# U n i t e d S t a t e s C o u r t o f A pp e a l s

For the Eig hth Circu it

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No . 1 8 -2 6 17

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Ch arl es J ack so n

Pl a i n t i f f - Ap p el l a n t

v

.

Bi l l y D. St ai r, III, i n di v i d u al ly an d i n h i s o ffi ci al cap aci t y wi t h J ack s o n v i l l e Po l i ce

Dep art m en t ; J ack s o n v i l l e Ark an s as , Ci t y o f; J ack s o n v i l l e Po l i ce Dep art m en t

Def en d a n t s - Ap p el l ees

_

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Ap p eal fro m

Un i t ed St at es Di s t ri ct Co u rt

fo r t h e Eas t ern Di s t ri ct o f Ark an s as - Li t t l e Ro ck

_

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Su b m i t t ed : No vem

b er 8 , 2 0 19

Fi l ed : Decem

b er 3 , 2 0 1 9

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Befo re ERICKSON, W OLLM A N, an d GRASZ, Ci rcu i t J u d g es

.

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _

ERICKSON, Ci rcu i t J u dg e.

Ch arl es J a c k s o n b ro u g ht an act io n fo r d am ag es u nd er 4 2 U .S.C. § 1 9 8 3,

al l eg in g v ari o u s co ns t i t u t i o n al v i o l at i o n s ag ai n s t t h e Ci t y o f J ack s o n v il l e, Ark an s as

,

t h e J a c k s o n v i l le Po l i ce D ep art m en t

, an d J ack s o n v il le Po l i ce Offi cer Bi l l y D. St ai r,

III, i n di v id u al l y an d i n h i s offi ci al cap aci ty

, aft er Jack s o n w as d et ai n ed an d t as ed by

Offi cer St ai r as p art o f an arres t

. Th e d i s t ri ct co u rt gran t ed s u m m ary ju d g m en t infav o r o f d efen d an t s

, an d J ack s o n ap p eal ed

. In an earl i er o p in i o n

, we affi rm ed i n p art

,

rev ers ed i n p art

, an d rem an ded t o t h e d i s t r i c t co u rt

. See J ack s o n v

. St ai r, 9 3 8 F.3 d

9 6 6 (8 t h Ci r. 2 01 9 ). W e s u b s eq u en t l y v acat ed t hat o pi n i o n an d g ran t ed a pet i t i o n fo r

reh eari ng

, t o cl ari fy o u r d eci s i o n i n l i g h t of t h i s co u rt ’ s recen t h o l d in g s i n Kel s ay v.

Ern s t

, 9 3 3 F.3 d 9 7 5 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 9 ) (en b an c), an d Ru d l ey v

. Li tt l e Ro ck Po l i ce Dep ’ t

,

9 3 5 F.3 d 6 51 (8 t h Ci r. 2 01 9 ). O u r o p i n i o n t od ay reci t es th os e p o rt i o n s o f o u r earl i er

d eci s i o n fo r wh i ch t h e s u b s t a n c e h a s n o t ch an g ed

. W e is s u e a n ew, cl ari fy i n g

an al y s i s on the e x c e s s i v e fo rce an d q u al i fi ed i m m u ni t y cl ai m s i n v o l vi n g Offi cer St ai r.

Fo r t h e reas o n s s t at ed b el o w, we ag ai n affi rm i n p art , rev ers e i n p art , an d rem an d

.

I.

On J u l y 2 3, 20 1 3

, J ack s o n v il l e P o l i ce D ep art m en t (J PD) o ffi cers were

d i s p at c h ed t o a di s pu t e i n p ro g res s at a l o cal b u s i n es s

, Vau g h n Ti re. Th e d i s p u t e

aro s e b ecau s e J ack so n b el i ev ed t h at Vau g h n Ti re h ad d am ag ed a wh eel l u g d uri n g t h e

co u rs e o f a rep ai r o f J ack s o n ’ s d u m p t ru ck

. Offi cer St ai r was th e fi rs t t o res p o n d o n

t h e s cen e, wh ere h e f

o u n d J ack s o n wal k in g wi t h an o th er m an

. V i d eo ev i d en ce 1

s h o ws th at Offi cer St ai r as k ed

, “ W h at ’ s g oi n g on g u y s? ” In res p o n s e, J ack so n

, wh o

was o bv i o u s l y

q u i t e ag i t at ed , b eg an t o y el l an d p o i n t t o ward an o t h er g ro u p o f m en

.

Offi cer St ai r i n s t ru ct ed J ack so n t o rel ax

, an d J ack s o n rep li ed

, p o i n t i n g at o ne o f t h e

m en

, “ Get h i m

, an d I’ m go n n a rel ax .” Offi cer St ai r d i rect ed J ack s o n to g o s t an d by

t h e p at ro l car. J ack s o n beg an t o co m p l y

, s t i ll y el l i ng

, w h en Offi cer St ai r t o l d h i m to

k eep h i s h an d s o u t o f h i s p o ck et s

. J ack s o n reach ed h i s l eft h an d i n t o h i s p o ck et an d

s t op p ed i m

m ed i at el y i n fro n t o f Offi cer St ai r to s h ou t t h at he d i d n o t h av e an y t h i n g

i n h i s p o ck et s

. Offi cer St ai r o rd ered J ack s o n t o t u rn aro u n d

. J ack s o n g o t l o u d er an d

d i d n o t co m

p l y

.

1 T h e reco rd co n t ai n s vi d eo ev i d en ce fro m t h e p at ro l car d as h cam era, an d

fro m a cam era m ou nt ed o n Offi cer St ai r’ s Tas er.

-2

-Offi cer St ai r p u l l e d o u t h i s Tas er, p o i n t ed it at J ack s on

, an d ag ai n o rd ered

J ack s o n t o t u rn aro un d, o r h e wo u l d b e t as ed

. M o re y el l in g an d po i n t in g en su ed fro m

J a c k s o n

– at o n e p o i n t J ack s o n s h o u t ed : “ Yo u tas e m e an d s ee wh at h ap p en s .”

Offi cer St ai r o rd ered J ack s on t o t u rn aro u n d f i v e m o re ti m es b efo re J ack s o n b eg an

t o co m p l y

. Offi cer St ai r t o l d Jack s o n t o p u t h is h an ds u p, an d h e di d

, b ut h e was s t i l l

faci ng Offi cer St ai r. Offi cer St ai r ag ai n o rd ered J ack s on to t u rn aro u nd

, an d J ack so n

d i d so wi t h h i s h a n d s i n t h e ai r, b u t J ack s o n co n ti n u ed t o y el l

, as k i n g fo r Offi cer

St ai r’ s b ad g e n u m

b er an d t h reat en i n g t o fi l e a co m p l ai n t wi t h h i s s u p erv i s o r.

A n o t h er o ffi cer, Ken n et h Harn es s

, ap p ro ach ed J ack s o n an d at tem p t ed to

h an dcu ff h i m

. J ack so n p u t h i s h an d s b eh i n d h i s b ack

, an d t h en h e s t at ed : “ Do n ’ t h u rt

m y arm .” J ack so n t u rn ed aro u n d t o f a c e Offi cer Harn es s an d rai s ed h i s ri g h t fi s t

t o ward t he o ffi cer’ s h ead

. Offi cer St ai r i m m ed i at el y d ep l o y ed h i s Tas er, an d J ack so n

fel l t o th e g ro u nd

, k i ck i ng h i s l eg s

. M o m en t s l at er, an d wi t h o u t an o th er warn i n g,

Offi cer St ai r d ep lo y ed h i s Tas er a s eco nd t i m e. Off i c e r S t a i r t h en ord ered J ack so n

t o t urn o n h i s st o m ach o r he wo u l d b e t as ed ag ai n

. O ffi cer St ai r rep eat ed t h e o rd er,

b u t J ack s o n ro s e t o o ne k n ee, i n t h e d i rect i o n o f Offi cer St ai r. O ffi cer St ai r d ep l o y ed

h i s Tas er a t h ird t i m e. J ack s o n fi n al l y co m p l ied wi t h t h e o rd er t o l i e o n h i s s t o m ach

,

an d Offi cer Ha r n es s h an d cu ffed h i m

. J ack so n was arres t ed fo r di s o rd erl y co n d u ct

.

J ack so n fi l ed a co m

p lai n t u n d er 4 2 U .S.C. § 1 9 8 3 ag ai ns t Offi cer St ai r, i n h i s

i n d i v i d u al an d o ffi ci al cap aci t i es

, t h e C i t y o f J ack s o nv i l l e (Ci t y ), an d t h e J PD,

al l eg in g th at h i s co n s t i tu t i o n al ri g h t s w ere v i o l at ed du ri n g t h e t as i n g i n ci d en t

. 2 Th e

d i s t ri ct co u rt g ran t ed su m m ary j u d g m en t i n fav o r o f t h e d efen d an ts

, an d J ack s o n fi l ed

a t im el y n o t i ce o f ap p eal

.

2 Th e co m

p l ai nt al so al l eg ed vi o l at i o n s o f t h e Ark an sas Ci v il Ri g ht s Act an d

cl ai m ed t h at Offi cer St ai r’ s co n d u ct am o u n t ed t o a fel on y u n d er A rk an s as l aw,

en t i t l i n g h i m

t o d am ag es . Th o s e al l eg at io n s are n o t rel ev an t t o t h i s ap p eal

.

-3

-Th e reco rd co n t ai n s co pi es o f t h e Ci t y ’ s Tas er p o li cy an d ev i d en ce o f Offi cer

St ai r’ s co m

p l et i o n of Tas er-s p eci fi c an d g en eral l aw en fo rcem en t trai n i n g s u p o n h i s

h i ri n g. Th e reco rd al so i n cl u d es d o cu m en tat i o n o f th e J PD’ s “ Us e o f Fo rce Rev i ew”

o f t h e tas i ng i n ci d e n t a t i s s u e h ere. Fo l l o wi ng t h at i n v es t i g at i o n, O ffi cer St ai r

recei v ed a wri tt en warn i n g an d ad d i t i o n al u s e-o f-fo rce t rai n i n g

.

II.

W e rev i ew d

e no vo a d i s tri ct co u rt o rd er g ran t i n g s u m m ary ju d g m en t

, v i ewi n g

t h e e v i d en ce i n t he l ig ht m o s t fav o rab l e t o J ack s o n

, an d drawi n g al l reas o n ab l e

i n feren ces i n h i s fav o r. Sch o el ch v . M i t ch el l , 6 2 5 F.3 d 1 0 4 1, 1 0 4 5 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 0 ).

Su m m ary ju d g m en t i s ap p ro p ri at e wh en “ t h e r e i s n o g en u i n e d i s p ut e as t o an y

m at eri al fact an d t he m o v an t i s en t i t l ed t o ju dg m en t as a m at t er o f l aw.” Fed

. R. Ci v.

P. 5 6(a).

W e no t e at t h e o ut s et th at J ack s o n fai l ed to m ak e an y m ean i ng fu l arg um en t o n

ap p eal reg ard i n g h i s cl ai m s ag ai n s t th e J PD. T h o se cl ai m s are t h erefo re wai v ed

.

Ah l berg v

. Ch ry s l er Co rp

., 4 8 1 F.3 d 6 3 0

, 6 3 4 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 07 ). Li k ewi s e, t h e

co m p l ai n t al l eg ed v i o l at i o n s of t h e Fi rs t, Fo u rt h

, Fi ft h

, Ei g h t h

, an d F ou rt een th

Am en d m en t s

. Ho wev er, as n o ted b y t h e d is t ri ct co u rt

, t h e Fi ft h Am en d m en t ap p li es

o n l y t o t h e fed eral g o v ern m en t o r f e d eral act i o n s an d d oes n o t ap p l y t o s t at e an d

m u ni ci p al i ty act o rs as al l eg ed h ere, Barn es v

. Ci t y o f Om ah a, 5 7 4 F.3 d 1 00 3

, 1 0 0 5

n .2 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 9 ); t h e Ei gh t h Am en d m en t ap p l i es o nl y t o co n v ict ed p ri s o n ers

, Ho t t

v

. H en n ep i n Co u n t y

, 2 6 0 F.3 d 9 0 1

, 9 0 5 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 1 ); an d t h e Fo u rt een th

Am en d m en t d o es n o t ap p l y t o ex ces s i v e fo rc e c l ai m s i n vo l v i n g arres ts

, wh i ch are

ap p ro p ri at el y rev i ewed u n d er a Fo u rt h Am en dm en t an al y s i s

, Grah am v

. Co n n o r, 4 9 0

U.S. 3 86

, 3 9 4 -9 5

, 1 0 9 S.Ct

. 1 8 6 5

, 1 0 4 L.Ed .2 d 4 43 (1 9 8 9). Acco rd i n g ly

, o n l y t h e

Fi rs t a n d F o u r t h Am en d m en t cl ai m s

, an d t h e cl ai m s ag ai n st t h e Ci t y

, are rel ev an t

h ere.

-4

-A . Cl ai m s Ag ai n s t t h e Ci t y

J ack so n l od g es s ev eral cl ai m s ag ai n s t t h e Ci ty o f J ack s o n v i l l e, i ncl u d i n g an

o ffi ci al -cap aci t y c l ai m ag ai n s t Offi cer St ai r. J ack so n arg ues t h at th e d i s t ri ct co u rt

erred i n g ran t i n g s um m ary ju d g m en t i n fav o r o f t h e Ci t y

, b ecau s e Offi cer S t a i r ’ s

co n du c t d u ri n g t h e tas i ng i n ci d en t was co n s is t en t wi t h a Ci t y po l icy

, cu s t o m

, o r

p ract i ce, an d b ecau s e t h e Ci ty h ad b een d el i b erat el y i n d i fferen t t o O ffi cer St ai r’ s

co n du ct

. W e d i s ag ree.

A m u ni ci p al i t y m ay b e h el d l i ab l e fo r a co ns t i t u t i o nal v i ol at i o n u n d er s ect i o n

1 9 8 3 if th e v i o l at i o n res u l t ed fro m “ (1 ) an ‘ o ffi ci al m u n i ci p al po l i cy ,’ (2 ) an

u n o ffi ci a l ‘cu s t o m ,’ o r (3 ) a d el i b erat el y i n d i fferen t fai l u re t o t rai n o r s u perv i s e.”

Co rwi n v . Ci t y

o f In d ep en d en ce, M O., 8 2 9 F.3 d 69 5 , 6 9 9 (8 th Ci r. 2 0 1 6 ) (ci t at i on s

o m it t ed )

. S e e a l s o M o nel l v

. D ep ’ t o f So c. Serv s

., 4 3 6 U.S. 6 5 8

, 6 90 -9 1

, 9 8 S.Ct

.

2 0 1 8

, 56 L

. Ed

. 2 d 6 1 1 (1 9 7 8 ); M i ck v

. Rai nes

, 88 3 F.3 d 1 0 7 5

, 1 0 7 9 -8 0 (8 t h Ci r.

2 0 1 8 ).

Here, J ack s o n h as n o t p res en t ed an y ev i d en ce t o s u g g es t t h at t h e Ci ty creat ed

,

ad o pt ed

, o r s up po rt ed an y p o l i cy o r cu s t o m th at wo u ld d e m o n s t r a t e m u n i ci p al

l i ab i l i t y

. To th e co n trary

, t he Ci t y has su b m i tt ed co p i es of i t s rel ev an t p o l i ci es an d

t rai n in g m an u al s

, an d t h e Ci t y h as s h o wn t h at O ffi cer St ai r recei v ed s peci fi c Tas e r

t rai n in g o n t o p of h i s g en eral l aw en f o r c e m e n t trai n in g

. M oreo v er, t h e Ci t y

i n v es t i g at ed t h e t as i n g i n ci d en t aft er t h e fact ; as a res u l t

, Offi cer St ai r recei v ed a

wri t ten warn i n g , an d h e was req u i red t o u nd erg o ad d i t i o n al u s e-o f-fo rce t rai n i n g

.

Becau s e J ack s on fai l s t o p ro v i d e t he ev i d en ce n eces s ary t o su p po rt h i s cl ai m s

o f m un i ci p al l i ab il i ty , t h e Ci t y i s en t i t l ed t o s u m

m ary ju d g m en t

.

-5

-B. Fi rs t Am en d m en t Cl ai m Ag ai n s t Offi cer St ai r

Li k ewi s e, s u m

m ary j u d g m e n t i n fav o r o f Offi cer St ai r o n Jack s o n ’ s Fi rs t

Am en d m en t cl ai m i s ap p ro p ri at e. Th e Fi rs t A m en d m en t p ro t ect s freed o m o f s p eech

,

an d J ack s o n arg u es t hat Offi cer St ai r v i ol at ed h i s Fi rs t Am en d m en t ri g h t s by

d et ai ni n g h i m b as ed o n h i s sp eec h

. W h i l e th e v i d eo ev i d en ce cl earl y s h o ws t h at

J ack s o n was l ou d an d pro fan e d u ri n g t h e m in u t es s u rro u n d i ng t he tas i ng i n ci d en t

, i t

d o es n o t n eces sari l y fo l l ow t h at h i s arres t was g ro u n d ed in an effo rt b y Offi cer St ai r

t o res t rai n J ack so n ’ s ri g h t t o ex p res s h i m s el f. “ [W ] h en ‘ s p eech ’ an d ‘ n o n s p eech ’

e l e m en t s are co m

b i n ed i n t h e s am e co u rs e o f co n d u ct

, a s u ffi ci en t l y i m p o rt an t

g o v ern m en t al i n t eres t i n reg u l at in g t h e n o n s p eech el em en t ca n ju s t i fy i n ci d en t al

l i m i tat i on s o n Fi rs t Am en d m en t freed o m s .” Un i t ed St at es v. O ’ Bri en

, 39 1 U.S. 3 6 7,

3 7 6

, 8 8 S.Ct

. 1 6 7 3, 2 0 L.Ed

. 2 d 6 7 2 (1 9 6 8). O t h e r w i s e

, an y fo u l -m ou t hed ci t i zen

co u ld bri n g a co n s t i t u t i o n al cl ai m ag ai n s t an arres t i ng o ffi cer. In t h i s cas e, t h ere i s

n o ev i d en ce t o s u p p o rt a Fi rs t Am en d m en t cl ai m

, an d su m m ary ju dg m en t was

t h erefo re ap p ro p ri at e.

C. Ex ces s i v e Fo rce Cl ai m s Ag ai n s t Offi cer St ai r an d Qu al ifi ed Im m u n i t y

J ack so n al s o cl ai m s th at Offi cer St ai r u s ed ex ces s i v e fo rce d u ri ng t h e t as i ng s

i n v i ol at i o n o f h is co n st i t u t io n al ri g h t s

. Offi cer St ai r res p o n d s i n t h e fi rs t i n s t an ce

t h at n o ex ces s i v e fo rce v i o l at io n o ccu rred

. Offi cer St ai r al s o arg ues t h at t he d o ct ri n e

o f q u al i fi ed i m

m u n i t y sh i el ds hi m fro m an y po t en ti al l i ab i l i t y i f ex ces s i v e fo rce d id

o ccu r. Th i s cas e r e q u i res u s t o rev i s i t o u r ju ri s p ru d en ce g ov ern i ng q u al i fi ed

i m m u ni t y an d t he u s e o f fo rce. W e h av e reco gn i zed t h at t h es e cas es rel y on a fact

i n t en s i v e an al y s i s

, an d t h i s cas e i s n o e x cep t i o n. K el s ay

, 9 3 3 F.3 d at 98 0 (q u o t i n g

Ki s el a v. Hu g h es

,

_

_ _ U.S.

_ _ _ , 1 3 8 S.Ct

. 11 4 8

, 1 15 3

, 2 0 0 L.Ed .2 d 4 49 (2 0 1 8 ) (p er

cu ri am ).

-6

-Th e Fo u rt h Am en d m e n t g u aran t ees each ci t i zen a ri g h t t o b e free fro m

u n reas o nab l e s earch es o r sei zu res

. W here, as h ere, an ex ces s iv e fo rce cl ai m i s m ad e

ag ai n s t a l aw en fo rcem en t o ffi cer rel at ed t o co n d u ct in v ol v i n g an arres t

, t he Su p rem e

Co u rt h as m ad e cl ear th at th e co n d u ct s h o u l d b e an al y zed u n d er an o b ject i v e

reas on ab l en es s s t an d ard

. Grah am

, 4 9 0 U.S. at 3 9 4 -9 6

. Su ch an an al y s is req u i res t h e

“ carefu l b al an ci ng o f ‘ t h e n at ure a n d q u al i t y o f t h e i n t ru s i o n o n t h e i n d i v i d u al ’ s

Fo u rt h Am en d m en t i n t eres t s ’ ag ai n s t t h e co u n terv ai l i n g g o v ern m en tal i nt eres t s at

s t ak e.” Id

. at 3 9 6 ( q u o ti n g Ten n es s ee v

. Garn er, 4 71 U.S. 1

, 8

, 1 0 5 S.Ct

. 1 6 9 4

, 8 5

L.Ed .2 d 1 (1 9 8 5 )). Rel ev an t co n s i d erat i on s i n cl ud e t h e s ev eri t y o f t h e cri m e at i s s ue,

wh et h er t h e s u s p e c t po s ed an i m m ed i at e s afet y t h reat

, an d wh et h er h e was act i v el y

res i st i n g arres t o r at t em

p t i n g t o fl ee. Id

. See al s o Hen d ers o n v

. M u n n

, 4 3 9 F.3 d 4 9 7,

5 0 2 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 6 ). W e ju d g e t h e rel ev an t fact s fro m t h e p ers p ect i v e o f a reas o n ab l e

o ffi cer o n t h e s cen e, n ot wi th 2 0 / 2 0 h i n d s i g h t v i s i o n

. Carp en ter v

. Gag e, 6 8 6 F.3 d

6 4 4

, 6 4 9 (8 t h Ci r. 20 1 2 ). “ [T] h e q u es t i o n i s wh et h er t h e o f f i c e r s ’ act i o n s are

‘ ob ject i v el y reas o n ab l e’ i n l i g h t o f t h e fact s an d ci rcu m s t an ces co nfro n t i n g t h em

. .

. .” Grah am , 4 9 0 U.S. at 3 9 7

.

Qu al i fi ed i m

m u ni t y p ro t ect s a g o v ern m en t offi ci al fro m l i ab i l i t y i n a s ect i o n

1 9 8 3 act i o n

, u n l es s t h e o ffi ci al ’ s co n d u ct v i o l at es a cl earl y es t ab li s hed co n s t i t u t i o n al

o r s t a t u t o r y ri g h t o f wh i ch a reas o n ab l e p ers o n wo u l d hav e k n own

. H arl o w v

.

Fi t zg eral d

, 4 5 7 U .S. 8 00

, 8 1 8

, 1 0 2 S.Ct

. 2 72 7

, 7 3 L.Ed .2 d 3 96 (1 9 8 2 ). T h e co u rt

m u st fo l l o w a t w o -s t ep i n q u i ry i n a q u al i f i ed i m m u n i t y an al y s i s : “ (1 ) wh et h er t h e

fact s s h o wn b y t he p l ai nt i ff m ak e o u t a v i o l at io n o f a co n s t i t u ti o n al o r s t at u to ry ri g h t

,

an d (2 ) wh et h er th at ri g ht was cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed at t h e t i m e o f t h e d efen d an t ’ s

al l eg ed m i s co n d u ct .” Bro wn v . Ci t y o f Go l d en Val l ey , 5 7 4 F.3 d 4 9 1, 4 9 6 (8 t h Ci r.

2 0 0 9 ). Th e fi rs t s t ep of t h e an al y s i s

, t h e r e f o r e

, req u i res u s t o co n s id er wh et h er a

co n st i t u t io n al v i o l at io n (h ere, ex ces s i v e fo r ce) i n fact o ccu rred

. If so

, q u al i fi ed

i m m u ni t y d o es n ot s h iel d t h e o ffi c e r f r o m l i ab i li t y i f t h e co n s ti t u t io n al ri g h t was

cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed at t h e t i m e o f t h e v i o l at i o n

.

-7

-A r i g h t i s cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed i f i t s co n t o u rs are “ s u ffi ci en t l y cl ear t h at a

reas on ab l e o ffi ci al wo u l d u nd ers t an d t h at wh at h e i s d oi n g v i ol at es t h at ri g h t .” Ho p e

v

. Pel zer, 5 3 6 U.S. 7 3 0

, 73 9

, 1 2 2 S.Ct

. 2 50 8

, 1 5 3 L.Ed

. 2 d 6 6 6 (2 00 2 ). Th e rel ev an t

q u es ti o n i s wh et h er a reas o n ab l e o ffi cer wo u l d h av e fai r warn i n g t hat h i s co n d u ct was

u n l awfu l

. Bro wn , 5 7 4 F.3 d at 4 9 9

. W e l oo k fo r “ ei t h er ‘ co n tro l l i n g au th o ri t y ’ o r a

‘ ro b us t co ns en s u s of cas es o f p ers uas i v e au th o ri t y ’ t h at ‘ p l a c e d th e s tat u t o ry o r

co n st i t u t io n al qu es t i o n b ey o n d d eb at e’ at t he ti m es o f th e al leg ed v io lat i on .” Kel s ay

,

9 3 3 F.3 d at 9 7 9 (q u ot i n g As h cro ft v

. al -Ki dd

, 5 6 3 U.S. 7 3 1

, 7 4 1 -4 2

, 1 3 1 S.Ct

. 2 0 7 4,

1 7 9 L.Ed .2 d 1 1 4 9 (2 0 1 1 )). “ W e d o n ot req u ire a cas e d i rect ly o n p o i n t

, b u t ex i s t i n g

p reced en t m

u s t h av e p l aced t h e s t at u t o ry o r co n st i tu t i o n al q u es t i o n bey o n d d eb at e.”

al -Ki d d , 5 6 3 U.S. at 7 41

.

A rev i ew of ou r p reced en t o n t hi s t o p ic co n fi rm s

, o n t h e on e h an d

, t h e i n h eren t

d i ffi cu l t y o f an al y zi n g t h es e fact -i n t en si v e cas es an d, o n t h e o th er h an d

, a t ru e at t em pt

t o ad ju d i cat e t h em w i t hi n t h e g u i d an ce o f Grah am an d i t s p ro g en y

. 4 90 U .S. at 3 9 6

(ex ces s i ve fo rce an al y s i s “ req u ires carefu l at t en t i on to th e fact s an d ci rcu m s t an ces o f

each p art i cu l ar cas e, in cl u d i n g t h e s ev eri t y o f t h e cri m e at is s u e, wh et h er t h e s u s p ect

p o s es an i m

m ed i at e t h reat t o t he s afet y o f th e o ffi cers o r o t hers

, an d wh et h er h e i s

act i vel y res i s t i n g arres t o r at t em p t i n g t o ev ad e arres t b y fl i g h t ”). To t hat en d

, we h av e

s t at ed : “ [I] t is cl earl y es tab l i s h ed t h at fo rce i s l ea s t j u s ti fi ed ag ai n st n o n v i o l en t

m i s d em ean an t s w h o d o n o t fl ee o r act i v el y res i st arres t an d p o s e l i t t l e o r n o t h reat to

t h e s e c u ri t y o f t h e o ffi cers o r t h e p u b l i c.” Bro wn

, 57 4 F.3 d at 4 9 9

. W e hav e al s o

h el d t h at q u al ifi ed i m

m u n it y p ro t ect s l aw en fo rcem en t fro m l i ab i l i t y wh ere t h e

s u s p ect was n o n -co m

p l i an t an d res i s ted arre s t

, C a r p e n ter, 6 8 6 F.3 d at 6 4 9 -5 0

, o r

i g n o red co m

m an d s fro m l a w e n f

o rcem en t

, Eh lers v

. Ci t y o f Rap id Ci t y

, 8 4 6 F.3 d

1 0 0 2

, 10 1 1 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 7 ). W h ere l aw en fo rcem en t was t ry i n g t o co n t ro l a rap i d l y

es cal at in g s i t u at i o n

, we h av e h el d t hat t he u s e o f fo rce was n o t u n reas o nab l e. See

Ru d l ey

, 93 5 F. 3 d a t 6 5 4 ; Co o k v

. Ci t y of Bel l a Vi l l a, 58 2 F.3 d 8 40

, 8 5 1 (8 t h Ci r.

2 0 0 9 ). Th u s

, ou r ch al l en g e i n t h es e cas es i s t o l o ok carefu l l y a t t h e f a c t s fro m t h e

s t an d p o in t o f a reas o n ab le o ffi cer an d d et erm i n e wh et h er t h e fo rce was ex ces si v e, an d

-8

-– i f s o

– wh et h er th e o ffi cer h ad fai r warn i n g t hat hi s act i on s v i o lat ed a cl ear l y

es t ab l i s h ed co ns t it u t i o n al ri g h t

.

H e r e, Offi cer St ai r tas ed J ack s on t hree t i m es

. At th e b eg i n n i n g o f t h e i r

en co un t er, J ack so n was ag g res s i v e an d n o n co m p l i an t i n res p o ns e to Offi cer St ai r’ s

d i rect i v es

. J ack so n i g n o red m u l t i pl e o rd ers t o tu rn aro u n d

, arg u i n g wi t h Offi cer St ai r

an d ev en t h reat en i n g h i m

. W hen Offi cer Harn es s at t em p t ed to h an d cu ff J ack s o n,

J ack s o n t u rn ed aro un d t o ward Offi cer Harn es s an d rai s ed h i s ri g h t fi s t near Offi cer

Harn es s’ s head

. At t h at p o i n t

, Offi cer St ai r d ep lo y ed hi s Tas er. A reas o n ab le o ffi cer

i n Of f i cer St ai r’ s p o s i t io n co u l d h av e v i ewed J ack s o n’ s act i o n s as t h reat en i n g,

res i st i n g arres t

, an d en dan g eri n g t h e s afet y o f an o ffi cer. Th e ev i d en ce i n t h e reco rd

t h erefo re d em o n s t rat es t h at t h e fi rs t t as in g was o bject i v el y reas o n ab le.

Th e s eco n d t as i n g i s a d ifferen t s t o ry

. W h en th e el ect ri c p ro bes fro m t h e fi rs t

t as i n g s t ru ck J ack so n

, h e i m m ed i at el y fel l t o t h e gro u n d

. Befo re Jack s o n c o u l d

res p o n d

, an d wi t h o ut warn i n g

, Offi cer St ai r ag ai n d ep l o y ed h i s Tas er. A t t h e t i m e o f

t h i s s eco n d t as i n g

, Jack s o n d i d n o t ap p ear t o p o s e a t h reat t o l aw en fo rcem en t

, res i s t

arres t

, o r fl ee – h e was on h i s b ac k

, wr i t h i n g o n t he gro u nd

. Bas ed o n t he Tas erm o un t ed v i d eo

, J ack s o n d i d n o t h av e t i m e to react wi t h co m p l i an ce o r co n t i n u ed

res i st an ce befo re t h e s eco n d t as i n g was d ep l oy ed

. Hi s p h y s ical b od y was s t i l l reel i n g

fro m t h e in i t i al t as i n g

. Offi cer St ai r arg u ed t h at h e p ercei v ed J ack s o n t o k i ck h i s l eg s

o u t a n d t u rn h i s b o dy as if t o co n fro n t th e o ffi cers ag ai n

. Th e v i d eo fo o t ag e,

h o wev er, refu t es t h i s s t at em en t. Th e v id eo cl earl y s h o ws t h at J ack s o n w a s s ev eral

feet away fro m t h e n eares t o ffi cer, u n a b l e t o p o s e a t h reat fro m h i s po s i t i on o n t h e

g ro u nd

.

Th e d i s t ri ct co u rt ru l ed t h at Offi cer St ai r’ s co n d u ct as a wh o l e was reas o n ab l e

wi t h o u t co n s i d eri n g wh et her t he s eco n d t as i n g co u l d b e a co n s ti tu t io n al vi o l at i o n o n

i t s o wn

. See Bl az e k v

. C i t y o f Io wa Ci t y

, 7 6 1 F.3 d 9 2 0

, 9 2 5 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 4 )

(s ep arat in g each “ d i s cret e u s e o f fo rce fo r co n s id era t i o n u n der th e Fo u rt h

-9

-Am en d m en t ”). See al s o Ru d l ey

, 9 3 5 F.3 d at 65 3 ; Sm i t h v

. Co n way Co u n t y

, 7 5 9 F.3 d

8 5 3

, 8 6 0 -6 1 (8 th Ci r. 2 0 1 4 ) ( e v e n i f t he i n i t i al t as i n g o f d et ai n ee was ju s t i fi ed

b ecau s e h e h ad ju st k i ck ed a g u ard

, s eco nd t as i n g wo u l d b e u n reas o n ab l e u n d er t h e

Ei g h th A m e n d m en t i f d et ai nee was n o l o ng er act i n g ag g res si v el y

, n o l o n g er p o s ed

an y i m m ed i at e s ecu r i t y co n cern

, an d was t ry i n g to co m p l y wi t h g u ard ’ s o rd ers ).

Becau s e we b el i ev e t h e s eco n d tas i ng st an d s o n i ts own

, t h e d i s tri ct co u rt erred b y n ot

an al y zi ng i t as a s ep arat e u s e o f fo rce. 3 In l ig h t o f t h e vi d eo fo o t ag e d ep i ct i n g t h e

q u i ck su cces s i on of t h e tas in gs an d t h e d is p u t e as t o wh et her J ack s o n w as res i s t i n g

t h e offi cers o r p os i ng a t h reat at t h e ti m e o f t h e s eco n d t as i n g

, we fi n d t h at t h ere i s a

g en ui n e i s s u e o f m at eri al fact as t o wh et h er t he s eco n d t as i ng am ou n t ed t o ex ces s i v e

fo rce. W e h o ld t h a t s u m m ary ju d g m en t was g ran t ed i n erro r wi t h reg ard t o t h e

s eco n d t as i n g

.

Offi cer S t a i r a r gu es t h at q u al i fi ed im m un i t y s h i el d s hi m fro m an y p o t en t i al

l i ab i l i t y r e l a t e d t o t h e s eco n d t as i n g b ecau s e J ack so n d i d n o t h av e a cl earl y

es t ab l i s h ed ri g h t t o ex ces s i v e fo rce at t h e t i m e. In su p po rt o f t h i s arg u m en t

, Offi cer

St ai r ci t es t o o ur recen t deci si o n s i n Kel say an d Ru d l ey

.

In Kel s ay

, an en b an c p an el o f t h i s co u rt h el d t h at q u al i fi ed i m m u n i ty p ro t ect ed

an offi cer fro m li ab i l i t y i n a cas e i n v o l v i ng a n o n -co m p l ian t s u s p ect w h o i g n o red

i n s t ru ct i o n s an d wal k ed away fro m t h e arres t i n g o ffi cer, ev en t h o u g h t h e s u sp ect was

n o t act i v el y

res i s t i n g arres t o r p o s i n g a d an g er. 9 3 3 F.3 d at 9 8 0 . Th e d i s t ri ct co u rt

h ad reject ed t h e q u al i fi ed i m m u n i t y d efen s e, fi n di n g t h at th e offi cer v i o l at ed a cl earl y

es t ab l i s h ed ri g ht

, b ut th i s co u rt d i s ag reed an d di s t i n g u i s hed t h e cas es rel i ed on b y t h e

d i s t ri ct co urt

, b ecau s e o f t h e u n i q u e fact s a t i s s u e i n Kel say

. Id

. at 9 8 0 -8 1.

3 Th e d i s s en t s t at es t h at

, b ecau s e t h e s eco n d t as i n g h ap p en ed qu i ck l y

, a “ cl earl y

p u n ct u at ed i nt eri m o f co m p l i an ce” d i d n o t o ccu r. W e ag ree t h at Offi cer St ai r act ed

wi t h t o o m

u ch s peed an d wi t h o ut p ro v i d in g J ack s o n a ch an ce t o co m p l y

, b u t we al s o

b el i ev e th at i t was u nreas o nab l e fo r Offi cer St ai r t o effect iv el y “ k i ck h i m wh i l e h e

was d own ” wi t h o ut co ns i d eri n g wh et h er a s eco nd t as i n g was ex ces s i ve.

-1 0

-“ D e c i s i o ns co n cern i ng t he u s e o f fo rce ag ai n s t su s p ect s wh o w ere co m p l i an t o r

en g ag ed i n p as s i v e res i s t an ce are i n s u ffi ci en t t o co n s ti tu t e cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed l aw t h at

g o v ern s an o ffi cer’ s u s e o f fo rce ag ai ns t a s u s p ect wh o i g n o res a co m m an d an d wal k s

away

. ” Id

. at 9 8 0

. Un l i k e t h e p l ai n t i ff in Kel say

, h o w ev er, at th e t im e o f t h e s eco n d

t as i n g, J ack s o n d i d n o t i g n o re l aw en fo rcem en t co m m an d s ; i n fact

, n o c o m m an d s

were g i v en

. An d

, Jack s o n was wr i t h i n g o n t h e g ro un d

, p hy si cal l y u nab l e t o wal k

away o r fl ee. Offi cer St ai r’ s s u cces s i v e tas i n g o f J ack so n

, w h en Jack s o n w as s ev eral

feet away fro m t h e n eares t o ffi cer, was u n neces s ary an d

, i n a w o rd

, exces s i ve.

J ack s o n d i d n o t ap pear cap ab le o f p o s i n g a d an g er t o l aw en fo rcem en t

, h e was n ot

act i vel y res i s t i n g arres t

, an d h e was n o t fl eei n g

.

Li k ewi s e, i n Ru d l ey

, t h i s co u rt d et erm i n e d t h at t h e ev i d en ce sh o wed an

o n g o i n g

, p h y s ical al t ercat i on “ i n v ol v i n g ag gres s i v e b eh av i o r an d a ‘ ch ao t i c an d

co m b a t i v e ’ s c e n e ” i n wh i ch t h e p l ai n t i ff w as act i v el y res i s t i n g arres t

. 9 3 5 F.3 d at

6 5 4

. Un der t ho s e ci rcu m st an ces

, Ru d ley was “ m o re ak i n t o t h e s i tu at i o n in Kel s ay ,”

an d l aw en fo rcem en t was ju s t i fi ed i n t as i ng Ru d l ey t o kee p c o n t r o l o f t h e si t u at i o n

an d av o i d es cal at io n

. Id

. “ [T] h e s cen e w as a t u m ul t u ou s o n e i n v o l v i n g seem i n g l y

ag g re ssive a n d nonc om

p l i an t b eh av i o r, ci rcu m s tan ces wh ich we h av e p rev i o u s l y h el d

ren d ered o ffi cers ’ u s es o f t as ers reas o n ab l e.” Id

. In t he cas e b efo re u s, J ack s o n h ad

b een ag g res s i v e, an d at fi rs t h e was n o n -co m p l i an t

. On t h a t b as i s

, we h av e

d et erm i n ed t h at t h e fi rs t t as i n g was o b ject i v el y reas o nab l e. Ho wev er, o n ce Offi cer

St ai r d ep l o y ed h i s Tas er, J ack s o n was red u ced t o t he g ro u n d

, u nab l e t o res i s t arres t

o r fl ee. No reas o n ab le o ffi cer wo u l d h av e b el i ev ed th at t h e Fo u rt h A m e n d m en t

s u p p ort ed an ad d i t i on al , s u cces s i v e u s e o f fo rce. 4

So m e of t he v ery cas es d i s t i n g ui s h ed b y t h i s co u rt i n Kel s ay an d Ru dl ey s u p p l y

u s h ere wi t h a cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed ri g h t ag a i n s t ex ces s i ve fo rce. In 2 0 1 3

, wh en t h e

4 In d eed

, an i n t ern al d ep art m en t rev iew o f t h e t a s i n g i n ci den t res ul t ed i n a

rep ri m an d o f Offi cer St ai r.

-1 1

-t as i n gs o f J ack s o n o ccu rred

, t h ere was s u ffi ci en t cas e l aw t o e s t a b l i s h t h at a

m i s d em ean o r s u s p ect i n J a ck s o n ’ s p o s i t i o n at t h e t im e o f t h e seco n d t as i n g

– n o n

t h reat en in g

, n o n -fl eei n g

, no n-res i s t i n g

– h ad a cle a r l y e st ab l i s h ed ri g h t t o b e free fro m

ex ces s i v e fo rce. See Bro wn

, 5 7 4 F.3 d at 4 9 6 -9 7 (ex ces s i v e fo rce w h ere m i s d em ean o r

s u s p ect “ po s ed at m os t a m i n i m al s afet y t h reat ” an d “ was n o t act i vel y res is t i n g arres t

o r at t em p t i n g to fl ee”); Sh an n on v

. Ko eh ler, 6 1 6 F.3 d 8 5 5

, 8 6 2

- 6 3 ( 8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 0 )

(m o re t h an d e m i n i m i s fo rce am o u n t ed t o ex ces si v e fo rce ag ai n s t a s u s p ect wh o was

n o t s u s pect ed of a s eri o u s cri m e, was n o t t h reat en i n g , an d was n o t res i s ti n g arres t );

M o n to y a v

. Ci t y o f Fl an dreau

, 66 9 F.3 d 8 6 7

, 8 71 -7 2 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 2 ) (ex ces s iv e fo rce

fo u n d wh ere d i s o rd erl y co n d u ct s u s p ect was 1 0 -1 5 feet fro m l aw en fo rcem en t an d d id

n o t p o s e a t h reat ). M o reo v er, w e h av e hel d t h at “ gen eral co n s t i t u t i o n al p ri n ci p l es

ag ai n s t ex ces s i v e fo rce” are en ou g h t o creat e a cl earl y es t ab l is h ed ri g h t an d t o p u t a

reas on ab l e o ffi cer o n n o t i ce t h at a p art i cu lar tas i ng was ex ces s i v e. See Sh ek l et o n v.

Ei ch en berg er, 6 7 7 F.3 d 3 6 1

, 3 6 7 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 2 ). We b e l i e v e i t i s ax i o m at i c t h at

J ack s o n had a c l earl y es t ab l i s h ed ri g h t ag ai ns t ex ces s i v e fo rce at t he t i m e o f t h e

s eco n d t as i n g

.

Th e t h i rd t as i n g o c c u r r ed aft er Offi cer St ai r g av e s ev eral cl ear o rd ers fo r

J ack s o n t o s t o p m ov i n g an d l ay do wn o n h i s st o m ach

, o r he w o u l d b e t as ed

.

A f t erward

, J ack so n m ov ed i n t h e d i rect i o n o f Offi cer St ai r, an d h e ro se t o h i s k n e e

i n an ap p aren t at t em

p t t o g et o ff t h e g ro u n d

. Offi cer St ai r t h en d ep l o y ed h i s Tas er fo r

t h e t h i rd an d fi n al t im e b efo re J ack s o n co m p l i ed wi th h i s d em an ds an d was arres t ed

.

W h i l e we are s k ep t i cal wh et her J ack s o n was p h y s i cal l y cap ab l e o f p o s i n g a d an g er

t o l aw en fo rcem en t at th at v ery i n s t an ce, a reas o nab l e o ffi c er i n Offi cer St ai r’ s

p o s i t i on co u ld hav e p ercei v ed Jack s o n t o b e res i s ti n g arres t an d co u l d h av e feared fo r

h i s s afet y

. Bas ed o n ou r rev i ew o f t h e reco rd

, we co n cl ud e t h e t h i r d t a s i n g was

o b ject i vel y reas on ab l e.

-1 2

-III.

In t h e i n st an t cas e, Offi cer St ai r tas ed J ack s on t h ree t i m es . Th e d i s t ri ct co u rt

ru l ed t h at Offi cer St ai r u s ed a reas o n ab l e am ou n t o f f o r c e to s u bd u e J ack s o n,

co n si d eri n g t h e o ffi cer’ s co nd u ct as a wh o l e. Th e co u rt erred b y n o t co ns i d eri n g an d

an al y zi ng e a c h t as i n g i n d i v i du al l y

. W e fi n d t h e fi rs t an d t h i rd t as i n g s were

o b ject i vel y reas o nab l e, an d n o Fo u rt h Am en dm en t v i o l at i o n occu rred

. As t o t h e

s eco n d t as i n g, we fi n d t here are g en u i n e i s s ues o f m a t e ri al fact reg ard i n g wh et h er

Offi cer’ s St ai rs u s e o f fo r c e was ex ces s i v e. If t h e s eco n d t as i n g am o u n t ed to

e xc e ss i v e fo rce, t h en Offi cer St ai r i s n o t en t i t l ed t o q u al i fi ed i m m un i t y

. J ack s o n fai l ed

t o p res en t s u ffi ci en t ev i d en ce t o es t ab l i s h a Fi rs t A m en d m en t cl ai m ag ai n s t Offi cer

St ai r or to es t ab l i s h m

u ni ci p al li ab i l i t y ag ai n s t t h e Ci t y

. W e affi rm i n p art

, rev ers e in

p art , an d rem an d to t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt fo r p ro ceed in g s co n s i s t en t wi t h t h i s o p i n i o n

.

W OLLM AN, Ci rcu i t J u dg e, co n cu rri n g an d d i s s en t i ng

.

I ag ree wi th t h e co u rt th at Offi cer St ai r’ s fi rs t an d t hi rd t as i n g s were o bject i v el y

reas on ab l e an d t h at J ack s o n’ s Fi rs t an d Fo urt h Am en d m en t a n d m u n ici p al l i ab i l i t y

cl ai m s are wi t h ou t m eri t

.

W h en v i ewed i n li g h t o f h i s earl i er m an i fes t at io n of u n ceas in g

, rag e-fi l l ed

v erb al an d p h y s i cal co n d u ct

, J ack s o n ’ s m o m en t ary p o s t -t as ered p o s i t i o n o n t h e

g ro u nd d oes n o t ju s t ify co n si d eri n g i t as a cl earl y p u n ct u at ed i nt eri m o f co m p l i an ce

wi t h O ffi cer St ai r’ s earl i er co m m an d s

, an d t h u s t h e s eco n d tas i n g was n o t o bject i v el y

u n reas o nab l e. Gran t e d t h a t J a c k s o n h ad n o t at t h at p o i n t at t em p t ed t o ri s e fro m t h e

g ro u nd

, h i s earl i er-ex p res sed t hreat en ed u s e o f fo rce ag ai n s t Offi cer Harn es s

, wh en

co u pl ed wi t h t h e n earl y h y s t eri cal t o n e o f h i s v o i ce t h ro ug h o u t h i s i n t eract i o n wi th

St ai r an d o t h ers n earb y

, ju s t i fi ed t h e co n ti n u ed ap p l i cat i o n of t h e tas er. It m ay ap p ear

fro m o u r ch am

b ers

- v i e w ed o b serv at i on o f t he en t i re en co u n ter t o hav e b een a t o o

h as t y ap p l i cat i o n

, b u t g i v en Jack s o n’ s earl ier p ret as i n g arm -wav i n g

, ran t -fi l l ed an g er

-1 3

-an d h is rel u ct an ce t o co m p ly wi t h St ai r’ s s ev eral earl i er-ex pres s ed co m m an d s an d

warn i n gs

, h i s m o m en t ari l y s u p i n e p o s i t io n o n t h e g ro u n d was h ard l y a g u aran t ee o f

a n o -l o ng er ag g res s i v e su b ject

, a s w as t h e cas e o f t h e m ed i cal as si s t an ce-s eek i n g

d et ai n e e i n S m i t h v. Co n way

. In a wo rd

, t h en

, al t ho u g h O ffi cer St ai r’ s q u i ck l y

ap p li ed ap p l icat i o n fo l l owi n g J ack s o n ’ s i ni t i al fal l t o t h e g ro u n d m ay h av e b een i l l

ad v is ed

, I d o n o t b el i ev e t h at i t was o b ject iv el y u n reas o n ab l e i n t h e c i rcu m s t an ces

,

an d s o I res p ect fu l l y di ss en t fro m t h e co u rt ’ s d eci s io n t o rem an d t h e cas e fo r a fu rt h er

rev i ew o f t h at i s s u e.

__ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _

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