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METHYL BROMIDE CRITICAL USES

NATIONAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY UPDATE

SUBMISSION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

OCTOBER 30, 2009

This document updates the National Management Strategy the US Government (USG) prepared 

in 2005 as called for in Decision XX/5. It provides the most current information on Critical Use 

Exemption (CUE) sectors that have successfully transitioned from methyl bromide use to 

alternatives, and those that have reduced their use within the United States. Additionally, it

describes the phase-in process once an alternative is determined feasible, with respect to research 

programs. This document is not meant to replicate the detailed technical information in the 

Critical Use Nominations (CUN) submitted by the USG.

Introduction

Methyl bromide use for the CUE declined significantly since 2005. Currently, MBTOC 

recommendations for critical use nominations are at 8% of the 1991 baseline, a 76% reduction as 

compared to 40% of the 1991 baseline in 2005 (see Figure 1). The United States continues 

striving toward developing technically and economically feasible alternatives for the remaining 

uses.

Figure One: Methyl Bromide Nominations and Authorizations

The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has completed assessments for four soil 

fumigants: methyl bromide, dazomet, metam sodium/potassium, and a new active ingredient, 
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iodomethane. EPA considered 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D) along with the other soil fumigants 

for comparative purposes. As a result, EPA requires a number of mitigation measures such as 

buffer zones, buffer zone posting, respiratory protections, restrictions on the timing of tarp 

perforation and removal operations, entry restrictions, and fumigant management plans (FMPs). 

These mitigation measures affect the use of methyl bromide as well as alternatives to methyl 

bromide and affect the continued transition efforts. All product labels will be amended to reflect 

the changes by 2011. 

Successfully Transitioned Sectors

Some of the sectors previously nominated for CUEs have transitioned from methyl bromide in 

the last few years. They are listed below:

Post-harvest uses

The registration of sulfuryl fluoride led to the successful transition for post-harvest uses for 

goods such as dry beans, herbs and spices, cocoa beans, dried milk, and pistachios. Effective 

2010, bakeries will transition away from methyl bromide use. These bakeries are operated by

large food processing corporations. They have significantly reduced their fumigations by 

investing in additional personnel and building and equipment modifications (such as building 

sealing) to improve their integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. In addition to the 

improvements in their IPM strategies, they are using spot treatments, heat, and sulfuryl fluoride 

to manage their pest pressures. The applicant for cocoa bean fumigations,National Pest 

Management Association(NPMA), funded a feasibility analysis which demonstrated that sulfuryl 

fluoride was cost-effective for use. As a result, cocoa beans are no longer fumigated with methyl 

bromide. Pistachios have also transitioned from methyl bromide to propylene oxide, a very 

effective treatment for salmonella. This transition was prompted by concern over salmonella 

contamination, which cannot be treated with methyl bromide. 

Large capital investments are necessary to enable facilities to transition from methyl bromide for 

post-harvest commodities. Since using heat requires changing sprinkler systems to avoid an 

inadvertent start below 145°F, some facilities must be designed specifically to allow heat 

treatment. The corrosiveness of phosphine requires some facilities to have sealed metallic 

equipment with plastics to protect it during fumigations. Larger, more profitable companies 

increase staff to conduct labor-intensive micro-sanitation, which includes thorough vacuuming, 

cleansing with cotton swabs, sanitation, and daily inspection. 

Pre-plant uses

The US has seen successful transitions in a number of pre-plant uses. Ginger has transitioned to 

using 1, 3-D (telone). Tomatoes grown in the Eastern United States have transitioned to using a 

combination of 1,3-D + chloropicrin, followed by chloropicrin, then metam-sodium or metam

potassium (the Georgia 3-way) and iodomethane. 
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Sectors Using Methyl Bromide

Commodities

Methyl bromide CUEs for commodities declined by 89% since 2005, with a dramatic 80% 

decline in the US nomination between 2009 and 2011. Fumigations of stored commodities 

typically occur over a very short period, during the peak production season when the bulk of the 

harvest is moving into the storage and shipping channels. These periods can be compressed when 

harvest occurs close to key market windows, such as holiday markets for certain types of nuts.

Figure 2. Commodities reduction in CUEs (Note: 2011 amount represents recommendation by MBTOC 

prior to Parties’ authorization).

Dry beans. Rapid fumigation at harvest time and during shipping continues to be the 

primary justification for the use of methyl bromide on dry beans to primarily target the 

indianmeal moth. It is used at a rate of 2.75 lb/1,000 cubic feet. 

Dates. Methyl bromide controls the carob moth and other insects infesting dates. 

Sulfuryl fluoride is currently labeled for use on dried dates, but most dates grown in the 

California are harvested fresh. 

Dried fruit. During harvest, methyl bromide yields a quick turnaround time for dried 

fruit, at the rate of 1.5 lb/1,000 cubic feet. Phosphine gas and sulfuryl fluoride are used 

for stored dried fruit fumigation.

Walnuts. In walnuts, codling moth eggs are somewhat more tolerant than larvae to 

sulfuryl fluoride fumigation. Although they do not occur naturally on walnuts at the time 

of harvest, navel orangeworm is a pest of concern. The navel orangeworm, primarily a 

scavenger, also infests walnuts after hull split, especially in areas that support high 

orangeworm populations. Occasionally, larvae emerging from eggs laid directly on 
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walnuts before harvest may penetrate and infest the nutmeat through cracks in the hull.

Sulfuryl fluoride is not effective on this pest when the treatment occurs under vacuum 

conditions.

While sulfuryl fluoride appears to have potential as a methyl bromide replacement, various 

economic and technical issues (e.g., inadequate egg kill) remain unresolved. USDA/ARS is 

investigating its efficacy on dried fruit beetle, as well as indianmeal moth and red flour beetle, on 

dried fruit. Preliminary results have indicated that sulfuryl fluoride has not demonstrated the 

same efficacy that the registrant achieved, especially on the dried fruit beetle eggs. Dried fruit 

beetles must be controlled as they can be very damaging to dried fruit in storage. Based on 

USDA/ARS research with navel orangeworm eggs on in-shell walnuts, the CT (concentration 

and time cross-product) alone may not an accurate predictor of mortality. Sulfuryl fluoride is 

more sensitive to lower temperatures than methyl bromide, which results in the need for greater 

amounts of sulfuryl fluoride when temperature drops.

Research with sulfuryl fluoride indicates promise as a potential methyl bromide alternative for 

commodities. These early studies have shown that, under vacuum or atmospheric conditions, 

sulfuryl fluoride is effective against adult, pupal, and larval stages of insects infesting walnuts, 

but less effective against the egg stage. USDA/ARS researchers ran comparative efficacy tests 

with sulfuryl fluoride and methyl bromide in 2008. Users are investigating the feasibility of 

using sequential or combined treatments with sulfuryl fluoride and propylene oxide (PPO) as a 

methyl bromide alternative for control of pests in stored products. This will determine if 

combinations of sulfuryl fluoride and PPO will be more efficacious and cost effective than 

methyl bromide, especially regarding the egg stage of several economically important insects 

that infest tree nuts and dried fruit.

Cucurbits

Methyl bromide CUEs for cucurbits has declined by 82% from 2005 levels (see Figure 3). 

Growers have switched from a 98% methyl Bromide formulation to a 67 % formulation. The 

United States nominated for CUEs only the cucurbits grown in areas where the alternatives are 

not efficacious or are under regulatory restrictions. 

Alternatives may be comparable to methyl bromide as long as key pests occur at low pressure. In 

such cases, the United States nominates areas where the key pest pressure is moderate-to-high 

such as nutsedge in the Southeastern United States. Regulatory restrictions due to karst geology 

in Georgia limit the use of Telone. Substantial losses in yield render 1,3-D +chloropicrin and 

metam-sodium technically infeasible for control of nut-sedge in cucurbits in Georgia and the 

Southeastern US. In Michigan, Maryland, and Delaware, 1,3-D + chloropicrin are technically 

feasible yet economically prohibitive for use in melon production. Additionally, their use would 

significantly lower the price of the produce due to the changes in the harvest schedule caused by 

the longer plant-back interval for telone+chloropicrin (two weeks longer than methyl 

bromide+chloropicrin). Additional delays would also occur in Michigan since the soil 
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temperature must be higher to fumigate with alternatives. These soil temperature complications 

and extended plant back intervals when using 1,3-D + chloropicrin result in users missing key 

market windows, and adversely affect revenues through lower prices. The ability to sell produce 

at these higher prices makes a significant contribution toward the profitability of cucurbit 

operations.

Figure 3. Cucurbits reduction in CUEs.

Users have been experimenting with significant increases in the level of chloropicrin and 

reductions in the level of methyl bromide. While these new mixtures have generally been 

effective at controlling target pests at low to moderate levels of infestation, their long-term 

efficacy is unknown. Tarpaulin (high density polyethylene) is also used to minimize use and 

emissions of methyl bromide. In addition, cultural practices are utilized by cucurbit growers.

Reduced methyl bromide concentrations in mixtures, cultural practices, and the extensive use of 

tarpaulins to cover land treated with methyl bromide have resulted in reduced emissions and an 

application rate that is among the lowest in the world for the uses described in this nomination.

Research is underway to develop use of a 50% methyl bromide formulation in Michigan 

commercial production systems. 

Eggplants

Methyl bromide CUEs for eggplants declined 72% from 2005 (see Figure 4). In Florida, 

Georgia, and Michigan (primary eggplant-producing states), adoption of alternatives is limited 

by regulatory constraints, high pest pressures, and longer planting and harvesting periods. 
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Figure 4. Reduction in Eggplant CUEs.

• In Florida and to a lesser extent in Georgia, use of 1,3-D is prohibited in areas overlying 

karst topographical features because of groundwater contamination concerns. 

• In Florida and Georgia, where nutsedge is the main methyl bromide target pest, neither 1,3-

D nor metam sodium, alone or in combination with chloropicrin, adequately control 

moderate to high nutsedge populations. Additionally, use of products containing 1,3-D and 

metam sodium in the fall may be impractical because of the required longer waiting 

periods for planting following application (28 days for 1,3-D and 21 days for metam 

sodium, compared to 14 days for methyl bromide). 

• In Michigan, where soil-borne pathogens are the key methyl bromide target pests, neither 

1,3-D nor metam sodium is effective against soil-borne fungi. 

• In Michigan delays are associated with the need for higher soil temperature to fumigate 

with alternatives. Delays in planting and harvesting may result in narrower market 

windows and reduced farm revenues. Until 1999, the chemical formulation primarily used 

was 98 percent methyl bromide and two percent chloropicrin. Since then, growers have 

shifted to formulations with lower concentrations of methyl bromide and higher amounts of 

chloropicrin due to the phase-out schedule of methyl bromide.

• In Georgia, nearly all vegetable production occurs on Coastal Plain Soils, which are subject 

to high temperatures and excess heat. This section of Georgia suffers from weed pests as 

well as weed pests, soil-borne fungal pathogens, and plant-parasitic nematodes, and nearly 

all production areas have severe infestations, necessitating annual treatment with a soil 

fumigant. 
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Nursery Stock

Fumigation is necessary to meet certification requirements (CDFA, 2003) for nursery stock. Use 

rates of methyl bromide have been reduced from previous years (see Figure 5). Some nurseries 

have reduced the methyl bromide proportion in the formulation with chloropicrin. 

Figure 5. Reduction in CUEs for Nursery Stock

Key alternatives in use include combinations of 1,3-D, chloropicrin, metam-sodium, and 

dazomet. These chemicals and other strategies, like low permeability tarps, have reduced the use 

rate for methyl bromide. However, the need for methyl bromide still exists. Reasons for critical 

use of methyl bromide include: 

1,3-D is not an approved treatment for fine-textured soils

Greater inputs are required for soil preparation and moisture management

Township caps and buffer zone requirements

Weed management efficacy

Air quality standards related to volatile organic compounds

The requested amount of methyl bromide in the US nomination includes those areas where 1,3-D 

would not meet the certification requirements or would be limited by township caps. 

Iodomethane has been registered for use in 47 of the 50 states. It is important to note that 

iodomethane, like methyl bromide, is a restricted use pesticide requiring pesticide applicator 

training, as well as an applicator license. Once training has been provided, iodomethane 

application must be under the direct (observed) supervision of these trained personnel. 

Iodomethane is not registered in California. Under California regulatory laws, nursery crops 

must be “free of especially injurious pests and disease symptoms” in order to qualify for a CDFA 

Nursery Stock Certificate for Interstate and Intrastate Shipments (CDFA, 2003). Washington has 
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similar regulations (WDA, 2007). If an approved fumigation is not used in the nursery, CDFA 

imposes a nematode sampling procedure; if nematodes are found, all nursery stock in an area are 

destroyed resulting in a complete loss. If nematodes are found and the nursery stock is not “free 

of especially injurious pests and disease symptoms,” then a total loss is likely because the 

nursery stock: 1) would not qualify for a CDFA Nursery Stock Certificate for Interstate and 

Intrastate Shipments, 2) would likely not be marketable since resale for planting is severely 

restricted by the CDFA, and 3) should be destroyed to prevent further infestation. Some nurseries 

have reduced the methyl bromide proportion in the formulation with chloropicrin. In addition, 

where soil conditions and regulations allow, 1, 3-D may be used as an alternative to methyl 

bromide, but it appears to have a relatively limited use due to regulatory restrictions and soil 

moisture requirements. Remaining uses include: raspberry nurseries, deciduous tree nurseries, 

and rose stock.

Raspberry nurseries in the western United States provide raspberry stock to most of the growers 

in North America. Dry climates and soils make these areas ideal for production of high quality 

plant stock. Although there are relatively few raspberry nurseries, they provide all of the stock 

used by commercial growers, and therefore, have an impact on raspberry production overall.

For nursery production the industry must meet a 99.9% control and provide stock for orchards 

that is pest-free (particularly nematode-free). In California deciduous tree nurseries, 

approximately 30% have silt or clay loam soils requiring methyl bromide. The remaining 70% 

have sand or sandy loam soils. Approximately one half of these areas have a critical need for 

methyl bromide due to moisture requirements. According to the applicant, 65% of nursery soils 

in California have a critical need for methyl bromide. Township caps for 1,3-D may further limit 

the use of the best alternative.

Research trials in strawberry nurseries (a model for raspberries) indicated that methyl iodide with 

chloropicrin, chloropicrin followed by dazomet, and 1,3-D with chloropicrin followed by 

dazomet are potentially effective alternatives to methyl bromide. Transitioning to these potential 

alternatives will require addressing regulatory issues (e.g., methyl iodide is not registered for use 

in California, chloropicrin at high rates is restricted in California, township caps restrict the use 

of 1,3-D in some areas of California) and certification requirements.

Advances are being made in technology for low permeable and colored films. Broadcast 

application continues to experience difficulty in gluing high barrier films; although, progress is 

apparently being made. Protocols of the already identified alternatives (1,3-D, chloropicrin, 

dazomet, and metam-sodium) are being developed primarily to identify the most effective 

combination or sequence of applications (e.g., chloropicrin followed by dazomet). Because of 

certification requirements, however, standards of efficacy are stricter than for other commodities.

Raspberry nurseries have spent $100,000 on research, including $20,000 on screening resistance 

for Phytophthora and Verticillium, and over $60,000 over the last decade studying various 
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alternatives in the large Watsonville, California area. There are regulatory limitations to the use 

of 1,3-D, yet growers must meet certification requirements. In addition, 1,3-D does not control 

Verticillium dahilae, Pythium spp., which are pests of raspberry and roses nurseries. Studies are 

also ongoing to discover how application methods can improve efficacy of chemical alternatives 

such as 1,3-D and metam-sodium, and mixes of chemicals. Moisture constraints, both too much 

and too little, can reduce efficacy of effective chemicals such as 1,3-D, especially when soil 

textures are not optimal for their physical chemistry.

Food Facilities

Since 2005, the CUEs for rice mills have been reduced by 90%, pet food facilities by 75%, and 

flour mills by about 60%. These result in a 75% overall sector reduction in the requested methyl 

bromide use. Food processing facilities in the United States have reduced the number of methyl 

bromide fumigations by incorporating a variety of different techniques to control pests. The most 

critical strategy implemented is IPM, especially sanitation, and equipment design modifications 

to enable cleaning and inspection in all areas of a facility. Facilities are now being monitored for 

pest populations, using visual inspections, pheromone traps, light traps, and electrocution traps.

When insect pests are found, facilities will attempt to contain the infestation with treatments of 

low volatility pesticides applied to surfaces as well as cracks and crevices; spot treatments with 

heat or phosphine are also used where suitable. Incoming ingredients are inspected for insect 

pests and may be treated with phosphine if temperature and time are sufficient; otherwise

contaminated ingredients may be rejected. These techniques do not disinfest a facility but are 

critical in monitoring and managing pests, and hopefully preventing outbreaks. However, when 

all these methods fail to control a pest problem, facilities must rely on fumigation, to kill insects 

within the processing equipment, bins, storage spaces and even within the walls of the structure.

Methyl bromide and sulfuryl fluoride are the two primary fumigants used in food facilities.

Figure 6. Reduction, food facility CUEs.
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Although sulfuryl fluoride has helped in the reduction in methyl bromide use in food processing 

facilities, the label does not include all foods that are in these facilities. Because pet food, pasta, 

potato chips, and cake mixes are not listed on the product label, for example, facilities storing 

any of these commodities may not fumigate with sulfuryl fluoride. For rice and flour mills, and 

pet food manufacturing facilities with electronic components and with machinery with copper 

and copper alloy parts, methyl bromide is the sole fumigant available. These facilities are under 

intense pressure from many insect pests. The flour millers do not directly target their 

commodities with fumigation, although some may be present in the equipment or in storage 

areas. However, rice millers and pet food manufacturers may target some of their products 

during fumigations with methyl bromide.

Methyl bromide is used in facilities, or portions of facilities, that are unsuitable for the 

alternatives, and where the alternatives are not economically feasible. Because the efficacy of 

sulfuryl fluoride is highly dependent upon temperature, its use may not be cost-effective during 

cold temperatures. Also sulfuryl fluoride requires higher dosages for egg kill, but in some 

facilities killing eggs is paramount, again contributing to higher costs. Phosphine is corrosive to 

many metals that are present in facilities, especially in the computers and other electronic 

process control instrumentation; and it is flammable. Heat is dependent on several parameters: 

the structural composition, as different components expand and contract at different rates; the 

building design/layout factors, which affect the ability to evenly distribute heated air; and the 

availability of convenient and economical sources of heat. In addition, heat may not be a viable 

option for treatment of food products or commodities.

Forest Seedlings

Methyl bromide CUEs for forest seedlings has declined by 45% from 2005 levels (see Figure 7). 

Forest seedling nurseries in the United States supply conifer and hardwood seedlings that are 

used for reforestation, forest establishment, fiber production, Christmas tree production, wildlife 

and conservation. Nurseries must ensure that they produce high quality, disease-free tree stock. 

Depending on regional regulations government certification requirements may vary, but nearly 

all jurisdictions have regulations in place to ensure quality stock plants. Most nurseries 

implement a zero-tolerance criterion for pathogens and nematodes and apply quality control and 

grading requirements in order to minimize the possibility of spreading nematodes and diseases 

from state to state or throughout a state. 

The Forest Seedlings sector has reduced its methyl bromide consumption through several 

techniques developed over the past several years. The sector has incorporated the use of high

density polyethylene (HDPE) tarp material that has helped increase fumigation efficiencies and 

reduced application rates. HDPE increases methyl bromide soil residence time, increasing 

efficiency and reducing application rates. Methyl bromide fumigation in the forest seedlings 

sector increasingly has been made using deep injection that places the material deeper into the 

soil, contributing to longer residence time and greater application efficiency. This has been 
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accomplished at considerable capital investment on the part of applicators. Forest seedling 

nurseries have increased the percentage of chloropicrin in fumigation mixtures. While 98% 

methyl bromide and 2% chloropicrin was the most widely used compound a few years ago, a 

66:33 formulation is now more common, especially in areas without heavy nutsedge infestations. 

Figure 7. Reduction in methyl bromide CUE for forest seedlings.

Methyl bromide has been a critical treatment because of its contribution in enabling nurseries to 

meet state regulatory standards of pest-free status. The use protocols for the available alternatives 

have not been developed sufficiently to provide effective control of the key pests to depths of 

1m. There are few, if any, markets for plants that do not meet the certification standards, 

meaning that losses up to 100% are possible when inadequate pest control occurs. Failure to 

adequately manage pests in transplants will jeopardize the viability of the planted forests. This 

sector is covered by certification standards as plant material is transported and transferred to 

various locations throughout the United States. 

All states have certification standards and all nurseries have additional internal quality control 

standards as well. USDA-APHIS has guidelines for the movement of nursery material to contain 

diseases (i.e., sudden oak death). The key alternatives are 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-

D)/chloropicrin, 1,3-D/chloropicrin/metam-sodium, 1,3-D/metam-sodium, dazomet (as a followup application to 1,3-D/chloropicrin or chloropicrin), and iodomethane. Few growers have 

experience using iodomethane. They are developing the experience selecting a dose and 

determining which cultural practices are necessary to obtain the best results for the iodomethane 

application.

Methyl bromide is particularly effective where moderate or high nutsedge populations are 

endemic. The forest tree nursery industry in the United States is diverse in tree species that are 

grown and large in overall scale. Nurseries produce seedlings adapted to their respective regional 

areas, taking into account such variables as climate, elevation, and soil type. Nutsedge species 
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are generally considered among the major pests of forest seedling nurseries, especially in 

Southeastern United States. 

Fumigation is relied on to manage pests that interfere with the growth of healthy seedlings.

Chloropicrin is an effective fungicide, and is being examined as an overall fumigant when used 

alone, but weed management issues have to be addressed. Additionally, California has local 

restrictions on such high rates of chloropicrin. For areas where pest pressure is moderate or high, 

methyl bromide provides sufficient protection for three successive seedling crops, with one 

fumigation treatment (one treatment every four years). 

Until protocols are developed to improve efficacy of alternative treatments, there may be a need 

to provide additional fumigation treatments, or use a combination of chemicals and other 

effective treatments that may increase costs, beyond what is feasible. Dazomet and metamsodium are not reliable in cooler climates (e.g., Michigan). Metam-sodium does not consistently 

dissipate in heavy soils due to low vapor pressure. For high impact sites, dazomet and metamsodium show inconsistent results with weeds, especially with moderate-to-high weed pressure. 

They do not consistently provide acceptable levels of nutsedge control, nor does it manage some 

diseases associated with fungal pathogens (e.g., root rot and damping-off pathogens).

Container production has been cited as a way to reduce methyl bromide in this sector. It is used 

for seedling production in a limited capacity throughout the forest nursery sector. Less than 10% 

of the national forest seedling production is containerized. Container production is used for 

specialty purposes, for example, to reforest mine-spoil sites which are extremely harsh edaphic 

environments requiring a soil plug system to obtain adequate seedling survival. A large 

investment would be necessary to shift the national production to containers, as well as a shift for 

many nurseries in the well-established protocols of growing seedlings. According to the US 

Forest Service, 48% of all reforestation in the United States is done on non-industrial private 

lands, 42% on industrial lands, and 10% on government lands. The result of container production 

would be a significant increase in reforestation costs and a decrease in the rate of reforestation.

Research is ongoing to develop commercially feasible protocols for likely alternatives like 1,3-D 

and metam-sodium, low permeability films, and integrated methods with chemicals and nonchemicals. A recent study found that virtually impermeable film (VIF) with methyl bromide used 

at 168 kg/hectare provided comparable results to methyl bromide used at 392 kg/hectare with 

high density film. Technical problems still exist when gluing VIF during broadcast applications, 

which is the standard application method for the industry. Technical, economic, and regulatory 

considerations affect that transition times for alternatives. Combinations of chemicals such as 

chloropicrin, metam-sodium, or 1,3-D appear to be effective for some nurseries in reducing pest 

infestations, including some weed problems. Combinations of these compounds and application 

techniques (such as deep injection) to achieve the same pest control efficiencies as methyl 

bromide are being studied along with non-chemical treatments, such as bed-fallow or cover 

crops.
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In research plots, the reduction of methyl bromide from 98:2 to 65:35 or 50:50, increased periods 

of cover crop growth, use of herbicides, and an increased use of mechanical cultivation might 

reduce pest populations, and the overall use of methyl bromide. However, nursery managers are 

unlikely to adopt the use of glyphosate immediately since it kills both hardwoods and conifers. 

Experiments have indicated that some soil amendments can reduce possible adverse growth 

effects of some alternatives (e.g., dazomet). Work in Wisconsin suggested that white pine 

seedlings subjected to dazomet, but supplied with various nutrients, could reduce chlorosis 

sometimes observed in dazomet treated beds. Large scale trials will be necessary to confirm this 

effect. For disease control, studies comparing cultivation practices, such as till vs. no-till and 

organic amendments indicate that effects vary according to the species grown. Therefore, each 

nursery may have to consider alternatives with species and local environment in mind, unlike the 

more consistent effects of methyl bromide fumigation. Promising results in disease management 

have been observed with organic amendments, but successful weed management has not been 

adequately achieved.

Ham

Methyl bromide CUEs have been reduced by 97% since 2005 (see Figure 8). Currently there are 

no alternatives to methyl bromide for this industry. Phosphine does not control mites (a major 

pest), and heat would alter the product. 

Figure 8. Reduction in CUEs for ham.

Producers of cured pork products experience pest pressure from insects such as the ham skipper, 

the red legged ham beetle, dermestid beetles, and mites. These pests infest and feed on meat, 

especially deep inside the meat along the bone, as it cures and ages. Environmental conditions 

(temperature and humidity) in and around the facility strongly influence the level of pest 

pressure. Under favorable ambient conditions, such as those seen in silo curing, pest pressure 
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increases and a regular fumigation schedule is recommended. In the US, the Food and Drug 

Administration (FDA) regulates the maximum levels of live or dead insects or insect parts that 

may be present in stored food products. Food commodities that exceed maximum limits allowed 

are considered adulterated by FDA and thus, unfit for human consumption. 

This industry is cooperating with university researchers to find technically and economically 

feasible alternatives to methyl bromide. In the meantime, several companies have modified their 

buildings to make them more gas-tight. Some companies are eliminating grass, trees, and shrubs 

from their properties and replacing it with gravel, as suggested by researchers last year.

Orchard Replant

Methyl bromide CUEs in the orchard replant sector have been reduced by 71% from 2005 (see 

Figure 9). Transition to alternatives has allowed an additional reduction in hectares requiring 

methyl bromide. The almond replant sub-sector has significantly reduced fumigant applications 

for replant by treating individual tree-planting holes or reduced strip area rather than broadcast or 

standard strip treatments. 

Figure 9. Reduction in CUEs for orchard replant.

The Orchard Replant sector comprises stone fruit, almond, and walnut orchards, and grape 

vineyards grown throughout California. Growers of these crops face the common threats of

nematodes and a poorly understood disease complex called Orchard Replant “Problem” or 

“Disorder”. Methyl bromide is used in areas where alternatives are not suitable, either because of 

legal restrictions or physical features, such as unacceptable soil type or moisture. Since orchard 

fumigation occurs only once during the bearing life of the trees, the most efficient system to 

produce the healthiest trees is necessary to avoid early tree removal, added costs, and lost 

revenue due to necessity of planting and then replanting orchards if replant disorder is not 

initially addressed. Typically fruit orchards and vineyards can produce for 20-25 years, walnut 

orchards can produce for 40 years, and almond orchards produce on average 25-30 years. 
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The best alternatives identified for orchard replant are 1,3-D or 1,3-D with chloropicrin, and/or 

metam-sodium, especially in coarse textured soils. Under some soil and moisture conditions (less 

than 12% to 1.5 meters) 1,3-D can be an effective management tool for replant problems. 

However, restrictions on its use and application, including township caps and rate reductions in 

California, limit its use. There is a critical need for methyl bromide in some orchards in 

California, either because of legally mandated township caps for 1,3-D, or because surface 

moisture requirements cannot be met (e.g., soils cannot be adequately dried prior to use of 1,3-

D). Iodomethane is not registered in California. 

Research studies continue to explain the causes for replant disorder affecting the orchard replant 

sector. Research is also underway into identification of non-fumigation methods to kill remnant 

roots of outgoing orchard trees, which provide nutrients for soil-borne pests that may infest new 

tree plantings. 

Ornamentals

Methyl bromide CUEs in the ornamentals sector has decreased by 67% from 2005 levels (see 

Figure 10). For the remaining areas, transition is expected to be slow due to the complexity of 

the industry; there are numerous crop species and varieties, and new varieties constantly being 

developed. Iodomethane is also registered for use in Florida (one of the states that use methyl 

bromide for this sector). However, since few growers have experience using iodomethane, 

selecting a dose and determining which cultural practices to use are necessary to obtain the best 

results. 

Methyl bromide is used to control plant pathogens, nematodes, and weeds, including nutsedge 

and volunteer crops. These pests not only cause yield losses, but also impact quality, which is 

very important for this industry and can result in economic infeasibility. The use of methyl 

bromide is very important to the economic viability of this industry, particularly considering the 

cost and availability of labor. 

In California, the nomination includes cut flowers, cut foliage, and perennials. Production occurs 

in open fields, tunnels, open-ended and closed hoop-houses, shade houses, and permanent 

greenhouses. Use restrictions on chloropicrin, township caps and lowered application rates in 

California, do not provide sufficient control of weeds. Furthermore, Iodomethane is not 

registered in California.
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Figure 10. Reduction in CUEs for ornamentals.

In Florida, some of the typical cut flowers grown are snapdragons, lilies, gladiolus, lisianthus, 

delphinium, and sunflowers. Both in Florida and California, growers often introduce new 

varieties which increases the uncertainty in the susceptibility of the plant to pests or to residual 

pesticide applications. In Florida, the only efficient way to fumigate post rows is to use the hot 

gas method which can only be done with a 98:2 formulation. Formulations with a higher 

concentration of chloropicrin do not have this application method on the label and the 

chloropicrin content makes it impossible to heat it enough to get it to vaporize.

In Michigan, perennial herbaceous nurseries, grown in open fields, have been requesting methyl 

bromide to control nematodes and weeds. Some of the species grown are Delphinium, Hosta, and 

Phlox. There is a standard for herbaceous perennials in Michigan. In Michigan, growers cannot 

ship product without a clean inspection and a Michigan Department of Agriculture certification. 

Although fumigating is not a regulatory requirement, nor is fumigating with methyl bromide 

mandatory, crops need to grow free from nematodes and certain diseases in order to meet trade 

requirements.

The plant-back interval for 1,3-D+chloropicrin is two weeks longer than methyl 

bromide+chloropicrin, and in the Northern United States an additional delay would occur 

because soil temperature must be higher to fumigate with alternatives. Delays in planting and 

harvesting result in users missing key market windows, and adversely affect revenues through 

lower prices. Growers have experienced damage to adjacent flower crops due to off gassing of 

chloropicrin when using formulations with higher chloropicrin concentrations than 98:2, such as 

67:33. However, it is not known what would happen with regards to phytotoxicity in this 

situation with iodomethane: chloropicrin 50:50. Cool, damp weather associated with this practice 

has the potential to be devastating. In addition, it has also been observed that growers experience 

lower yields with methyl bromide: chloropicrin 67:33 compared to 98:2.
17

A major concern is potential phytotoxicity. In the ornamental industry, there is a large number 

and diversity of crops, plus a continuous breeding program, and there is concern about crop 

damage (phytotoxicity) with use of iodomethane. Growers need to develop a level of confidence 

in its safety. Buffer zones may also be an issue.

Use of many fumigants without herbicides is likely not to sufficiently control weeds. However, 

contact herbicides to control post-planting weeds may cause unacceptable damage the crop in the 

field, resulting in yield or quality losses. Solarization seems promising in Florida production but 

would take awhile to adopt. It takes several weeks to control many pests to a depth of 30cm. 

This length of time for a treatment is not economically feasible for many growers due to the 

intensive, year-round production situation of the cut flower industry. Solarization is not feasible 

under Michigan field conditions because of several factors, including the inability to generate 

adequate heat to allow spring planting and because the most effective time for solarization is not 

compatible with timing for production. Production areas in California are in mainly coastal 

regions where solarization is not feasible due to cool temperatures and cloud cover most of the 

year.

Current research trials are aimed at alternatives. Chloropicrin, metam-sodium and the other 

alternatives are being researched as both drip applied as well as broadcast applications. Research 

is being conducted on 1,3-D/chloropicrin followed by an application of metam sodium one week 

later.

Peppers

Methyl bromide CUEs for peppers has decreased by 81% from 2005 levels (see Figure 11). Use 

in the southern United States has transitioned to the three way combination of 1,3-D followed by 

chloropicrin followed by metam-sodium under VIF or metalized films, replacing spring-time 

applications of methyl bromide+chloropicrin in areas without 1,3-D prohibition due to karst 

topographical features. 

In the Southeastern United States, including Florida and Georgia, the three way combination of 

alternatives on spring plantings and iodomethane are considered technically (and thus 

economically) feasible alternatives to methyl bromide, although some limitations exist, such as 

regulatory restrictions. In those portions of the sector where alternatives are available, the 

United States is in the midst of a transition.

Methyl bromide remains in use for peppers grown in Southeastern United States, Florida (areas 

with karst topography), and Michigan. These crops generally are grown in open fields on plastic 

tarps, often followed by various other crops. Harvest is destined for the fresh market. 1,3-D use 

is limited in Georgia and Florida due to the presence of karst topography. Michigan is cold and 

wet during the early spring thaw, and fall applications of alternative fumigants cannot be 

conducted. This potential for plant injury may require a longer off-gassing period, which may be 

needed to avoid phytotoxicity when using chloropicrin under VIF in cold climates. In pepper 
18

production additional delay in planting may result in producers missing the early, premium 

market. The cost of iodomethane may be prohibitive compared to methyl bromide.

Figure 11. Reduction in CUEs for peppers.

Michigan CUE pepper farmers must plant by the first week of May to capture an early market

window. This market window provides a premium crop price that remains critical for growers’ 

economic feasibility. Soil fumigation must, therefore, be completed by mid April to allow 14-21 

days for aeration. However, 1,3-D and metam labels recommend that applications be made when 

soil temperatures (at application depth) are above 4.4°C. Furthermore, optimum soil 

temperatures for 1,3-D are in the 10°C - 25°C range. Since soil temperatures in Michigan do not 

climb over 10°C until after mid to late May, neither 1,3-D nor metam products can be used 

effectively for early pepper planting in Michigan. Metam products have the additional 

disadvantage that when the soil is wet and cold (below 15°C), the minimum recommended plant 

back period is 30 days, which would push the crop beyond the early market window.

In Southeastern United States, including Florida and Georgia, methyl bromide is requested 

primarily for control of moderate to severe infestations of nutsedge weeds. Metam-sodium offers 

inconsistent control of nutsedges and nematodes, while 1,3-D + chloropicrin provides adequate 

control of nematodes and disease. Metam-sodium has yield losses of up to 44 % compared to 

methyl bromide where weed infestations are moderate to severe. Metam-sodium also creates a 

planting delay as long as 30 days to avoid risk of phytotoxic injury to crops compared to a 14-

day delay for methyl bromide. Furthermore, due to regulatory restrictions resulting from 

groundwater contamination concerns, 1,3-D + chloropicrin cannot be used in large portions of 

Southeastern United States due to the presence of karst topographic features, and anywhere in 

Dade County, Florida, where the majority of that region’s peppers are grown. There is also a 28 

day planting delay due to regulatory restrictions for 1,3-D + chloropicrin. In Florida particularly, 

growers are on a tight production schedule and must place pepper transplants in fields at a certain 

time of the year. Relying only on metam sodium for pre-plant treatment would force growers to 
19

fumigate earlier in their season, which would extend the fumigation schedule into rainy periods. 

Growers would have to fumigate earlier to avoid rain and lose a portion of their crop.

Only methyl bromide can effectively control pepper target pests found in Southeastern United 

States, where pest pressures exist at moderate-to- severe levels. Most, if not all of these states, 

are limited in the use of the alternative 1,3-D because of underlying karst topography throughout 

the region. Halosulfuron, while effective against nutsedge, is only registered for use on row 

middles in peppers. Metam-sodium has limited pest control capabilities and should never be used 

as a stand-alone 

Post Harvest (National Pest Management Association - NPMA)

Methyl bromide CUEs in this sector has declined by 88% from 2005 (see Figure 12). Food 

processing facilities in the United States have reduced the number of methyl bromide 

fumigations by incorporating many different techniques to control pests. The most critical 

strategy implemented is IPM, especially sanitation, in all areas of a facility. Facilities are now 

being monitored for pest populations, using visual inspections, pheromone traps, light traps and 

electrocution traps. When insect pests are found, facilities will attempt to contain the infestation 

with treatments of low volatility pesticides applied to both surfaces and cracks and crevices. Spot 

treatments with heat or phosphine will be used in areas that are suitable. Incoming ingredients 

are inspected for insect pests and may be treated with phosphine. These techniques do not 

disinfest a facility but are critical in monitoring and managing pests, and hopefully preventing 

outbreaks.

Figure 12. Reduction in CUEs for NPMA.

Methyl bromide is used in treatment of processed foods (e.g., chips, crackers, cookies and pasta), 

spices and herbs, and cheese processing plants. Methyl bromide is typically utilized in processed 

food and feed facilities as a space fumigant for treating the facility 1 to 3 times per year. As the 

need arises, methyl bromide is also used for trailer fumigations of product or packaging material. 
20

These facilities are under intense pressure from many insect pests as well as rodents. Sulfuryl 

fluoride is highly dependent upon temperature, so should a facility need fumigation during cooler 

temperatures, it may not be the product of choice because of increased costs. Also, sulfuryl 

fluoride requires higher dosages for egg kill. In many facilities, killing eggs is paramount; this 

also may lead to higher costs. Phosphine is corrosive to many metals that are present in facilities, 

especially in the computers, and is flammable. Heat is dependent on the structural composition, 

as different components expand and contract at different rates. Cheese does not have a 

technically and economically feasible alternative to methyl bromide at this time.

Methyl bromide fumigation for cheese occurs to ensure pest-free food and meet the strict 

requirements of the Food Sanitation Regulations. Cheese manufacturers may target their 

products during fumigations with methyl bromide when a mite infestation is identified by USDA 

inspection and fumigation is ordered. Cheese does not have a technically and economically 

feasible alternative available. Whereas sulfuryl fluoride and phosphine are the primary 

alternatives in most commodities, they are unsuitable for cheese facilities. Phosphine 

fumigations take much longer than methyl bromide fumigations and are not a feasible alternative 

when rapid fumigations are needed; is corrosive to certain metals; is limited by temperature, and 

is not effective on mites. Sulfuryl fluoride is under investigation to determine its efficacy on 

mites, especially in the low temperature environment of cheese facilities.

This sector is treating only the portions of the facilities that contain electronic components and 

have machinery with copper and copper alloy parts. These facilities are under intense pressure 

from many insect pests. The majority of these food processors do not target any of their 

commodities to be fumigated with methyl bromide, although some ingredients may be present in 

the equipment during fumigation, or the ingredients and products may be separable from the 

processing portion of the facilities. Methyl bromide is requested for a few small mills where 

herbs and spices are blended into packages (such as for pizza mixes) that are then added to prepackaged goods. These facilities are similar to food processing facilities in that there are silos, 

mixing areas, packaging areas, etc. They utilize methyl bromide to target pests present in 

inaccessible areas of the structure, such as the equipment and buildings. The ingredients or 

finished products that may be stored on-site are not targeted for fumigation. However, the 

problem in some of these small mills is that they are all under one roof without any way to 

completely segregate the different areas. In addition, since these are small companies they have 

economic constraints. Fumigants of choice for treating herb and spice commodities are ETO, 

PPO, irradiation, and phosphine. These alternatives are not feasible to disinfect the facility itself.

Strawberry Fruit

Methyl bromide CUEs has declined by 53% from 2005 in this sector (see Figure 13). Strawberry 

growers have been replacing methyl bromide or reducing its use rates in all production areas. 

Over 50% of California strawberries are now produced without the use of methyl bromide and 
21

that percent likely will increase yearly. The lowest formulation of methyl bromide that is likely 

to be allowed in California is 57:43 (methyl bromide:chloropicrin). 

Florida growers have transitioned to chloropicrin in fields with key disease problems even 

though those with sting nematode problems still require methyl bromide. Results of several years 

of research trials in Florida with high barrier films led to increase in the use of VIF-type films 

which allows a significant reduction in the methyl bromide application rates (25-50%), while 

maintaining efficacy. Iodomethane has recently been registered in all of the strawberry 

production states, except California. Its use will likely replace a significant portion of the critical 

use area for methyl bromide. This transition from methyl bromide to iodomethane is expected to 

increase as protocols for effective use of iodomethane are developed. Growers continue to reduce 

their reliance on methyl bromide and reduce the portion of the industry that has a critical need 

for methyl bromide. 

Figure 13. Reduction in CUEs for strawberry fruit.

California growers have a critical need for methyl bromide to treat fields where alternatives are 

not available due to regulations or to complete a fumigation program that includes a once per 

three year treatment with methyl bromide to manage two new diseases (Macrophomina and 

Fusarium oxysporum). Additionally, iodomethane is unlikely to be registered for use in 

California in the near future. Although use of methyl bromide has been greatly reduced since 

2005, this trend is in danger of being slowed if the incidences of two new diseases continue to 

increase in strawberry fields. High rates of chloropicrin (greater than 225 kg/ha) are restricted by 

regulation and lower rates may not be optimally effective against plant pathogens. Township 

caps restricting the use of 1,3-D may affect between 5,700 and 9,000 hectares by 2011. 

In Florida sting nematode problems require the use of either methyl bromide or 1,3-D. However, 

strawberry fields are located above karst geological formations with restrictions on the use of 

1,3-D to prevent contamination of ground water. In the Southeastern United States, many of the 

farms contend with yellow and purple nutsedges, which are significant problems in some areas 
22

more than others. Farmers with a low incidence of nutsedge use other chemicals, such as 

chloropicrin, 1,3-D, and metam-sodium to manage diseases such as black root rot, nematodes, 

and other weeds. Iodomethane has recently been registered in all of the strawberry production 

states, except California. 

Strawberry Nursery

Methyl bromide CUEs for strawberry nurseries has been reduced by 87% from 2005 (see Figure 

14). Nurseries currently use methyl bromide on all of their land for transplants designated as

quarantine pre-shipment (QPS), which makes up 99% of methyl bromide use by nurseries. The 

certification requirements for strawberry nurseries located in the states requesting critical use 

exemptions for methyl bromide are strict (zero tolerance for any damaging diseases and plantparasitic nematodes) in order to minimize the prospect of spreading these pests to other states 

and countries where these plants are shipped.

Figure 14. Reduction in CUEs for strawberry nurseries.

There are no markets for plants that do not meet the certification standards, which mean that 

losses up to 100% are possible when inadequate pest control occurs. Failure to adequately 

manage pests in transplants will jeopardize the certification process and adversely affect fruit 

production industries in the United States, as well as the in countries purchasing US plants (e.g., 

Canada, Mexico, Spain, countries in South America, and others).

Transplants produced in California are distributed widely throughout the United States and other 

countries. Currently, only methyl bromide and 1,3-D are accepted treatments for nursery stock 

certification. Regulatory restrictions in California on the use of 1,3-D and chloropicrin hinder 

their use as alternatives. Transplants are grown over a five-year cycle. 

Southeastern United States nurseries in North Carolina and Tennessee produce transplants for 

Florida grown in open fields. An individual field is planted to strawberries once every three 

years. Although methyl bromide is not identified as the required fumigant in North Carolina and 
23

Tennessee, growers have not had any experience in alternative use that can be relied upon to 

ensure stock certification. To attain certification of transplants, commercially feasible protocols 

must be developed and tested and sanctioned by state regulators.

Sweet Potato Slips

Methyl bromide CUEs for the production of sweet potato slips has decreased by 94% from 2005

(see Figure 15).

Figure 15. Reduction in CUEs for sweet potato slips.

Sweet potato production in California has two distinct components: transplant production and 

field production. Greater weed and disease control is required in the transplant nursery. Field 

production utilizes low rate application (12 to 15 gallons per acre) of 1,3-D without tarping to 

control nematodes. Field production of sweet potatoes in California is concentrated in a 

relatively small geographic area in the central part of the state and results in exceeding the 

current use allotment of 1,3-D allowed within a township (640 acres). The soil where sweet 

potato “slips” (transplants) are grown is typically fumigated from November through January in 

order to meet a market window. In addition, the growers who fumigate in November do not 

have 1,3-D available because the township cap has been exceeded by other crops that fumigate 

earlier in the year. Unfortunately, 1,3-D is largely unavailable for regulatory reasons for use in 

the fall when fumigation occurs, making methyl bromide use critical. 

Tomato

Methyl bromide CUEs in tomatoes have been reduced by 88% from 2005 levels (see Figure 16).

US tomato growers have been reducing methyl bromide use rates in all production areas.
24

Figure 16. Reduction in CUEs for tomatoes.

Iodomethane formulated with chloropicrin has shown good efficacy against key tomato pests, 

including nutsedge, in a number of trials with tomato and related vegetables such as peppers 

(e.g., Louws et al. 2006, Culpepper 2006, 2007, 2008, Culpepper et al. 2008, Olsen 2008). The 

primary fumigant alternatives for methyl bromide that have shown promise against key tomato 

pests include the spring application of the fumigant combination of 1,3-D + chloropicrin, 

followed by chloropicrin alone, followed by metam-sodium and the newly registered fumigant 

iodomethane. The application of a sequential 3 way fumigant combination, the “Georgia 3 Way” 

(consisting of 1,3-D + chloropicrin, followed by chloropicrin, followed by metam-sodium or 

metam-potassium), continues to be evaluated. It is considered to be useful as a spring applied 

fumigant mix in the state of Georgia. It should be noted that a major part of developing a 

commercially feasible protocol to use this system in all regions will require adjustment of rates 

and application timing for field and strip applications. The increased production costs, and cost 

of new or altered equipment needed for application might delay the adoption of the three 

fumigant mix. 

Some production areas in Florida are located above karst topographic formations which places 

restrictions on the use of 1,3-D. Stinging nematode problems require either methyl bromide or 

1,3-D. For Florida, Georgia and Mid-Atlantic States, Maryland growers, in common with other 

tomato growers in the mid-Atlantic region, have production areas with high water tables and in 

close proximity to environmentally sensitive estuaries; these factors make the use of 1,3-D 

limited, and thus the three fumigant combination cannot be considered as an alternative.

Iodomethane can be an efficacious alternative, but protocols have not been sufficiently 

established. Given sufficient time to transition, this fumigant can be worked into the production 

system. In the Southeastern United States, there is concern about injury and delayed planting. 

For these regions, there are several economic drawbacks that include the cost of iodomethane, 

the cost of using VIF or metalized mulches, and an initial cost of some minor equipment 

alteration. 
25

Current Research

USDA has several grant programs that support research into overcoming obstacles that have 

prevented the implementation of methyl bromide alternatives. National Program 308, Methyl 

Bromide Alternatives, supports research in soil-borne plant pathology, post-harvest entomology, 

plant pathology, and plant physiology in a national research program to develop alternatives to 

the agricultural uses of methyl bromide. Since currently registered, chemically based alternative 

systems face existing and potential problems associated with township use limitations, emission 

control, and buffer zone restrictions, performance of alternative fumigants needs to be evaluated 

in two ways: 1) Under controlled laboratory or small plot conditions where relationships among 

fumigant concentration, exposure time, environmental conditions, pest species, and growth stage 

need to be determined; and 2) In the field, where factors such as chemical distribution, pest 

population density and distribution, pest interactions, and environmental and soil conditions 

influence efficacy. Knowledge on emission characteristics and efforts to control emissions 

through fumigant application technology needs to be expanded.

Although a substantial amount of work has been done with many the alternative fumigants, the 

lack of consistent performance across crops, pests, regions, soil types, and soil water content 

reduces the likelihood of their adoption. Factors impacting efficacy are poorly characterized. 

New materials that are nearing registration have not been adequately tested in all crops and 

regions and over multiple cropping cycles. The USDA is funding research to improve 

understanding of the impact of fumigant concentration, movement through soil, pest exposure 

time, soil temperature, soil moisture, soil type, and pest species on fumigant efficacy. Improved 

fumigant application methods to reduce emissions and enhance efficacy with less potential for 

negative environmental impacts.

The USDA is funding additional research on post-harvest use of methyl bromide working to 

reduce the need to fumigate with methyl bromide and is developing potential chemical and nonchemical replacement treatments. Similar research is underway to define the efficacy of the 

newly registered alternative for use in structural fumigations. Sulfuryl fluoride has been 

registered for use in structural facilities, but efficacy studies are still needed to optimize its use in 

different types of facilities and to determine its economic feasibility. For durable commodities 

such as dried fruit and nuts, chemical treatments being investigated include new chemicals such 

as sulfuryl fluoride, propylene oxide, and new techniques using phosphine at cold temperature. 

Non-chemical alternatives for durable commodities that will be researched include infrared 

heating, cold, a new CATTS (hot air plus controlled atmosphere) treatment of fresh fruit, and 

compression combined with phosphine for treatment of hay going to Japan. Other technologies 

are in various stages of research and may add to the growing list of potential treatments. In 
26

addition to chemical and physical treatments, IPM methods that eliminate pests in the field 

before they infest fruit or nuts are being investigated.

Numerous options for knowledge-sharing and research exist. USEPA and USDA continue to 

fund the annual meeting on methyl bromide alternatives. At the 2008, sessions focused on 

assessing and prioritize research needs and developing use and emission minimization agenda for 

methyl bromide alternatives research. The Methyl Bromide Transitions grants program has 

provided over $9 million for research in 2007, 2008, and 2009. Additionally, the Crops at Risk 

program (CAR) and the RAMP programs have directly and indirectly provided for methyl 

bromide alternative research over $17 million in 2009 alone.