature based on the identified key topic areas to track trends and gaps. These reading assignments were interspersed with virtual check-ins to solicit additional feedback. By the end of 2022, the GEC shared intermediate results of reader responses and analyzed survey data, resulting a final draft literature review in summer 2023.

## Detailed Recommendations

Offensive measures (Learning Agenda Question 5.1) Department of State policymakers should consider against foreign malign actors that spread disinformation include the following:

              - Setting standards, norms, and definitions to limit disinformation spreaders  would help foster common goals and multilateral solutions. A code of conduct should also be drawn from input of all relevant actors, including UN member states, civil society, and social media platforms;
              - Imposing sanctions  can be effective punitive tools when implemented without delay and coordinated across international and national levels; their deterrent effects, however, may be minimal.
              - Actor exposure  is a frequently deployed tactic to counter false and misleading information even though there is limited literature on its efficacy or best practices. More research is needed in this area.

Defensive interventions (Learning Agenda Question 5.2) Department of State policymakers should consider include the following:

              - Fact-checking  is an increasingly popular means of countering disinformation. Studies pointed, however, to several caveats: to be effective, fact-checking interventions need to come from independent sources (free of political agendas) to build trust and legitimacy. The literature also suggests that fact-checking needs to embrace new tools like AI to analyze and counter disinformation.
              - Digital and media literacy education  encourages government and civil society to invest in the development of media literacy programs, including primary and secondary educational curricula, according to at least 24 studies.
              - Training and capacity building  should account for local contexts and measuring long-term sustainability beyond the period of performance of such work.
              - Detection and monitoring of disinformation  requires a whole-of-society approach (i.e., civil society organizations, independent media, and academia/think tanks) and can be strengthened through increased funding for and investment in emerging technology.
              - Independent media support  can help to rebuild societal confidence by weeding out disinformation and bias and serving as a trusted source of information.

## Learning Summary

To establish this literature review, the Learning Agenda Question 5 team engaged stakeholders across the Department, starting with the Office of Foreign Assistance (F) and Bureau of Budget and Planning (BP). The team then launched a small working group of Department staff, accepted volunteers to read and comment on the studies, and surveyed their reactions. A major challenge for participants was completing assigned readings and providing inputs, as they were also balancing their existing workloads. To overcome this, the GEC re-assigned many of the studies and reduced the scope of activities, including scrapping a planned roundtable on the literature review with invited experts. The GEC found that early enthusiasm for participating in a literature review needs to be followed with firmer commitments by volunteers early in the process. The GEC found it helpful to conduct a survey of reviewers to gather meta-data on relevant literature. Finally, literature on disinformation is constantly evolving; new findings may have emerged, or previous knowledge gaps closed, since the GEC concluded its review in summer 2023. The GEC found that literature reviews are only snapshots in time. That said, the process itself helps cultivate a spirit of learning and self-reflection among researchers and policymakers alike.

Dissemination plans include sharing the literature review with GEC staff, Learning Agenda teams, R/PPR, the wider R Bureau, and USAID. Modes of distribution include, but not limited to, emails, internal newsletters, GEC’s SharePoint page, and the Evidence Act Learning Agenda Resource Page

### Cross-Bureau Learning

To combat disinformation, emphasize pre-bunking, positive and factual messaging, and amplification. Collaboration with other offices (e.g. sanctions offices) can remove silos and increase efficacy.

To combat disinformation, establish standard norms, common definitions, and a formal global code of conduct. 

For literature reviews, staffing can be optimized by recruiting volunteers with sector familiarity. Include accountability mechanisms so work has momentum.

For literature reviews, ensure scoping is focused on specific Learning Agenda questions and/or activities to identify key sources, trends, common definitions, and takeaways.

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