In cooperation with Northern Arizona University 

Avian Species Inventory at Manzanar National Historic 

Site, California—Final Report to the National Park 

Service 

By Jan Hart and Charles Drost 

Open-File Report 2008–1275 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 
U.S. Department of the Interior 

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Mark D. Myers, Director 

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 2008 

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Suggested citation: 

Hart, Jan, and Drost, Charles, 2008, Avian Species Inventory at Manzanar National Historic Site, 

California—Final Report to the National Park Service: U.S. Geological Survey Open–File Report 2008–1275, 

39 p. 

Cover: Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus) (U.S. Geological Survey photograph by Chris O’Brien). 

ii
Contents 

Abstract................................................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................................1

Study Area ...........................................................................................................................................................................2

Methods ...............................................................................................................................................................................4

Existing Records .............................................................................................................................................................4

Habitat Stratification ......................................................................................................................................................4

Survey Methods..............................................................................................................................................................5

Transect Establishment .................................................................................................................................................5

Point-Count Protocol......................................................................................................................................................6

Nocturnal Surveys..........................................................................................................................................................7

Area Searches and Nest Searching ...........................................................................................................................8

Results ..................................................................................................................................................................................8

Existing Records .............................................................................................................................................................8

Species Detection ..........................................................................................................................................................8

Species Accumulation...................................................................................................................................................9

Seasonal Detection Differences..................................................................................................................................9

Habitat Associations ....................................................................................................................................................10

Nocturnal Surveys........................................................................................................................................................12

Area Searches and Nest Searching .........................................................................................................................13

Relative Abundance .....................................................................................................................................................16

Abundance During Migration.....................................................................................................................................18

Abundance During Winter ..........................................................................................................................................18

Potential Species..........................................................................................................................................................18

Discussion..........................................................................................................................................................................23

Existing Records ...........................................................................................................................................................23

Transect Establishment ...............................................................................................................................................23

Species Detection ........................................................................................................................................................24

Species Accumulation.................................................................................................................................................24

Seasonal Detection Differences................................................................................................................................24

Habitat Associations ....................................................................................................................................................25

Nocturnal Surveys........................................................................................................................................................25

Area Searches and Nest Searching .........................................................................................................................25

Relative Abundance .....................................................................................................................................................26

Potential Species..........................................................................................................................................................26

Species of Concern ......................................................................................................................................................27

Management Considerations .....................................................................................................................................27

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................................................28

References.........................................................................................................................................................................29

Appendix 1. Coordinates for Avian Point-Count Transects ......................................................................................30

Appendix 2. Overall Relative Abundance of Avian Species .....................................................................................31

Appendix 3. Preliminary Bird List for Manzanar National Historic Site, Calif. ......................................................35

iii
iv

Figures 

1. Location of Manzanar National Historic Site in Inyo County, Calif.......................................................................3

2. Location of Manzanar National Historic Site within the Owens Valley, Inyo County, Calif..............................4

3. Map of the locations of 33 point-count stations for the four avian census transects at Manzanar National 

Historic Site .........................................................................................................................................................................7

4. Species accumulation curve for avian surveys at Manzanar National Historic Site ........................................9

5. Number of bird species detected per habitat association at Manzanar National Historic Site ...................13

6. A remnant orchard within the woodland grove at Manzanar National Historic Site......................................28

Tables 

1. Survey dates and seasons for avian inventories at Manzanar National Historic Site ......................................6

2. Avian species seen in all habitats at Manzanar National Historic Site .............................................................10

3. Avian species seen exclusively in woodland habitats at Manzanar National Historic Site ..........................11

4. Avian species seen exclusively in desert scrub habitat at Manzanar National Historic Site .......................12

5. Avian species detected during area searches at Manzanar National Historic Site from 2002 to 2005. ......14

6. Avian species that bred or are suspected of breeding at Manzanar National Historic Site from 2002 to 

2005, and the evidence for those determinations.......................................................................................................16

8. Relative abundance of avian migrant species during migration (spring/fall) from 2002 to 2005 at 

Manzanar National Historic Site ...................................................................................................................................19

9. Relative abundance of avian species during winter surveys from 2002 to 2005 at Manzanar National 

Historic Site .......................................................................................................................................................................20

10. Species that have been detected in nearby areas in recent years that could also occur at Manzanar 

National Historic Site.......................................................................................................................................................22

1-1. Coordinates for avian point-count transects at Manzanar National Historic Site.......................................30

2-1.Overall relative abundance of avian species inventoried at Manzanar National Historic Site from 2002 to 

2005 .....................................................................................................................................................................................31

3-1. Preliminary bird list for Manzanar National Historic Site, Calif........................................................................36
Avian Species Inventory at Manzanar National 

Historic Site, California—Final Report to the National 

Park Service 

By Jan Hart1 and Charles Drost2

Abstract 

We conducted a baseline inventory for avian species at Manzanar National Historic Site, 

Inyo County, Calif., from 2002 to 2005. Under the guidelines of the Mojave Network Biological 

Inventory Program, the primary objectives for this study were to (1) inventory and document the 

occurrence of avian species at Manzanar, with the goal of documenting at least 90% of the species 

present; (2) provide a geographic information system (GIS)-referenced list of sensitive species 

occurring at Manzanar that are rare, on Federal or State lists, or otherwise worthy of special 

consideration; and (3) enter all species data into the National Park Service NPSpecies database. 

Survey methods included general area searches, variable circular plot point-count censusing, 

nocturnal surveys, and nest searching. During 13 year-round survey sessions, we documented the 

occurrence of 132 bird species at Manzanar and confirmed breeding by 19 of these. Based on our 

findings, as well as review of the literature and searches for records of species occurrence, we 

estimate inventory completeness for regularly-occurring bird species at Manzanar to be near 90%. 

No sensitive species on Federal or State lists were found. The distribution and relative abundance 

of common bird species at this site is now well enough known to begin development of a 

monitoring protocol for this group. 

Introduction 

Manzanar National Historic Site was established in 1992 to preserve historical and cultural 

resources associated with the relocation of Japanese-Americans to the site during World War II. 

The National Park Service’s mission at Manzanar has focused primarily on the recent establishment 

of the park to protect these resources; natural resource management has not been a park priority 

until recently. There has been a general lack of verified information on the biological resources 

present at Manzanar, including those pertaining to avifauna. With the implementation of the 

National Park Service’s Inventory and Monitoring Program within Mojave Network parks in 2002, 

needed baseline information on biological resources at Manzanar is being secured. Inventories of 

vertebrate fauna, including reptiles, amphibians, and mammals, have been completed. Here we 

present the results of avian inventories conducted at Manzanar from 2002 to 2005. 

At other park units within the Mojave Network, the National Park Service facilitated formal 

assessments of documented and potential species prior to inventory. Due to a lack of biological 

 

1

 Northern Arizona University, Colorado Plateau Research Station, Flagstaff, Ariz. 

2

 U.S. Geological Survey, Southwest Biological Science Center, Flagstaff, Ariz. 

1
resources documentation, this assessment was not done at Manzanar. Consequently, our initial 

efforts in 2002 at this site focused on identifying the most feasible methods to detect the greatest 

number of bird species. We also tried to locate accounts of avian species proximate to Manzanar 

through examination of museum records, scientific literature, and especially of Audubon Society 

species observations at similar locations nearby and within the Owens Valley. 

The primary goal of this inventory has been to provide baseline information on avian 

species using Manzanar, including their relative abundance, residency status, and habitat 

associations. Through the process of obtaining this baseline information, we developed 

standardized monitoring protocols to facilitate ongoing assessment of the avifauna for the effective 

management of this resource. 

Study Area 

Located in the Owens Valley of eastern California, Manzanar is the smallest park in the 

Mojave Network, encompassing 330 ha at 1,187 m elevation (fig. 1). The Owens Valley is 

sheltered from ocean air masses by the Sierra Nevada Mountains, which tower more than 3 km 

above the valley to the west. The “rain shadow” effect of this mountain range creates a high desert 

climate throughout the Owens Valley. 

Summer high temperatures at Manzanar often exceed 38°C, followed by mild evening 

temperatures. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures in July at the Inyo County seat of 

Independence (ca. 8 km northwest, fig. 2) are 37°C and 18°C, respectively. Winter temperatures are 

moderate during the day, although on average they drop below freezing at night. January mean 

maximum and minimum temperatures at Independence are 12°C and −2°C, respectively. 

Precipitation in the southern Owens Valley is predictably scarce, occurring primarily from 

November to March. Average annual precipitation is near 13 cm. The average total snowfall 

recorded annually at Independence is just over 8 cm. Summer months are typically very dry. Since 

1927, the mean precipitation recorded at Independence (yellow arrow, fig. 2) from June to August 

is just 1 cm. 

Physiographically, Manzanar is located near the valley floor along the edges of extensive 

alluvial fans extending out from the Sierra Nevada. The substrate is predominantly granitic, with 

coarse-textured, well-drained soils. Land-use practices have led to some extensive gully erosion on 

the upper (western) portion of the site, and considerable tracts of the lower (eastern) site that were 

cleared during construction of the camp in the 1940s are still nearly devoid of vegetative cover. 

Although technically within the Great Basin geographic province, the southern Owens 

Valley flora is dominated by Mojave Desert vegetation species, several of which are key natural 

components at Manzanar. Most of Manzanar is populated by low shrubs, including saltbush 

(Atriplex), rabbitbrush (Ericameria), and sagebrush (Artemisia), as well as a variety of forbs, cacti, 

and grasses. Another substantial portion of the park is covered by a large woodland grove, 

dominated by mature cottonwoods (Populus), which exists in a unique hydrologic area where 

groundwater remains relatively near the surface. Several other native and nonnative tree species are 

common within this grove, including locusts (Robinia), willows (Salix), and salt cedar (Tamarix), 

as well as several orchard tree species and other exotics. Lastly, a small riparian zone is present 

along Bairs Creek near the southern boundary of the site. This zone is highly variable in width and 

is either lushly or sparsely vegetated. 

2
Manzanar

Figure 1. Location of Manzanar National Historic Site in Inyo County, which is in eastern 

California. Manzanar is adjacent to U.S. Highway 395, approximately 256 km north of Los Angeles 

and 8 km south of Independence, the Inyo County seat. The site is in high desert, below and east of 

the Sierra Nevada mountain range and 32 km west of Death Valley National Park. 

Bairs Creek is an intermittent stream that often carries substantial flows during periods of 

spring and early summer runoff but tapers off to little or no flow during fall and winter months. 

Many of the tree species present in the woodland grove are also found here, along with some shrubs 

including wild rose (Rosa) and desert olive (Forestiera). Although natural vegetation patterns are 

slowly reasserting themselves over much of the camp, 20th-century agricultural and residential uses 

have created significant and long-lasting effects on the vegetation throughout the site. 

3
Manzanar

Figure 2. Location of Manzanar National Historic Site within the Owens Valley, Inyo County, Calif. 

Methods 

Existing Records 

We relied upon literature searches for avian species accounts in the Owens Valley area, 

especially those in proximity to Manzanar. The most notable faunal investigations in Inyo County 

that included the Owens Valley were conducted during the past 115 years under the auspices of the 

University of California, Berkeley. Therefore, we searched for historical records and avian species 

accounts within the holdings of UC Berkeley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Audubon Society 

Christmas Bird Count data, and online data from the Eastern Sierra Audubon Society Chapter. This 

information provided background for comparison with the avifauna that we inventoried over the 

next 3 years at Manzanar. 

Habitat Stratification 

We organized the park into five census regions according to habitat type. This was 

accomplished primarily on the ground because no vegetation maps or geographic information 

system vegetation data themes were available in spring 2002 when the project began. We 

categorized the largest proportion of habitat at Manzanar as desert scrub, which we divided into 

eastern and western regions. Saltbush, rabbitbrush, and sagebrush dominate this community. There 

4
are two major vegetation differences between the two desert scrub regions: in the eastern portion, 

isolated patches of salt cedar trees, which can exceed 6 m in height, are more numerous. Salt cedar 

provides an additional substrate for birds in habitat otherwise dominated by shrubs. In contrast, in 

the western desert scrub community, very few vegetative features are taller than 1.5 m, and 

sagebrush is more dominant. Physiographically, the western section is more rugged, consisting of 

alluvium cut by numerous small washes. The eastern section was extensively modified to create a 

relatively flat landscape; the majority of the Manzanar camp buildings were located here. 

The third census region consists of a large woodland grove occupying a north-south belt 

that extends nearly the length of Manzanar, essentially bisecting the desert scrub community. The 

existing driving tour route essentially circumnavigates this woodland belt. There are numerous 

mature trees throughout this woodland grove, including cottonwoods, locusts, and willows, as well 

as significant numbers of several orchard tree species and other exotics. We estimated that this 

woodland covers 25% of Manzanar. 

The fourth census region consists of the riparian zone extending the length of Bairs Creek 

within Manzanar. This zone is highly variable in width and is either lushly or sparsely vegetated. 

Dominant trees include cottonwood, willow, locust, and salt cedar; important shrubs are wild rose 

and desert olive. The desert scrub community borders the entire riparian belt on either side. 

The final census region is contained within the Shepherd Ranch site, which combines grassy 

and shrubby understory with mature cottonwoods and locust windrows. This area is effectively an 

extension of the woodland grove, but the tree spacing is greater, providing a more open canopy. 

The northern section of this area near the Manzanar boundary is dominated by salt cedar clumps, 

and desert scrub bounds the region to the east and west. After the first year we reclassified the 

Shepherd Ranch site as part of the woodland grove region, although area and nest searches, as well 

as nocturnal surveys, continued there. 

Survey Methods 

After testing the efficacy of proposed area searches and randomized plots, we chose instead 

point counting along transects as the primary census method for use throughout Manzanar. We 

determined that point counting presented the best opportunity for standardizing bird species 

detection in the different vegetation communities, while providing Manzanar with an effective tool 

for long-term monitoring of relative abundance. Additional information about the choice of survey 

methods is in the discussion section of this report. 

Transect Establishment 

We established four point-count transects to provide sampling of the stratified habitats. The 

transects were not intended to sample habitats on the basis of overall abundance. Instead, our 

allocation of transects by habitat was intended to reflect the relative importance of the habitats to 

landbirds. Counting points were spaced at ≥200-m intervals along each transect to prevent overlap 

of 100-m-radius detection plots. In the desert scrub we established two transects, one in each desert 

scrub region on either side of the woodland grove. The eastern and western scrub transects include 

7 and 6 counting points, respectively. The woodland grove contains a horseshoe-shaped transect 

that includes 12 counting points. The fourth transect, following the riparian belt along Bairs Creek, 

includes 8 counting points. Overall, there are 33 counting points among the 4 transects, each with a 

minimum plot radius of 100 m (fig. 3). This provides a nonoverlapping sampling area exceeding 

100 ha, which is nearly one-third of the park. To facilitate repeatability, transect counting-point 

5
locations were georeferenced using a global positioning system (GPS) unit with a horizontal 

position accuracy of ≤5 m (appendix 1). 

Point-Count Protocol 

Each transect was surveyed 13 times from April 2002 to April 2005, with 3 surveys each 

during the breeding season, fall migration, and winter, and 4 surveys during spring migration (table 

1). Transects were surveyed during the morning, beginning as early as one-half hour before sunrise 

and ending not later than 9 a.m. local time. We observed a 1-minute quiet interval upon arrival to 

each counting point, followed by a 5-minute counting period during which we recorded all birds 

seen or heard (Reynolds and others, 1980). The distance to each bird seen or heard during counting 

was estimated (Buckland and others, 2001) and categorized using the parameters of a standard 

variable circular plot form (Ralph and others, 1993). During counts and while walking between 

points, we noted any behaviors associated with breeding (e.g., courtship, carrying nesting material 

or food, feeding of young), as well as any nests. Birds flying over transects while apparently in 

transit were recorded as flyovers, to distinguish them from birds actually using the habitat being 

inventoried. To maximize detection efficiency, we used a microcassette recorder to narrate 

observations, thereby freeing us from having to look back and forth to record data by hand. 

Transcription of the recordings to data forms usually occurred the same day as data collection. 

Because of the potential negative influence of wind on bird detectability, we did not 

conduct surveys if average wind speeds exceeded 11 km/hour, or gusts exceeded 16 km/hour. We 

measured wind speed using a pocket digital anemometer during the 1-minute period before 

counting. Precipitation was not a factor during surveys. 

Table 1. Survey dates and seasons for avian inventories at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo 

County, Calif. 

Survey 

number 

Year Dates Season number 

1 2002 April 23−25 Spring migration 1 

2 2002 June 4−5 Breeding 1 

3 2002 August 21−24 Fall migration 1 

4 2002 November 21−23 Winter 1 

5 2003 February 26−28 Winter 2 

6 2003 April 23−25 Spring migration 2 

7 2003 June 4−6 Breeding 2 

8 2003 July 23−25 Breeding 3 

9 2003 September 22−24 Fall migration 2 

10 2004 April 26−28 Spring migration 3 

11 2004 September 8−10 Fall migration 3 

12 2005 February 25−27 Winter 3 

13 2005 April 29−May 1 Spring migration 4 

6
Figure 3. Map of the locations of 33 point-count stations for the four avian census transects at 

Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo County, Calif. 

We also conducted two mist-netting sessions in spring and fall 2003 at the Bairs Creek 

riparian habitat region to detect cryptic species in migration that might otherwise escape detection 

during point counts. Over the course of the two netting sessions, we operated four 12-m nets for a 

total of 36 net hours. Mist nets were set the night before and furled, to facilitate deployment early 

the next morning. Nets were operated from one-half hour before sunrise until approximately 9 a.m. 

local time. The capture effort was exclusive to Bairs Creek, where the densest habitat was located, 

because this was the most likely place where cryptic nonvocal species might go undetected during 

point counts. 

Nocturnal Surveys 

Eight of the survey sessions included nocturnal surveys, two in each season over 3 years 

(2002 to 2004). These were conducted as walk-through censuses along the auto tour route. They 

generally took about 1.5 hours to complete, beginning one-half hour after sunset. We used a 

7
combination of passive detection while walking, punctuated by frequent stops for tape playback of 

calls by potential species. 

Area Searches and Nest Searching 

Following each day’s point counts we spent another hour or more conducting area searches 

within the habitat that had just been formally censused. The objective was to detect any additional 

species that might have been missed during point counts. We typically also conducted area searches 

prior to nocturnal surveys. During the breeding season (late April to early August) the focus of the 

area searches shifted to nest searching. Wherever evidence of breeding was noted, considerable 

attention was focused upon those locations. This typically involved much quiet observation in the 

hopes of seeing the suspected breeders reveal their nest site. Once we located active nests we did 

not attempt to determine success. Instead, we chose to minimize further disturbance to avoid 

inadvertently contributing to any nesting failures. 

Results 

Existing Records 

We were unable to locate any verifiable documentation of avian species accounts, collected 

specimens, or journal notes that could be linked to the present-day location of Manzanar National 

Historic Site. Similarly, a literature search attempting to link key words in avian contexts with the 

site was also unsuccessful. Considerable information does exist that pertains to avian topics in the 

vicinity of Manzanar, however, and the majority of this is available online from the Eastern Sierra 

Chapter of the Audubon Society Web site (http://esaudubon.org/). These available data consist of 

sighting accounts by individual birders, as well as group count data from Migratory Bird Day tallies 

and Christmas Bird Counts. This chapter is quite active and its members are spread throughout the 

Owens Valley, so reported observations from locations within 16 km or less of Manzanar are not 

uncommon. These reports, as well as those from other areas of the valley with similar habitats, 

were valuable for preparing a list of potential species, which forms the basis for comparison 

between what we expected to find and what we actually detected at Manzanar. 

Species Detection 

The 13 samplings of 33 counting points during the course of this study yielded 429 variable 

plot censuses. A total of 2,167 individuals of 99 species were detected during these point counts. 

Including flyovers, the total number counted was 2,237 individuals of 112 species. Area searches 

and nocturnal surveys detected an additional 20 species, bringing the overall avian counts we 

observed at Manzanar to 2,596 individuals of 132 species (appendix 2). We also captured 43 

individuals of 7 species during mist netting, but all 7 species had been previously detected. The 

numbers of individuals of species detected during surveys were fairly evenly distributed, with no 

species observed in substantially greater numbers than others. For example, the three most common 

species, white-crowned sparrow, European starling, and California quail, accounted for 4.2%, 

4.1%, and 4.0%, respectively, of the total individuals detected. 

8
Species Accumulation 

Regardless of the season, new species were detected during each survey session except one 

(session 8). After the first three survey sessions, the average number of new species accumulated 

per session was 3.8 (surveys 4−13). Even though the total number of species detected during the 

last (13th) survey session was the lowest among the four spring surveys, three previously 

undetected species were tallied (fig. 4). Number of species detected 

species

Survey Session

1 2 3 987654 10 11 1312

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Figure 4. Species accumulation curve for avian surveys at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo 

County, Calif., from 2002 to 2005. After the first three surveys, new species were detected at an 

average rate of 3.8 per survey. Surveys 1, 6, 10, and 13 occurred during spring migration; surveys 2, 

7, and 8 occurred during breeding; surveys 3, 9, and 11 occurred during fall migration; and surveys 4, 

5, and 12 occurred during winter. 

Seasonal Detection Differences 

Observed species richness was generally greatest in spring. The greatest number of species 

was detected during the first, second, and third spring surveys, conducted in 2002, 2003, and 2004, 

respectively. The three winter surveys produced consistent results in terms of species richness, 

which was approximately half of that observed during spring. Species richness during the breeding 

season and fall was between these extremes. 

9
 Habitat Associations 

Of 119 species observed using a habitat (flyovers omitted), a majority (61%) were found in 

more than one habitat type (fig. 5). Eighteen of these species were generalists that were seen 

throughout Manzanar in all habitat types (table 2). 

The remaining 101 species were more specialized, with approximately 60% of these species 

using woodland habitat primarily. Despite the similarities of the two woodland types in terms of 

dominant trees, Bairs Creek was used exclusively by 16 species and the Woodland Grove was used 

exclusively by 17 species (table 3). The desert scrub provided habitat for an additional 23 species, 

and was used exclusively by 12 of these (table 4). 

Table 2. Avian species seen in all habitats at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo County, Calif., 

during seasonal surveys from 2002 to 2005. SM, spring migration; S, breeding; FM, fall migration; W, 

winter; Y, year-round. See appendix 3 for scientific names.

Common name Season of observation 

American kestrel Y 

California quail Y 

Mourning dove Y 

White-throated swift FM 

Black-chinned hummingbird S 

Broad-tailed hummingbird SM 

Rufous hummingbird SM 

Loggerhead shrike Y 

American crow Y 

Common raven Y 

Violet-green swallow SM, S, FM 

Cliff swallow S 

Barn swallow SM, S, FM 

Northern mockingbird Y 

Chipping sparrow SM, FM 

White-crowned sparrow W 

Dark-eyed junco Y 

House sparrow Y 

10
Table 3. Avian species seen exclusively in woodland habitats at Manzanar National Historic Site, 

Inyo County, Calif., during surveys from 2002 to 2005. 

[Habitats: RW, riparian woodland (Bairs Creek); WG, woodland grove (and orchard). Seasons: SM, spring migration; 

S, breeding; FM, fall migration; W, winter; Y, year-round. See appendix 3 for scientific names.] 

Common name Habitat Season of observation 

Merlin RW W 

Western screech owl RW SM 

Downy woodpecker RW FM 

Hairy woodpecker RW S, FM 

Olive-sided flycatcher RW SM 

Black phoebe RW SM, S, FM 

House wren RW SM, S 

Yellow warbler RW SM, S, FM 

Townsend’s warbler RW SM 

Hermit warbler RW SM 

American redstart RW S, FM 

Song sparrow RW SM 

Blue grosbeak RW SM, S 

Lazuli bunting RW SM, S 

Red-winged blackbird RW Y 

Yellow-headed blackbird RW SM 

Cooper’s hawk WG S, FM, W 

Killdeer WG FM, W 

Barn owl WG FM 

Acorn woodpecker WG S, FM 

Red-breasted sapsucker WG FM 

Ladder-backed woodpecker WG W 

Nuttall’s woodpecker WG W 

Gray flycatcher WG FM 

Say’s phoebe WG Y 

Western scrub-jay WG Y 

Black-billed magpie WG S, FM 

Mountain chickadee WG W 

White-breasted nuthatch WG FM, W 

Pygmy nuthatch WG W 

American pipit WG FM 

Great-tailed grackle WG FM 

Evening grosbeak WG SM 

11
Table 4. Avian species seen exclusively in desert scrub habitat at Manzanar National Historic 

Site, Inyo County, Calif., during surveys from 2002 to 2005. 

[Seasons: SM, spring migration; S, breeding; FM, fall migration; W, winter; Y, year-round. See appendix 3 for 

scientific names.] 

Common name Season of observation 

Greater roadrunner S (Y) 

Common poorwill FM 

Costa’s hummingbird SM, S, W 

Horned lark W, SM 

Rock wren SM, S 

Sage thrasher S 

Le Conte’s thrasher SM 

Brewer’s sparrow FM 

Black-throated sparrow FM 

Sage sparrow Y 

Savannah sparrow SM, S, FM 

Western meadowlark SM, FM, W 

Nocturnal Surveys 

We detected only three owl species at Manzanar from 2002 to 2005. In 2002, a great horned 

owl nested in a cottonwood tree at the woodland grove and produced three nestlings, but we were 

unable to verify fledging. We often saw another owl (assumed to be the male of the pair) roosting 

in locusts at the other end of the grove. Over the next 3 years we encountered a single owl 

somewhere in the wooded habitats on almost every survey session (usually flushed during diurnal 

surveys). On nocturnal surveys we played calls of great horned, long-eared, short-eared, Western 

screech, and barn owls. These efforts elicited only six call responses, always from a great horned 

owl, and four of the responses were to the call of a Western screech owl. Following three of those 

responses, the owl flew in very close to us, prompting us to cease calling other species. No other 

owl species were detected from 2002 to 2003, but common poorwills were seen. Finally, in 2004, a 

Western screech owl was spontaneously calling within the Bairs Creek riparian habitat in spring, 

and that fall a barn owl was roosting on the roof of the visitor center. 

12
70

60

18 50

Number of species detected 

30

40 Sometimes

Often

Exclusively

30 25

17

4 20

7

10 18 16 17

12

0

Park wide Desert Scrub Riparian Woodland Woodland Grove

Figure 5. Number of bird species detected per habitat association at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo 

County, Calif. Bottom segments of each bar show the number of detected species found exclusively in that 

habitat type. Middle and upper segments show species either often or sometimes found in that habitat, 

respectively. Eighteen species were found parkwide; these species could be found in any habitat at 

Manzanar. Species richness was highest in the riparian woodland (Bairs Creek). 

Area Searches and Nest Searching 

Seventeen species not detected during point-count censuses were found during area 

searches (table 5). Three of these species were detected just once during a flyover. Only three 

species, the rock dove, sharp-shinned hawk, and Cooper’s hawk, were seen on multiple surveys. 

The others were detected on just one occasion and in fairly low numbers (≤6). Typically, each of 

these species was detected visually during migration or winter when it was not vocalizing. We 

located the active nests of 11 species either incidentally or while nest searching. We confirmed 

breeding for 19 species at Manzanar, and acquired circumstantial evidence for 8 more (table 6). 

Breeding success for 9 species was confirmed by the presence of young. 

13
Table 5. Avian species detected during area searches at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo 

County, Calif., from 2002 to 2005. 

[Habitats: RW, riparian woodland; WG, woodland grove; DS, desert scrub; FO, flyover. Seasons: SM, spring 

migration; S, breeding; FM, fall migration, W, winter; Y, year-round. See appendix 3 for scientific names.] 

Common name Habitat(s) Season of observation 

Sharp-shinned hawk WG, RW Y 

Cooper’s hawk WG S, FM, W 

Ferruginous hawk FO W 

Rough-legged hawk FO W 

Merlin RW W 

Killdeer WG FM, W 

Caspian tern FO FM 

Rock dove FO SM, FM 

Acorn woodpecker WG S, FM 

Red-breasted sapsucker WG FM 

Ladder-backed woodpecker WG W 

Olive-sided flycatcher RW SM 

Hammond’s flycatcher RW, WG SM 

Gray flycatcher WG FM 

Green-tailed towhee WG, RW W 

Yellow-headed blackbird RW SM 

American goldfinch WG, DS W 

14
Table 6. Avian species that bred or are suspected of breeding at Manzanar National Historic Site, 

Inyo County, Calif., from 2002 to 2005, and the evidence for those determinations. Status: B, 

confirmed; {B}, probable. See appendix 3 for scientific names.

Common name Status Evidence 

Red-tailed hawk B Nest 

American kestrel B Nest 

California quail B Young and adults 

Mourning dove B Nest 

Great horned owl B Young in nest 

Black-chinned hummingbird B Nest 

Hairy woodpecker B Feeding young 

Northern flicker B Feeding young 

Say’s phoebe B Nest 

Ash-throated flycatcher B Nest 

Western kingbird B Feeding young 

Common raven B Nest 

Bewick’s wren B Feeding young 

House wren B Nest 

American robin B Nest 

Northern mockingbird B Nest 

Vesper sparrow B Feeding young 

Sage sparrow B Feeding young 

European starling B Feeding young 

Lesser nighthawk {B} Courtship 

Costa’s hummingbird {B} Unoccupied nest 

Black phoebe {B} Unoccupied nest 

Loggerhead shrike {B} Nest material 

Phainopepla {B} Nest material 

Spotted towhee {B} Unoccupied nest 

Brown-headed cowbird {B} Female nest watch 

House finch {B} Nest material 

15
Relative Abundance 

White-crowned sparrows were the most abundant species detected; the number of 

individual white-crowned sparrows was compared with numbers of other species to calculate 

indices of relative abundance (IRAs). IRAs are furnished for all species detected from 2002 to 2005 

at Manzanar (appendix 3). Among birds present during the breeding season, the European starling 

was the most abundant, followed closely by the California quail. Both of these species are yearround residents at Manzanar, as were 71% of the species detected during surveys in the breeding 

season. The most abundant summer residents were brown-headed cowbirds, which outnumbered 

most of their prospective host species (table 7). 

Table 7. Relative abundance of avian species at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo County, 

Calif., during breeding surveys from 2002 to 2005. 

[Number of individuals, total number detected; IRA, index of relative abundance with respect to the most common 

species. Habitats: RW, riparian woodland; WG, woodland grove; DS, desert scrub; ALL, any habitat. Residency: S, 

summer resident or visitor; Y, found in any season. See appendix 3 for scientific names.] 

Common name Number of 

individuals 

IRA Habitat(s) Residency 

European starling (nonnative) 88 1.00 RW, WG Y 

California quail 87 0.99 ALL Y 

Sage sparrow 76 0.86 DS Y 

American robin 71 0.81 WG, RW Y 

Brewer’s blackbird 62 0.70 DS, RW Y 

Common raven 56 0.64 ALL Y 

Bushtit 55 0.63 WG, RW Y 

Dark-eyed junco 53 0.60 ALL Y 

Mourning dove 51 0.58 ALL Y 

Vesper sparrow 49 0.56 DS, RW Y 

House sparrow (nonnative) 38 0.43 ALL Y 

Western bluebird 35 0.40 WG, DS Y 

Red-winged blackbird 34 0.39 RW Y 

Brown-headed cowbird 34 0.39 RW, WG S 

Bewick’s wren 33 0.38 RW, WG Y 

House finch 32 0.36 WG, RW Y 

Northern flicker 29 0.33 WG, RW Y 

American crow 27 0.31 ALL Y 

Blue-gray gnatcatcher 25 0.28 WG, RW S 

Red-tailed hawk 23 0.26 WG, RW Y 

16
Table 7. Relative abundance of avian species at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo County, 

Calif., during breeding surveys from 2002 to 2005. —Continued 

Common name Number of 

individuals 

IRA Habitat(s) Residency 

Say’s phoebe 23 0.26 WG S 

Orange-crowned warbler 23 0.26 RW, WG S 

Black-chinned hummingbird 22 0.25 ALL S 

Ash-throated flycatcher 22 0.25 WG, RW S 

Common nighthawk 21 0.24 DS, RW Y 

Spotted towhee 21 0.24 WG, RW S 

Western kingbird 19 0.22 WG, RW Y 

Lesser goldfinch 19 0.22 WG, RW S 

Great horned owl 18 0.20 RW,WG Y 

Northern mockingbird 18 0.20 ALL Y 

Turkey vulture 17 0.19 A, WG Y 

American kestrel 17 0.19 ALL S 

Phainopepla 17 0.19 DS, RW S 

Bullock’s oriole 16 0.18 RW, WG S 

Loggerhead shrike 15 0.17 ALL Y 

Hairy woodpecker 14 0.16 RW Y 

Black-billed magpie 14 0.16 WG Y 

Lesser nighthawk 13 0.15 DS, RW S 

Black-headed grosbeak 13 0.15 RW,WG S 

Black phoebe 12 0.14 RW Y 

Rock wren 12 0.14 DS Y 

Western scrub jay 11 0.13 WG Y 

Costa’s hummingbird 9 0.10 DS S 

Cooper’s hawk 5 0.06 WG Y 

House wren 5 0.06 RW Y 

Sharp-shinned hawk 4 0.05 WG, RW Y 

Swainson’s hawk 2 0.02 A Y 

Acorn woodpecker 2 0.02 WG Y 

Greater roadrunner 1 0.01 DS Y 

Lesser goldfinch 19 0.22 WG, RW S 

17
Abundance During Migration 

Although we detected the greatest number of species during spring and fall migration, 

numbers of individuals were low for most migrants; we detected no “flush” of migrants during 

surveys in either season. A higher proportion of migrant species were detected in spring (42%) 

rather than fall (22%), while the remaining 36% were detected during both migration periods. The 

violet-green swallow and chipping sparrow were the most numerous migrants detected, and both of 

these were visitors to Manzanar during spring and fall (table 8). 

Abundance During Winter 

Similar to what was observed during the breeding season, year-round resident species 

composed the largest number of birds (71%) present during the winter (November−February), 

although considerably fewer species were present. Abundance within individual species detected in 

winter was generally greater than during migration. Abundance of species detected in winter in 

desert scrub habitat was generally greater than during breeding. White-crowned sparrows were the 

most abundant, followed closely by such year-round species as the European starling, California 

quail, and sage sparrow (table 9). 

Potential Species 

Based primarily on the review of online sighting reports from the Eastern Sierra Audubon 

Web site from 2002 to 2005, we assembled a preliminary list of 34 landbird species that could be 

present to augment those we had detected at Manzanar. We then subjectively estimated the 

likelihood of each species occurring at Manzanar and the likely habitats they would occupy (table 

10) 

18
Table 8. Relative abundance of avian migrant species during migration (spring/fall) from 2002 to 

2005 at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo County, Calif. 

[Number of individuals, total number detected; IAR, index of relative abundance with respect to most common species. 

Habitats: RW, riparian woodland; WG, woodland grove; DS, desert scrub; ALL, any habitat. Seasons: SM, spring only; 

FM, fall only; BO, both seasons. See appendix 3 for scientific names.] 

Common name Number of 

individuals 

IRA Habitat(s) Season(s) 

Violet-green swallow 38 1 ALL BO 

Chipping sparrow 37 0.97 ALL BO 

Western tanager 26 0.68 WG, RW BO 

Barn swallow 24 0.63 ALL BO 

Northern rough-winged swallow 23 0.61 RW BO 

Brewer’s sparrow 23 0.61 DS FM 

Wilson’s warbler 19 0.50 RW, WG FM 

Western meadowlark 19 0.50 DS BO 

Black-throated gray warbler 18 0.47 RW, WG BO 

Warbling vireo 16 0.42 WG, RW BO 

Savannah sparrow 16 0.42 DS BO 

White-throated swift 14 0.37 ALL FM 

Yellow warbler 13 0.34 RW BO 

Western wood-pewee 12 0.32 WG, RW BO 

Cassin’s vireo 12 0.32 RW, WG SM 

Tree swallow 11 0.29 RW SM 

MacGillivray’s warbler 11 0.29 WG, RW SM 

Lazuli bunting 11 0.29 RW SM 

Hermit thrush 8 0.21 WG, RW SM 

Cedar waxwing 8 0.21 WG, RW FM 

Townsend’s warbler 8 0.21 RW SM 

Pacific-slope flycatcher 7 0.18 RW, WG SM 

Nashville warbler 7 0.18 RW/WG BO 

Blue grosbeak 7 0.18 RW SM 

Evening grosbeak 7 0.18 WG SM 

Rufous hummingbird 6 0.16 ALL SM 

Lewis’ woodpecker 5 0.13 WG, RW FM 

Hermit warbler 5 0.13 RW SM 

Black-throated sparrow 5 0.13 DS FM 

Broad-tailed hummingbird 4 0.11 ALL SM 

Gray flycatcher 3 0.08 WG SM 

Lark sparrow 3 0.08 WG, DS FM 

Cassin’s finch 3 0.08 WG/RW BO 

Red-breasted sapsucker 2 0.05 WG FM 

Hammond’s flycatcher 2 0.05 RW, WG SM 

Olive-sided flycatcher 1 0.03 RW SM 

19
Table 9. Relative abundance of avian species during winter surveys from 2002 to 2005 at 

Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo County, Calif. 

[Number of individuals, total number detected; IRA, index of relative abundance with respect to most common species. 

Habitats: RW, riparian woodland; WG, woodland grove; DS, desert scrub; ALL, any habitat. Number of surveys, 

number of surveys for detection (of three winter surveys total). See appendix 3 for scientific names.] 

Common name Number of 

individuals 

IRA Habitat(s) Number of 

surveys 

Horned lark 40 1.00 ALL 3 

White-crowned sparrow 34 0.85 RW, WG 3 

Dark-eyed junco 30 0.75 ALL 3 

European starling 27 0.68 DS 3 

Sage sparrow 24 0.60 WG, RW 3 

Pygmy nuthatch 20 0.50 DS, RW 1 

American robin 19 0.48 ALL 3 

Mountain chickadee 18 0.45 WG, RW 2 

Ruby-crowned kinglet 18 0.45 DS 3 

Mountain bluebird 17 0.43 ALL 3 

Common raven 15 0.38 RW, WG 3 

California quail 14 0.35 ALL 3 

Red-winged blackbird 13 0.33 WG, DS 2 

Brewer’s blackbird 12 0.30 RW 3 

Western bluebird 11 0.28 RW, WG 2 

Northern flicker 11 0.28 WG, RW 3 

Bewick’s wren 9 0.23 DS, WG 3 

Brown creeper 9 0.23 WG, RW 2 

American crow 7 0.18 WG, RW 3 

House sparrow 6 0.15 ALL 3 

Northern rough-winged swallow 5 0.13 WG, RW 1 

Loggerhead shrike 5 0.13 WG, RW 1 

Western meadowlark 5 0.13 WG 3 

Northern harrier 5 0.13 WG 3 

Pacific-slope flycatcher 5 0.13 RW, WG 1 

Fox sparrow 5 0.13 ALL 2 

Nuttall’s woodpecker 5 0.13 ALL 1 

Say’s phoebe 5 0.13 WG 2 

Bushtit 5 0.13 WG 1 

Yellow-rumped warbler (Audubon’s) 4 0.10 DS, RW 1 

Lincoln’s sparrow 4 0.10 WG, RW 2 

White-breasted nuthatch 4 0.10 WG 1 

Red-tailed hawk 4 0.10 WG 3 

20
Table 9. Relative abundance of avian species during winter surveys from 2002 to 2005 at 

Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo County, Calif.—Continued 

Common name Number of 

individuals 

IRA Habitat(s) Number of 

surveys 

Sage thrasher 3 0.08 RW, WG 1 

Black phoebe 3 0.08 RW 1 

Great horned owl 3 0.08 RW 1 

Cooper’s hawk 3 0.08 WG 3 

Ladder-backed woodpecker 3 0.08 WG, RW 2 

Northern mockingbird 2 0.05 WG, RW 2 

Costa’s hummingbird 2 0.05 DS 1 

Killdeer 2 0.05 DS 1 

American goldfinch 2 0.05 RW 1 

Green-tailed towhee 2 0.05 WG 1 

Ferruginous hawk 1 0.03 DS 1 

Rough-legged hawk 1 0.03 DS 1 

Golden eagle 1 0.03 DS 1 

Merlin 1 0.03 DS 1 

Western scrub jay 1 0.03 RW 1 

House finch 1 0.03 WG 1 

21
Table 10. Species that have been detected in nearby areas in recent years that could also occur at 

Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo County, Calif. 

[Expected habitats of nearby detected species: RW, riparian woodland; WG, woodland grove; DS, desert scrub; ALL, 

any habitat. Potential (for occurrence): H, high; M, moderate; L, low; (T), threatened (federally listed) species. This list 

is speculative and intended to identify some additional key species to look for; the presence of other species not listed is 

certainly possible.] 

Common name Scientific name Potential Habitat(s) 

Common ground-dove Columbina passerina M DS, WG 

Ruddy ground-dove Columbina talpacoti L DS, WG 

Long-eared owl Asio otus M WG 

Short-eared owl Asio flammeus H WG, DS 

Vaux’s swift Chaetura vauxi H ALL 

Anna’s hummingbird Calypte anna H ALL 

Calliope hummingbird Stellula calliope M ALL 

Dusky flycatcher Empidonax oberholseri H WG 

Vermilion flycatcher Pyrocephalus rubinus H RW, WG 

Bell’s vireo Vireo bellii L (T) RW, WG 

Bank swallow Riparia riparia L (T) RW 

Red-breasted nuthatch Sitta canadensis M WG,RW 

Winter wren Troglodytes troglodytes M WG,RW 

Golden-crowned kinglet Regulus satrapa H WG,RW 

Townsend’s solitaire Myadestes townsendi M WG 

Swainson’s thrush Catharus ustulatus H RW 

Bohemian waxwing Bombycilla garrulus M WG 

Virginia’s warbler Vermivora virginiae M WG,RW 

Lucy’s warbler Vermivora luciae M RW 

Northern parula Parula americana L RW 

Northern waterthrush Seiurus noveboracensis L RW 

Common yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas L RW 

Yellow-breasted chat Icteria virens L RW 

Summer tanager Piranga rubra H WG,RW 

American tree sparrow Spizella arborea L WG 

White-throated sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis L WG 

Harris’s sparrow Zonotrichia querula L WG 

Golden-crowned sparrow Zonotrichia atricapilla L RW,WG 

Rose-breasted grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus M RW 

Indigo bunting Passerina cyanea M WG 

Tricolored blackbird Agelaius tricolor L RW 

Hooded oriole Icterus cucullatus M WG,RW 

Pine siskin Carduelis pinus M WG 

Lawrence’s goldfinch Carduelis lawrencei M WG,RW 

22
Discussion 

Existing Records 

The lack of verifiable information on avian species at Manzanar is not surprising for several 

reasons. First, Manzanar has only existed as a National Historic Site for less than 15 years, and 

there was little incentive prior to that time to locate information. Second, the understandable focus 

on cultural resource protection and interpretation has limited efforts to collect natural resource 

information since the site’s current status was formalized. Third, and in our view most important, 

Manzanar is only a little more than 3.2 km2 in area, and there is little (especially from a distance) to 

distinguish the site itself from hundreds upon hundreds of square kilometers of similar habitats up 

and down the Owens Valley. The land-use history of the site, and the availability of so much 

nearby habitat that is arguably much more interesting from a natural resource perspective, 

decreases the likelihood that the Manzanar site would be selected for biological or ecological 

investigations. Examinations of records from the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at Berkeley reveal 

that numerous collections of native flora and fauna, dating back over 115 years, have originated in 

the Owens Valley, along its watercourses and in its adjacent foothills. However, we were unable to 

reference, either descriptively or geographically, any of the avian records in those collections to the 

place we now know as Manzanar. Online searches for verifiable records from other sources yielded 

no better results. From the perspective of building a knowledge base for avian resources at 

Manzanar, we are clearly starting with a pretty clean slate. 

Transect Establishment 

As originally conceived the inventory at Manzanar was to rely on randomized plots except 

where linear habitat features were present. However, we reconsidered this approach after the first 

site reconnaissance. On our first planning visit to the site we studied aerial photographs and then 

walked the site on an April morning, doing informal bird counts as we went. We estimated that 

60% of Manzanar outside of the currently developed areas was covered by desert scrub, 25% was 

occupied by the central woodland (woodland grove), 5% was the Shepherd Ranch area, and 5 to 

10% was the riparian zone along Bairs Creek, depending on how that zone is defined. Had we 

allocated sampling effort as random points (plots) in proportion to habitat availability, there should 

have been 20 random points in the desert scrub, 10 points (combined) in the central woodland plus 

Shepherd Ranch complex (woodland grove), and 3 points (the prescribed minimum) in the riparian 

zone. Instead, based upon what we saw during that planning visit, we allocated 40% of the effort to 

desert scrub, 35% to the woodland grove, and 25% to the Bairs Creek riparian zone. Given the 

limited extent of woodland habitats at Manzanar, especially riparian woodland, the number of 

points along these transects constitute over sampling with respect to habitat availability. However, 

we decided that the importance of woodland habitats for birds justified some additional sampling 

within them, and that 40% (instead of 60%) of the effort in desert scrub at Manzanar would suffice 

to ensure adequate sampling in that habitat. 

Over sampling woodland habitats created some logistical problems, mostly in terms of how 

best to locate points. Bairs Creek was linear, so a transect there was logical, but the woodland grove 

was shaped more like an elongated rectangle. It was, therefore, difficult to randomly locate enough 

points within the woodland to provide for sufficient spacing without capturing too much edge in the 

plots. One model that appeared both simple and adequate consisted of running a transect north a 

sufficient distance inside of the eastern edge, gradually turning west and then returning south inside 

23
of the western edge. Ultimately we adopted this model, removing as much bias as possible by 

following a fixed bearing from a randomized starting point and establishing points a fixed distance 

apart. At this point, having broken away from the fully randomized model, we used a similar 

methodology to establish the two desert scrub transects. Our goal was to facilitate adequate 

coverage of the different habitats at Manzanar, while focusing some extra attention on habitat 

features that are known to be important to a variety of avian species. 

Species Detection 

The average detection rate over all seasons and habitats was just over one bird per minute 

during 2,145 minutes of point-count censusing. Many of the low counts were in desert scrub habitat 

in winter (least productive habitat and season). Flushes of activity in the riparian habitat, even 

during spring (most productive habitat and season), were not common. Also, the higher quality 

riparian habitat is limited in extent, with only two point count stations. The woodland grove habitat 

was often more productive than the Bairs Creek area, especially when there was no flowing or 

standing water in Bairs Creek during summer and fall. The trees in the woodland grove, especially 

the old-growth cottonwoods, furnish high-quality habitat for a variety of avian species. 

Unfortunately, there appears to be little or no regeneration of these native trees, which may have a 

negative impact on Manzanar's avifaunal community. 

Our purpose for mist netting was to detect cryptic (nonvocal, secretive) species during 

migration, so it is difficult to judge success if no cryptic species are found. We captured a total of 

seven species during the mist netting effort, but none of these were previously undetected. The mist 

net capture rate averaged 1.2 birds per net hour. This is only a moderate capture rate compared to 

other studies in riparian habitats (see Skagen and others, 2005), but mist netting was limited to two 

brief sessions on what appeared to be 2 slow days. Our point count and other sampling in the 

riparian zone probably detected most species that were present, but more intensive and frequent 

mist netting during the migration periods would have been useful. 

Species Accumulation 

After 13 survey sessions there were still new bird species to be found at Manzanar, which 

was not surprising. As highly mobile vertebrates, birds can easily move into or out of an area, 

causing frequent changes in species assemblages. The species accumulation curve only shows new 

arrivals. It does not reflect uncommon species that are detected once, then not seen in subsequent 

surveys. This probably contributes to the lack of any asymptote. Continued monitoring of breeding, 

wintering, and especially migrant birds at Manzanar will likely yield new species. Most of these 

will probably be transients. 

Seasonal Detection Differences 

The relatively large numbers and variability in species composition during the spring and 

fall were not surprising, given the inherent volatility associated with migration timing. Conversely, 

the stability of species richness in winter probably reflects relatively mild and consistent conditions 

at Manzanar during this period. The breeding survey results appear to show a negative trend over 

time, but the biggest drop in richness occurred between two surveys in 2003, and was likely an 

artifact of our sampling. Both of these surveys occurred during the same breeding season, the first 

in early June, at the same time as the previous year, and the second near the end of July, 7 weeks 

later. We suspect that several of those species detected in June but not in July, such as the blue 

24
grosbeak, were still moving to their breeding grounds. A few others, such as the blue-gray 

gnatcatcher, had in fact already bred and left by the last week in July. 

The final spring migration survey, which was not originally planned, was intended to detect 

some later migrants that we suspected we might be missing. We kept track of the Audubon Web 

site, watching the numbers of migrant sightings to determine whether migration was ready to peak, 

and traveled from Flagstaff, Ariz., to Manzanar hoping to be there at the right time. The first 2 

years we ended up at Manzanar on the same dates in April, but recorded considerably fewer species 

the second year. As it happened, the wave of migrants we had hoped to catch came a few days later. 

The third year we waited just a few days longer and it turned out to be an improvement over the 

second year. We then decided to add a fourth session and go a little later still. Once again we 

missed the main wave of migrants, which in this year came the previous week, and detected only 

77% of the species that we had detected in 2002. 

Habitat Associations 

The habitat association data reveal some of the complexities of habitat stratification, even in 

what appears to be a relatively simple system. The degree of overlap between bird species that used 

the woodland grove and those that used the Bairs Creek riparian zone is unsurprising. There is 

considerable overlap in dominant tree species, so we expected black-headed grosbeaks, Bullock’s 

orioles, and orange-crowned warblers to use them similarly. The number of species that are 

exclusive to one or the other habitat is surprising. Four of eight woodpecker species we detected 

used only the woodland grove, while four of ten warbler species used only Bairs Creek riparian 

habitat—even when the watercourse was dry. The understanding of this segregation is further 

complicated by the proximity of the south end of the woodland grove to Bairs Creek (<200 m). We 

suspect that differences in understory species and structure are influencing the choice of habitat by 

some species (warblers), while differences in tree maturity are influencing others (woodpeckers). 

Nocturnal Surveys 

One of the complexities in using active detection methods for bird species, such as call 

playback, is that you may get a response from another species. This was a problem when we 

conducted nocturnal surveys at Manzanar. Hearing a great horned owl when surveying for any 

other species may be sufficient reason to end the survey. This species is a fierce competitor and will 

fly in upon hearing the call of almost any sympatric species. Once a great horned owl is attracted it 

will likely be necessary to move a considerable distance (perhaps 3 to 5 km) before beginning 

surveys again, as the owl will follow the surveyor and find them every time they try another call. 

As long as great horned owls are nearby, and especially if they are calling, other owls will remain 

silent. This happened frequently at Manzanar, which resulted in the abbreviation of >50% of 

nocturnal surveys. 

Area Searches and Nest Searching 

To maximize species detection at Manzanar, it was desirable to use several methods. Point 

counting is widely held to be a preferred method of avian censusing due to its repeatability (Ralph 

and others, 1993), but cryptic species within a census plot or incidental species outside it may 

remain undetected. By conducting thorough area searches after point counts we were able to 

increase species detection by 15% over what we achieved through point counting alone. Cryptic, 

nonvocal species that might have otherwise gone unnoticed included three flycatchers. But there 

25
were other species detected during area searches that are usually easier to notice, including five 

raptor and three woodpecker species. Supporting our contention that increased sampling in 

woodland areas is needed, of the 17 species detected exclusively through area searches, all were 

found in woodland habitats. 

Besides the active nests of 11 species, discovered incidentally or during nest searching, 

unoccupied nests in good condition that appeared to have been recently used were found for three 

species. Nest material and construction, substrate location, and prior species detection in that 

habitat were all consistent with the prospective species (Baicich and Harrison, 1997). In the case of 

spotted towhee, eggshell fragments consistent with normal hatching were also found. 

Circumstantial breeding evidence for five other species required less interpretation. Three species 

were seen on multiple occasions carrying nest material, although we were unable to locate any of 

their nests. Even easier to document were courtship displays by lesser nighthawks. The most 

circumstantial of breeding evidence, however, was exhibited by brown-headed cowbird females as 

they conducted their own nest searches by watching females of other species. Among the species 

we suspected of breeding at Manzanar, but for which we lacked evidence, were blue-gray 

gnatcatchers and orange-crowned warblers, both of which we observed being watched by female 

cowbirds. Both species are parasitized by cowbirds, especially the gnatcatcher (Erlich and others, 

1988). 

Relative Abundance 

The prevalence of year-round species during both breeding season and winter is not 

surprising considering the high desert climate at Manzanar. It is hot during the summer, but most 

desert-adapted species would not find it excessively so. Similarly, the typically moderate winter 

conditions would be tolerable for many species. Such conditions help provide for a relatively stable 

population of resident species, although the individuals representing each species would be 

different in each season (Sibley, 2000). At Manzanar, the response of birds to these moderate 

conditions is evidenced by residents accounting for 18 of the 20 most abundant species during the 

breeding season, and 16 of the 20 most abundant during the winter months. During migration, the 

relative abundance of resident species declines somewhat due to the influx of transient species. 

Potential Species 

Not counting flyovers, we detected 119 species at Manzanar, but we expect that this tally 

will increase substantially as more people turn their attention to the natural resources at the historic 

site. The criteria for being on the list of potential species are only two: (1) multiple sightings of the 

species must have occurred within the general area since 2000, and (2) there must be a plausible 

match between habitat at Manzanar and the habitat(s) where the species is typically found. 

To assign occurrence potential as high, moderate, or low, we considered a bit more 

critically whether each species was a good candidate for arrival at Manzanar. For example, if we 

expected the appearance of a prospective species, and it had been seen in habitat within a 16-km 

radius that was analogous to the habitat at Manzanar, we would assign it high potential. Species 

that could find suitable habitat at Manzanar but had not been sighted within 16 km would be 

assigned moderate potential. Species that had not been sighted within 16 km and would find only 

limited suitable habitat in Manzanar would be assigned low potential. Such species, if they do 

occur at Manzanar, would likely be classified as accidental. 

26
Species of Concern 

The possible presence of two species of concern provided some of the impetus for the avian 

inventory at Manzanar. During this inventory, we detected no threatened species or species of 

serious concern. In our potential species list we included the federally endangered least bell’s vireo 

(Vireo bellii pusillus) as low potential, but these birds are now so rare that this is probably an 

understatement. Any sightings of this species in the vicinity of Manzanar or anywhere else in the 

eastern Sierra would certainly be noteworthy. We were also tasked with evaluating possible habitat 

at Manzanar for the Southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus), a federally listed 

subspecies. We did not conduct formal surveys for this bird, but in our opinion the habitat at 

Manzanar is not suitable for breeding by this species; it remains plausible, however, that the 

flycatcher might stop there on occasion while migrating. 

Management Considerations 

Although it is quite small in area, and this fact alone limits its importance to avian species 

on a landscape scale, Manzanar does provide some diverse habitats that support well over 100 

species of landbirds. Two of these habitats possess attributes uncommon in this high-desert 

landscape that may warrant management consideration. First, the Bairs Creek riparian zone, even 

with intermittent water flows, is the only riparian habitat at Manzanar, and is also likely to be the 

most biologically diverse. From what we could see during our avian inventories, a major threat to 

this habitat (besides persistent drought) is heavy browsing and trampling by tule elk (Cervus 

elaphus nannodes). We expect that it would be very costly to exclude these large, introduced 

ungulates, but it might be worthwhile to study the problem. Monitoring of the riparian area within 

Manzanar would help in understanding the magnitude of this potential problem. 

The woodland grove is the other area that warrants attention. The hydrological features that 

raise the water table between Bairs and Shepherd Creeks, while perhaps not unique, do not appear 

to have many replicates in the Owens Valley. This mature woodland dominated by cottonwoods 

provides the largest expanse of habitat for the greatest number of bird species at Manzanar. This is 

also the area that could potentially be most affected by visitor use-related activities, as roads and 

trails are constructed or improved. The old-growth trees and snags provide nesting habitat for many 

of the species inventoried, but there appears to be little or no regeneration of major tree species, 

especially cottonwood. Without intervention to promote regeneration of cottonwood, the character 

of this woodland can be expected to change dramatically as the old-growth trees die, bringing with 

it corresponding changes to avian assemblages as foraging and nesting habitat is lost for numerous 

species. 

The presence of exotic fruit tree species within the woodland grove is something 

extraordinary in this area (fig. 6). While we did not study how the presence of these trees might 

affect the avifauna at Manzanar, we did notice that both figs and pears are popular with a variety of 

bird species. We lost count of the times that we saw a raven fly by with a whole pear clamped in its 

bill. There has been some restoration work occurring in the orchards and it appears that these 

efforts are expanding in both scope and success. As this rather unique, nonnative resource gains 

stature, it would be desirable to track its potential influence on bird species. In particular, do certain 

species appear to derive greater benefit? Are bird species assemblages in the woodland changing in 

response to the enhancement of nonnative tree species? 

In addition to its obvious historical importance, Manzanar also contains important habitat 

that supports a diverse avifauna. This and other natural resources are now receiving needed 

27
attention, and the baseline information essential to their management is being extracted. The 

inventory study described here provides a baseline for, and should encourage, further study and 

observations. Aside from the obvious benefits for enabling resource protection, knowledge of the 

avian community provides another facet to the visitor experience at Manzanar—a small site with a 

very big story. 

Figure 6. A remnant orchard within the woodland grove at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo 

County, Calif., that still produces fruit and attracts birds. 

Acknowledgments 

This research was made possible through funding from the National Park Service (NPS) 

Inventory and Monitoring Program, facilitated by Rod Parnell and Ron Hiebert through the 

Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit at Northern Arizona University. Kristina Heister, as NPS 

Inventory and Monitoring coordinator for the Mojave Network, helped secure sponsorship and 

funding for this project, and also provided excellent coordination and encouragement. 

Superintendent Frank Hays and Misty Knight (Manzanar) were especially helpful and enthusiastic 

in support of our efforts. Craig Palmer, data manager for the Mojave I&M network, provided 

valued assistance with data management. Marie Saul of the Colorado Plateau Research Station 

28
(CPRS) provided much-needed budget oversight. Trevor Persons (CPRS), Scott Durst (USGS), 

Joel Siderius, (NPS), Linda Manning (NPS, DEVA), and Richard Potashin (NPS, Manzanar) each 

made many valuable comments on an earlier version of this report. 

References 

American Ornithologists Union, 1998, Check-list of North American birds (7th ed.): Lawrence, 

Kans., Allen Press. 

Baicich, P.J., and Harrison, C.J.O., 1997, A guide to the nests, eggs, and nestlings of North 

American birds (2d ed.): San Diego, Calif., Academic Press, 347 p. 

Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P., Laake, J.L, Borchers, D.L., and Thomas, L, 2001, 

Introduction to distance sampling: estimating abundance of biological populations: London, 

Oxford University Press, 458 p. 

Erlich, P.R., Dobkin, D.S., and Wheye, D., 1988, The birder’s handbook: New York, NY, Simon & 

Schuster, 785 p. 

Ralph, C.J., Geupel, G.R., Pyle, P., Martin, T.E., and DeSante, D.F., 1993, Handbook of field 

methods for monitoring landbirds: Albany, Calif., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-144, 41 p. 

Reynolds, R.T., Scott, J.M., and Nussbaum, R.A., 1980, Variable circular-plot method for 

estimating bird numbers: Condor, v. 82, p. 309−313. 

Robbins, 1999, Birds of North America (3rd ed.): National Geographic Society. 

Sibley, D.A., 2000, National Audubon Society: the Sibley guide to birds: New York, Alfred A. 

Knopf, 545 p. 

Skagen, S.K., Kelly, J.F., van Riper III, C., Hutto, R.L., Finch, D.M., Krueper, D.J., and Melcher, 

C.P., 2005, Geography of spring landbird migration through riparian habitats in southwestern 

North America: Condor, v. 107, p. 212–227. 

Western Regional Climate Center, 2006, Climatic summary for Independence, California: 

1927−2005: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

and the Desert Research Institute, Reno, Nev. [http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?cainde,

last accessed January 27, 2007]. 

29
Appendix 1. Coordinates for Avian Point-Count Transects 

Table 1-1. Coordinates for avian point-count transects at Manzanar National Historic Site, Inyo 

County, Calif. 

[Global positioning system (GPS)-derived Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinates (UTMs) are in Zone 11S, and 

were collected in datum World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84). Estimated position error (EPE) is given in meters for 

each point. A Garmin 76S GPS unit was used to collect these data and the acceptable accuracy was specified as ≤5 m.] 

Transect name Point East UTM North UTM Estimated position error (m) 

Bairs Creek 

Bairs Creek 1 396027 4064189 4 

Bairs Creek 2 396227 4064295 4 

Bairs Creek 3 396429 4064391 3 

Bairs Creek 4 396635 4064334 3 

Bairs Creek 5 396840 4064331 4 

Bairs Creek 6 397038 4064405 5 

Bairs Creek 7 397244 4064416 4 

Bairs Creek 8 397441 4064482 4 

Desert scrub east 

Desert scrub east 1 397318 4064791 5 

Desert scrub east 2 397331 4065049 3 

Desert scrub east 3 397286 4065279 4 

Desert scrub east 4 397213 4065521 4 

Desert scrub east 5 397244 4065768 4 

Desert scrub east 6 397155 4066007 4 

Desert scrub east 7 396877 4066044 4 

Desert scrub west 

Desert scrub west 1 396165 4065603 3 

Desert scrub west 2 396144 4065343 4 

Desert scrub west 3 396265 4065088 3 

Desert scrub west 4 396125 4064870 3 

Desert scrub west 5 396254 4064647 4 

Desert scrub west 6 396049 4064458 4 

Woodland grove 

Woodland grove 1 396813 4064495 5 

Woodland grove 2 396816 4064697 5 

Woodland grove 3 396804 4064906 4 

Woodland grove 4 396816 4065109 4 

Woodland grove 5 396767 4065301 4 

Woodland grove 6 396815 4065505 4 

Woodland grove 7 396849 4065705 5 

Woodland grove 8 396673 4065595 4 

Woodland grove 9 396496 4065481 5 

Woodland grove 10 396545 4065265 5 

Woodland grove 11 396599 4065070 5 

Woodland grove 12 396606 4064837 5 

30
Appendix 2. Overall Relative Abundance of Avian Species 

Table 2-1. Overall relative abundance of avian species inventoried at Manzanar National Historic 

Site, Inyo County, Calif., from 2002 to 2005. 

[Total counts include birds detected during point counting, area searches, and nocturnal surveys. Abundance is 

irrespective of season and relative to the most common species detected overall (white-crowned sparrow). See 

appendix 3 for scientific names.] 

Species Total count Relative abundance 

White-crowned sparrow 92 1.00 

European starling 88 0.96 

California quail 87 0.95 

Sage sparrow 76 0.83 

American robin 71 0.77 

Brewer’s blackbird 62 0.67 

Common raven 56 0.61 

Bushtit 55 0.60 

Horned lark 54 0.59 

Dark-eyed junco 53 0.58 

Mourning dove 51 0.55 

Yellow-rumped warbler (Audubon's) 51 0.55 

Vesper sparrow 49 0.53 

Violet-green swallow 38 0.41 

House sparrow 38 0.41 

Chipping sparrow 37 0.40 

Western bluebird 35 0.38 

Canada goose 34 0.37 

Red-winged blackbird 34 0.37 

Brown-headed cowbird 34 0.37 

Bewick’s wren 33 0.36 

House finch 32 0.35 

Mountain bluebird 30 0.33 

Northern flicker 29 0.32 

American crow 27 0.29 

Ruby-crowned kinglet 27 0.29 

Western tanager 26 0.28 

Blue-gray gnatcatcher 25 0.27 

Barn swallow 24 0.26 

Red-tailed hawk 23 0.25 

Say’s phoebe 23 0.25 

Northern rough-winged swallow 23 0.25 

Orange-crowned warbler 23 0.25 

Brewer’s sparrow 23 0.25 

Black-chinned hummingbird 22 0.24 

Ash-throated flycatcher 22 0.24 

Common nighthawk 21 0.23 

Spotted towhee 21 0.23 

Pygmy nuthatch 20 0.22 

31
Table 2-1. Overall relative abundance of avian species inventoried at Manzanar National Historic 

Site, Inyo County, Calif., from 2002 to 2005.—Continued

Species Total count Relative abundance 

Western kingbird 19 0.21 

Cliff swallow 19 0.21 

Wilson’s warbler 19 0.21 

Western meadowlark 19 0.21 

Lesser goldfinch 19 0.21 

Great horned owl 18 0.20 

Mountain chickadee 18 0.20 

Northern mockingbird 18 0.20 

Black-throated gray warbler 18 0.20 

Turkey vulture 17 0.18 

American kestrel 17 0.18 

Phainopepla 17 0.18 

Warbling vireo 16 0.17 

Savannah sparrow 16 0.17 

Bullock’s oriole 16 0.17 

American white pelican 15 0.16 

Loggerhead shrike 15 0.16 

Rock dove 14 0.15 

White-throated swift 14 0.15 

Hairy woodpecker 14 0.15 

Black-billed magpie 14 0.15 

Lesser nighthawk 13 0.14 

Yellow warbler 13 0.14 

Black-headed grosbeak 13 0.14 

Western wood-pewee 12 0.13 

Black phoebe 12 0.13 

Cassin’s vireo 12 0.13 

Rock wren 12 0.13 

Nuttall’s woodpecker 11 0.12 

Western scrub-jay 11 0.12 

Tree swallow 11 0.12 

MacGillivray’s warbler 11 0.12 

Lazuli bunting 11 0.12 

Northern harrier 10 0.11 

Song sparrow 10 0.11 

Costa’s hummingbird 9 0.10 

Brown creeper 9 0.10 

Plumbeous vireo 8 0.09 

Hermit thrush 8 0.09 

Cedar waxwing 8 0.09 

Townsend’s warbler 8 0.09 

Pacific-slope flycatcher 7 0.08 

Nashville warbler 7 0.08 

32
Table 2-1. Overall relative abundance of avian species inventoried at Manzanar National Historic 

Site, Inyo County, Calif., from 2002 to 2005.—Continued

Species Total count Relative abundance 

Blue grosbeak 7 0.08 

Evening grosbeak 7 0.08 

Rufous hummingbird 6 0.07 

White-breasted nuthatch 6 0.07 

Yellow-headed blackbird 6 0.07 

Cooper’s hawk 5 0.05 

California gull 5 0.05 

Lewis’ woodpecker 5 0.05 

House wren 5 0.05 

Sage thrasher 5 0.05 

Hermit warbler 5 0.05 

Black-throated sparrow 5 0.05 

Fox sparrow 5 0.05 

Great blue heron 4 0.04 

Sharp-shinned hawk 4 0.04 

Common poorwill 4 0.04 

Broad-tailed hummingbird 4 0.04 

Lincoln’s sparrow 4 0.04 

Great-tailed grackle 4 0.04 

Cattle egret 3 0.03 

Killdeer 3 0.03 

Ladder-backed woodpecker 3 0.03 

Downy woodpecker 3 0.03 

Gray flycatcher 3 0.03 

American redstart 3 0.03 

Lark sparrow 3 0.03 

Cassin’s finch 3 0.03 

Swainson’s hawk 2 0.02 

Acorn woodpecker 2 0.02 

Red-breasted sapsucker 2 0.02 

Hammond’s flycatcher 2 0.02 

Green-tailed towhee 2 0.02 

American goldfinch 2 0.02 

Great egret 1 0.01 

Osprey 1 0.01 

Red-shouldered hawk 1 0.01 

Ferruginous hawk 1 0.01 

Rough-legged hawk 1 0.01 

Golden eagle 1 0.01 

Bald eagle 1 0.01 

Merlin 1 0.01 

33
Table 2-1. Overall relative abundance of avian species inventoried at Manzanar National Historic 

Site, Inyo County, Calif., from 2002 to 2005.—Continued

Species Total count Relative abundance 

Prairie falcon 1 0.01 

Caspian tern 1 0.01 

Greater roadrunner 1 0.01 

Barn owl 1 0.01 

Western screech owl 1 0.01 

Belted kingfisher 1 0.01 

Olive-sided flycatcher 1 0.01 

Le Conte’s thrasher 1 0.01 

American pipit 1 0.01 

34
Appendix 3. Preliminary Bird List for Manzanar National Historic Site, 

Calif. 

The following list provides an explanation of the abbreviations used in appendix 3. 

Abundance 

A Abundant: easily seen in correct season and habitat. 

C Common: usually encountered in correct season and habitat at Manzanar National Historic 

Site, Inyo County, Calif. 

U Uncommon: not encountered most of the time, but expected to be observed every year. 

O Occasional: not encountered most of the time; not observed at Manzanar every year. 

R Rare: very low probability of seeing the species; not observed at Manzanar every year. 

Residency Status 

Y Year-round resident: the species has been recorded in Manzanar throughout the year. 

S Summer resident: generally present during the breeding season (March–September). 

W Winter resident: generally present during October–February. 

M Migrant: transient species present in Manzanar during the spring and fall. 

I Irregular: sporadic or accidental occurrences at Manzanar. 

UNK Unknown: residency status unknown. 

(nn) Nonnative: introduced species. 

Habitat Types 

DS Desert scrub: Saltbush (Atriplex), rabbitbrush (Ericameria), and sagebrush (Artemisia) 

dominate this community. The northeastern portion of this habitat also contains scattered 

groupings of salt cedar (Tamarix). 

RW Riparian woodland: Restricted to a narrow belt along Bairs Creek, which has intermittent 

flow. Primary tree species are cottonwood (Populus), willow (Salix), locust (Robinia), and 

salt cedar (Tamarix). Important shrubs are wild rose (Rosa), and desert olive (Forestiera). 

WG Woodland grove: including cottonwood (Populus), locust (Robinia), and willow (Salix), as 

well as significant numbers of several orchard tree species and other exotics. 

AF Aerial foraging: species was foraging in the air above a habitat (noted) without landing. 

ALL All habitats: species was seen in all habitats. 

FO Flyover: species was detected during a flyover of Manzanar while in transit elsewhere. 

Breeding Status 

B Confirmed breeding: presence of an active nest, fledglings, food, or nesting material carried 

by adults. 

{B} Probable breeder, with circumstantial evidence (e.g., courtship observed); not confirmed. 

{B}? Within expected breeding range and habitat, but no evidence of breeding. 

35
Table 3-1. Preliminary bird list for Manzanar National Historic Site, Calif. 

Birds Abundance Residency Habitats Breeding 

Pelicans 

American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) U I FO 

Herons, bitterns 

Great egret (Ardea alba) U I FO 

Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) U I FO 

Cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) U I FO 

Geese, ducks 

Canada goose (Branta canadensis) U I FO 

Vultures 

Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) C S WG 

Ospreys 

Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) U M A 

Hawks, eagles 

Northern harrier (Circus cyaneus) U Y DS, RW 

Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus) U Y WG, RW 

Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperii) U Y WG 

Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) O I FO 

Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swainsoni) O I FO 

Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) C Y WG, RW B 

Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis) R I FO 

Rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus) R I FO 

Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) R I FO 

Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) O I FO 

Falcons 

American kestrel (Falco sparverius) C Y ALL B 

Merlin (Falco columbarius) R I FO 

Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) O Y FO 

Quail 

California quail (Callipepla californica) A Y ALL B 

Plovers 

Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) O I WG 

Gulls 

California gull (Larus californicus) O I FO 

Terns 

Caspian tern (Hydroprogne caspia) R I FO 

Pigeons, doves 

Rock dove (Columba livia) O UNK (nn) FO 

Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) A Y ALL B 

Cuckoos, roadrunners 

Greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) O Y DS {B}? 

Owls 

Barn owl (Tyto alba) U Y WG 

Western screech-owl (Megascops kennicottii) U Y RW 

Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) C Y RW, WG B 

Nightjars 

Lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis) U S DS, RW {B} 

Common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor) A S DS, RW 

Common poorwill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii) R S DS 

Swifts 

White-throated swift (Aeronautes saxatalis) U M AF, ALL 

36
Table 3-1. Preliminary bird list for Manzanar National Historic Site, Calif.—Continued

Birds Abundance Residency Habitats Breeding

Hummingbirds

Black-chinned hummingbird (Archilochus alexandri) C S ALL B 

Costa’s hummingbird (Calypte costae) U S DS {B}

Broad-tailed hummingbird (Selasphorus platycercus) O M ALL 

Rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) O M ALL 

Kingfishers

Belted kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon) O Y FO

Woodpeckers

Lewis’ woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) O M WG, RW 

Acorn woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus) R Y WG

Red-breasted sapsucker (Sphyrapicus ruber) O M WG

Ladder-backed woodpecker (Picoides scalaris) U I WG

Nuttall’s woodpecker (Picoides nuttallii) C Y WG

Downy woodpecker (Picoides pubescens) O Y RW

Hairy woodpecker (Picoides villosus) C Y RW B

Northern flicker (Colaptes auratus) C Y WG, RW B

Flycatchers

Olive-sided flycatcher (Contopus cooperi) O M RW

Western wood-pewee (Contopus sordidulus) C M WG, RW

Hammond’s flycatcher (Empidonax hammondii) O M RW, WG

Gray flycatcher (Empidonax wrightii) O M WG

Pacific-slope flycatcher (Empidonax difficilis) O M RW, WG

Black phoebe (Sayornis nigricans) U Y RW {B}

Say’s phoebe (Sayornis saya) C S WG B

Ash-throated flycatcher (Myiarchus cinerascens) C S WG, RW B

Western kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis) C S WG, RW B

Shrikes

Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus) C Y ALL {B}

Vireos

Plumbeous vireo (Vireo plumbeus) U M RW, WG 

Cassin’s vireo (Vireo cassinii) R M RW, WG

Warbling vireo (Vireo gilvus) U M WG, RW

Jays, crows

Western scrub-jay (Aphelocoma californica) U Y WG

Black-billed magpie (Pica hudsonia) U Y WG

American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) C Y ALL 

Common raven (Corvus corax) C Y ALL B 

Larks

Horned lark (Eremophila alpestris) C W DS

Swallows

Tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) U M AF, RW 

Violet-green swallow (Tachycineta thalassina) C M AF, ALL 

Northern rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx 

serripennis) C M AF, RW 

Cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) U M AF, ALL 

Barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) C M AF, ALL {B}?

Chickadees, bushtits

Mountain chickadee (Poecile gambeli) U W WG

Bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus) C Y WG, RW

Nuthatches, creepers

White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis) O W WG

Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea) R W WG

Brown creeper (Certhia americana) O W WG, RW

37
Table 3-1. Preliminary bird list for Manzanar National Historic Site, Calif.—Continued

Birds Abundance Residency Habitats Breeding

Wrens

Rock wren (Salpinctes obsoletus) U Y DS

Bewick’s wren (Thryomanes bewickii) C Y RW, WG B

House wren (Troglodytes aedon) U Y RW B

Kinglets

Ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula) C W WG, RW 

Gnatcatchers

Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea) C S WG, RW 

Bluebirds, thrushes

Western bluebird (Sialia mexicana) C Y WG, DS {B}?

Mountain bluebird (Sialia currucoides) C W DS, WG

Hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus) U M WG, RW

American robin (Turdus migratorius) A Y WG, RW B

Mockingbirds, thrashers

Northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) C Y ALL B

Sage thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus) O I DS

Le Conte’s thrasher (Toxostoma lecontei) O I DS

Starlings

European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) A Y (nn) ALL B

Pipits

American pipit (Anthus rubescens) R I WG

Waxwings

Cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum) O M WG, RW 

Silky flycatchers

Phainopepla (Phainopepla nitens) C S DS, RW {B}

Wood warblers

Orange-crowned warbler (Vermivora celata) C S RW, WG {B}?

Nashville warbler (Vermivora ruficapilla) O M RW/WG

Yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia) U M RW

Yellow-rumped warbler (Dendroica coronata) C W RW, WG

Black-throated gray warbler (Dendroica nigrescens) C M RW, WG

Townsend’s warbler (Dendroica townsendi) U M RW

Hermit warbler (Dendroica occidentalis) O M RW

American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) O I RW

MacGillivray’s warbler (Oporornis tolmiei) U M WG, RW

Wilson’s warbler (Wilsonia pusilla) C M RW, WG

Tanagers

Western tanager (Piranga ludoviciana) C M WG, RW 

Towhees, sparrows

Green-tailed towhee (Pipilo chlorurus) U M WG/RW 

Spotted towhee (Pipilo maculatus) C Y WG, RW {B}

Chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina) C M ALL 

Brewer’s sparrow (Spizella breweri) C M DS

Vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus) C Y DS, RW B

Lark sparrow (Chondestes grammacus) O M WG, DS

Black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata) U M DS

Sage sparrow (Amphispiza belli) A Y DS,RW B

Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis) O M DS

Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) U W RW, WG

Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) U Y RW

Lincoln’s sparrow (Melospiza lincolnii) O W RW, WG

White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys) A W ALL 

Dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis) C Y ALL 

38
39

Table 3-1. Preliminary bird list for Manzanar National Historic Site, Calif.—Continued

Birds Abundance Residency Habitats Breeding

Cardinals, grosbeaks

Black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus) C S RW, WG {B}?

Blue grosbeak (Passerina caerulea) U M RW

Lazuli bunting (Passerina amoena) U M RW

Blackbirds, orioles

Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) C Y RW

Western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) C M DS

Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus 

xanthocephalus) O I RW 

Brewer’s blackbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus) C Y DS, RW

Great-tailed grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus) O Y WG

Brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) C S RW, WG {B}

Bullock’s oriole (Icterus bullockii) C S RW, WG

Finches

Cassin’s finch (Carpodacus cassinii) O M WG/RW 

House finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) C Y WG, RW {B}

Lesser goldfinch (Carduelis psaltria) C Y WG, RW {B}?

American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis) O M WG, DS

Evening grosbeak (Coccothraustes vespertinus) O M WG

Old World sparrows

House sparrow (Passer domesticus) C Y (nn) ALL {B}?

Common names from Robbins (1999), Birds of North America, 3rd Edition, National Geographic Society. Scientific 

names from the A.O.U. Check-list of North American Birds (Seventh Edition, 1998, with supplements through 2008), 

American Ornithologists’ Union.