NIGER

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide

Niger

Arlit

Agadez

Tahoua

Zinder Maradi

Dosso

Gaya

SAHARA

DESERT

Niamey
This guide is designed to help prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and successfully achieve 

mission objectives. The fundamental information it contains will 

help you understand 

the decisive cultural 

dimension of your 

assigned location and 

gain necessary skills 

to achieve mission 

success.

The guide consists of 

two parts: 

Part 1: Introduces 

“Culture General,” the foundational knowledge you need to 

operate effectively in any global environment (Photos courtesy 

of IRIN News 2012 © Jaspreet Kindra/). 

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” Niger, focusing on unique 

cultural features of Nigerien society and is designed to 

complement other predeployment training. It 

applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase 

your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment 

location.

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture 

and Language Center 

(AFCLC) website at https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or

contact AFCLC’s Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

ECFG Niger
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story –

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture.

Social Behaviors Across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, 

all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian 

societies generally produce

their own food for limited 

consumption using very 

basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized 

nations have more 

sophisticated market economies, producing foodstuffs for 

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universal consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and 

tradition, although they represent these concepts through a 

variety of unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world 

religions share the belief in one God, their worship practices 

vary with their traditional historical development. Similarly, in 

many kin-based cultures where familial bonds are foundational 

to social identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview– how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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CULTURE 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles (Photo: Kutubiyya Mosque courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest, 2013).

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing 

most of what was 

traditional and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form 

of bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed 

for several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia).

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

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death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults or 

peers.

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life.

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have viewed 

human linkage as a core 

element to survival. This closeness is best represented in a 

traditional African village where strong kinship connections are 

evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations among

family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual.

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection 

and widespread poverty 

caused by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions.

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as 

civil war, disease, 

poverty, and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Nigerien society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

The history of Niger is a tale of empires competing over various 

parts of a vaguely defined and steadily drying expanse of land. 

Niger’s recent history has been characterized by ethnic revolts, 

recurrent drought, and repeated military coups.

Early Niger

Although Niger today 

consists mainly of desert, 

the country was lush and 

fertile during its prehistory 

and populated by bands of 

hunter-gatherers. Stone 

tools found in northern and 

western Niger indicate that the first such groups arrived in the 

area at least as early as 300,000 years ago. Recently, 

extensive archaeological remains found at Gobero in central 

Niger give evidence of long-term occupation between 14000 

and 10000 BC.

The climate of the region began to grow hotter and drier around 

4000 BC. As the Sahara Desert expanded, many inhabitants of 

what is now Niger migrated southward into areas that were still 

fertile and began growing crops such as sorghum and millet. 

The rest of the population stayed in the arid regions and began 

herding livestock, as hunting and gathering increasingly failed 

to meet their subsistence requirements.

Several forms of technology and artistic expression developed 

at this time. The earliest copper and iron objects found in Niger 

date to this period, while the earliest examples of bronze and 

brass alloys date to a few centuries later. Pottery became both 

more common and more ornamental, and a variety of rock 

engravings were produced in the Aïr Mountains of northern 

Niger.

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

By the 5th century BC, trade caravans dealing in beads, ivory, 

metals, salt, and slaves began passing through what is now 

Niger while traveling between Egypt and Carthage. A variety of 

kingdoms arose over the next several centuries, but few details 

were recorded until Arab traders arrived in the 8th century AD. 

In addition to their penchant for written history, the Arab traders 

introduced Islam to the region (see Religion and Spirituality).

The Age of Empires

From the end of the first millennium AD until the beginning of 

the 19th century, the territory of present-day Niger functioned 

as an ever-shifting frontier between a succession of empires 

that overlapped in both time and space. Although none of those 

kingdoms ever controlled the entirety of present-day Niger, 

they all contributed to the culture, customs, and ethnic 

composition of modern Niger.

The Kanem-Bornu Empire

One of the earliest states was the Kanem Empire, founded on 

the northeast shore of Lake Chad in the 9th century AD. Ruled 

for most of its history by the Sefuwa dynasty, Kanem became 

an Islamic state at the end of the 11th century. It reached its 

height in the 13th century, when it extended into the presentday states of Cameroon, Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Libya.

Kanem fell in the late 14th century due to economic difficulties, 

internal political divisions, and an invasion from the East by the 

Bulala people. The Sefuwa dynasty then regrouped at Bornu 

(present-day northeastern Nigeria) and gave birth to the 

Kanem-Bornu Empire, which extended its rule across much of 

the former Kanem Empire during the 16th century.

After reaching the height of its power 

at the beginning of the 17th century, 

Kanem-Bornu entered a long, slow 

decline. The Sefuwas were expelled in 

the early 19th century, and KanemBornu dissolved completely in 1893 

after Rabih Fadlallah, a Sudanese 

warlord, invaded the territory (Pictured: 

Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi, the 

first non-Sefuwa Sheikh of Bornu).
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Songhai Empire

Founded at roughly the same time as Kanem, Songhai traces 

its origins to the city of Gao in what is now western Mali. 

Songhai converted to Islam during the 11th century and grew in

prominence over the next few centuries before it was absorbed 

by the powerful Mali Empire in 1325.

Reclaiming its independence just half a century later, Songhai 

eventually rose to greatness in the late 15th century under the 

leadership of a fierce warrior known as Sonni Ali Ber who 

extended the empire deep into the Niger Valley. Songhai 

reached the height of its power in the early 16th century when 

the empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean (present-day 

Senegal) to the center of present-day Nigeria and Niger. 

Songhai derived most of its power from trade and offered 

security and relative autonomy to conquered states in return for 

tribute.

Internal conflict gradually weakened the empire in the late 16th 

century. The death blow arrived in 1591 when Moroccan troops 

defeated the empire’s forces and sacked its major cities. The 

remnants of the ruling Askia dynasty fled to what is now 

southern Niger and founded the small Dendi Kingdom.

Other Political Developments

As Songhai and Kanem-Bornu extended peripherally into the 

Niger Valley during the 15th century, political structures in other 

parts of Niger grew more complex.

The Agadez Sultanate: Tuareg nomads (see Political and 

Social Relations) first arrived in what is now northern Niger 

during the 11th century, and by the 15th century, they had 

established a sultanate at 

Agadez in the Aïr Mountains

(Photo: Timia Valley, an oasis 

in the Agadez region of 

Niger). The Agadez Sultanate 

never functioned as a strong, 

centralized authority. Instead, 

the Sultans of Agadez 

mediated disputes between 

various Tuareg tribes and probably imposed a degree of 

control over regional trade routes.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Although there was plenty of infighting, the Tuaregs of the Aïr

Mountains continued to recognize the Sultans at Agadez until 

1750, when some tribes moved into the Azawagh basin and 

formed their own confederacy. By the time the French arrived 

in the late 19th century, there were 6 Tuareg confederations.

Hausa City-States: By the 14th century the Hausa of presentday northern Nigeria and southern Niger had established 7 

independent city-states. By the start of the 17th century, those 

city-states were able to expand their economic influence in part 

due to their favorable position at the terminus of north-south 

trade routes across the Sahara Desert.

Although many Hausa—especially those in urban areas—had 

adopted Islam by the 14th century, they tended to combine the 

faith with indigenous “animist” practices (see Religion and 

Spirituality). By the late 18th century, this “corrupted” form of 

Islam had grown but was criticized both internally and 

externally.

Usman dan Fodio: One of the loudest critics of the way Islam 

was practiced in the Hausa city-states was Usman dan Fodio, 

a Muslim scholar. In 1804, after two decades of proselytizing in 

the region, dan Fodio called upon “true” Muslims to join him in 

a jihad (holy struggle) against the form of Islam practiced in the 

Hausa city-states. His call was answered widely, and most of 

the Hausa city-states were incorporated into a newly created 

political structure known as the Sokoto Caliphate. 

The Sokoto Caliphate: Based in 

what is now northern Nigeria, the 

Sokoto Caliphate consisted of

several autonomous emirates that

pledged allegiance to dan Fodio. 

At its high point in the mid-19th 

century, the Caliphate spanned 

from Téra, a city about 100 mi 

northwest of present-day capital 

city Niamey, to present-day Cameroon. It was at Téra that 

forces of the Zarma ethnic group, which had settled in what is 

now southwestern Niger during the 17th century, halted dan 

Fodio’s advance (Photo: present-day Fulani inhabitants 

occupying Sokoto Caliphate area).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Damagaram: One state that successfully resisted dan Fodio 

and the Sokoto Caliphate was Damagaram, which was based 

at Zinder in what is now southern Niger. Founded in the 17th 

century by Hausa and Kanuri migrants and ruled mostly by 

Kanuri elite, Damagaram was a multi-ethnic polity with Tuareg, 

Fulani, Toubou, and Arab inhabitants. As Sokoto declined in 

the second half of the 19th century, Damagaram emerged as a 

powerful regional state.

Arrival of Europeans

European involvement in the interior of West Africa began in 

1795 when British explorer Mungo Park (pictured) undertook 

his first of two expeditions in the Niger Valley. Park eventually

reached present-day Niger during his second expedition in 

1805. Heinrich Barth, a German explorer who worked for the 

British government, became the next European to traverse 

modern Niger when he explored the Sahara Desert in the early 

1850s. In 1870, another German explorer named Gustav 

Nachtigal led an expedition from Libya 

to Lake Chad.

The writings of these early explorers, 

along with the need for a transit link 

between colonial possessions in other 

parts of Africa, prompted French and 

British interest in the region. They first 

delineated their respective spheres of 

influence on paper in the late 19th 

century, and the French soon followed 

up by dispatching a survey crew to the

area in the early 1890s. It was during this expedition that the 

French signed their first treaties with local rulers.

In 1899 France sent an expedition of 2,000 men to take control 

of what is now Niger and thereby link French West Africa with 

French Congo. Known as the Voulet-Chanoine Mission, this 

expedition ultimately became known for the severe cruelty of its 

leaders, who massacred entire villages of indigenous people 

and eventually were murdered by their own troops. By 1903 

most of present-day Niger was under the military control of the 

French, although Tuareg resistance in the North continued for 

another 2 decades.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Colonization

By 1908 the French began to establish 

an administrative structure to rule the 

territory that is now Niger. They did not 

have sufficient resources to administer 

the territory directly, so they sought to 

adapt preexisting local authorities for 

the purpose. To this end, the French 

created 7 cercles (districts), each 

divided into several secteurs

(sectors). French military personnel, 

and later civilians, had authority over 

these administrative divisions.

Local authorities, by contrast, ruled over smaller subdivisions 

and had the titles chef de canton or chef de regroupement. 

Their main duties on behalf of the French administration were 

to collect taxes and to conscript labor for public works projects. 

Nigeriens were given the status of sujets (subjects) and thus 

had little voice within the colonial system.

The Colony of Niger

With the creation of the Military Territory of Niger in 1912, the 

borders of modern Niger were first established. The territory 

was rechristened the Colony of Niger in 1922, and in the same 

year, the French shifted the capital from Zinder to Niamey. For 

the next 25 years, the French paid little attention to the colony. 

As the resources they had hoped to exploit never materialized, 

the French did not even build railways or paved roadways.

Due to this approach on the part of the French, the colonial era

in Niger was characterized primarily by an expansion of Islam 

and an increase in cash crop cultivation. The French reluctantly 

promoted the expansion of Islam because Islamic values were 

closer to French thinking than those of indigenous faiths and 

because Islam had a recognizable legal and judicial system.

Although the French tried and failed to abolish slavery officially 

in the colony, they did use corvée, a form of forced labor that 

closely resembled slavery. The French also levied heavy taxes 

on Nigeriens to fund their colonial enterprise, prompting many 

in the colony to move south into British-controlled Nigeria.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Independence

Following World War II, European colonial powers faced strong 

international pressure to move their overseas territories toward 

independence. In French colonies, this process began with the 

French constitution of 1946, which granted French citizenship 

and representation in the French National Assembly to colonial 

subjects. One decade later, the loi-cadre (Reform Act) of 1956 

transferred new powers of self-government to the colonies.

In 1958 France allowed its colonies to choose by referendum 

between independence and continued association with France. 

According to the official tally, Nigeriens rejected independence, 

but many believe that France rigged the result in order to keep 

control of uranium discovered in 1957. The referendum’s result 

was reversed just 2 years later when Niger declared its 

independence on August 3, 1960. Hamani Diori, a nationalist 

politician who had helped found the Progressive Party of Niger 

(PPN—Parti Progressiste Nigerien), became the first President.

President Hamani Diori

For the next 14 years, President Diori 

maintained close ties with France as he 

transformed Niger into a repressive, 

single-party state. Despite a weak 

economy, repeated coup attempts, and 

guerilla attacks by the exiled Sawaba 

political party, Diori and the PPN 

maintained their grip on power as Diori 

was reelected in 1965 and 1970. His downfall came after Niger 

suffered a series of droughts between 1968 and 1974. Accused 

of hoarding public food aid, Diori was deposed in a violent coup 

led by Lieutenant Colonel Seyni Kountché in April 1974.

Military Rule

Kountché established a military government that ruled Niger for 

13 years. Contemptuous of the government he had replaced, 

Kountché made no effort to restore civilian rule. Nevertheless, 

his government was known for stability and a lack of corruption. 

The economy also improved under Kountché as the uranium 

discovered in the 1950s finally made it to market. The situation 

deteriorated in the 1980s as uranium prices tumbled and 

Nigeriens suffered through a lethal drought in 1983.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Ali Saibou: Kountché died in 1987 and was succeeded by Ali 

Saibou, his Chief of Staff, who dissolved the military regime. 

He won the presidential elections in 1989, running unopposed 

as the candidate for the newly created National Movement for a 

Developing Society (MNSD—Mouvement National pour une 

Société de Développement).

Most Nigeriens were not satisfied with Saibou’s half-hearted 

attempts to liberalize politics. Students and union leaders, in 

particular, orchestrated demonstrations in support of multi-party 

rule and other reforms. In the North, tensions between the 

Tuareg and the government turned violent in 1990, marking the 

start of a rebellion that would engulf northern Mali and Niger.

Transition to Democracy

The Saibou regime was suspended in 

July 1991. After the adoption of a new 

constitution in 1993, Niger held free, 

multi-party elections for the first time, 

and Mahamane Ousmane (pictured) of 

the MNSD was elected President.

Under the Ousmane government, Niger 

faced a number of challenges: a weak

economy, polarizing political infighting, 

and Tuareg rebellion. These difficulties 

were magnified in early 1994 by the 

devaluation of the CFA Franc, the currency used by Niger (see 

Economics and Resources). Ousmane’s only real success was 

negotiating a peace accord with the Tuareg rebels in 1995.

After the results of 1995 elections essentially forced Ousmane 

to appoint his rival Hama Amadou as Prime Minister, political 

gridlock ensued, eventually leading to strikes and civil strife.

Using this political turmoil as a pretext, Colonel Ibrahim Baré 

Maïnassara led a coup against Ousmane in January 1996.

Return to Military Rule

In an effort to establish the legitimacy of his rule, Maïnassara

announced that he soon would articulate a new constitution 

and hold elections. In July 1996 Maïnassara won the elections, 

which were seen by most as blatantly fraudulent, and went on 

to develop a reputation for cruelty, corruption, and ineptitude.
HISTORY &

MYTH

In response, most single-country donors suspended foreign aid

to Niger, while the World Bank and the International Monetary 

Fund (IMF) tightened the already strict terms of their financial 

support (see Economics and Resources). As soldiers and civil 

servants stopped receiving regular paychecks, mutinies and 

strikes mounted. In April 1999, Maïnassara was murdered by 

Major Daoud Mallam Wanké, his head bodyguard.

The Tandja Era

Wanké acted swiftly to return 

Niger to civilian government. He 

created a National Reconciliation 

Council to pave the way for a 

new constitution and yet another 

round of elections. The new 

constitution was approved in 

mid-1999, and elections were 

held in November. The winner 

was Mamadou Tandja (pictured) 

of the MNSD.

First Term: The focus of Tandja’s first term was to return Niger 

to sound fiscal footing. With the help of the IMF and the World 

Bank, he implemented the Programme Spécial, which focused 

on health and education. He also resumed regular salaries to 

government workers and decentralized some political powers. 

Credited with restoring political stability, he was reelected with 

65.5% of the vote in a free and fair election in 2004. 

Second Term: At the beginning of Tandja’s second term, he 

made the unpopular move of levying a 19% Value Added Tax 

(VAT) on basic food products like wheat, milk, sugar, and rice. 

The VAT was ill-timed, as drought and a locust plague in 2004 

caused a famine in Niger in 2005. Foreign relief was delayed 

as Tandja spent months denying the problem.

Renewed Rebellion: As the famine waned, Tandja faced the 

new problem of renewed rebellion by the Tuaregs, who felt that 

the government was not honoring the terms of the 1995 peace 

accord. Although 11,000 people were displaced, Tandja 

suppressed coverage of the conflict. A second peace accord 

was reached in 2009.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Coup: Under Niger’s constitution, Tandja was required to step 

down at the end of his second term. Wanting to stay on, Tandja 

held an illegitimate referendum on August 4, 2009, that would 

have extended his term. Although the official result favored him

due to an opposition boycott, Tandja had grown unpopular. On 

February 18, 2010, the military detained Tandja and removed 

him from power. A transition government administered the 

country until Mahamadou Issoufou (see Political and Social 

Relations) was elected President of Niger in January 2011.

The Origin of the Spirits

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an 

objective record of the past based on verifiable facts, 

myth is a type of story that members of a culture use 

to embody their cultural values and to explain the 

origins of humans and the natural world. Myths are 

important because they provide a sense of heritage 

and identity to the cultures in which they originate.

Many Nigeriens believe that powerful but invisible 

spirits intervene positively and negatively in daily life 

(see Religion and Spirituality). Similarly, the 

members of the Hausa ethnic group share a myth 

that explains how those spirits came to be.

According to the myth, Adamu, the first man, and 

Hawa, the first woman, gave birth to 50 sets of 

twins. The Supreme Being that had created Adamu 

and Hawa asked to see the children. Afraid that the 

Supreme Being wanted to take the children, Adamu 

and Hawa hid the more beautiful twin of each set.

Being omniscient, the Supreme Being knew that he 

was being duped. He punished Adamu and Hawa by 

making the beautiful, hidden twins invisible forever, 

along with all their descendants, and it is those very 

same descendants who intervene to this day in the 

daily lives of the Hausa. 
Official Name

Republic of Niger

République du Niger (French)

Jumhuriyar Nijar (Hausa)

Political Borders

Algeria: 594 mi

Libya: 220 mi

Chad: 730 mi

Nigeria: 930 mi

Benin: 165 mi

Burkina Faso: 390 mi

Mali: 510 mi

Capital

Niamey

Demographics

Niger’s population of 16.3 million is growing at a rate of 3.4% 

per year, the third highest rate in the world. The country’s rapid

population growth is enabled by the world’s highest fertility rate, 

according to which the average Nigerien women will bear 7.2 

children. With only 17% of its population living in cities, Niger is 

classified as a rural country. In recent years, however, the 

urban population has been growing at a rate of 5% per year. 

Similarly, since more than half the population is under age 14, 

Niger is considered a young country.

Flag

Similar to the Indian flag, the 

Nigerien flag consists of three 

equal-width horizontal stripes of 

orange, white, and green having an 

orange circle centered in the white 

stripe. The circle represents the 

sun and the sacrifices made by the 

Nigerien people, while the color orange stands for northern 

Niger, which is dominated by the Sahara Desert. The green 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
stripe represents Niger’s verdant southern region, while white 

stands for purity and innocence.

Geography

About twice the size of Texas, Niger is a landlocked West 

African country that borders Algeria and Libya to the north, 

Chad to the east, Nigeria and Benin to the south, and Burkina 

Faso and Mali to the west. Niger is largely flat, with most of its 

territory lying 650-1,650 ft above sea 

level. Notable exceptions include the 

Djado Plateau, which rises 2,600-3,300 

ft, and the Aïr Mountains in the north, 

which reach 7,218 ft at Mont Idoukal-nTaghès, the highest point in Niger.

Bodies of Water: Apart from rare oases 

in the desert (pictured), Niger’s primary 

bodies of water are the Niger River and 

Lake Chad. The Niger River cuts a 185-

mi path through Niger’s southwestern 

corner and is the main reason that agriculture is possible in the 

country. Lake Chad sits on Niger’s southeastern border and 

has shrunk substantially since the mid-20th century.

Climate

Although Niger’s climate is hot, dry, and dusty all year round, it 

varies slightly with the seasons. November through February 

constitute the cool season, when temperatures in the capital 

reach 85-95°F during the day and drop to 70°F at night. The 

hot season runs from March until May and brings hazy West 

African trade winds known as harmattan. Temperatures in 

Niamey may exceed 110 °F during the day and drop to the 

mid-80s°F at night. The rainy season, lasting from June 

through September, brings some relief, as daytime temperature 

drop to 85°F.

Niger’s climate also varies across three zones: desert, northern 

Sahelian, and southern Sahelian (the Sahel is a semiarid zone 

that extends across north central Africa and divides the Sahara 

Desert from the Sudanian savannas). The desert zone spans

northern Niger and consists of rocky plains that receive about 4 

inches of rain per year. The northern Sahelian zone stretches 

across central Niger and consists of savanna that receives 4-

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
14 inches of rain-per-year and where livestock grazing is 

common. The southern Sahelian zone receives 14-24 inches of 

rain per year and is the center of Nigerien farming.

Natural Hazards

Niger suffers from an interrelated set of problems linked to poor 

soil quality and water shortages. Inferior farming techniques 

and overgrazing have led to soil erosion, while widespread 

reliance on wood fuel (see Technology and Material) has 

contributed to deforestation. Both issues amplify the preexisting 

problems of desertification and recurrent drought.

Government

The Republic of Niger divides administratively into 8 regions: 

Agadez, Diffa, Dosso, Maradi, Tahoua, Tillaberi, Zinder, and 

the capital district of Niamey. These regions divide further into 

36 districts and 266 communes. Since attaining independence 

from France on August 3, 1960, Niger has had 7 constitutions, 

the most recent of which took effect in 2010.

Executive Branch

Incumbent President Mahamadou 

Issoufou (pictured) assumed office in 

April 2011 concurrent to Brigi Rafini

becoming Prime Minister (PM). Elected 

by popular vote to serve a maximum of 

two 5-year terms, the President serves 

as chief-of-state and commander of the 

military. The PM acts as head-ofgovernment and is chosen by the President who also selects 

26 Cabinet members who are approved by the legislature.

Legislative Branch

Niger’s legislature consists entirely of the 113-member National 

Assembly. Like the President, members of the legislature are 

elected by popular vote to serve 5-year terms.

Judicial Branch

Niger’s legal system is a mix of formal law, which derives from 

the French legal system, and customary law, which is based on 

the traditional, unwritten practices of the indigenous population. 

Civil and criminal cases are usually tried in formal courts, while 

issues such as divorce and inheritance are often adjudicated in 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
customary courts. All matters, however, can be appealed within 

the formal court system.

Political Climate

When Mahamadou Issoufou took office in 2011, it marked the 

completion of a messy transition that began when former 

President Mamadou Tandja refused 

to step down at the end of his second 

term (see History and Myth).

Defense

The Nigerien Armed Forces (FAN—

Forces Armées Nigeriennes) consist

of 5,300 troops divided between an 

Army and an Air Force. The FAN has 

no Navy because Niger is landlocked. 

Despite lacking sufficient resources, 

the FAN is generally regarded as a 

competent and professional force. Its 

missions include maintaining Niger’s territorial integrity, 

protecting national interests, aiding the National Police,

countering small arms proliferation, and contributing to regional 

security. The FAN has participated in peacekeeping missions 

with the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), and the 

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and 

it currently has forces deployed in Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, and 

the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).

Consisting of 5,200 personnel, the Army comprises the majority 

of the FAN. Although technically separate, the 100-strong Air 

Force functions mainly as a transport service for the Army. 

Both components are poorly equipped, with the Army relying 

on only about 20 armored personnel carriers for its armored 

capability. The Air Force relies mostly on 5 C-130s, 2 Mi-17 

helicopters, and a pair of propeller-driven planes.

Paramilitary Forces: With a joint strength of 5,400 personnel, 

Niger’s paramilitary forces are responsible for law enforcement, 

border security, and augmenting the FAN. The National Police 

(1,500 personnel) are responsible for urban law enforcement, 

while the gendarmerie (1,400 personnel) performs that role in 

rural areas. Like the FAN, the National Police lack sufficient 

resources, with less than one officer per 10,000 Nigeriens.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security

The most significant security threats facing Niger emanate from 

terrorist groups based in neighboring countries and, to a lesser 

extent, in Niger itself. Although not all of these terrorist groups 

operate in Niger, they represent a persistent threat of instability 

and are responsible for several negative side effects.

AQIM: Al-Qaeda in the Lands of the 

Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) is an Islamic 

jihadist group that seeks to overthrow 

the Algerian government and replace 

it with an Islamic caliphate. Although 

AQIM is not known for operating in 

Niger, it poses a security threat to the 

country in several ways. First, AQIM 

is known to operate through criminal 

organizations to conduct kidnappings 

for profit in Niger. Second, AQIM is thought to be working with 

Tuareg militant groups that operate in the Sahara Desert, from 

southern Algeria and Libya into northern Mali and Niger. Third, 

AQIM is known to train and finance other terrorist groups in the 

region, including Boko Haram and Harakat Ansar al-Din

(Photo: AQIM leader Abdelmalek Droukdal).

Boko Haram: Similar to AQIM, Boko Haram is a jihadist group 

that seeks to overthrow its national government and replace it 

with an Islamic regime. Based in northern Nigeria, Boko Haram 

has trained with AQIM and al-Shabaab, a Somalia-based alQaeda affiliate. Boko Haram is a threat to Niger because it has 

infiltrated the country and developed ties with local Muslims 

who are unhappy with the secular Nigerien government.

MNJ: The Niger Movement for Justice (MNJ—Mouvement des 

Nigeriens pour la Justice) is a rebel group that was founded at 

the start of the Tuareg rebellion of 2007-2009 (see History and 

Myth). The MNJ seeks greater rights for minorities in Niger and 

broader distribution of wealth, especially wealth derived from 

uranium mines in historically Tuareg-controlled lands. Although 

the MNJ agreed to a formal peace accord in 2009, it has 

continued to wage a low-level insurgency in the Aïr Mountains

region. The targets of this insurgency have mostly been limited 

to military installations, uranium mines, and utility companies.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
MNLA: The National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad 

(MNLA—Mouvement National pour la Libération de l'Azawad) 

is a Tuareg separatist group based in Mali. In 2012 the MNLA 

declared the new state of Azawad in the northern half of Mali. 

Although the MNLA is a rival of AQIM and its operations so far 

have been confined to Mali, the Nigerien government remains 

concerned that the conflict will spill across the shared border.

Harakat Ansar al-Din: Like the MNLA, Harakat Ansar al-Din is 

a Mali-based Tuareg rebel group. Unlike the MNLA, Ansar alDin is not a separatist movement and is an AQIM ally, meaning 

that conflict with the MNLA 

may occur and potentially 

spread to Niger.

Weapons Smuggling: Since 

the conclusion of the Libyan 

Civil War of 2011, weapons 

smuggling has presented a 

threat to Niger. This problem 

first became apparent when the FAN clashed with AQIM 

fighters who were armed with sophisticated weaponry that 

probably was stolen from Libyan armories. AQIM is not the only 

problem, however, as many Tuareg rebels fought on the side of

Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and likely retained some advanced 

weaponry, which may embolden them to renew their conflict 

with the Nigerien government (Photo: An MNJ fighter).

Refugees: Over the past 2 decades, thousands of Malians 

have fled violent conflict in their home country to take refuge in 

neighboring states. According to current estimates, Niger hosts 

27,950 Malian refugees. As Niger already faces difficulties in 

securing enough food for its own population, these refugees 

strain already stretched public services.

Regional Relations

As Tuareg uprisings have shown, ethnic conflict tends to spill 

across borders in West Africa. Consequently, Niger’s relations 

with its 7 neighboring states are both challenging and 

somewhat unpredictable. Although regional groups like the 

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) allow 

for some degree of cooperation between West African states, 

recent events in Mali point out the limits of such bodies.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Niger’s relations with neighbors 

range from friendly to tense. 

Niger maintains fairly close ties 

with Nigeria through extensive 

trade—legal and illegal—across 

their shared border. Niger also 

has had generally positive ties 

with Algeria since 1995, when 

Algeria helped arrange a peace 

accord between Niger and the 

Tuareg rebels (see History and 

Myth). However, those relations have been strained at times by 

insurgency and illicit activity on the shared border between the 

two countries. Border disputes have also led to tense relations 

with Chad, Burkina Faso, and Benin (Photo: Nigerien President 

Mahamadou Issoufou with Beninese President Yayi Boni).

Because of their common ethnic profile and shared problem of 

Tuareg rebellion, relations between Mali and Niger have been 

relatively close. However, this closeness was threatened when 

Niger refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the coup in Mali 

in 2012. Relations between Libya and Niger deteriorated after 

the fall of Gaddafi in 2011, as Niger had been close to Gaddafi 

and supported his family during Libya’s civil war.

Niger-US Relations

Since attaining Independence, Niger’s relationship with the US 

been generally positive, although frequent military coups have 

complicated matters. The Peace Corps operated in Niger from 

1962 until 2011, when kidnappings by AQIM became a major 

threat to volunteers. The US helps Niger fight terrorism through 

the Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP).

TSCTP

The Trans-Sahara region historically has served as a haven for 

illicit trade and, more recently, for terrorist activities conducted

by some of the organizations described above. Capitalizing on 

the successful 2003 Pan-Sahel Initiative to neutralize terrorist 

safe havens in Africa, the US Department of State initiated the 

TSCTP with Exercise Flintlock in 2005, in which US special 

operations forces trained counterparts in 7 Saharan countries 

on regional security and stability practices.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
The main objective of the TSCTP is to deny terrorists the ability 

to move freely in the sparsely populated Sahara. The TSCTP 

also aims to facilitate cooperation on counterterrorism between 

Pan-Sahel countries (Chad, Mauritania, Mali, Niger), Maghreb 

allies (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), Senegal, and Nigeria.

Ethnic Groups

Nigerien ethnic groups divide 

broadly into nomadic pastoralists, 

such as the Tuareg and Fulani, 

and sedentary agriculturalists, 

like the Hausa, Zarma, and 

Kanuri. Most Nigeriens are 

agriculturalists, and even recently

many pastoralists have shifted to

agriculture or other subsistence methods as desertification has 

reduced the amount of suitable grazing lands.

Hausa: Comprising 55% of the population, the Hausa are the 

largest ethnic group in both Niger and Nigeria. Although they 

historically have been known as traders, the Hausa also have 

engaged in farming and producing handicrafts, especially with 

clay, leather, metals, and textiles. The group includes people of

many different ethnic backgrounds who are united by a single 

language and an extensive history. The Hausa traditionally 

have been a feudal society, and since the 14th century at the 

latest they have been arranged politically into 7 autonomous 

city-states (see History and Myth).

Zarma: Along with the technically separate but closely related 

Songhai people, the Zarma ethnic group comprises 21% of the 

Nigerien population. Living mainly in southwestern Niger and 

along the Niger River, most Zarma are fisherman or sedentary 

agriculturalists. As they are the primary ethnic group in Niamey, 

the Zarma traditionally have been influential in Nigerien politics.

Tuareg: Calling themselves the kel tamashek, or “speakers of 

Tamashek” (see Language and Communication), the Tuareg 

are nomads who traditionally inhabit northern Niger and Mali 

and southern Algeria. Comprising approximately 9% of Niger’s 

population, the Tuareg work mostly as traders or herders of 

camels, goats, and sheep. They group socially into tribes and 

clans which collectively form confederations led by chiefs.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
The Tuareg historically make detailed social distinctions, even 

within the same clan, and each person has a defined place in

society. In modern times, the status and privileges associated 

with “high” social class have disappeared to a large degree 

among the Tuareg.

Fulani: Also known as the Peul, the Fulani make up 9% of the 

population and live across a broad east-west swath of Niger’s 

Sahelian zones. This wide dispersion is partly a consequence 

of their search for land on which to graze cattle, which are an 

important part of the Fulani way of life. Some Fulani have 

adopted agriculture as herds have shrunk in recent years.

Kanuri: Descended from the Empire of Kanem-Bornu (see 

History and Myth) and known to the Hausa as the Béri-béri, the 

Kanuri ethnic group encompasses 5% of Niger’s population 

and inhabits the region east of Lake Chad. Although they 

initially were salt traders, the Kanuri now subsist on fishing, 

livestock herding, and agriculture.

Other Groups: People belonging to other ethnic groups 

comprise about 1% of Niger’s population. Those other ethnic 

groups include the Toubou, who live on the border between 

Niger and Chad; the Gourmantché, who live between the Niger 

River and Burkina Faso; Arabs, who for the most part are 

Libyans; and Europeans, of whom most are French people 

living in Niamey.

Social Relations

Like the Tuareg, many Nigerien 

ethnic groups divide internally into 

classes or castes. In some cases, 

those classes or castes determine 

both occupation and potential 

spouses. Traditionally, the “higher” 

classes have been identified less 

by wealth than by certain external symbols, such as behavior, 

clothing, and jewelry. For example, members of higher classes 

traditionally have spoken in reserved tones in order to seem 

dignified. They also have tended to wear flowing textiles 

designed to complement a rotund figure. In the past, higher 

classes in some parts of the country even barred lower classes 

from wearing certain forms of ornamentation.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
These traditional class distinctions remain strong in rural areas, 

although they have begun to erode in urban areas as a new 

sense of class has started to emerge. Marriage between 

different ethnic groups and social classes has become more 

common, and the rise of a money economy has eroded some 

of the traditional structures through which labor has been 

organized.

Slavery

Slavery has deep roots in Niger’s history, beginning 

thousands of years ago—when slave caravans first 

passed through the region—and continuing into the 

21st century. The French outlawed the slave trade 

at the beginning of the colonial era, and although 

the slave trade remained illegal when Niger gained 

independence, the government did not criminalize 

slavery itself until 2003 when it was forced to act by 

international outcry.

Despite the fact that slavery is now a crime, recent 

studies indicate that at least 43,000 people remain 

enslaved in Niger. Most of them are descendants of 

people captured hundreds of years ago and thus 

were born into slavery. Many slaves live in areas so 

isolated from modern life that it would never occur 

to them to question their servitude, and much less 

to know or suspect that freedom is their legal right.

Some slaves reportedly have rejected liberty on the 

basis that it would be a burden to live independently 

after spending their lives in captivity. For the most 

part, slavery continues due to physical coercion, 

social intimidation, and a lack of economic 

alternatives. In addition, the parts of Niger where 

slavery still exists are isolated, making it difficult for 

authorities to enforce the laws banning it.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

An estimated 90-98% of Nigeriens are Muslim. Although there 

were Christian missions throughout Niger during the colonial 

period, Christians—both Protestants and Catholics—account 

for less than 2% of the population 

and live mainly in urban areas. 

Despite their Islamic faith, many 

Nigeriens incorporate pre-Islamic 

beliefs and practices into their 

religious lives, while some follow 

those traditional beliefs and 

practices exclusively. Since the 

constitution protects religious freedom, consequently, both 

Christian and Islamic holy days are recognized as public 

holidays (Photo: A mosque in Niger).

Muslim Faith

Origins of Islam

Islam dates to the 6th century AD, when Muhammad, whom 

Muslims consider God’s final Prophet, was born in Mecca in 

what is today Saudi Arabia. Muslims believe that while 

Muhammad was meditating in the desert, the Archangel 

Gabriel visited him over a 23-year period, revealing the Qur’an, 

or “Holy Book,” to guide their everyday lives and shape their 

lifelong values.

Meaning of Islam

Islam is a way of life to its adherents. The term Islam literally 

means submission to the will of God, and a Muslim is “a person 

who submits to God.”

Muslim Sects: Islam is divided into two sects: Sunni and Shi’a. 

Sunni Muslims are distinguished by their belief that the leader 

(Caliph) of the Muslim community (Ummah) should be elected.

Most of Niger’s Muslims are Sunni Muslims. Conversely, Shi’a 

Muslims, who account for a small percentage of Niger’s 

Muslims, believe the Caliph should be a direct descendant of 

the Prophet Muhammad.

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Sufi Tradition: Characterized by mysticism and ritualistic 

prayer, many who follow the Sufi tradition belong to religious 

brotherhoods (see “Islam” below) whose members follow the 

teachings of their spiritual leaders. Adhering to Sunni tradition, 

Sufis are not fundamentalists.

Five Pillars of Islam

There are five basic principles of the Islamic faith. 

• Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God

and Muhammad is His Messenger.”

• Prayer (Salat): Pray 5 

times a day facing the 

Ka’aba in Mecca. The 

Ka’aba is seen as the 

center of the Muslim 

world and a unifying focal 

point for Islamic worship 

(Photo: US Marine at the 

Ka’aba in 2012).

• Charity (Zakat): Donate alms, a percentage of one’s 

income, to the poor or needy. 

• Fasting (Sawm): Abstain from food, drink, and sexual 

relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of 

Ramadan.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj): Perform the pilgrimage to 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia, at least once in a lifetime.

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel those of two other major religions, 

namely Judaism and Christianity. In fact, Muslims consider 

Christians and Jews “people of the Book,” referring to biblical 

scriptures, because they also share their monotheistic belief in 

one God.

Abraham: All three faiths trace their lineage to Abraham, 

known as Ibrahim to Muslims. However, Christians and Jews 

trace their descent to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son 

Isaac, while Muslims trace theirs to Abraham, his Egyptian 

concubine, Hagar, and their son Ismail.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Scriptures: Much of the content of 

the Qur’an is similar to teachings 

and stories found in the Christian 

Bible’s Old and New Testaments, 

and Muslims view Islam as the 

completion of previous revelations 

to Jewish and Christian prophets. 

However, Muslims believe Jews 

and Christians altered God’s word 

and that Muhammad received God’s true revelation (Pictured: 

Qur’an page from 8th century North Africa).

Jesus: The three religions differ significantly in their 

understanding of the role of Jesus. While Christians consider 

Him the divine Messiah who fulfills the Jewish scriptures, Jews 

are still waiting for the Messiah to come. Muslims consider 

Jesus a prophet, but they neither acknowledge the Christian 

view of His divinity nor believe in the Christian Trinity.

View of Death: Muslims believe that the time of both birth and 

death is determined by Allah, or God. While people grieve the 

loss of friends and family members, they do not see death itself 

as a negative event, as Muslims believe that a person who 

lived a good life lives on in Heaven.

Concept of Jihad

The concept of jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and moral 

pursuit of God’s command to lead a virtuous life. It should not 

be confused with violence and notions of “holy war” that often 

are associated with the term. Most Muslims strongly oppose 

terrorism and consider it contrary to Islamic beliefs.

Ramadan

Ramadan is a month-long time for inner reflection, self-control,

and focus on God. During this time, Muslims who are physically 

able are required to fast from dawn to sunset. Many Muslims 

believe that denying their hunger helps them to learn selfcontrol, appreciate the difficulties of the poor, and gain spiritual 

renewal—by fasting, one learns to appreciate the good in life. It 

is common for Muslims to break their fast at sunset with a light 

snack followed by prayer and dinner. Meals during Ramadan 

tend to be more elaborate than those at other times of year.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Known in Niger as Carême (the French word for Catholic Lent), 

Ramadan is emphasized strongly because it is the most visible 

of all religious duties. Muslims who do not fast during Ramadan 

are criticized by friends, family, and neighbors. Consequently, 

even less-observant Muslims fast for Ramadan, when they also 

tend to behave piously and follow Islamic law more closely.

Ramadan is observed during the 9th month of the Islamic 

calendar (see Time and Space) and is anchored in three holy

days, one of which occurs later in the Islamic year:

• Lailat ul-Qadr, also known as “The Night of Power,” marks 

Muhammad’s receipt of the first verses of the Qur’an. 

• Eid al-Adha, known as the “Festival of Sacrifice,” celebrates 

Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, Ishmael (or Isaac, 

according to the Christian faith), to prove his loyalty to God. 

It is celebrated about 2 months after Ramadan on the same 

day the annual Hajj ends.

• Eid al-Fitr, known as the “Festival of Fast-Breaking,” is a 3-

day festival celebrated at Ramadan’s end.

The History of Islam in Niger

Arabs involved in transSaharan trade (see History 

and Myth) first brought Islam 

to Niger in the 9th century. As 

Hausa city-states began to 

grow in the 10th century, more 

trade routes opened and Islam 

pushed south. By the 14th century most Hausa had adopted 

Islam, although many Hausa continued to incorporate 

traditional beliefs and practices into their Islamic worship (see 

“Traditional Beliefs”). In the 19th century, Usman Dan Fodio, an 

Islamic scholar who opposed the Hausa interpretation of Islam, 

conducted a holy war against the Hausa city-states and 

created the Islamic Sokoto Empire. The Empire eventually 

declined as it clashed with forces from the Tuareg and Zarma 

ethnic groups (see History and Myth). When Europeans arrived 

in the late 19th century, many of the region’s inhabitants were 

Muslim (Pictured: Fulani marabouts, or Islamic scholars, study

manuscripts in the early 20th century).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religion Today 

Traditional Beliefs 

Before adopting Islam, most Nigeriens practiced animism, the 

belief that spirits inhabit natural objects such as rivers and 

trees and influence human existence. Despite identifying as 

Muslims, many Nigeriens today maintain a similar animistic 

worldview. They believe natural objects are sacred and 

deserve respect—a belief that connects them closely to the 

natural environment. Consequently, foreign nationals should

ask permission before cutting trees, gathering wild plants, or 

hunting animals.

Although traditional beliefs and practices vary among groups, 

many Nigeriens share a belief that spirits or spiritual forces can 

intervene in the lives of humans to grant health and fortune or, 

conversely, sickness and hardship. Some Zarma-Songhai, 

Hausa, Fulani, and Tuareg groups, for example, believe that 

certain spirits choose certain individuals to intercede with 

humans on behalf of the spirits(see “Spirit Possession”).

In line with their assimilated beliefs, many Nigeriens identify the 

spirits of traditional animism with djinns—spirits or genies that 

are mentioned in the Qur’an. Consequently, some Nigeriens

who believe they have been possessed by a djinn visit Islamic 

scholars specializing in exorcism. Nevertheless, not all Muslims 

approve of the associated exorcism rites. Other Nigeriens wear 

amulets to ward off evil spirits or consult with natural healers to 

find cures for their ailments (see Sustenance and Health).

By contrast, many inhabitants of

the Mawri sub-group of the Hausa 

ethnic group adhere exclusively to 

traditional beliefs and worship 

spirits known as bori, which they 

believe inhabit the countryside. 

The Mawri also perform rituals 

meant to alleviate conflict and 

renew ties between humans and 

spirits. For some Mawri, adherence to these traditions is an act 

of resistance to Islam and its history of suppressing traditional 

beliefs and practices (Photo: Wodaabe men dressed to perform 

at a festival).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Spirit Possession

Although spirit possession ceremonies in Niger vary 

by local tradition, they are typically public events that 

draw large crowds of onlookers and involve singing, 

dancing, and music-making. Attendees usually hire 

musicians, prepare food, and in some cases, make 

transportation arrangements for out-of-town guests.

For the Mawri community of Dogondoutchi, bush 

spirits or bori affect the daily lives of humans, 

bringing both good and bad fortune. Followers of the 

bori channel their spiritual power to assist in healing, 

influence rainfall, prevent famine, and otherwise

intervene in the community’s daily affairs. Spirits 

choose and possess their hosts for a lifetime, 

although they only appear and communicate through 

their hosts during ceremonies known as wasani.

During Songhai possession dances, musicians play 

a godji, or violin. Carved from a gourd and covered 

by a lizard skin, the godji has only a single string—a 

horse hair—that is plucked with a bow to produce a 

high-pitched sound that resembles a human wail.

Among the Kel Ewey Tuareg, possession is only 

appropriate for unmarried girls and for women with 

grown children. During possession rituals, the spirit 

medium remains seated and stationary apart from 

strictly choreographed head motions.

With Sufi revitalization and Islamic reform having

swept across Niger (see “Islam” below), Islamic 

leaders have condemned spirit possessions—both 

for purposes of healthcare (see Sustenance and 

Health) and a source of entertainment—as evil and 

corrupt. Similarly, those leaders have identified 

accompanying singing, dancing, and drumming as 

un-Islamic traditions that should be purged.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Islam 

About 95% of Niger’s Muslims are Sunni and about 5% are 

Shi’a. Some Sunnis align with Sufi brotherhoods such as the 

Quadiriyya and Tijaniyya, which are less orthodox forms of 

Islam that place importance on mysticism, ritual simplicity, and 

the individual’s relationship with God.

Most Nigeriens hold moderate views and tolerate other faiths, 

although Muslims in Hausaland and the eastern part of the 

country tend to be more conservative than those in the west. 

Observant Nigerien Muslims consume neither pork nor alcohol. 

Some observant Muslim women in Hausaland live in seclusion, 

leaving the home only in the accompaniment of their children or 

their husbands—a practice that emerged during a period of 

Arabization in the colonial era.

Many rites-of-passage in Niger are connected 

to Islam (see Family and Kinship). A marabout 

(Islamic scholar), for example, is a fundamental 

part of a baptème, or baby naming ceremony. 

In addition, Nigeriens generally follow Islamic 

burial customs and some participate in 

polygynous marriage arrangements (see 

Family and Kinship).

Religion and Education: From age 6, many 

Nigerien Muslim children attend Qur’anic schools in which they 

learn about the practices and morals of Islam and memorize 

Qur’anic verses in Arabic by writing them on wooden boards 

(pictured).

Changing Islamic Beliefs and Practices

For many years after Independence, both military and civilian 

regimes in Niger used the Islamic Association of Niger (IAN)—

the only officially sanctioned Islamic association—to legitimize 

their control. The IAN disdained Sufi orders and suppressed 

reformist Islamist movements. The establishment of multi-party 

politics in 1990 fundamentally changed the religious landscape 

as both the Sufi orders and Islamist organizations capitalized 

on the political liberalization that ensued. Today there are more 

than 50 sanctioned Islamic associations. Although most Muslim 

leaders in Niger emphasize religious commonalities, disputes 

between Muslim groups occasionally flare.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Izala: The early 1990s also brought a wave of Islamic 

revivalism. Founded in 1978 in neighboring Nigeria, the 

Wahhabist-inspired Society for the Removal of Innovation and 

the Restoration of Tradition (Izala movement) stood steadfast 

as a vocal critic of prevailing Islamic beliefs and practices in 

both Niger and Nigeria that were “tainted” by local traditions. 

The movement is strongest in Hausaland, where leaders seek 

to detach traditional African beliefs and ceremonies from “true” 

Islam, challenge the authority of local elders, and support the 

spread of Islam through education. Izala leaders also promote 

moral discipline, self-restraint, and frugality.

Sufi Orders: Sufi orders responded by denouncing conflict, 

promoting their followers active participation in political life, and 

supporting legal reforms to improve the situation of women and 

children while still adhering to Islamic doctrine. Some educated 

women have taken on high-profile public roles since the 1990s, 

promoting Islamic learning in their communities and launching 

social initiatives.

Fundamentalist Islamic Organizations: Reports suggest that 

fundamentalist Islam may be replacing Sufism in some areas 

along Niger’s borders. In the West, militants linked to al-Qaeda 

have infiltrated the country in search of recruits. In the South, a 

Nigeria-based Islamist militia known as Boko Haram (“Western 

teachings are sinful”—see Political and Social Relations) has 

found some Nigerien followers and has publicly threatened 

Muslim imams (worship leaders) who denounce its ideology.

Religion and the Law 

The constitution guarantees religious 

freedom and provides for the separation of 

church and state. The government is 

committed to avoiding religious or ethnic 

incitement and opposes inflammatory 

preaching, whether by Muslim clerics or by 

Christian missionaries. The IslamicChristian Relations Commission sponsors

training sessions on interfaith dialogue 

(Photo: Nigerien Minister of Religious 

Affairs Issaka Labo in 2008).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

In a country with a harsh environment and limited employment 

prospects, families serve as mutual support networks that are 

essential to individual survival. Many aspects of Nigerien family 

life are derived from Islamic tradition.

Residence

Residence spaces, patterns, and structures vary between rich 

and poor, urban and rural, and nomadic and sedentary.

Rural: There are two main types 

of dwellings found in rural areas: 

tents and bukkas (huts). Tents, 

which are collapsible structures 

made from grasses and animal 

hides, are most common among 

nomads. They are designed to 

be moved quickly and frequently 

and thus are furnished lightly. 

Bukkas, by contrast, are stationary structures with walls made 

of straw or adobe, a mixture of clay and straw. They consist of 

a windowless, circular room covered by a conical roof. In larger 

villages, some Nigeriens live in rectangular adobe houses.

Urban: Most urban Nigeriens live in rented, rectangular adobe 

houses with one to several rooms. Most urban homes have 

packed dirt or concrete floors and a 3-layer roof that consists of 

wood, straw, and an outer layer of clay. Some foreign nationals 

and wealthy Nigeriens live in expensive French-style dwellings 

known as villas, which have amenities—such as electricity and 

running water—that are relatively rare in most Nigerien homes.

Patterns: Nigerien residences tend to cluster into compounds. 

In Hausa communities, compounds are organized around the 

home of a father whose sons live with their wives in adjacent 

homes. Tuareg compounds are organized more closely around 

nuclear families, although extended families live close together. 

Many urban compounds are not kin-based at all, as unrelated 

families often live in the same compound while members of the 

same extended family live far away from each other.

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Family Structure

Most ethnic groups in Niger are patriarchal, meaning that men 

control most aspects of society, including family life; patrilineal, 

meaning that descent is traced through males; and patrilocal, 

meaning that newlyweds live in close proximity to the family of 

the husband. Accordingly, men serve as heads of household in 

Nigerien society, and members of extended families combine 

their resources and efforts under the guidance of those men.

Both the nuclear and extended family structures are central to 

Nigerien culture, as they provide an important mutual support 

network in a harsh environment. Younger family members are 

expected to support the elderly, who are highly revered, while 

wealthier family members are expected to help their relatives in 

need, regardless of how well they know those family members.

Polygyny: Polygyny, or the practice of men having multiple 

wives at the same time, is both legal and common in Niger. It is 

more common among sedentary communities than nomadic 

communities, probably due to the influence of Islamic law (see 

Religion and Spirituality), which allows men to have up to 4 

wives at a time. Since many men cannot afford to support 

multiple wives, the practice is declining in urban areas.

Children

Nigeriens consider children an expression of God’s blessing

and typically believe that childless couples are cursed. Given 

the social pressure that men experience to produce offspring, 

women who do not produce children lose society’s respect and 

risk their husband’s divorcing 

them.

Many Nigerien women begin 

having children before age 18 

and are encouraged to have 

as many children as possible. 

Perhaps due partly to this 

emphasis on childbirth, Niger 

has the world’s highest 

fertility rate, and Nigerien women can expect to bear more than 

7 children during their lives. Since most children begin to work 

in the household at age 7, there is also an economic incentive 

to have as many children as possible.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Nigerien parents are considered responsible for their children 

until marriage and sometimes even beyond. In return, children 

are expected to obey their parents and to take care of them in 

their old age. Children are seen as belonging to the community, 

so neighbors may discipline a child whose 

parents are not around.

Birth: Nigeriens traditionally do not discuss a 

pregnancy before the child has been born for 

fear it will bring bad luck. After the birth, the 

mother and child spend 40 days in seclusion, 

as Nigeriens believe that the mother is 

surrounded by evil spirits during this period. 

The seclusion period also allows the mother to 

rest. Female relatives handle household chores 

(see Sex and Gender) during this recovery 

phase, and it is common for the new mother to 

spend time at her parents’ home. After the seclusion period 

passes, the mother dresses up to receive gifts from friends and 

family. In addition, sacrifices of millet and sugar are made to 

God in thanks for the healthy birth.

Childhood: Babies are kept in close proximity to their mothers 

and usually are carried in a sling on the mother’s back. Infants 

are weaned at age 2-3, after which female siblings have most 

responsibility for their care. Nigerien toddlers are not

disciplined very stringently and generally are allowed to explore 

their environment with relative freedom.

Rites of Passage

Nigeriens observe the following rites-of-passage ceremonies to 

mark the various stages of life.

Baby-Naming Ceremony

Occurring one week after a child’s birth, the baptème, or name 

day, is a ceremony in which the Qur’anic name of a Nigerien 

child is revealed. It usually begins early in the morning, when 

the head of household slaughters a sheep and then gives the 

meat to family and friends. One or more marabouts (Muslim 

holy men—see Religion and Spirituality) then announce the 

child’s name. Later, the women of the child’s household cook 

food and distribute it to friends and family, while the mother 

receives gifts such as money, soap, and baby clothes.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Marriage

Marriage is an essential rite of passage for Nigeriens. For both 

sexes, marriage confers elevated social status. Consequently, 

most Nigeriens get married as it is considered improper for a 

girl to remain single. Although marrying before age 15 is illegal, 

the country has high child marriage rates: about 1/3 of girls 

marry by age 15 and about 3/4 marry by age 18. Families often 

accept child marriage because it 

secures their daughter’s future while 

also providing bridewealth.

Bridewealth: Bridewealth is a sum 

paid by the groom’s family to that of 

the bride in order to consolidate 

friendly relations and to compensate 

for the loss of the bride’s presence and labor. Negotiating 

bridewealth is a major aspect of wedding preparations in Niger, 

and marriages are not seen as valid until part of the 

bridewealth has been paid. Bridewealth may include items

such as jewelry, clothing, perfume, livestock, and money.

Spouse Selection: Arranged marriages still occur in Niger, 

although the practice is declining. Young Nigeriens typically 

can suggest or reject matches but usually do not marry against 

the wishes of their family. Young, educated Nigeriens 

increasingly are free to select their own spouses. Due to its 

reduced likelihood of divorce, cousin marriage is experiencing

a revival in Niger as a result of social pressure from the family. 

Divorce: Divorce is common and acceptable in Niger. When a 

young woman divorces her husband after an arranged 

marriage, she generally is considered mature and free to 

choose her next spouse. After divorce, the father retains 

custody of the children.

Death

In line with Islamic tradition, deceased Nigeriens are washed 

and wrapped in a shroud shortly after death. The remains are

then buried in a cemetery with the head pointing toward Mecca 

(see Religion and Spirituality). Following burial, mourners visit 

the home of the deceased and offer a fatiya (prayer). During 

the subsequent mourning period, the widow is secluded and 

must follow a strict set of mourning practices.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Nigerien men and women generally have separate, defined 

roles and generally consider those roles complementary rather 

than unequal. However, due to the ramifications of customary 

law, women who do see their own situation as unfair or harmful 

often find it difficult to assert their legal rights.

Gender Roles and Work

There is a distinct division of 

labor between the genders in 

Nigerien society. Women are 

responsible for duties inside the 

home, such as preparing meals 

and caring for children and 

elders. Rural women also are 

responsible for physically 

demanding tasks outside the home, such as crushing grain,

building and tending cooking fires, retrieving firewood and well 

water, and working the fields with their husbands during the 

rainy season. Some women in rural Niger work as many as 17 

hours-per-day, usually without pay, and some older women 

may seek to supplement family income by selling cloth, 

household goods, or prepared foods on the street.

Most Nigerien men work in agriculture, the dominant sector of 

Niger’s economy (see Economics and Resources), although 

some men undertake more specialized careers as blacksmiths, 

leatherworkers, or woodworkers. In addition, some men have 

secondary jobs as clerics, traders, or musicians. Both men and 

women work in the civil service as administrators, policemen, 

teachers, doctors, and nurses, among other roles.

Gender and Politics

Due to a quota created in 2002, Nigerien political parties must 

allot at least 10% of their elected positions to women. Women 

now hold 15 of 113 seats (13.3%) in Niger’s National Assembly 

(see Political and Social Relations), a level similar to the 17.5% 

held by women in the US House of Representatives. Women 

also hold 5 of 26 posts (19.2%) in Niger’s Cabinet.

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Gender and the Law

The Nigerien legal system is a blend of “statutory” law, which is 

based on French civil law, and “customary” law framed in the 

unwritten norms of indigenous Nigeriens (see Political and 

Social Relations). Although statutory law takes precedence 

over customary law, the latter system is used often to address 

issues of family law and tends to be biased against women.

For example, although statutory laws establish equal rights for 

men and women in family life, traditional family codes require 

that wives obey their husbands. In some ethnic groups, a wife 

receives only 1/4 of her husband’s estate if he dies without an 

heir, while the remainder goes to the husband’s family. In other 

ethnic groups, daughters are not allowed to inherit land.

Rape and Gender-Based Violence 

Violence against women is a major problem in Niger. It is both 

common and socially acceptable for husbands and other male 

family members to physical abuse female family members. 

Rape is a crime punishable by 10-30 years in prison, although 

it often goes unreported. Furthermore, it is taboo for a woman 

to talk openly about physical abuse, especially when the 

perpetrator is her husband. Although Niger has laws designed 

to protect women, many women are not aware of their legal 

rights. Other women cannot afford to assert them or fear 

community reprimand or further abuse by their spouse.

Sex and Procreation

Since most Nigeriens are 

Muslims, their attitudes about

sex generally reflect Islamic 

beliefs (see Religion and 

Spirituality). Accordingly, most 

Nigeriens consider sexual 

relations as a private matter 

appropriate only within the 

context of marriage. Virginity and 

fidelity are valued highly, 

especially among women. Since 

some parents still arrange 

marriages in Niger (see Family and Kinship), dating is less 

common than in Western countries.

SEX &

GENDER
Colonization, Islam, and Women

Although modern Nigerien women are treated like 

second-class citizens in many ways, traditionally, 

women occupied important positions in the past.

Female leaders such as Kasai, a 16th century 

Songhai princess, and Sarraounia Mangou, a 19th 

century Hausa queen, are still well known today, and 

female priests played notable ritualistic roles among 

pre-colonial Hausa and Zarma-Songhai groups.

The position of women began to change at the dawn 

of the colonial era, when the French administration

promoted patriarchal Islamic values over indigenous 

customs lacking written laws. The spread of Islamic 

values quickly eroded the position of women. 

Whereas both sexes once shared equal control over 

family and property, Islam shifted power to men and 

thereby made it nearly impossible for women to 

amass wealth independently.

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

FGM is a procedure for deliberately modifying a woman’s sex 

organ in order to reduce her ability to experience sexual 

pleasure. Proponents of FGM consider it a way to discourage 

women from premarital sex and infidelity. Although Niger’s 

overall FGM rate is low and decreasing—from 5% in 1998 to 

2.2% in 2006—the procedure is widespread among some 

ethnic groups in western Niger, where 2/3 of women are 

affected. A Nigerien law passed in 2003 outlawed FGM and 

established a penalty of 6 years in prison for the offender, or 20 

years in prison if the victim dies.

Homosexuality

Although homosexuality is legal in Niger, it is considered 

culturally and socially unacceptable. Consequently, few gay 

Nigeriens openly disclose their sexual orientation. There is a 

statute that provides for up to 3 years imprisonment and 10,000 

CFA francs ($200) in fines for any person who engages in an 

“unnatural” same-sex act with someone under age 21.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Although French is the official language of Niger, less than 1/5 

of the population speaks the language. Most Nigeriens speak 

an indigenous language, of which the most widely spoken are 

Hausa, Zarma, Fula, Tamashek, and Kanuri. Many Nigeriens 

also read and write Arabic, although few speak the language 

because they learned it primarily for religious purposes while 

attending Qur’anic schools (see Religion and Spirituality).

Indigenous Languages

All Nigeriens grow up speaking 

one of Niger’s 21 indigenous 

languages, which represent 3 of 

Africa’s 4 language families. 

Despite this variety, 94% of 

Nigeriens speaks one of the top

3 indigenous languages: about

75% of Nigeriens speak either 

Hausa or Zarma while about 9% speak Tamashek, the 

language of the Tuareg. Additionally, 9% speak Fula, the 

language of the Fulani and 6% Kanuri. The rest of the country’s 

indigenous languages—including Gourmanchema, Tasawag, 

Tagdal, and Tedaga—all have fewer than 30,000 speakers. As 

most regions of Niger have been and remain zones of contact

between different people, many Nigeriens are multilingual.

Hausa: Hausa is West Africa’s most widely spoken language 

and is spoken as a first language by slightly more than half of 

Nigeriens. Hausa is the primary language of eastern Niger and 

also is used as a lingua franca between Nigeriens who do not 

have the same first language.

Linguists classify Hausa as a member of the Chadic group of 

the Afro-Asiatic language, implying that Hausa is more closely 

related to Arabic, Hebrew, and Berber than to most other subSaharan African languages. The influence of Islam upon Hausa 

is evident in both the language’s vocabulary and in its literary 

tradition, which dates back to several centuries before contact 

with Western cultures (see “Ancient Scripts of Niger” textbox).

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Ancient Scripts of Niger

Throughout the region’s history, people developed

different scripts to record the respective languages. 

The Tuareg, for example, developed a system 

known as Tifinagh to document their Tamashek 

language. As one of the world’s oldest scripts, 

Tifinagh traces its origins to 3,000-year-old 

engravings found in the Sahara Desert that depict 

animals, utensils, and other objects. The shapes of 

these engravings gradually evolved to become 

geometric forms that represent language. Today, 

many Tuareg use a modern form of this ancient 

writing system.

Another script that historically has had significance

in Niger is ajami, a modified form of Arabic script

used to write a number of West African languages 

(see Learning and Knowledge). Ajami traces its 

roots to the 9th century, when Islam was introduced 

and Qur’anic schools began teaching Arabic. 

Members of the Hausa and Fulani ethnic groups 

adapted the Arabic script to write their own

languages, resulting in the creation of ajami.

Although the government has sponsored ajami 

publications, the script is used mainly by scholars 

and in certain Qur’anic schools. 5Today most 

Nigeriens writing in Hausa use Boko, a Latin-based 

script that emerged in the 1950s.

Zarma: Sometimes called Djerma or Songhai-Zarma, Zarma is 

spoken by about 20% of Nigeriens, mainly in the West. Zarma 

belongs to the Songhai group of the Nilo-Saharan language 

family and is also spoken in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Benin.

Tamashek: Spoken by the nomadic Tuareg of northern Niger, 

Tamashek or Tamajaq is the main language spoken in the Aïr 

Mountains region. Tamashek belongs to the Berber group of 

the Afro-Asiatic family and is also spoken in Algeria and Mali.

COMMUNIC

LANGUAGE &

ATION
French and English

As the official language of Niger and the primary language of 

instruction in Nigerien schools (see Learning and Knowledge), 

French is widely spoken in urban areas and is commonly used 

by the government and media. Because many Nigeriens have 

little formal education, however, their French is often poor.

Nigeriens who do speak French often are called éduqués or 

diplomés, terms that explicitly denote their higher educational 

attainment. Although most schools in Niger teach English as a 

foreign language, relatively few Nigeriens speak the language. 

Those who do are employed primarily in the country’s tourism 

industry (see Economics and Resources).

Communication Overview

Communicating competently in Niger 

requires not only knowledge of French, 

Hausa, or other languages, but also the 

ability to interact effectively using those 

languages. This notion of competence 

includes paralanguage (volume, rate of 

speech, intonation), nonverbal forms of 

communication (personal space, touch, 

gestures), and interaction management 

(conversation initiation, turn-taking, and 

termination). When used appropriately, 

these aspects of communication ensure that statements are 

interpreted as the speaker intends.

Communication Style

Nigeriens consider the ability to convey trustworthiness and 

respect an essential component of effective communication. 

They cultivate this attribute by observing formal, elaborate 

greeting rituals and outwardly maintaining a disposition of calm 

and stoic pleasantness, which is known to the Hausa as fara’a.

Social status in Niger is determined to a large degree by the 

ability to maintain a dignified and respectful attitude toward 

others in social situations (see Political and Social Relations). 

Nigeriens believe people should ideally be reserved and quiet, 

denying their personal needs if others have greater needs and 

enduring hardship and pain without complaint.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
The Communication Process

All interactions begin with greetings. Even Nigeriens who want 

to ask a simple question must begin with a proper greeting, as 

otherwise their fellow Nigeriens would be offended. Nigeriens 

generally maintain slightly less than an arm’s length of personal 

space during conversations, although 

this space is greater between unrelated 

members of opposite sexes and smaller 

between friends and family. Friends of 

the same sex sometimes hold hands or 

otherwise touch while chatting as a sign 

of close friendship.

Direct eye contact during conversations 

is acceptable and expected in most 

situations, although women often avoid 

eye contact with men while in public. 

Similarly, Nigeriens of lesser social status may avoid direct eye 

contact when interacting with elders, local leaders, or others of 

high social status (see Political and Social Relations).

Greetings

Greetings tend to be lengthy in Niger, usually consisting of a 

standard yet friendly set of inquiries about health and family 

that must be answered before the “real” conversation begins. 

For example, a Nigerien may begin a greeting by saying the 

equivalent of “Peace be with you,” and then ask how the day 

has gone, how work is going, and how the family is (see 

“Useful Translations”). All these questions must be answered in 

the positive before speakers “get down to business.” The 

content of the answers is not nearly as important as their 

delivery, which must be good-natured and enthusiastic.

Gestures: Gestures and handshakes are an important part of 

greetings. Many Nigeriens shake hands upon meeting, and the 

handshake itself is simply a loose squeeze that may be held for 

the duration of the greeting. When greeting someone of high

social standing, Nigeriens may lightly touch the underside of 

their right forearm with their left hand during a handshake or 

touch their right hand over their heart after a handshake. 

Foreign nationals should be mindful of minimizing the use of 

the left hand during social interactions (see Time and Space).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
To beckon others, Nigeriens point their palm to the ground and 

curl their fingers inward. Foreign nationals are advised that 

Nigeriens indicate the numeral 5 not by raising all 5 fingers on 

one hand—which is a rather insulting gesture—but by bringing 

all fingertips of one hand 

together to touch the top of the 

thumb.

While greeting each other, 

Nigerien women may shake 

hands, exchange kisses on the 

cheek, or raise their hands to the 

sides of their faces. People of 

different sexes generally avoid physical contact upon meeting

and instead simply nod or verbally greet each other. Foreign 

nationals generally should wait to offer a handshake to a 

Nigerien of the opposite sex until the Nigerien has initiated 

contact.

Forms of Address

Although it was rare in the past for Nigeriens to address each 

other by name, Nigeriens today refer to each other by name if 

they are of equal social standing. As in the past, however, titles 

and terms of relationship or occupation—such as “old mother,” 

“director,” and “fish seller,”—are common, and foreign nationals 

are advised to address Nigeriens by title and last name and to 

ask permission before using a Nigerien’s first name.

French titles such as madame, mademoiselle, and monsieur 

are popular among educated Nigeriens, while rural Nigeriens 

may indicate a similar level of respect by using the title Muche, 

the Hausa equivalent of monsieur. The titles al-Haji (men) and 

al-Hajiya (women) are also commonly used. In a strict sense, 

these titles indicate that the bearer has made a hajj (pilgrimage 

to Mecca—see Religion and Spirituality). Since it requires great 

wealth to complete the hajj, both titles are also commonly used 

to refer to any wealthy person, whether or not he has made the 

hajj.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English French Hausa

Peace be with you 

(greeting)/

Amen, and also with 

you (response)

Bonjour (good 

day)

Salama 

alaikum/Amin, 

alaikum salam

Hello! Salut!/Allô! Sannu!

(Response to Hello) Sannu kadai!

Good morning.

How are you? /How 

did you sleep? 

Bonjour. 

Comment allezvous?

Ina kwana?

Good afternoon/ How 

did your day go? Bonjour Ina ini?

I’m fine/My health is 

good Bien, merci. Lahiya lau

Goodbye/May we 

sleep in health Au revoir Mu kwana lahiya

My name is... Je m’appelle ... Sunana...

What is your name 

(male/female)?

Comment vous 

appelez-vous?

Mi sunanka?/Mi 

sunanki?

See you later À plus tard Sai anjima

See you tomorrow À demain Sai gobe

I don’t understand Je ne comprends 

pas Ban gane ba

How much is...? Combien...? Nawa ne...?

Where? Où? Ina?

I want... Je veux... Ina son...

Thank you! Merci! Sannu! Na gode!

You’re welcome De rien Ba kome

Today Aujourd’hui Yau

Yesterday Hier Jiya

Tomorrow Demain Gobe

Later on Plus tard In an jima

I’m sorry Désolé/Excusezmoi Yi hak’uri

Okay! Ça va!/Bien! To!

Yes Oui I

No Non A’a

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 29%

• Male: 43%

• Female: 15% (2005 estimate)

Traditional Education

Although traditional approaches to 

education vary across ethnic groups, 

all Nigeriens use similar means to 

educate children about the history, 

customs, and values of their cultures. 

Some of the most common means of 

imparting knowledge include telling 

stories, singing songs, and reciting 

poems. These methods are used to 

instill values ranging from sharing and 

generosity to respect for elders. 

Nigeriens also hold ceremonies to celebrate rites of passage 

and prepare children for adult society (see Family and Kinship).

Nigerien children are segregated by sex at a young age so that 

they can serve as apprentices to same-gender parents or older 

relatives. Girls learn how to perform domestic duties, while 

boys learn skills associated with their social background such 

as farming, herding, woodworking, and leatherworking.

Early Islamic Education: Formal instruction came to what is 

now Niger after the 9th century, when Arab traders first arrived 

in the region (see Religion and Spirituality). Those traders and 

their religious leaders established formal schools because they 

wanted to spread their Islamic faith among the local population.

In order to aid that process, Islamic scholars eventually devised

ajami, a modified form of Arabic script that can be used to write 

African languages (see Language and Communication). By the 

18th century, Niger had several schools where principles from 

the Qur’an and other religious texts were taught using ajami. 

To this day, some Nigeriens still use ajami to read and write 

the Hausa language.

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Formal Education

After establishing the Colony of 

Niger in the early part of the 

20th century (see History and 

Myth), the French introduced 

their model of formal education 

to Niger and mandated French 

as the language of instruction. 

The French tried to use this 

education system to immerse Nigeriens in French thinking and 

assimilate them into French culture. The project largely failed, 

however, because the French devoted too few resources.

Although Niger gained independence from France in 1960 (see 

History and Myth), the education system continued to follow the 

French model. There was a notable modification in the 

emergence of Franco-Arabic schools offering a curriculum that 

combined secular and religious instruction.

Modern Challenges

Niger’s education system faces several challenges. Expected 

length of school attendance is low—about 6 years for boys and 

5 years for girls—while dropout and repetition rates are high. 

The student-to-teacher ratio is also high, as multiple grades are 

often taught in one classroom. Frequent teacher strikes only 

worsen the situation. Attendance levels are erratic, as many 

students must work during harvest season. Girls are vulnerable 

to sexual harassment and assault by male teachers, and some 

parents prefer to keep girls home so they can help with chores.

Many schools are in poor physical condition and lack even 

basic amenities such as toilets, potable water, and electricity. 

Moreover, the ability of the Nigerien government to improve the 

country’s educational infrastructure is limited by the perpetual 

budgetary constraints impacting Niger’s youth populace, which 

accounts for more than half of the total population. 

Reforms: In an attempt to address these challenges, Niger is 

implementing a 10-Year Education and Development Program 

(also known by its French initials PDDE) for the period of 2003-

2013. The intent behind the program is to increase enrollment 

and improve scholastic conditions. Niger has made progress 

on both fronts in recent years.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
For example, the country more than doubled its primary school 

enrollments between 2000 and 2009. During the same period, 

Niger added 30,000 new teachers and opened 16,000 new 

schools. These improvements have been financed by higher 

education expenditures, which now equal about 4.5% of GDP, 

a level that exceeds the regional average. Aid from other 

countries and international organizations also has been used to 

support these improvements (see Economics and Resources).

Rural Students: Another recent improvement to Niger’s 

education system is its capacity to adapt to local needs and 

traditions. In rural nomadic communities, for example, 

temporary schools in huts and tents have been established so 

that they may migrate with the community. Despite these 

outreach efforts, school enrollment remains far below average 

for sub-Saharan Africa.

Modern Education System

Education is free and compulsory 

for Nigeriens age 7-15. Students 

attend primary school for 6 years 

before completing two cycles of 

secondary school. The first cycle 

includes general courses and 

spans 4 years, while the second 

cycle is devoted to 3 years of specialized study. Universities in 

Niger offer bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees that 

require between 3 - 8 years to complete.

Preschool and Primary: Enrollment in Niger’s preschools is 

extremely low, less than 2% in 2007, as almost all preschools 

are located in cities. By contrast, primary school enrollment 

stood at 54% in 2006, although having a similar regional 

disparity, with 97% enrollment in Niamey but only 52% in rural 

areas. There is also a gender disparity at the primary level, as 

girls accounted for just 44% of primary school students in 2011.

The language of instruction in most primary schools is French, 

although some schools now use Hausa or Zarma. Since early 

exposure to French is rare for some Nigeriens, many students 

struggle to keep pace. Schools increasingly are trying to meet 

their needs by incorporating indigenous-language instruction 

(see Language and Communication).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Secondary: Students must pass an examination before they 

can advance to secondary school. Enrollment at the secondary 

level is low, with just 13% of male and 8% of female children 

enrolled in 2008. Part of the reason for the low female rate is 

that many girls marry by the time they reach secondary school 

age (see Family and Kinship).

Tertiary: Tertiary enrollment is 

minimal in Niger, with a rate in 

2004 of 73 university students 

per 100,000 inhabitants, less 

than 1/3 the average for subSaharan Africa as a whole. For 

both students and faculty, 

Niger’s tertiary institutions lack 

many critical resources, such 

as library books, teaching aids, laboratory and facility space, 

computer equipment, and Internet connectivity. It takes 3 years 

to earn a bachelor’s degree, while earning a master’s degree 

takes 2 years and a PhD an additional 3 years.

Institutions: Tertiary institutions in Niger are concentrated in 

Niamey. The main public institution of higher learning is Abdou 

Moumouni University of Niamey (Université Abdou Moumouni), 

formerly known as the University of Niamey. Founded in 1974, 

Abdou Moumouni University offers courses in law, economics, 

mathematics, science, and health. Enrollment stood at 8,000 in 

2008, with 5 times more male than female students.

Another well-known institution of higher learning is the Islamic 

University of Niger at Say, which offers theological training. In 

recent years, other public universities have opened, but their 

enrollments and course offerings remain limited. There are also 

a few schools that offer vocational training in specific areas, 

such as teacher certification.

Modern Islamic Education

As an alternative to enrolling in the public school system, many 

Nigerien children attend one of Niger’s approximately 50,000 

Qur’anic schools, which educate children in Muslim beliefs and 

history. Qur’anic school students initially learn to recite the 

Qur’an and only later interpret its meaning. Qur’anic school 

curricula are not regulated like those of public schools.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Embracing both Islamic and indigenous traditions, Nigeriens 

are conservative in interpersonal relations. They also tend to 

exhibit a casual attitude toward time and punctuality.

Concept of Time

Nigeriens generally take a more 

relaxed view of time than most 

people from Western countries. 

They view few situations as urgent 

and tend to emphasize people and 

relationships over tasks and 

schedules. The rhythm of life is 

based more on the sun and the 

seasons than on calendars and 

clocks. The Muslim prayer schedule also defines the rhythm of 

life, as even Nigeriens who do not pray tend to reckon time by 

reference to prayer times (see Religion and Spirituality).

Time and Work

Typical weekday business hours run from 7:30am-12:30pm 

and 3:00pm-6:00pm, with a 2.5-hour break in the middle for 

lunch. Some businesses also open on Saturday from 8:00am12:00pm. Banks are open 8:00am-11:30am and 3:45pm5:00pm on weekdays and also 8:30am-12:00pm on Saturdays. 

Upscale restaurants generally set their own distributed hours 

for each meal, but there are modest eateries open daily from 

6:00am-10:00pm.

Although the legal work week in Niger runs for 40 hours in the 

formal sector, most Nigeriens are employed informally in the 

agriculture sector (see Economics and Resources) and often 

exceed the legal limit on work hours.

Punctuality

Nigeriens consider patience a virtue in daily living and

generally emphasize flexibility and tolerance over punctuality. 

This attitude is captured succinctly in a common Hausa phrase, 

Sai hankuri (“Have patience”). This approach often means that 

appointments and events do not begin on schedule in Niger.

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Concept of Space

Most Nigeriens are warm and friendly, so they tend to welcome 

touching, eye contact, and physical proximity with their friends 

and family. Due to the influence of both Islamic beliefs (see 

Religion and Spirituality) and indigenous customs, Nigeriens 

follow a certain set of norms with respect to physical proximity, 

especially when there are differences of gender, age, or status

(see Language and Communication).

Personal Space: Most Nigeriens do not require a large 

amount of personal space and generally stand close to one 

another while conversing (see Language and Communication). 

This behavior is partly intended to avoid the need to speak in 

raised voices, which can be perceived as confrontational.

Eye Contact: Nigeriens regard direct eye contact as a sign of 

respect when conversing with someone of equal social rank. 

By contrast, younger Nigeriens are expected to gaze

downward and avoid extended eye contact in order to show 

their reverence for elders (see Language and Communication).

Touch: Nigeriens expect a modest degree of touching during 

interactions and are known to hold hands as a sign of 

closeness and familiarity. Nigeriens of the same gender may 

also walk arm-in-arm. More intimate public displays of affection 

are rare outside of weddings and 

other celebrations, although they 

occur more often in rural areas 

than in cities. In all parts of Niger, 

men and women rarely have 

physical contact in public.

Left Hand Taboo

Like people from many cultures 

throughout the Middle East and 

Asia, Nigeriens consider the left 

hand unclean and use it only for 

personal hygiene. Foreign 

nationals are advised to avoid using the left hand when eating, 

gesturing, accepting items, or greeting another person, as 

Nigeriens may take offense if any of these actions is performed 

with the left hand.

SPACE

TIME &
Photographs

Permits, which are available at police stations, are required for 

filming and photography. Foreign nationals are advised to 

always ask permission prior to photographing a Nigerien. 

Moreover, they also should be aware that even subjects who 

consent may expect monetary compensation. Foreign nationals 

should avoid taking photographs of airports, military bases, 

government facilities, and other public infrastructure.

Negotiations

Nigeriens generally expect to establish mutual trust and a 

personal relationship with partners prior to beginning any type 

of negotiations. This preference derives partly from custom and 

the lack of legal institutions in Niger 

that can supervise effectively the 

terms of private agreements.

Once negotiations start, Nigeriens 

prefer a reserved approach. Foreign 

nationals should be cautious to not 

raise their voices, as Nigeriens would 

perceive such behavior as 

argumentative. Similarly, foreign 

nationals should use a reserved tone of voice in offices or other 

places of business so as to avoid being perceived as impolite 

(see “Communication Style” in Language and Communication).

Nigeriens generally consider it rude to oppose or directly refuse 

to do something. A neutral or non-committal stance is 

appropriate. Similarly, they prefer indirect communication, 

especially when negotiating with individuals of higher social or 

professional standing.

Lunar Islamic Calendar

Nigerien Muslims use the lunar Islamic calendar for spiritual 

purposes. Since the Islamic calendar is based on lunar phases, 

days fall 11 days earlier each year according to the Western 

calendar. There are 12 months in the Islamic calendar, all of 

them having 30 days or fewer. Days begin at sunset on what 

Westerners would consider the previous day. Consequently, 

each new week begins at sunset on Saturday. Friday, which is 

the Muslim holy day, begins on what Westerners would deem 

as Thursday evening.

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

The traditions of Islam and many different ethnic groups (see 

Political and Social Relations) are evident in the attire, games, 

performing arts, handicrafts, and celebrations of Niger. While 

some of those traditions continue unchanged, others have 

begun to evolve and reflect new and diverse influences.

Attire

Nigeriens value a neat and clean appearance, and many don

traditional clothing. Most people prefer modest clothing, so 

adults do not typically wear shorts. Some urban-dwellers wear 

modern, Western-style clothing, although usually conservative. 

Revealing outfits are considered inappropriate and shameful 

and may elicit an aggressive reaction from some Nigeriens. 

Men: Nigerien men usually wear a long, robe-like gown known 

as a boubou over pants, often with a small embroidered cap. 

Although the boubou is a plain garment, most men have one 

with elaborate embroidery for formal occasions. Tuareg men 

wear turbans that cover their whole faces apart from the eyes.

Women: The most popular garment 

among women in Niger is the pagne, 

a bright and colorful cloth that wraps 

around the body. Hausa and Zarma 

women typically wear the pagne with 

a small head covering, a large scarf 

that envelops the upper body, and a 

matching, pleated cotton blouse that 

has a decorative collar. Tuareg and 

Fulani women, by contrast, tend to 

wear dark-colored clothing, often with 

a traditional Islamic headscarf or a 

scarf draped over their shoulders. A nursing mother who wears

an upper body scarf may use it as a sling to carry her infant.

In urban areas, some women wear conservative, Western-style 

business suits, while others wear full-length wraps. Apart from 

some teenagers, Nigerien women rarely wear pants or short 

skirts, which some Nigeriens consider inappropriate for women.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Recreation

As Nigeriens spend most of their time either working or doing

strenuous chores, they do not have much time for recreation. 

When they do have spare time, many Nigeriens choose to visit 

friends and family where it is customary for men and women to 

socialize separately (see Sex and Gender).

Wrestling: Traditional wrestling, 

or kokowa, is Niger’s most 

popular sport which the 

government promotes as a 

national sport. Most cities in 

Niger have arenas in which 

spectators gather to watch the 

most skilled wrestlers compete.

Attending kokowa matches is popular in all social groups, as 

the matches provide a forum for bonding and an opportunity for 

Nigeriens to feel a sense of unity and national pride. Matches 

incorporate many cultural traditions, such as wearing charms, 

offering prayers, playing music, reciting praise poetry, and 

exchanging greetings (see Language and Communication).

Other Sports: Almost all male Nigeriens enjoy playing and 

watching soccer and also enjoy outdoor sporting activities such 

as hunting, fishing, and swimming. The Hausa are fond of 

horse racing, while the Tuareg enjoy camel racing. The Fulani 

are partial to soro, a sport intended to demonstrate the ability 

of participants to endure pain. In a game of soro, two men beat 

each other with a stick on the chest while trying to maintain 

their composure and act as if they do not feel any discomfort.

Games: Both adults and children enjoy traditional board games 

like mancala, an ancient game that is found in various forms 

throughout Africa. Its popularity is due partly to the fact that a 

game of mancala can be set up and played with items easily 

available in nature. Each board has 2 or more rows of pits

carved into wood or ivory, drawn on paper, or dug into the 

ground. The game pieces are seeds or some other small 

articles, and the object is to capture as many of the seeds of 

one’s opponent as possible. Nigeriens also play colonial-era 

card games known as agram and sink-sink.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Music and Dance

Modern Nigerien music is a synthesis 

of modern styles and the traditions of 

various ethnic groups. Nigeriens of all 

ages enjoy Afro-pop, which is among 

the most prominent genres of modern 

music. One of the most popular Afropop bands in Niger is Mamar Kassey, 

which plays a unique fusion of modern 

rhythms and indigenous sounds using 

both traditional instruments like the 

tambour (drum) and modern instruments like the electric bass.

Reggae and Western musical styles such as blues and rap are 

also popular. Young Nigeriens especially enjoy hip-hop which

blends traditional melodies with outspoken lyrics. Other popular 

genres include energetic music which incorporates electronic 

sounds and dandali which is derived from Indian musicals. 

These genres are typically played at open-air maquis bars. 

Theater

Nigeriens perform plays in schools and village centers and also 

broadcast them on TV and radio. The most famous Nigerien 

playwright was a Hausa named Yazi Dogo, who helped to 

establish Hausa theater’s reputation for portraying traditional 

society in a comedic light while conveying poignant themes.

Literature and Folklore

Nigeriens have a tradition of folklore that includes proverbs, 

poems, songs, legends, and plays. Oral storytelling is important 

because relatively few Nigeriens are literate (see Learning and 

Knowledge). In recent years, artists and scholars at Niamey’s

Abdou Moumouni University have transcribed and published 

some of Niger’s oral works.

Although written literature existed in Niger before the colonial

era (see Language and Communication), it grew in importance 

after the arrival of the French (see History and Myth). Modern 

Nigerien literature is written primarily in French and generally 

follows Western styles. The most famous Nigerien author was 

Boubou Hama, who wrote over 50 French-language books, 

including works of history, philosophy, and fiction.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Arts and Crafts

Nigeriens create arts and crafts not just to express themselves 

but also as a source of income. For example, Fulani women 

carve and decorate calabashes (gourds) for sale at market, 

while Hausa women create Islamic-themed jewelry, clothing, 

and utensils for the same purpose. Zarma women are known 

as skilled potters and make elaborately decorated water jars, 

while Tuareg men are known as skilled smiths and jewelry 

makers. Hausa women sew elaborate, multi-colored blankets 

for display at their children’s baptème (name day—see Family 

and Kinship).

Holidays

Government offices are closed during state-declared holidays.

For most Nigeriens, the most important holidays are the Islamic 

celebrations of Maulid, Eid al-Fitr, and Eid al-Adha, the latter 

known locally as Tabaski. Some holidays are specific to 

certain ethnic groups. For example, members of the Tuareg 

and Wodaabe ethnic groups observe the Cure Salée, which 

celebrates the migration of cattle to nourishing salt deposits 

and marks the traditional time of courtship and marriage.

Holidays

Secular Holidays (Fixed Dates)

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• April 24: Concord Day

• May 1: Labor Day

• August 3: Independence Day

• December 18: Republic Day

• December 25: Christmas Day

Religious Months and Holidays (Variable Dates)

• March – April: Easter Monday

• Maulid: Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad

• Ramadan: Holy Month of Fasting

• Laylat al-Qadr: Night of Destiny

• Eid al-Fitr: End of Ramadan

• Tabaski: The Feast of the Sacrifice

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

The Nigerien diet and its associated dining customs have been 

shaped by the country’s crops, livestock, and Islamic beliefs 

which most Nigerien people consider sacred (see Religion and 

Spirituality).

Dining Customs

Nigerien dining customs vary between rural and urban areas.

In rural areas, men and women eat separately while sitting on 

woven floor mats. By contrast, men and women in urban areas 

eat together at a single table. All Nigeriens eat from communal 

bowls using either a spoon or their right hand (see Time and 

Space). Although men sometimes eat outside the home, 

Nigeriens consider it inappropriate for women to eat in public.

Diet

The central components of the 

Nigerien diet are millet, a 

cereal grain that grows well in 

Niger’s arid climate, and other 

staples such as beans, corn, 

and sorghum. Rice is also 

popular although only 

cultivated near the Niger River 

because it requires irrigation. 

Consequently, many Nigeriens 

view rice as a status symbol 

and eat it only on special occasions. Some Nigeriens also base 

their diet on foods such as cassava, couscous, and maca 

(macaroni). Due to its high market price, maca like rice, is 

associated with high status. 

Meat and Dairy: Apart from providing sustenance, animals are 

used for Muslim sacrificial purposes and for consumption at 

various holiday celebrations. The most common meat is goat, 

although camel, chicken, and mutton also are available. As in 

most Islamic societies, Nigeriens avoid pork. Popular regional 

dishes include goat cheese in the North and kilshi—a spiced 

jerky made of sheep or beef—in the South.

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Typical Meals: Although wealthier 

urban Nigeriens sometimes start 

their days with coffee and bread, 

most rural Nigeriens breakfast on

leftovers from the previous day. 

Lunch usually consists of fura, a 

thick beverage made from millet

(fine grain), water, spices, and 

sometimes milk or sugar. Tuaregs 

make a similar drink known as 

eghajira, which is made from 

millet, water, dates, and goat 

cheese. For dinner, Nigeriens usually eat tuwo, a thick millet 

paste, along with a vegetable sauce made from ingredients 

such as eggplant, onion, okra, peanuts, pumpkin, squash, 

tomatoes, and sometimes meat.

Snacks: Nigeriens eat a variety of snacks, including peanuts, 

sugarcane, mangos, lettuce, spiced cabbage, and even fried 

crickets at certain times of year. Female vendors also prepare 

kosai, or deep-fried bean cakes. Nigeriens also chew kola nuts 

for their stimulating and hunger-reducing properties. Men in 

particular traditionally chew kola nuts, which due to the nut’s 

high caffeine content, is a popular West African social pastime.

Beverages

The most common beverages are water, milk, and juice. Soft 

drinks are also widely available. While Islam prohibits alcohol 

consumption, alcoholic beverages are available in Niger. The 

region’s traditional alcoholic beverages include palm wine and 

millet beer, although modern beverages—including the beer 

Bière Niger—also are consumed.

Health Overview

Niger’s health profile is poor overall and characterized by low 

life expectancy; high rates of infectious disease; high rates of 

infant, child, and maternal mortality; and shortages of supplies, 

equipment, medicine, and personnel. Moreover, there are 

major healthcare disparities between urban and rural areas.

Despite these problems, the situation has improved modestly in 

recent years due to the efforts of Niger’s government, which 

has initiated vaccination and health education campaigns in 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
rural regions. Since 2005 the government has also offered free 

healthcare to all pregnant women and children under age 5.

Traditional Medicine

“Traditional medicine” refers to knowledge, skills, and practices 

that are used to pursue holistic health and are derived from the 

beliefs, experiences, and theories of an indigenous population.

There are several types of traditional practitioners in Niger.

Herbalists, for example, treat illness with leaves, roots, bark, 

and sometimes ritual chants, while skeletal specialists mend 

broken bones. Similarly, spiritualists try to communicate with 

spirits to assist in healing (see Religion and Spirituality). Islamic 

scholars also offer counsel and treatment to Nigeriens through 

prayer and Qur’anic verses. In recent years, Chinese medicine 

has become popular, especially in Niamey, where one can find 

traditional, Chinese-style clinics and pharmacies.

For several reasons, Nigeriens often prefer traditional medicine 

to Western-style medicine. For example, traditional medicine is 

usually much less expensive than Western-style medicine, and 

traditional healers are more accessible to residents of remote 

rural areas. In addition, traditional healers incorporate common 

cultural and religious values into their practice.

Modern Healthcare

The healthcare system in all of Niger’s 36 districts is organized 

at 3 levels, although 6 districts, mainly in the Tahoua region, do 

not have any medical facilities. The 

first level of care consists of health 

posts, which provide basic 

treatment and preventive care to a 

single village. Health posts tend to 

function poorly because they are 

run by scarcely trained health 

workers and are subject to little 

supervision. The second level of 

care consists of 400 health centers or CSIs (Centres de santé 

intégré), which provide care to several villages. CSIs are run by 

nurses and overseen by local committees.

Cases that CSIs cannot handle are referred to one of 31 district 

hospitals, which provide advanced treatment. Similarly, cases 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
that district hospitals cannot be resolve are referred again to 

one of either 15 regional hospitals or 3 national hospitals. Niger 

also has maternity clinics and mobile immunization units.

Problems: The Nigerien healthcare system faces a shortage of 

supplies, equipment, medicine, and personnel. Niger has only 

1.9 doctors per 100,000 people, which is 1/8 the ratio for subSaharan Africa and well below the World Health Organization’s 

recommendation of 20 doctors per 100,000 people. Medical 

equipment is scarce and unevenly 

distributed, and the lack of medications 

leads to trade in unregulated substances.

Health Challenges

Nigeriens have a life expectancy at birth of 

just 54.3 years, slightly higher than the life 

expectancy for sub-Saharan Africa as a 

whole, but almost 25 years less than the US 

life expectancy. Niger also has some of the 

world’s highest rates of maternal, infant, and child mortality. In 

recent years, the country has suffered about 8 maternal, 90 

infant, and 160 child deaths for every 1,000 live births, levels 

which exceed US rates by factors of 34, 15, and 20, 

respectively. Niger’s health statistics reflect widespread 

malnutrition, affecting 40% of Nigerien children between 2000 

and 2009, and high incidence of infectious diseases including 

malaria, measles, pneumonia, polio, and tuberculosis.

Malaria: Malaria, which mostly affects southern Niger, is the 

leading cause of death among Nigerien women and children. It 

caused an estimated 154 deaths per 100,000 people in Niger 

in 2008, a number roughly equal to 7.5% of all deaths in Niger 

that year. Since only 15% of Nigeriens who contract malaria 

seek medical help, most cases are untreated. 

Other Diseases: Waterborne and foodborne illnesses such as 

cholera, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever are concerns. Conditions 

like diarrhea and pneumonia also are common and sometimes 

fatal when untreated. In 2010 there were a reported 10,130 

cases of tuberculosis, and screenings remain rare. HIV, which 

affects 0.8% of Nigeriens, is also a concern, although Niger’s 

rate is well below neighboring Nigeria’s 3.6% rate and subSaharan Africa’s 5% rate.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

By any conventional measure, Niger is one of the poorest and 

least economically developed countries in the world. Much of 

its income is derived from foreign aid and uranium exports, and 

its main economic activities include farming, herding, and minor 

retail trade. Only a few Nigeriens have regular, wage-earning 

jobs, most of which are in the civil service.

Due to its lack of diversification, the Nigerien economy is tied 

closely to rainfall (for agriculture) and global commodity prices 

(for both agricultural and mineral exports). In some years, Niger 

produces enough food to feed its population, while in other 

years the country relies upon imports and foreign aid, the latter 

of which constitutes about half of the government budget.

Agriculture

Accounting for 42% of GDP and 

90% of employment, agricultural 

activities such as farming, herding, 

fishing, and forestry constitute the 

bulk of Niger’s economy. Farming 

occurs mainly in the well-watered 

South, where most of the country’s 

arable land (about 11% of the total 

area) is located. The most widely 

cultivated subsistence crops are millet and sorghum grains, 

cassava (starchy root used to make bread), and rice, while the 

most popular cash crops are peanuts, cotton, and beans.

Herding occurs mainly in the more arid regions of the northern 

Sahel (see Political and Social Relations). Although Nigeriens 

raise a variety of livestock, such as camels, goats, sheep, and 

donkeys, the bulk of the country’s livestock exports are cattle. 

Niger has had trouble expanding its cattle export industry due 

to its lack of infrastructure for transportation and preservation.

As Niger is landlocked, its fishing industry is small and limited 

to areas near Lake Chad and along the Niger River. Most fish 

production is intended to meet local demand, although limited 

exports to neighboring countries occur.

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Industry

Industrial activities such as mining and manufacturing comprise

the smallest part of the Nigerien economy, accounting for about 

16% of GDP and 6% of employment. Still, industry is important 

to Niger’s economy because mineral exports are one of Niger’s 

few sources of external income. Besides uranium, which is its 

primary mineral, Niger also has deposits of coal, iron, gypsum

(soft sulfate), limestone, and phosphates. Manufacturing 

centers on cement, textiles, leather, and food processing.

Uranium: Niger was the world’s 4th largest producer of 

uranium in 2011, accounting for 4,800 tons or 8% of global 

output (Photo: Uranium ore). Although there are at least 9 sites 

with substantial reserves, only those at 

Arlit and Akouta, which are about 130 mi 

north of Agadez, have been exploited. 

French firms historically have controlled 

much of the revenue from Niger’s 

uranium, although there have been local 

demands in recent years to divide that 

revenue more evenly with the Nigerien 

government.

Gold and Oil: In recent years, rising commodity prices and 

the revision of Niger’s mining code have attracted foreign 

investors to Niger’s gold and oil reserves, which in the past 

could not be exploited profitably. The first commercial goldmine 

was opened in 2004 at Samira Hill near the Burkina Faso 

border. Similarly, several oilfields, particularly one sponsored 

by China’s National Petroleum Cooperation, became 

operational in eastern Niger in 2011.

Services

Although services account for 42% of GDP, they provide only 

4% of employment. Most services sector activities involve civil 

service or retail trade. Some Tuareg men still ply the traditional 

caravan trade routes in the desert, although those routes have 

declined in importance due to modernization.

Tourism: Niger has several notable tourist attractions, such as 

Park W, a wildlife preserve in the Southwest, and Agadez, the 

“desert capital” of the Tuareg. However, the growth of Niger’s 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
tourism industry has been hampered by terrorist activity and 

recurrent Tuareg rebellion (see Political and Social Relations).

Currency

The currency of Niger is the West African CFA Franc, which is 

subdivided into 100 centimes. It is circulated in 4 banknotes 

(CFA 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000) and 8 coins (CFA 1, 5, 10, 

25, 50, 100, 200, 250, 500), and its value is pegged to the Euro 

at €1=CFA 656, meaning that $1 is worth about CFA 500.

The West African CFA Franc is regulated by the Central Bank 

of West African States in Dakar, Senegal and is used by 8 

countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, 

Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo. In addition, the Central African 

CFA Franc, a distinct but effectively equivalent currency, is 

used by 6 central African states. The value of both versions of 

the CFA Franc is guaranteed by the French government.

Foreign Trade

Niger's imports, which totaled $2.22 billion in 2011, consisted 

primarily of machinery, petroleum, and food purchased from

France (16%), China (10%), Nigeria (9%), French Polynesia 

(9%), Belgium (7%), India (6%), and Togo (5%). Exports, which 

totaled $1.25 billion in 2011, consisted of uranium, livestock, 

and agricultural products sold to the US 

(49%), Nigeria (29%), Russia (10%), 

and Ghana (4%).

Foreign Aid

Niger received $786 million, or the 

equivalent of 13% of GDP, in foreign aid 

in 2011. Around 2/3 of that total was 

contributed by multilateral bodies, 

including the European Union, the 

World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and 

agencies within the United Nations. The rest came from 

bilateral donors, of whom the largest were the US, France, 

Spain, and Switzerland. In 2000, Niger qualified for debt relief 

under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative. Although 

the program slashed the country’s debt burden and freed up 

more money for social spending, it also required Niger to 

implement reforms that focused on reducing poverty, cutting 

spending on the civil service, and expanding the tax base.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Niger has relatively little technological infrastructure due to its 

landlocked location and relatively underdeveloped economy. In 

contrast to just a few years ago, however, it has a diverse and 

outspoken press and millions of new 

cell phone users.

Transportation

For local trips, most Nigeriens walk 

or ride a donkey, camel, moped, or 

motorcycle. For longer trips, the most 

popular form of transport is the “bush 

taxi,” or taxi-brousse. Bush taxis 

carry 8-10 passengers and generally 

depart when they are full rather than 

at a predetermined time. Although 

Nigerien bush taxis are cheap and 

plentiful, they also tend to be slow and crowded. For faster and 

more reliable transport between cities, Nigeriens generally rely 

upon pricier coach buses, which also are common. Only a few 

Nigeriens own personal automobiles, making car travel rare.

Roadways: In 2008 Niger had slightly less than 12,000 mi of 

roadways, of which about 3,000 mi—mainly highways and city 

roads—were paved. Niger’s main highways link Niamey with 

Agadez and Tahoua in the North; Zinder, Diffa, and Nguigmi in 

the East; and the Nigerian towns of Sokoto and Kano in the 

South. In addition, Zinder and Agadez are linked by a highway 

that forms part of of the Trans-Sahara Highway, a route that 

links Lagos, Nigeria with Algiers, Algeria. The only two bridges 

in Niger that span the Niger River are located in Niamey.

Railways: Although Niger has no railways, several plans have 

been proposed that would link the country with various regional 

railways. One proposal would extend the Benin Railway north 

to Niamey from central Benin, while another would extend the 

railway that links Abidjan, Cote D’Ivoire and Ouagadougou, 

Burkina Faso east to Niamey. At present, Nigerien rail cargo 

must begin or end its journey on a truck or a barge.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Ports and Waterways: As a landlocked country with no large, 

permanent bodies of water, Niger has no ports. Instead, most 

of Niger’s sea-bound cargo travels through Lagos, Nigeria, or 

Cotonou, Benin. Niger has tried to reduce its dependence on 

these ports by expanding its connections to the ports of Lomé 

in Togo and Tema in Ghana.

Airways: Niger has 30 

airports and airstrips, of which 

10 have paved runways. The 

country’s primary air transit 

hub is Diori Hamani 

International Airport (pictured), 

which is located in Niamey and is named after the first 

President (see History and Myth). Niamey is served both by 

regional carriers, such as Senegal Airlines, Air Burkina, and Air 

Algerie, and global carriers, such as Air France, Delta, and 

Turkish Airlines. Direct flights are available from Niamey to 

regional capitals, including Ouagadougou and N’Djamena, and 

international capitals, including Paris and Istanbul.

Energy

Even without adjusting for population size, Niger has one of the 

world’s lowest energy consumption rates. Less than 10% of the 

population has access to electricity, and most Nigeriens meet 

their energy needs with wood fuel. About half of the country’s 

small electricity requirement is imported from Nigeria, while the 

rest is generated from local coal, imported petroleum, or solar 

energy—the latter is rare and limited to rural areas.

Hydropower: Although it has yet to be exploited, Niger has the 

potential to generate hydroelectric power at several sites along 

the Niger and Mékrou rivers. The most promising site is located 

about 125 mi north of Niamey at Kandadji, where a 125-MW 

plant is under construction and expected to open by 2015.

Media

Freedom of the press deteriorated in Niger under the regime of 

President Mamadou Tandja (see History and Myth). In addition 

to banning coverage of the Tuareg rebellion of 2007-2009, the 

Tandja regime imprisoned reporters, both foreign and Nigerien, 

and shut down radio stations and newspapers that spoke out 

against the government.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
The situation has improved since the end of the Tandja regime. 

According to Reporters without Borders, a non-profit group that 

monitors press freedom, the media in Niger are diverse and 

outspoken, and journalists are rarely punished for criticizing the 

government. In addition, the 2010 constitution guarantees 

freedom of expression, although it retains certain provisions 

that could be used to limit media freedom in the future.

Print Media: The government runs two news publications, both 

written in French: Le Sahel, a daily newspaper, and Sahel 

dimanche, a weekly news magazine. Private news publications 

include La Roue de l’histoire (“The Wheel of History”), a weekly 

newspaper that covers politics, economics, and social issues; 

Le Canard dechaine (“The Unchained Duck”), an irreverent, 

satirical weekly newspaper; and Le Republicain, a weekly news 

magazine noted for its anti-corruption stance.

Radio and TV: Radio and TV are critical sources of information 

in Niger because less than 1/3 of the population is literate (see 

Learning and Knowledge). The Nigerien government operates 

Voix du Sahel, the main national radio station, and Tele Sahel, 

a TV station that broadcasts mostly educational programming 

in several different languages. There are private competitors in 

both media. Private TV stations include news channels Dounia 

TV and Ténéré TV, while private radio stations include Radio 

Saraounia, Anfani FM, and Ténéré FM.

Telecommunications

As in much of Africa, cell phones are 

more popular than landlines in Niger.

An estimated 4.3 million Nigeriens, 

or about 26% of the population, used 

cell phones in 2011, which is almost 

50 times higher than the number of 

landline subscribers. Cellular service

is available in most of Niger and is 

provided by 4 telecoms: Airtel Niger, 

Moov Niger, Orange, and SahelCom.

In 2011 an estimated 1.3% of the Nigerien population used the 

Internet, which is easily accessible in Niamey but more difficult 

to access in other parts of Niger, including major cities like 

Agadez and Zinder. Connection speeds tend to be slow.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL

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