Log Sampling Methods 

and Software for Stand 

and Landscape Analyses

Lisa J. Bate, Torolf R. Torgersen, Michael J. Wisdom, 

Edward O. Garton, and Shawn C. Clabough

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest 

Research Station

General Technical

Report

PNW-GTR-746

July 2008
Authors

Lisa J. Bate is a research wildlife biologist, 389 LaBrant Road, Kalispell, MT 

59901; Torolf R. Torgersen is a research entomologist (emeritus), 4910 Paisley 

Place, Anacortes, WA 98221; Michael J. Wisdom is a research wildlife biologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research 

Station, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, 

OR 97850; Edward O. Garton is a professor, Fish and Wildlife Resources Department, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844; Shawn C. Clabough is a software 

and Web developer, 686 Fairview Drive, Moscow, ID 83843.

Cover 

Photos clockwise from top left: American marten in log (by Evelyn Bull); hollow 

log (by Lisa Bate); salamander on log (by Lisa Bate); early-seral forest with logs 

(by Lisa Bate). 

The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of 

multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, 

water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the 

States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National 

Grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service to 

a growing Nation.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, 

marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, 

political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any 

public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with 

disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, 

large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice 

and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 

Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or 

(202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
Abstract

Bate, Lisa J.; Torgersen, Torolf R.; Wisdom, Michael J.; Garton, Edward O.; 

Clabough, Shawn C. 2008. Log sampling methods and software for stand and 

landscape analyses. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-746. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 93 p.

We describe methods for efficient, accurate sampling of logs at landscape and stand 

scales to estimate density, total length, cover, volume, and weight. Our methods 

focus on optimizing the sampling effort by choosing an appropriate sampling 

method and transect length for specific forest conditions and objectives. Sampling 

methods include the line-intersect method and the strip-plot method. Which method 

is better depends on the variable of interest, log quantities, desired precision, and 

forest conditions. Two statistical options are available. The first requires sampling 

until a desired precision level is obtained. The second is used to evaluate or monitor 

areas that have low log abundance compared to values in a land management plan. 

A minimum of 60 samples usually are sufficient to test for a significant difference between the estimated and targeted parameters. Both sampling methods are 

compatible with existing snag and large tree sampling methods, thereby improving 

efficiency by enabling the simultaneous collection of all three components—snags, 

large trees, and logs—to evaluate wildlife or other resource conditions of interest.

Analysis of log data requires SnagPRO, a user-friendly software application 

designed for use with our sampling protocols. Default transect lengths are suggested for both English and metric measurement systems, but users may override 

default values for transect lengths that better meet their specific sampling designs. 

SnagPRO also analyzes wildlife snag and large tree data. 

Keywords: Coarse woody debris, density, down woody material, line intersect, 

logs, monitoring, percent cover, sampling technique, snag, large tree, SnagPRO, 

strip plot, total length, volume, weight, wildlife management, wildlife use. 
Contents

1 Introduction

5 General Information

5 About SnagPRO

6 Files Online

6 Sampling Applications

7 Methods

7 Sampling Objectives (Step 1)

8 Landscape Definition and Selection (Step 2)

8 Landscape Stratification (Step 3)

9 Stratify the Survey Area

11 Choosing the Appropriate Sampling Method: LIM, SPM, or Both (Step 4)

17 Establishing Transects (Step 5)

20 Field Techniques (Step 6)

26 SnagPRO Analysis (Step 7)

44 Wildlife Use Signs

45 Tutorials

45 Example I: Metric Weight and Density Estimates for a Single Stand Using 

 LIM and SPM Tally

53 Example II: English Parameter Estimates and Statistical Test for a Stratified 

 Landscape Using SPM

65 Example III: Metric Parameter Estimates for a Stratified Landscape Using 

 a Combination of LIM and SPM

75 Acknowledgments

75 English Equivalents

76 References

81 Appendix 1: Customized Log Measuring Sticks

83 Appendix 2: LIM Field Form Explanations

86 Appendix 3: SPM Field Form Explanations

90 Appendix 4: General Instructions for Analysis Within a Single Stratum

92 Appendix 5: General Instructions for Analysis Within a 

	 	 Stratified Landscape
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

1

Introduction

It is the natural fate of standing trees and snags to become part of the wood component on the forest floor. Individual branches, tops, or whole trees are recruited to 

the forest floor through a variety of natural processes such as lightning, snow, and 

wind. Other natural processes such as the activity of insects and disease that kill 

or physically weaken trees likewise contribute dead wood to the forest floor. Insect 

outbreaks, windstorms, avalanches, floods, and fires can result in large accumulations of downed wood in concentrated areas.

Down woody material (DWM), in the form of natural and cut logs, is a critical 

resource with multifaceted functions in forested ecosystems. For example, DWM 

provides a reservoir of minerals, nutrients, and moisture for establishment of tree 

seedlings (Harmon and others 1986), reduces soil erosion, and contributes to soil 

productivity (Harvey and others 1987, Jurgensen and others 1997). Fire behavior, 

management, and smoke production are substantially affected by the abundance, 

distribution, and size of DWM (Brown 1974, Sandberg and Ottmar 1983, Walstad 

and others 1990). Many wildlife species depend on logs as habitat (Bartels and 

others 1985, Bull and others 1997, Franklin and others 1981, Lofroth 1998, Maser 

and others 1979, Mellen and others 2006). Logs function as a foraging substrate for 

many wildlife species (Carey and Johnson 1995, Tallmon and Mills 1994, Torgersen and Bull 1995). Other species use logs for thermal and hiding cover (Bull 

and others 1997, Maser and others 1979). In addition, hollow logs serve as sites for 

denning, resting, and hibernation for a number of large and small mammals (Bull 

and others 1997). Thus, dead wood in all its forms is a fundamental feature of 

healthy forests.

The “life” or persistence of logs, especially large ones, can last several decades 

or even a century (Bull and others 1997). For both plants and animals, down wood 

in all forms represents a rich substrate on which to feed and live. Insect-eating, 

fungus-eating, wood-eating, and predaceous animals find rich and varied sources 

of food associated with logs. Logs protect wood-dwelling organisms with moist, 

thermally stable, predator-protected niches. From microscopic protozoa and fungi 

to birds and small mammals, down wood teems with life. Many of these organisms 

are connected by functional pathways that are partially or completely unknown.

Logs provide a complex structure where animals find stable temperatures and 

moisture for nesting, denning, feeding, and food storage. The size (diameter and 

length) of logs is a key indicator of their use and value to wildlife. Smaller logs 

benefit small mammals, amphibians, and reptiles, for which they function primarily as escape cover and shelter when the animal can get inside or under the log (Bull 

and others 1997). Large logs, especially hollow ones, are an especially important 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

2

structure in forested ecosystems, and their retention has been strongly emphasized 

(Bull and others 1997, Mellen and others 2006). Marten (Martes americana), 

mink (Mustela vison), coyote (Canis latrans), bobcat (Felis rufus), cougar (Felis 

concolor), and black bear (Ursus americanus) all will use hollow logs for denning, 

hibernation, shelter, and resting. Research on fisher (Martes pennanti) suggests 

that up to three dens may be used in rearing a litter. Although most dens are in 

cavities high in large living or dead trees, large logs also are used (Powell and 

Zielinski 1994). 

Hollow logs do not develop from solid logs, but instead develop their hollow 

characteristics as living trees. Live trees that are injured in such a way that their 

heartwood comes into contact with heartrot fungi (for example, broken branch, 

broken top, or fire scar), slowly develop heartrot (decay of the heartwood). Once 

infected, the tree does not die but continues to grow even though portions of 

the heartwood soften. Over time, the decay may become so extensive that the 

heartwood falls and internal hollow pockets are formed. Eventually, these hollow 

trees become snags and then fall over to become hollow logs, a critical resource in 

forested ecosystems (Bull and others 1997).

Logs in all stages of decay provide foraging opportunities for a variety of 

wildlife species. During late summer and fall, bears forage on invertebrates in large 

logs. Bull and others (2001) found that log-associated insects composed a large portion of the diet of black bears. Pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) also feed 

extensively on insects in large logs (Bull and Holthausen 1993, Torgersen and Bull 

1995). Most of these logs are in the advanced stages of decay. In addition, Picoides

woodpeckers will feed on beetle larvae found in sound logs that have recently died.

Small mammal populations are positively associated with cover of logs, which 

provide not only needed cover but also hypogenous fungi for foraging (Carey and 

Johnson 1995, Tallmon and Mills 1994). Small mammals also use logs extensively 

as runways (Hayes and Cross 1987). Logs in or near streams, ponds, or lakes 

provide structure for amphibians, beaver (Castor canadensis), mink, otter (Lutra 

canadensis), and birds and for both passage within and across waterways. In turn, 

small mammals are prey for reptilian, avian, and mammalian predators (Carey and 

Johnson 1995). Hence, predators are also associated with log abundance. A study 

conducted on great gray owls (Strix nebulosa) found that prey captures were within 

1 m (3 ft) of downed wood 80 percent of the time (Bull and Henjum 1990). 

Large numbers of down trees can form a maze of logs, many of which can be 

100 cm or more above the ground. Patches of these jackstrawed logs often are found 

in mature stands and provide critical structure for many animals. Marten, mink, 

and cougar hunt in them; when snow covers the logs, a complex array of snow-free 
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

3

spaces and runways provide important habitat under the snow for protection and 

foraging by marten, fisher, and small mammals (Bull and others 1997). In northcentral Washington, lynx (Lynx canadensis) frequent Englemann spruce/subalpine 

fir/lodgepole pine (see appendixes for species names) stands with high densities of 

jackstrawed logs 30 to 122 cm above the ground, which are used for denning and 

hunting (Koehler and Aubry 1994). Tree squirrels (Sciurus spp.) also spend much 

of the winter in this environment, where they feed on seeds from cached cones. 

Logs also serve as sunning and lookout posts. Spruce grouse (Dendragapus 

canadensis) regularly sit on logs, where they apparently are better able to avoid 

predation (Bull and others 1997). In spring, males use these elevated sites as 

walkways for their displays. 

For fire managers, however, logs can be a resource of concern because of their 

fire potential. Since the early 1900s, active fire suppression has been a priority in 

forest management (Norris 1990). This has resulted in high fuel loads across certain landscapes, leading to high-severity fires. Consequently, down wood surveys 

to estimate log volume or weight often are conducted to determine fire potential 

(Brown 1974, Fischer 1981) and to assess whether management actions, such as 

thinning, prescribed burning, or log removal, should occur.

Despite the importance of logs to many resource disciplines, methods for 

sampling logs have focused almost exclusively on silvicultural or fire applications. 

Warren and Olsen (1964) first presented line-intersect theory and technique for 

sampling logging residue in harvested stands. De Vries (1973) later expanded on 

the theory of line-intersect sampling, finding that given a large number of intersections, this technique could be used to obtain estimates of several log variables. 

Soon after, Brown (1974) presented the planar-intersect technique. Brown’s method 

was developed to estimate volume and weight of down woody fuels to help resource specialists manage fuels and predict fire behavior. Although termed differently, both the line- and planar-intersect methods have the same theoretical basis 

and use the same equations (Brown 1974, De Vries 1973). 

Line-intersect methods (LIM) were designed primarily to estimate wood 

volume or weight, but other variables such as cover may be more meaningful for 

wildlife and other resources. DecAID—a snag, decayed tree, and down wood advisory tool—recommends using percent cover to characterize down wood used by 

wildlife (Mellen and others 2006). DecAID is designed to help managers evaluate 

forest conditions and the effects of management on organisms that use snags and 

down wood. 

Log density and length also are important variables that affect wildlife use. Total length of logs, for example, was used to describe the foraging habitat of pileated 

Despite the 

importance of logs 

to many resource 

disciplines, methods 

for sampling logs 

have focused almost 

exclusively on 

silvicultural or 

fire applications.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

4

woodpeckers (Bull and Holthausen 1993, Torgersen and Bull 1995). Density of logs 

of specific diameter and length often are used as a guideline for managing wildlife habitat in forest plans (USDA Forest Service 1995). Consequently, given the 

diverse number of log variables of interest to multiple disciplines, understanding 

log sampling methods and their strengths and weaknesses is essential to effective 

use and applications. 

The LIM has been shown to be an unbiased method for sampling log volume in 

tractor- or cable-logged stands (Hazard and Pickford 1978, 1986). It is also an efficient sampling method for estimating total length of logs, percentage of cover (also 

referred to as percent cover or cover), volume, and weight in areas of relatively high 

log abundance with normally distributed lengths and diameters (Bate and others 

2004). For variables such as log density, however, the strip-plot method (SPM), or 

area-plot sampling, is more precise and efficient. Furthermore, in areas where logs 

are scattered and low in abundance, the SPM often yields a more precise estimate 

with less sampling effort in contrast to LIM. Levels of use by certain guilds of 

wildlife (for example, woodpecker foraging, squirrel middens) may also be evaluated by using SPM. 

Our paper is intended to serve as a guide for log sampling, from the early steps 

of establishing study sites through field methods and data analyses. Our protocols 

provide methods to sample logs accurately and efficiently at stand or landscape 

scales. Methods can be used to conduct research, to monitor compliance with 

management guidelines or prescriptions, or to monitor the effectiveness of managing logs for wildlife or other resources.

Our methods have particular utility in helping integrate silviculture, fire, wildlife, and soils programs to simultaneously consider all of these resource disciplines 

in research or management, while maximizing sampling efficiency. Estimates can 

be considered among all disciplines to evaluate resource tradeoffs and integrate 

management. Given the small budgets typically available for forest sampling and 

inventory, use of accurate and efficient methods of sampling logs, such as those 

described here, provides essential support for research and management of logs and 

associated resources. 

Included are instructions for downloading the SnagPRO software application 

(Bate and others, in press) for designing surveys and analyzing data. Sampling 

methods focus on optimizing sampling effort by choosing an appropriate sampling 

method for the specific conditions encountered in relation to objectives. Sampling 

methods include LIM, SPM, or a combination. Choice of method will depend 

on the variables of interest, abundance of logs in the size and condition (decay 

attributes) of interest, desired precision, and forest conditions. We provide a 
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

5

dichotomous key to help users select the best log sampling method to meet 

their objectives. 

General Information

About SnagPRO

SnagPRO (Version 1.0) software analyzes log abundance based on peer-reviewed, 

scientific sampling protocols. It was specifically developed to analyze log data 

following the sampling protocols presented in this report, as well as snag and largetree sampling protocols developed in a companion publication (Bate and others, 

in press). Logs can be sampled using one of two sampling methods: (1) the line- or 

planar-intersect method (Brown 1974, De Vries 1973); or (2) the strip-plot method 

(Bate and others 2004). In some situations—diverse type and number of logs 

among strata, for example—it may be more efficient to use a combination of both 

methods. SnagPRO also provides this option. Log variables include density, total 

length, cover, volume, and weight. SnagPRO provides estimates of these log characteristics from use of either sampling method, expressed in English or metric units.

SnagPRO allows users to determine the optimal transect length within an area 

by analyzing a small sample of preliminary data, referred to as a pilot sample. Log 

abundance and distributions vary considerably across landscapes. Consequently, 

analysis of pilot samples to optimize sampling design and effort is an important, 

early step in field sampling. 

Identifying the optimal transect length is accomplished by sampling along 

a standardized transect length composed of eight subsegments. For metric users 

this is a 100-m transect length divided into eight 12.5-m subsegments. For English 

users, a 400-ft transect length divided into eight 50-ft subsegments. SnagPRO can 

then divide transects into four lengths and calculate the mean and variance of each. 

The length that minimizes the variance—and therefore the sample size required—

is considered the optimal transect length.

Resource specialists may customize log surveys to meet their specific needs 

while adhering to the general protocol suggested here. Default transect lengths 

can be overridden to meet specific objectives. For simplicity, our paper focuses on 

default transect lengths. Resource specialists may also use SnagPRO for analyses 

of snags and trees, based on additional sampling protocols and analysis procedures 

designed for these structures (Bate and others, in press).

Two statistical options are available for analysis. The first requires sampling until a desired precision is obtained. The second is used for compliance monitoring in 

areas that have low log abundance compared to values in a land management plan 

SnagPRO allows 

users to determine 

the optimal transect 

length within an area 

by analyzing a small 

sample of preliminary 

data, referred to as a 

pilot sample. 

The length that 

minimizes the 

variance—and 

therefore the sample 

size required—

is considered the 

optimal transect 

length.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

6

(LMP). With a minimum of 60 samples, users may test for a significant difference 

between the estimated and targeted parameters.

Files Online

Download SnagPRO from the USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest (PNW) Web 

site at http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/publications/gtr746/index.shtml. The SnagPRO 

installation requires at least 5 MB of space. SnagPRO requires another 10 to 50 MB 

of space to operate. 

Users may choose where to install SnagPRO, although the default location is 

in C:\Program Files. Once installed, users may create a shortcut to SnagPRO for 

their desktops or Quick Launch bar. Once installed, double-click the icon to launch 

SnagPRO, or launch directly from the executable file, SnagPRO.exe file. 

Two Microsoft Excel files—LIMdata.xls and SPMdata.xls—are included in 

the zipped SnagPRO file. Each file contains multiple worksheets. Three files in 

the LIMdata.xls and two in the SPMdata.xls contain sample data sets for use with 

the tutorials found at the end of our paper. One worksheet contains a sample data 

form that can be printed for use in the field (Field Form). The final worksheet is 

for resource specialists who want to enter their data directly into a spreadsheet file 

while in the field (Data Entry). Remember, database users can do the same, but need 

to format their data as shown in the examples below before importing to SnagPRO. 

A text file for each method provides the explanations needed for using field forms. 

These forms can easily be modified for specific sampling needs.

Existing resource data—stored in spreadsheet or database—must be correctly 

formatted as a comma-separated-value (CSV) file before importing to SnagPRO. 

For simplicity, our paper addresses only spreadsheet examples, and data files for the 

tutorial are in spreadsheet format.

Sampling Applications

Our methods and the supporting SnagPRO software were designed to guide the 

choice of sample design, sampling methods, and types of analyses to produce 

reliable and efficient results for research or management applications with minimal 

sampling effort and analysis time. We designed these sampling techniques to 

address the needs of wildlife resource specialists, but they are also appropriate 

for other disciplines such as silviculture, fire, and soils. Our techniques may also 

complement the data collected in other projects (for example, project planning, 

effects analyses, stand exam, or Forest Inventory Analysis [FIA] data) by converting the data sets to similar units of measurement (e.g., number/ac [number/ha]) to 

provide additional baseline data for resource specialists.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

7

Recommendations here are based on a log sampling study conducted in 

mixed-conifer forests within the Columbia River basin (CRB) region, specifically 

Oregon and Montana (Bate and others 2004). This study investigated the accuracy, 

precision, and efficiency of the LIM and SPM for sampling log resources important 

to wildlife.

Methods

Sampling Objectives (Step 1)

Most ecological studies are designed to answer some form of the question: How 

many are there? For example, do silvicultural practices comply with management 

guidelines for log density? Or, what is the difference in log cover in areas used 

for lynx dens compared to areas that are not? Accordingly, the first step in any 

sampling program is to specify the sampling objective(s). User’s objectives 

ultimately determine the amount of time and resources needed to obtain estimates 

with a desired level of precision. Objectives can be clarified by answering the 

following questions:

1. What log sizes (diameter and length) are of interest? 

2. Which variables are of interest—density, total length, percentage cover, 

volume, or weight? 

3. Will data be used to check compliance with management guidelines, to establish baseline data for monitoring, or to assess habitat for a threatened or 

endangered species? This answer often dictates the answers to the following questions.

4. How precise do users need their estimate? 

5. Is log species important? If so, why?

6. Are data on wildlife use of logs important (for example, woodpecker foraging, squirrel middens)? 

As Krebs (1989) stated, “Not everything that can be measured should be.” 

Time spent on extraneous data collection limits the number of samples and the 

subsequent results. For example, identifying each log by species seems simple. Yet, 

species identification can often substantially increase the amount of survey time, 

especially for inexperienced field crew members. Therefore, users should specify 

their objectives and how data will be used before starting log surveys. 

As a general guideline for acceptable precision, we recommend sampling 

sufficient to estimate parameters within 20 percent of the true mean, 90 percent of 

the time. These values are set as defaults in SnagPRO. We have observed that when 

logs are relatively rare and have clumped distributions, the required sample sizes to 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

8

gain a higher level of precision (for example, within 10 percent of the true mean, 95 

percent of the time) often are cost and area prohibitive. Only when logs are abundant and randomly distributed would higher precision be manageable.

Landscape Definition and Selection (Step 2)

The second step is to define the landscape by delineating the boundaries of the 

sampling area. Our methods were designed to be compatible with the snag and 

large tree sampling methods developed by Bate and others (1999a, in press). Methods for sampling snags and large trees were initially developed on landscapes of 

1200 to 2800 ha (3,000 to 6,900 ac) (Bull and others 1991). Log sampling methods 

can also be used on a subwatershed scale with a few modifications. See “Establishing Transects” and “Compare to Target” sections for details. 

Subwatersheds in the CRB range from about 160 to 8100 ha (400 to 20,000 ac) 

(Quigley and others 1996). The sampling area for logs, however, need not be a subwatershed or other large landscape. Our methods may also be used for individual 

stands (<40 ha or 100 ac), or a group of stands, given that the log size of interest is 

relatively abundant. If the logs of interest are relatively rare (e.g., <100 to 150/ha) in 

small stands used as sample units, a complete count may be more appropriate. 

Landscape Stratification (Step 3)

Perhaps the most important step is the stratification process. Although the initial 

investment of time may seem large, appropriate stratification will ultimately reduce 

sampling effort and increase precision (Krebs 1989). Stratification often can be 

based on strata established for prior silvicultural or inventory work. For example, 

many foresters stratify the landscape to conduct stand exams, and their delineations may work well for sampling logs. If log sampling occurs with snag sampling, 

stratification based on snag abundance is more appropriate. Obtaining precise 

estimates of snag conditions often is more difficult than for logs, owing to the lower 

abundance of snags and higher variability of estimates. 

The need to stratify the landscape as part of sampling depends on several 

factors (Cochran 1977):

• Stratification may increase precision of estimates. If, for example, the 

landscape has distinct areas of high versus low log abundance, establishing corresponding strata of high or low abundance can substantially 

improve precision and reduce the sampling effort required to obtain the 

desired precision. 

Although the 

initial investment 

of time may seem 

large, appropriate 

stratification will 

ultimately reduce 

sampling effort and 

increase precision.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

9

• Sampling problems can differ spatially according to forest community 

type, timber harvest method, or seral stage, and stratification of these conditions can often increase precision.

• Resource specialists may want to obtain separate estimates for 

management-based subdivisions of the landscape. For example, part of 

a subwatershed may be managed for timber production and another part 

may be managed as a research natural area.

If one or more of the above criteria applies to the situation, it would probably be 

beneficial to stratify. SnagPRO can accommodate up to four strata. If the landscape 

is homogeneous throughout in regard to log abundance and forest structure, there is 

probably little to be gained by stratifying.

Stratify the Survey Area

Use the following steps to stratify the survey area:

1. Visit the area first, as landscape patterns become apparent from an initial 

ground survey. Ask, “What differences and similarities in log abundance 

and vegetative structure are evident across the landscape?” 

2. Obtain reference maps for field use, such as geographic information system (GIS) maps, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) orthoquad maps, or both. 

Request metadata (data definitions) for maps and data. Maps should display the following necessary information:

a. Road system with road type and maintenance level. 

b. Stand or vegetation units and their respective unique numeric identifiers.

c. Current seral stage of vegetation at 1:31,680, or less. 

3. Query databases to obtain the following information about each stand: forest type (low versus high elevation, dry versus moist), management activities, seral stage, disturbance history (wind, fire, insects, and disease) and 

any other factors that may affect log abundance. Make sure the data report 

includes types of management activities, such as harvest method used, 

slash and burn prescriptions, thinning, and management direction for 

log retention.

4. Check the map and stand data using aerial photographs. Generally, the 

amount of time spent stratifying the stands in the field is inversely proportional to the quality of the original stand data collected or the quality of 

the data query. Review the metadata before heading to the field.

5. Revisit the survey area with the field maps. Plan to spend at least one day 

to validate the information on the map(s) and data report. 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

10

6. Assign each stand to a stratum. Estimate the number of hectares (acres) 

within each stand or stratum.

Most landscapes targeted for log sampling have undergone some timber 

harvest. Consequently, depending on the method of harvest, the placement of each 

stand within a stratum may or may not be straightforward. For example, most 

unharvested mature/old-growth stands in mixed-conifer forests have an abundance 

of logs. By contrast, older harvest units that had been clearcut and broadcast 

burned may have few logs. Finally, more recent clearcuts may have logs uniformly 

distributed, reflecting policy changes.

For old growth or clearcut harvest situations, combine all unharvested mature/old-growth stands into a single stratum. Then consult silviculturists, query 

databases, and conduct a ground check to determine when log retention began in 

harvest units. Place older clearcut stands that had no management guidelines for 

logs in one stratum, and more recent clearcut areas in another stratum. Generate 

a new map of all stands categorized as one of three strata: (1) recent clearcut, (2) 

older clearcut, and (3) unharvested mature/old growth. 

Establishing the strata is more time-consuming for areas of selection harvest, 

especially if GIS stand data are unavailable. In this situation, visit individual 

stands to examine log abundance and stratify accordingly. Furthermore, unlike the 

stratification process for snags or large trees, which often can be done quickly by 

viewing small portions of the stand’s edge (Bate and others 1999a), the stratification process for logs typically requires more thorough stand reconnaissance. This 

is because fuelwood gathering, wind effects, diseases, and insects can dramatically alter the patterns of log abundance along the edge of a stand compared to the 

interior. Furthermore, both grass and shrub cover near stand edges can obscure 

smaller logs from sight.

The manner in which a watershed or other landscape is stratified is dictated by 

the sampling objectives. How does the log size of interest vary in abundance across 

the sampling area? If the main objective is to obtain density estimates of large 

(>25 cm [10 in] large-end diameter [LED]) logs, stratification is dictated solely by 

this LED size class. Stands with high densities should be placed together in one 

stratum; stands with low densities should be placed in another. If precise estimates 

of both small and large logs are desired, such as for log sampling to assess fuel 

loadings (smaller logs) and wildlife habitat (larger logs), stratification should be 

based on whether small or large size classes of logs are more variable. If snags and 

trees also are sampled, stratification should be based on the component for which it 

is considered most difficult to obtain a precise estimate. Usually, this is snags.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

11

Another criterion for landscape stratification is seral stage or method of past 

timber harvest, which may affect the level of difficulty in conducting the survey. 

Dense shrub or seedling/sapling densities can make it difficult to sample accurately 

with the SPM for variables other than log density. 

Finally, stratification of landscapes often is dictated by differences in land 

management use. If separate estimates are needed for areas that are managed for 

different purposes (for example, riparian areas versus high-production timber 

areas), stratification based on these different land allocations is needed. 

Stand stratification—

Stands, by definition, are homogeneous units and usually should not require stratification. An exception may be large mature or old-growth stands surrounded by 

stand-regenerating harvests. Trees along the edges of these older stands are more 

susceptible to blowdown, creating well-defined borders of high log abundance in 

contrast to interior parts of the stand. In this case, the edge should be treated as 

its own stratum. Otherwise, the variance within the stand may be so great that it 

becomes difficult to obtain a precise estimate. 

Choosing the Appropriate Sampling Method: LIM, SPM, 

or Both (Step 4)

The log characteristics to be sampled affect the choice of sampling method. Density 

is the number of logs per hectare or acre. Total log length is the combined length of 

logs per unit area (either m/ha or ft/ac). Cover is the percentage of ground covered 

by logs. This can be calculated by treating each log as a trapezoid and determining what percentage of the ground is covered with these trapezoid-shaped areas. 

Volume of logs is cubic meters of logs per hectare or cubic feet per acre. Weight is 

the metric tons of logs per hectare or tons per acre. 

The LIM is based on probability sampling (De Vries 1973). To obtain estimates 

of each variable, specific measurements of intersected logs (diameter and/or length) 

are taken (fig. 1a). These measurements are then inserted into equations unique 

to each variable to obtain estimates (De Vries 1973). Only logs whose central 

axis is intersected by a transect line are measured (Brown 1974). Approximately 

100 intersections are needed to obtain a reasonably precise estimate of weight or 

volume within a given area (Brown, J.K. 1998. Personal communication. Retired 

research forester, USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station). Table 

1 describes the log measurements and data required for estimates of each variable 

using LIM. See formulas in the “Computer Analysis” section for each equation. 

By contrast, the SPM is a type of area-plot sampling. “Strip plot” refers to plots 

that are long and narrow rectangles (Husch and others 1972). Estimates using SPM 

The log 

characteristics 

to be sampled 

affect the choice 

of sampling 

method.
Figure 1—Field measurements necessary to obtain estimates of all log parameters using the LIM (A) 

and SPM (B). In addition, the condition of each log (sound or rotten) is required to estimate weight.

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

12

are obtained by first taking the necessary log measurements within the area of a 

strip plot (fig.1b and table 1), and then converting this to hectares or acres. For our 

methods, the default area for a metric strip plot is 50 m2

 (4 m wide by 12.5 m long), 

centered on a transect line (fig. 1b). For English units, the default area is 600 ft2

(12 ft wide by 50 ft long), centered on a transect line. Table 1 contains the required 

information about each log for estimates of each variable when using SPM. See 

formulas in the “Computer Analysis” section for each equation.

Outer strip-plot boundaries are determined by using a meter- or 3-ft caliper 

(fig. 2a and 2b) or a customized measuring stick (see appendix 1 for details), which 

functions as a square. The rectangular shape of the strip plot was selected because 

rectangles, in contrast to other plot shapes, reduce the sampling variance of logs 

and other forest structures that often are distributed in clumps (Krebs 1989, 

Warren and Olsen 1964). A 4-m or 12-ft width was used because this width 
Figure 2—Calipers function 

as a square when using stripplot method (A). Two lengths 

of the calipers denote the 

outer boundaries of the plot 

and the place to where the 

length is measured and the 

large (or small) diameter is 

taken (B). 

A

B

Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

13

typically is sufficient to sample logs, and is narrow enough to avoid the need 

for laying out additional plot boundary lines (Bate and others 2004). 

The first consideration in choosing a sampling method is the log variables 

of interest. Table 2 provides general guidelines for the decisionmaking process. 

For example, if only log density is of interest, the choice is easy: use SPM. It is 

more precise and takes less than half the time to implement in the field (Bate 

and others 2004). If variables other than density are desired, then other factors 

become important.

Second, consider the density of logs present. During the stratification process, 

an ocular assessment of log density by size class is first done as part of initial site 

visits. If logs appear to be relatively rare, use SPM. If the logs are so numerous as 

to be arranged in jackstraw piles and density is not a variable of interest, LIM is 

preferable. See table 2 for general guidelines.

Third, consider the stand characteristics. Has timber harvest occurred? In 

unharvested stands, the lengths and diameters of logs intersected when using LIM 

tend to be normally distributed, with midlength and middiameter logs being the 

most common logs (Bate and others 2004). In these situations, LIM yields precise 

and accurate estimates. In some types of harvested stands, however, most logs tend 

to be short and small in diameter, with few logs present that are long and large in 

Table 1–Field measurements required to obtain estimates 

of five log variables by using the line-intersect (LIM) or

strip-plot (SPM) methoda

Field measurement required

Variable LIM SPM

Density Log length Endpoint (LED) in or out?

Total length Number of log 

 intersections

Length of log within strip 

 plot

Percent cover Diameter at

 intersection

Length, small- and large-end 

 diameters within strip plot

Volume Diameter at 

 intersection

Length, small- and large-end 

 diameters within strip plot

Weight Diameter at 

 intersection 

 and condition

Length, small- and large-end 

 diameters within strip plot, 

 and condition

a For analysis by size class, the large-end diameter (LED) also needs 

to be recorded for all variables.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

14

diameter. In this latter situation, it may be difficult to obtain precise estimates with 

LIM because of the high variance in log characteristics. Consequently, SPM 

is likely a better choice.

Fourth, consider the landscape conditions. How easy or difficult would it be 

to travel from one point to another to establish sampling transects? The process 

of locating and establishing sampling transects takes substantially more time than 

sampling. This is especially true for landscape analyses. Establishment of transects 

using SPM takes about one to four times as much time as actual sampling. For LIM, 

Table 2–Dichotomous key for selecting initial sampling method within a stratum 

based on log variables desired

1 Density is the only desired variable; log abundance low to high; unharvested or 

harvested stands ................................................................................................................SPM

1 Percentage cover, volume, weight, total length of logs; unharvested or harvested stands 2*

1 All variables; unharvested or harvested stands ..................................................................3*

2 Log abundance High; >11 logs intersected per 100 m of transect .................................. LIM

2 Log abundance Moderate; 6-11 logs intersected per 100 m ..................................................4

2 Log abundance Low; <6 logs intersected per 100 m ......................................................SPM

3 Log abundance High; >11 logs intersected per 100 m of transect ......... LIM and SPM Tally

3 Log abundance Moderate; 6-11 logs intersect per 100 m ......................................................5

3 Log abundance Low; <6 logs intersected per 100 m ......................................................SPM

4 Stands or landscapes with relatively light ground cover in the form of shrubs or 

young trees; sampling or travel not likely to be impeded by such ground cover ...........SPM

4 Stands or landscapes with ground cover dominated by shrubs or young trees 

that will likely impede sampling or travel ....................................................................... LIM

5 Stands or landscapes with relatively light ground cover in the form of shrubs or 

young trees; sampling or travel not likely to be impeded by such ground cover .............SPM

5 Stands or landscapes with ground cover dominated by shrubs or young trees 

that will likely impede sampling or travel ................................................... LIM and SPM Tally

* Users should be aware that in harvested stands composed of mainly short log lengths and small 

diameters with only a few large logs, the SPM may be a better choice for sampling owing to the high 

variance associated with LIM sampling in these conditions.
Figure 3—When the line-intersect method 

is used, diameters of qualifying logs are 

measured where the transect line intersects 

the central axis of the log.

Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

15

establishment takes about three to six times as long. Although it generally takes 

less time per unit transect sampled with LIM (obtaining density estimates being the 

only exception), less information is also collected per unit transect. This translates 

into larger sample size requirements to obtain desired precision (Bate and others 

2004). Therefore, if a large amount of time is anticipated to locate and establish 

transects, owing to steep terrain or limited access, SPM is the better choice, given 

that sampling conditions are not hampered by a high abundance of logs or 

shrub cover. 

High shrub cover causes difficult traveling and sampling conditions. In areas where shrubs are so dense that taking measurements of 

log lengths within the strip-plot boundaries is difficult, LIM is likely 

a better choice. This is true unless log abundance is too low to obtain 

a reasonably precise estimate with the LIM or log density is the only 

variable of interest.

Users are not limited to using SPM or LIM exclusively. There may 

be cases when doing so results in an unnecessary amount of field effort. 

For example, in areas of high log abundance with multiple variables 

of interest, it may be beneficial to use a combination of SPM and LIM 

(see example I in the “Tutorial” section for details). Use the LIM to estimate total 

log length, percentage cover, volume, and weight (figs. 3 and 4). Use the SPM to 

estimate log density from a tally of endpoints of logs within 2 m of the transect 

line used for LIM (fig. 4). The advantage with this approach is that field observers 

need not leave the centerline to make measurements in difficult field conditions. 

The disadvantage is that field assistants need to be trained to sample logs using two 

methods. 

The other situation where a combination of the two methods is beneficial is on 

a landscape that needs to be stratified because of high variability in log density. 

For example, if density in one area is extremely high, making travel and sampling 

difficult, LIM is the better method for estimating log volume. In areas that have 

undergone timber harvest and have low log density, SPM is a better choice. Then, 

using a special section called Combo within SnagPRO, a stratified estimate of log 

volume can be obtained. The only unique aspect of this file is that all parameter 

estimates need to be converted to acres or hectares before this utility is used. See 

Example 3 in the “Tutorial” section for details.

Classifying logs by size (LED)—

Just as snags and trees are categorized by their diameter at breast height (d.b.h.), 

logs are best categorized by their LED. For logs with rootwads intact, the LED is 

equivalent to the d.b.h. if the tree had remained standing (fig. 5). For logs with no 

Just as snags 

and trees are 

categorized by their 

diameter at breast 

height (d.b.h.), logs 

are best categorized 

by their LED.
Figure 4—Combination of log sampling techniques: Line-intersect 

method (LIM) and strip-plot method (SPM) tally. Two logs qualify for 

the LIM because their central axes are intersected by the central transect line. Three logs qualify for the the SPM tally because their LEDs 

lie within 2 m of the central transect line.

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

16

rootwad attached, the LED is the diameter 

at the largest end of the log that is complete 

(fig. 5). 

Large-end diameters define a log 

population and allow for accurate temporal 

and spatial comparisons of logs among 

size classes. In the past, most log sampling 

techniques required data only on the 

diameter of a log at the point of intersection. 

This greatly limited the value of the data for 

wildlife specialists, because often only the 

larger logs are of interest. For example, two 

stands may have the same volume of logs. 

What cannot be determined, unless LED 

is recorded, is whether logs are small and 

numerous or large and uncommon. Furthermore, setting a high minimum diameter for 

logs to be included during line-intercept 

sampling can lead to a negative bias in the 

variable estimate (L. Bate, unpublished 

data). For example, if only logs are sampled 

whose diameter at intersection is >25 cm 

(10 in), log volume will be underestimated. 

How much the log volume will be underestimated cannot be determined; it is a 

function of the log sizes present. 

Categorical versus continuous data—

Logs can be classified by their LEDs 

either categorically or continuously. There 

are advantages and disadvantages to both approaches. For research purposes, 

continuous data are probably best. Continuous data can be used to evaluate, for 

example, the relation between wildlife abundance and increasing log size. The 

advantage is that queries can then be run encompassing all logs or just certain size 

classes of logs, and thresholds, if any, may be detected. The disadvantage is that 

collecting continuous data takes more field time because the LED of all logs must 

be measured. 

The alternative is to collect data categorically. The advantage is that the 

sampling is greatly simplified and saves time. For example, if only two size 
Figure 5—Location of large-end diameter (LED) on log with 

(a) rootwad retained, (b) naturally broken log, and (c) cut log.

Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

17

categories are used, field observers can quickly calibrate their eye to the two size 

classes and leave the line only to measure borderline cases. The disadvantage is that 

all future queries are limited to these two size classes. For low-budget monitoring 

surveys, however, categorical data may be appropriate and will save time 

and resources. 

Establishing Transects (Step 5)

Conducting a pilot survey is one of the most critical steps of log sampling. A pilot 

survey meets two objectives: collecting preliminary data by which to identify the 

optimal plot length, and obtaining an estimate of the 

total number of samples required to meet objectives. 

Recognize that pilot data are not extraneous data 

that users discard. Rather, they are the first samples 

collected, and are included in the variable estimates for 

the entire sampling area. In areas where log abundance 

is high, the pilot survey may provide an adequate 

number of samples to meet objectives. 

By contrast, in areas where log abundance is low, 

analyzing the pilot data to determine the optimal 

plot length can greatly reduce the number of samples 

needed to obtain desired precision. Use the optimal 

plot length to collect remaining data needed.

Our log sampling methods are compatible with 

methods for snag and large tree sampling, improving 

the efficiency of fieldwork (Bate and others 1999a, 

1999b, in press). The snag and large tree sampling protocol recommended 200-m (or 800-ft) transects within 

each stand on stratified landscapes; however, we now 

recommend splitting the 200-m (800-ft) transect into 

two 100-m-(or 400-ft)-long transects (Bate and others, 

in press).

These two smaller transects capture more of the 

variability occurring in a single stand. Subdivide each 

transect into smaller increments, called subsegments, 

to sample for the three habitat components—snags, large trees, and logs. This 

standardizes the sampling protocol and allows SnagPRO to determine the optimal 

transect length for each habitat variable based on forest conditions. 

Conducting a pilot 

survey is one of the 

most critical steps of 

log sampling.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

18

There are two options for locating transects: the single-stratum landscape 

method, and the stratified method.

For the single-stratum landscape method, follow these steps to establish transects within a single stand or a nonstratified landscape:

1. Randomly place a grid over the area.

2. Randomly select 10 grid points for sampling.

3. Randomly select compass bearings for each of the 10 transect starting 

points.

For the stratified method on heterogeneous landscapes composed of numerous 

stands or units, it may be more efficient to randomly select stands for sampling. To 

do this:

1. Select stands for sampling by randomly picking stand unit numbers from 

the complete list of stands within that stratum.

2. Place a grid over the stand.

3. Randomly pick two grid points within each stand.

4. Randomly pick compass bearing for each point.

Use a random number generator or table for either method, or generate random 

numbers for compass bearings by using the second hand of a watch. If a watch is 

used to generate random starting direction, multiply the number of seconds (60) by 

six to obtain random numbers from 6 to 360 that can be used as compass bearings 

for the starting point.

For both methods described above, GIS can be used to map and randomly 

locate grid points or stands for sampling. The locations of the sample points can be 

expressed in the universal transverse meridian system (UTM) coordinates, and a 

global positioning system (GPS) unit used to find these points in the field.

In steep stands, where logs have fallen mostly down slope, sampling biases can 

occur if transects are established improperly (Bell and others 1996). For example, 

a single transect established parallel to the fallen trees on a slope may result in a 

negative bias of log estimates. By contrast, if the transect runs perpendicular to 

most logs, overestimation may occur because of increased intersections with logs. 

There are several ways to avoid this problem. Typically, random orientation of 

transects eliminates biases otherwise created by terrain with steeper slopes (Bate 

and others 2004). Within a single steep stand it may be best to randomly establish 

transects at a 45-degree angle to the predominant orientation of the logs. The third 

method is to establish paired transects within this stand that are oriented perpendicular to each other (See example I or II in the “Tutorial” section for more detail). 
Figure 6—Example of transect establishment for log pilot survey on landscape 

with three strata. Five stands within each stratum should be selected. Within each 

stand, two 100-m or 400-ft transects are established. Each transect within the entire 

landscape is given a unique numeric identifier and is divided into eight 12.5-m or 

50-ft-long subsegments. Subsegments are numbered from 1 to 8 on each transect.

Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

19

The pilot survey should include:

• A minimum of 10 transects, each 100-m (metric users) or eight to ten 400-

ft (English users) long transects, within each stratum (fig. 6).

• A minimum of two transects per stand (fig. 6) to ensure that variability in 

each stand and stratum is adequately represented, providing a better estimate of the sample size required to meet objectives. 

On larger subwatersheds, the stands in the pilot survey should not be close to 

one another, especially for subwatersheds encompassing several plant communities 

owing to an elevational gradient. In this situation, divide the subwatershed into 

three sections and equally divide samples throughout these sections (fig. 6).
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

20

Field Techniques (Step 6)

Equipment—

Sampling requires some or all of the following field equipment, summarized in 

table 3. Where shrub cover is thick, the 50-m (metric users) or 100- or 200-ft (English users) fiberglass surveyor’s tape (with a logger’s nail taped to one end) is very 

efficient for marking the center transect line. While one person makes all measurements, the second person ensures quality control (all qualifying logs are counted 

and calipers are held correctly) and records data. Once sampling is complete, the 

observers simply pull and release the tape. It slides easily through the thick brush, 

eliminating a return to the start of the transect.

SnagPRO’s standardized field forms include the necessary log information for 

all analyses. For simultaneous data collection (snags, trees, logs), record the data in 

separate files. Users may choose to add additional columns on the field forms for a 

specific survey, but should not include these data when they are saved as a CSV file, 

or the import to SnagPRO will fail.

Table 3–Field equipment log surveyors may require

Item Use

Accurate map of stand units or vegetation cover types Record correct stratum number

Road map Determine location and access

Aerial photographs Determine stratum and locations

Orthophoto quads Determine stratum and locations

Field data forms (hard or electronic) Record survey information

Engineer’s surveyor tape (50 m or 100 or 200 ft long) Measure transect distances; mark center line

Logger’s tape Measure log lengths

Calipersa Measure diameter and length of logs and 

 boundaries of strip plot 

Log measuring stickb Same as above

Compass Determine bearings 

Meter tape >66 ft (20 m) long Measure perpendicular distances from 

 the centerline 

Pocket knife Determine species and decay class of logs

Flagging Mark ends of subsegments, if necessary 

a Calipers that measure up to 80 cm are 1 m long. English users should use 3-ft calipers.

b Refer to appendix 1 for details on creating your own log-measuring stick.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

21

We find hand-held computers useful for fieldwork, and SnagPRO was designed 

with this in mind. Users can eliminate entering the data twice by copying the Data 

Entry worksheet from either the LIMdata.xls or the SPMdata.xls files. 

If hand-held computers are not used, create blank field forms from the Field 

Form worksheet found within the same Excel1 file by using the following steps: (1) 

open either the LIMdata.xls or the SPMdata.xls file; (2) highlight entire page that 

has gridlines; and (3) choose Selection, instead of Sheet, under the Print options 

for a form with gridlines.

Appendixes 2 and 3 provide detailed explanations for the correct input of log 

information using the LIM or SPM. Copy this page to a new file and customize it 

for your fieldwork. Customizing options include:

• Defining “What is a log?”

• Defining decay or condition classes for logs.

• Defining log size classes.

• Recording wildlife signs.

Perhaps the most difficult challenge in the field is answering the question 

“What is a log?” Clarifying which logs should be sampled will simplify and standardize the sampling process. A log qualifies for sampling with both the LIM and 

SPM in most studies if it meets stipulated criteria: 

• Its LED is ≥ minimum diameter specified by user.

• Its intersect diameter (LIM only) is ≥ minimum diameter specified by user.

• Its length is ≥ the minimum length specified by user.

• Its central axis lies above the ground (Brown 1974).

• If broken and the pieces are not touching, logs are tallied separately.

• If suspended, it has an angle <45 degrees with the ground (Brown 1974).

• Dead stems attached to a live tree are not counted (Brown 1974).

• Multiple branches attached to dead trees or shrubs are each tallied separately (Brown 1974).

For soils or amphibian studies, however, logs whose central axis lies below the 

ground may be included too, depending on objectives. The objectives of the study 

will dictate this. Generally, only the portion of the log that lies above ground (central axis) is measured. This situation is common in stands with logs in advanced 

stages of decay. Appendix 2 provides an example of a definition of a log for LIM 

studies. Appendix 3 provides an example for SPM studies. 

1Use of trade or firm names is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service.

Perhaps the most 

difficult challenge in 

the field is answering 

the question “What is 

a log?”
Figure 7—Illustration of randomly oriented transect hitting the 

edge and “bouncing” back within sampling area. This ensures 

edges are included in the sampling population while maintaining 

the option to analyze data for the optimal transect length.

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

22

Log survey techniques—

Conduct the pilot survey to determine the optimal transect length with these steps:

1. Use an engineer’s surveying or measuring tape to establish transects, 

starting each transect from the randomly selected points (described 

above). Ensure that the transect line is straight, taut, and firmly anchored 

at both ends.

2. Assign a unique number (for example, 1, 2, 3, . . . etc.) to each transect, 

delineating the subsegment lengths (12.5 m [or 50 ft]) as users walk along 

the transect (100 m or 400 ft).

3. Number each transect’s subsegments 1 through 8. 

4. Measure the appropriate attributes (table 1) of all qualifying logs intersected by the center transect line (LIM users) or of logs, or portions of logs, 

contained within the strip-plot boundaries, using the tape as centerline. 

For studies using only one transect length as segments (25-m or 100-ft lengths), 

it is still necessary to assign a transect and subsegment (12.5-m or 50-ft length) 

number to each length and keep track of the smallest increments (subsegments). 

SnagPRO allows users to indicate that only segment lengths are to be analyzed.

Occasionally, the transect will continue outside the boundary of the sampling 

area. Use the “bounce-back” method to keep the transect within the stand. The 

bounce-back method is similar to hitting a billiards ball or racketball against a sidewall, and having it travel away from the wall at the same angle, but in the opposite 

direction. In the sample area, determine the angle at which the transect hits the 

edge, then use this same angle to continue back into the sample area (fig. 7). If the 

transect intersects the edge at an angle of 90 degrees (perpendicular to the edge), 

the bounce-back angle also is 90 degrees (parallel to transect), but is established at a 

distance of 100 m or 400 ft away from the initial intersection. This technique allows 

resource specialists to determine the optimal length and to sample along the edges 

of a stand.

Data collection—

The following are mandatory fields users must enter 

for SnagPRO to operate correctly when all variables 

are of interest (figs. 8 and 9). Refer to appendixes 2 

and 3 for details about each field variable. 
Figure 8—Example of correct formatting and column placement of line-intersect method (LIM) data before importing into SnagPRO. All columns would be 

filled only if all variables were measured. Each beginning subsegment on a transect is given the number “1.” The number “9999” is placed in the large-end diameter (LED) column for subsegments containing no logs. The Section and Segment columns will be added between the Transect and Subsegment fields by SnagPRO upon successful importation. The Qualify column is filled by SnagPRO once a formula has been selected. Three additional fields to the right are also reserved for the Tally 2, Tally 3, and Tally 4 columns.

Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

23
Figure 9—Example of correct formatting and column placement of strip-plot method (SPM) data before importing into SnagPRO. All columns would be filled only if all 

variables were measured. Each beginning subsegment of a transect is given the number “1.” The number “9999” is placed in the large-end diameter (LED) column for subsegments containing no logs. The Section and Segment columns will be added between the Transect and Subsegment fields by SnagPRO upon successful importation. The Qualify column is filled by SnagPRO once a formula has been selected.

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

24
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

25

LIM—For each log that meets the stipulated criteria and is intersected along a 

transect, record the following for all variable estimates (fig. 8):

• Stratum number

• Transect number

• Subsegment number

• Large-end diameter (diameter at largest end of log)

• Intersect diameter

• Condition class (weight estimates) or decay class (weight estimates and 

wildlife studies)

• Tally (count of endpoints within 2 m [or 6 ft] of transect line for log density estimates)

Optional fields are location, species, and length. Location can correspond to (1) 

the stand number in which the transect originates or (2) the transect starting position determined by the UTM coordinates of the transect starting point, as established with use of a GPS unit. For subsegments containing no logs, enter “9999” in 

the LED column. 

SPM—For each log that meets the stipulated criteria within the strip-plot boundaries along a transect, record the following for all variable estimates (fig. 9):

• Stratum number

• Transect number

• Subsegment number

• Large-end diameter (diameter at largest end of log)

• Endpoint (refer to fig. 4 to determine whether the endpoint of the log lies 

within the plot boundaries for density estimates)

• Large diameter (diameter at largest part of log within the plot boundaries)

• Small diameter (diameter at smallest part of log within the plot 

boundaries)

• Length (length of entire or part of qualifying log within the plot 

boundaries)

• Condition class (for weight estimates) or decay class (for weight and wildlife studies)

If only density estimates are of interest, enter “1” in the Endpoint column for 

logs whose endpoints fall within the strip plot. Then enter the diameter of the large 

end of the log in the LED column. Remember that the LED can lie within or outside 

the plot boundaries. Enter “9999” for subsegments where no endpoints are within 

the boundaries. Also, if no logs are encountered within a subsegment, indicate this 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

26

by recording “9999” in the LED column. Figure 4 demonstrates log endpoints inside versus outside strip plots. Figure 5 shows endpoints on different types of logs. 

User-defined fields may also be recorded during surveys, but only include 

this data in columns to the right of those needed in the CSV file (figs. 8 and 9) for 

importing to SnagPRO. Additional habitat variables may also be included, such as 

seral stage of the stand, distance to the nearest edge, and the presence of cut logs or 

stumps that indicate past timber harvest or firewood cutting.

Header row variables may also be recorded for each log: (1) forest, (2) district, 

(3) subwatershed, (4) observer, (5) date, and (6) pages. Because the data recorded 

for each of these variables may be redundant, data columns are set to the far right 

of the data entry spreadsheet. This enables easy viewing of the data while providing 

a permanent record of each of these variables for future referencing. 

As with snag and tree sampling (Bate and others, in press), we recommend 

sampling 10 transects (4,000 ft or 1000 m) within each stratum for a pilot sample. 

For a stratum dominated by smaller, more abundant logs, 10 transects may provide 

the desired precision to meet sampling objectives. 

Importantly, strip-plot boundaries should be established with a measuring stick 

oriented parallel to the ground, rather than perpendicular to observer’s body. This is 

a concern in steep terrain. 

SnagPRO Analysis (Step 7)

In this section, we provide the general background, statistics, and discussion of 

each function and page within SnagPRO. For detailed operating instructions and 

examples, refer to the “Tutorial” section. For a brief outline of necessary steps 

to conduct analyses on a single-stratum landscape, see appendix 4. For stratified 

landscapes, see appendix 5. No two data sets will be the same size, and SnagPRO 

was designed to accommodate these variations. Data sets will differ by log variable, 

number and type of strata, and sample size.

Data entry—

To enter and analyze data, follow these steps: 

1. Open LIMdata.xls or SPMdata.xls.

2. Activate the Data Entry sheet. 

3. Click on Move or Copy Sheet under the Edit menu.

4. Check the box Create a copy.

5. Under To book click on New Book.

6. Rename the new file, and then use this sheet to make hard copies 

for fieldwork.

No two data sets 

will be the same 

size, and SnagPRO 

was designed to 

accommodate these 

variations. Data sets 

will differ by log 

variable, number and 

type of strata, and 

sample size.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

27

When using hand-held computers, activate the data sheet and complete the 

process from step 3. Depending on sampling objectives, not all fields on the data 

form may be necessary during field work or data entry, and users may choose to 

hide some columns. All mandatory columns, however, must be present (unhide) in 

the CSV import file or the SnagPRO import will fail. 

To save data as a CSV file:

1. Activate the data entry sheet.

2. Select Save As from the File menu.

3. Scroll to find CSV (comma delimited) (*.csv).

4. Click Save. 

Only the active sheet is saved. To keep the original file intact, save the file with 

a different extension. Figures 8 (LIM) and 9 (SPM) illustrate the correct formatting 

needed to successfully import to SnagPRO. 

Consecutive plots—

We strongly recommend that users scroll through the entire data set before importing it to SnagPRO, ensuring that each transect has a unique ID and eight subsegment lengths, with the first subsegment numbered as “1.” Otherwise, the analysis 

for optimal transect length will join subsegments from different transects. 

Importing files—

For the import to SnagPRO, the application prompts users for initial information. 

For example, the first message box to appear in SnagPRO asks users to indicate 

what habitat component—logs or snags and trees—will be analyzed. Select Logs

so that SnagPRO will expect the specific field names and column arrangement from 

the import file. SnagPRO then opens the Log Analysis portion. Selecting Snags 

or Trees will cause the SnagPRO import to fail. See Bate and others (in press) for 

correct snag and tree data formatting. 

Log Analysis opens to a window that says “SnagPRO-Log Analysis with LIM.” 

If data are collected using LIM, the file is ready to be imported. For data collected 

using SPM, however, users need to:

1. Select SPM from the Method menu.

2. From the File menu, select Open. 

3. Navigate to where the CSV data file is stored, and select the file by 

clicking on Open. 

Correctly formatted files will open promptly to the Single/Combined page in 

SnagPRO with the message, “Status: Data file read” in the bottom left-hand corner. 

This page is where the data set is stored while working in SnagPRO.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

28

If SnagPRO fails to import the file, users will see the message, “An invalid column header was found.” If users know that they selected the correct file to import, 

there may be a problem with formatting. Copy the entire data set into a new file, 

including only the rows and columns with data. Then repeat the process above. 

SnagPRO automatically inserts two columns into the data set after a successful 

import, labeled “Section” and “Segment.” SnagPRO combines the subsegments of 

varying lengths into newly created sections and segments, resulting in four transect 

lengths: 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 m or 50, 100, 200, and 400 ft.

Default transect lengths—

Different sampling objectives may require different transect lengths. To override 

SnagPRO’s defaults, navigate to Settings and select Transect Lengths, then place 

the cursor within each box to enter the correct length(s). Remember that for optimal 

transect length analyses, transects should be twice as long as sections; sections 

twice as long as segments; and segments twice as long as subsegments.

Preselected transect lengths—

For analyses using a single transect length, navigate to Settings and select Transect

Length. Turn the checks on to indicate that a particular length will be included in 

the analysis, or off to disregard that length. If users did not collect data using long 

transects, but wanted only segment lengths, users must follow the same protocol for 

SnagPRO analysis. That is, identify each transect with a unique numeric identifier, 

and then divide into smaller subsegments. During the CSV import, SnagPRO creates and populates the Segment column, so users only need to check it for inclusion 

in the analysis.

Species—

Three options are available for selecting species of logs: 

• All species 

• One species, excluding all others

• Exclude a single species

SnagPRO’s default values include all species in the analysis, providing a 

choice to exclude a single species. For analysis of a single species, click on Single

under the Species menu. To return to the default, click on Multiple under the 

Species menu.

Formulas—

SnagPRO evaluates each log using four criteria before a formula is placed in the 

Qualify column:
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

29

• Sampling method used (LIM or SPM); 

• Measurement system used (metric or English); 

• Log variables of interest (density, percent cover, total length, volume, 

or weight); 

• Log information provided by the user.

The first three criteria above are absolute fields. Once chosen by the user, the 

criteria for the formula placed in the Qualify column are set. The fourth criterion is 

a relative field and is evaluated using the four criteria below:

• LED

• Length

• Condition (sound or rotten)

• Species

If information was not collected on the length or condition of the log, this is not 

a problem, enter “0” when the log length input box appears. If species information 

was not collected, enter “9999.”

SnagPRO’s formulas are “If, then” statements. If the log meets all the target 

criteria specified by the user, then “>0” is placed in the qualify column. If the log 

fails to meet all the target criteria, then a “0” is placed in the column. 

SnagPRO evaluates LED and length based on the minimum value users provide. Condition class is based on a maximum value that users want considered. 

The condition class is necessary for weight estimates and refers to whether the log 

is sound or rotten (Brown 1974). Decay classes for wildlife use may also be used. 

Bull and others (1997) suggested that three log structural classes are sufficient to 

describe the extent of decay in logs. Decay classes 1 and 2 are sound logs. Decay 

class 3 represents rotten logs. 

If users want to calculate the cover of logs in a particular size class (for example, 25 to 50 cm [10 to 20 in] LED), separate CSV files for specific size classes can 

be established in a spreadsheet or database program and then imported separately 

into SnagPRO. 

Sorting data sets—

SnagPRO automatically sorts data sets into strata so that each stratum can be analyzed individually, while the entire data set remains on the Single/Combined page. 

This feature is important because few subwatersheds are homogeneous enough 

to forgo stratification. Optimal plot size across strata is likely to differ because of 

differences in log characteristics. Click the Apply and Sort button on the Stratum 

1 page to have SnagPRO sort data and place it on the appropriate page.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

30

SnagPRO’s equations—

Equations used in SnagPRO assume a normal distribution (Krebs 1989), yet logs 

are rarely normally distributed across a landscape. Logs typically occur in clumps. 

Therefore, a minimum of 60 samples is usually needed to ensure that assumptions 

of normality are met. Consult with a statistician if users are unsure as to whether 

their data meet this assumption. Avoid overlapping of transects because the equations assume sampling without replacement (i.e., that logs are not sampled twice).

There are two ways to calculate density with LIM. The first uses the reciprocal 

of the length of each log. This method is inefficient and imprecise compared to 

SPM (Bate and others 2004). If density estimates are based on log lengths, however, 

select the Density variable under the Formula menu. Density estimates from LIM 

data using metric measurements are obtained using a variation of equation 11 of De 

Vries (1973). His equation uses log lengths in decimeters; whereas the equation we 

use measures log lengths in meters:

Logs per hectare = n

mi L l m

5π10 1 3

∑ [1a]

where 

Lm = length of transect (meters),

n = number of logs intersected, and

l mi = length (meters) of the ith log intersected.

Density estimates from LIM data expressed in English units are calculated by 

using equation 11 of De Vries (1973):

Logs per acre = n

ft i L l ft

21780π 1 ∑ [1b]

where 

Lft = length of transect (feet),

n = number of logs intersected, and

l

fti

 = length (feet) of the i 

th log intersected.

The second method for obtaining density estimates with LIM is a simple tally 

of log endpoints within 2 m or 6 ft of the transect line. This is the same approach as 

SPM, where density estimates are calculated by summing the number of logs whose 

endpoints (LEDs) fall within the 50 m2

 (600 ft2) strip plots, and converting to the 

number of logs per hectare or acre. This calculation is called Tally (found under the 

Formula menu) because it is meant to be used in conjunction with LIM. We recom-
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

31

mend this approach if all log variables are of interest and log abundance is high 

(table 2). In this situation, field observers simply tally the number of qualifying logs 

whose endpoints fall within 2 m or 6 ft of the transect line (fig. 4), while recording 

intersect diameters for all other variables. This precludes the need to measure log 

lengths. One limitation to this approach is that the LED data need to be categorical. 

If continuous data are required, use a separate SPM field form for density estimates. 

If more than four size classes are of interest, it is probably more efficient to also use 

a separate SPM field form for density estimates. Density estimates from the Tally

method are obtained by using the same approach as for SPM density estimates. For 

SPM estimates, choose Density from the Formula menu.

For estimates of total log length, users select the variable Length from the 

Formula menu. Metric estimates of total log length using LIM are obtained by 

using equation 12 of De Vries (1973), which counts the number of logs intersected:

Total length of logs (m) per hectare = 2Lm

nπ104

 [2a]

For estimates of total length using English measurement units, the following 

equation is used (DeVries 1973): 

Total length of logs (ft) per acre = 

Lft

21780nπ [2b]

Estimates of total log length with SPM are obtained by summing the total 

length (m or ft) of all portions of qualifying logs that fall within the 50 m2 (600 ft2) 

strip plots, and then converting to total log length per hectare. For logs that traverse 

subsegment boundaries, log length is the length of log within each individual 

subsegment (fig. 10).

Mean and median log lengths can be calculated with LIM or SPM; both 

approaches yield valid estimates of mean log length (Bate and others 2004). With 

LIM, entire log lengths must be measured. When the Length variable is selected 

under the Formula menu, users will see a button labeled Calculate Mean Length. 

Clicking on this button provides the mean and median log lengths. Estimates of 

both parameters are of interest because they vary with stand history. In unharvested 

stands, mean and median log lengths will be about equal. In harvested stands, 

however, the median log length tends to be a fraction of the mean log length. 
Figure 10—For a log whose bole extends into two 

subsegments (two 12.5-m transects), the length should 

be measured separately in each strip plot.

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

32

To obtain estimates of mean log length with SPM, users must measure the 

length of each qualifying log within the strip plot, and also estimate what percentage of the log is contained within the plot in increments of 10 (10 to 100 percent). 

This is referred to as “% Length” on the field form. If this column is filled on the 

imported CSV file, SnagPRO will automatically calculate the estimated log length 

and place the value in the EstimLength column. 

Users select the variable Percent Cover from the Formula menu to obtain 

estimates of log cover. Estimates of cover with LIM can be obtained using a modification of equation 7 of De Vries (1973). This equation, expressed in metric units, 

incorporates the diameter (cm) at the point of intersection: 

Percent Cover = n

2Lm

π ∑dcmi

 [3a]
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

33

where

dcmi = diameter (cm) of log i at point of intersection.

Estimates of log cover with LIM in English units is based on the same modified 

equation 7 of De Vries (1973) incorporating the diameter in inches at the point 

of intersection: 

Percent Cover = n

Lft

4.1603π ∑dini

 [3b]

where

dini

 = diameter (in) of log i at point of intersection.

Estimates of log cover with SPM are obtained by measuring the small and large 

diameters of all qualifying logs, or portions of logs, within the boundaries of the 

strip plot. The average of the two diameters is then multiplied by the length of each 

log within the boundaries, to obtain the area (m2

 or ft2) of each trapezoid-shaped 

area or log. This value is then converted to the percentage of each strip plot covered 

by logs. 

Volume estimates when using SnagPRO can be obtained by selecting the 

Volume variable under the Formula menu. For volume estimates, the intersect 

diameter needs to be squared. This is the value that is placed in the Qualify column 

when running volume calculations with LIM. These values are used in the following equation for metric measurements (De Vries 1973; equation 8):

Volume (m3/ha) = 

n

8Lm

π2

 ∑d2

 

cmi

 [4a]

For English measurements, the intersect diameter in inches is placed in the 

Qualify column:

Volume (ft3

/ac) = 

n

Lft

37.8125π2

 ∑dini

2

 [4b]

To obtain estimates of volume using SPM, each log, or portion of a log, is 

treated as a cylinder. This requires measurements of the length, and large and 

small diameters of each portion of log contained within the strip plots (table 1). The 

volume of all cylinders, or logs, within each strip plot is then converted to either 

cubic meters per hectare or cubic feet per acre depending on the measurement 

system in use. 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

34

For estimates of weight, the final log variable, select the variable Weight from 

the Formula menu. Along with the condition (sound or rotten), weight estimates 

also rely on the diameter at intersection (De Vries 1973, equation 9) when using 

LIM. These values are then placed in the Qualify column before calculating weight 

estimates. For metric measurements using LIM, the following equation is used:

Weight (metric tons/ha) = 

n

8Lm

π2S ∑d2

 

cmi

 [5a]

where

S = specific gravity of each log relative to density of water (0.4 is the constant 

used for sound wood, whereas 0.3 is used as the constant for rotten wood). 

We used 400.5 and 304.36 kg/m3

 for metric measures of specific gravities for 

sound and rotten wood, respectively. These are the weights of a solid relative to 

water density (1000 kg/m3). For English specific gravities, we used 24.96 and 18.72 

lb/ft3 for sound and rotten wood relative to the density of water (62.4 lbs/ft3) (Brown 

and See 1981, DeVries 1973). 

For English measurements of weight we used the following equation (DeVries 

1973, equation 9):

Weight (tons/ac) = 

n

Lft

1.17975π2S ∑dfti

2

 [5b]

Estimates of log weight when using SPM are obtained by multiplying the 

volume of each log by its specific gravity based on the wood condition. 

Analysis by transect length—

Nonstratified stand or landscape—Values in the Qualify column must be summed 

and subtotaled for each of the four transect lengths. Once SnagPRO has been 

opened, data imported, and the Qualify column is filled, sum the qualifying log 

values for a nonstratified stand or landscape with these steps:

1. Click on the Summarize Statistics tab.

2. Click on the Single/Combined circle in the “Analyze Data From” section.

3. Click Calculate Statistics.

SnagPRO calculates subtotals, displaying the average, standard deviation (Std. 

Dev.), and current number of samples (N) for each transect-length increment on the 

Summarize Statistics page. These calculated averages, standard deviations, and current number of samples are copied to the Optimal page as well.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

35

Stratified landscapes—Once data have been sorted and the Qualify column is 

filled, sum the qualifying log values for a stratified stand or landscape with 

these steps:

1. Click on the Summarize Statistics tab.

2. Click on the Stratum 1 circle in the “Analyze Data From” section.

3. Click Calculate Statistics.

Repeat this process for each additional stratum. Results are displayed on the 

Summarize Statistics and Optimal pages. 

Averages are calculated by using the equation:

–

n

∑xi

x = 

 [6]

where

–

x 

 = sample mean,

xi = value of x observed in sample i, and

n = total number of samples.

Standard deviations are obtained by the equation: 

n n – 1

n∑xi – ∑xi

s =

2 2

 [7]

where 

s = sample standard deviation.

Optimal transect length—

On the Optimal page, the statistics for each subsegment, segment, section, and 

transect across the landscape, or within a unique stratum, are displayed on individual pages as indicated by each tab. For data taken from a nonstratified landscape 

or stand, click on the tab labeled Single/Combined. Note that for each stratum, the 

Optimal plot size analysis needs to be run separately. The Qualifying Logs box, immediately above the Stratum tabs, allows for a text description of the current query, 

which is useful when working with different size classes and conditions. 

The box labeled Precision Level Desired is set at the default of 0.2. This default 

setting calculates how many samples are required to be within 20 percent of the 

true mean. If, however, users find that the sample sizes required to obtain this level 

of precision is cost-prohibitive, this box may be changed to something broader, such 

–

x 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

36

as 0.25. The box labeled t-value also is set at a default of 1.67. This is the Student’s 

t-value for a 90-percent confidence interval if 60 samples have been taken. This also 

may be changed to meet user objectives. 

Under the column headings Average and StDev, find the estimated average 

and standard deviation, respectively, for the summed values for each of the four 

transect-section lengths. In the next two columns to the right, users will find the 

parameter estimate and its variance, respectively, expressed in terms of units per 

hectare or acre. The variance is calculated by the following equation:

n – 1

∑ xi – x

s

2 =

2 –

 [8]

The next two columns, Estimated Sample Size Required (n) and Estimated 

Total Survey Distance Required, calculate the total number of transect sections and 

total length of transect, respectively, required to obtain a parameter estimate that is 

within 20 percent of the true mean 90 percent of the time. The required sample size 

is determined by (Cochran 1977): 

d

tα s

n =

2

 [9]

where 

n = sample size required to estimate the mean,

s = standard deviation of the mean within each plot size,

t

α= Student’s t-value for a 90-percent confidence interval (α = 0.10), and

d = desired absolute error (default value is set at 20 percent of the pilot mean).

To select the optimal transect length within a stratum, look at the column 

labeled Estimated Total Survey Distance Required. Which transect section requires 

the shortest length of transect? Generally, whichever requires the shortest transect 

length is considered optimal, because it allows users to obtain the most precise 

estimate with the smallest amount of effort. Use this transect section length for 

subsequent analyses to obtain a parameter estimate with a bound. 

To the right, users will see a column labeled Minimum Transect Required. This 

is set at 1000 m or 3,281 ft and represents the minimum transect length that we 

recommend be sampled before any conclusions are drawn. (See the “Confidence 

Intervals for Parameters” section for details.) The next column, labeled Current 

Number of Samples Collected (N), shows how many samples have been collected in 

each of the four transect length categories. The column labeled Additional Samples 

Generally, whichever 

requires the shortest 

transect length is 

considered optimal, 

because it allows 

users to obtain 

the most precise 

estimate with the 

smallest amount 

of effort.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

37

Required calculates how many additional meters or feet of transect are required 

given that some samples have already been taken. The final column on the Optimal 

page provides users with the parameter estimate in English units if the data are in 

metric, and in metric units if the data are English.

Analysis for independence—

The sampling protocols presented here suggest sampling along 100-m or 400-ftlong transects divided into smaller increments so that the optimal transect length 

may be determined. Sampling units were assumed to be independent (Hurlbert 

1984, Krebs 1989, Swihart and Slade 1985) for equations in this report; therefore 

the length of transect chosen as optimal should also be tested to ensure that the 

density (or cover, length, volume, or weight) of logs on one increment of a transect 

are not predicted by the density of logs in the previous increment. If they are, 

sampling units would be serially correlated, and this would violate the assumption 

of independence. 

SnagPRO tests for a serial correlation between increments of similar length 

along transects. Users will find this function on the Summarize Statistics page. 

Follow these steps: 

1. Fill in the Qualify column with the appropriate formula.

2. Click Calculate Statistics for the stratum of interest.

3. Click Correlation on the Summarize Statistics page.

4. Enter the name of the transect length increment to test for serial 

correlation. 

Results of the test provide a Pearson’s correlation coefficient and the coefficient 

of determination. The correlation coefficient (r) estimates the association between 

two variables (Sokal and Rohlf 1981). The coefficient of determination (r2

) is the 

correlation coefficient squared. It estimates the dependence of one variable upon 

another. Using density as an example, the r2

 value explains how much the density in 

one increment is predicted by the previous increment.

The range for correlation coefficients is -1 < r < +1 (Sokal and Rohlf 1981). 

High correlation coefficients suggest that adjacent length increments along the same 

transect (for example, subsegments, segments, or sections) are correlated with each 

other and cannot be considered independent sampling units. As a general guideline, 

correlation coefficients less than 0.45 (r2 <0.2) suggest that adjacent increments are 

independent and the increment selected can be used as the sampling unit. Values 

higher than this suggest adjacent increments are correlated and sampling should 

continue, with the optimal transect length indicated through initial analyses of pilot 

data or by choosing a different transect length that appears to be independent. 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

38

For example, if segments are shown to be the optimal transect length within a 

stratum, but these segments are serially correlated with each other, there are two 

choices. First, drop the suggested sampling protocol along 100-m or 400-ft transects, and continue sampling only with segment lengths. In this situation, continue 

with the standardized numbering of transects and subsegments, but only sample a 

segment length (25 m or 100 ft) along each transect. Second, test for independence 

of subsegment or section lengths. If either of these lengths are independent, use one 

of these lengths (nested within the 100-m-long transect) for sampling.

Parameter Estimates for a Nonstratified Landscape—

To obtain estimates of a variable and its precision for a nonstratified stand or 

landscape, users should click the tab with the variable name they are calculating 

(Density, Percent Cover, Total Length, Volume, or Weight) and then on the 

Simple-Random Sampling Equation tab.

Clicking on the Single button activates the simple-random sampling equations. Users of SPM will be prompted to enter the size of their stand or landscape 

(hectares or acres) in the Landscape Area box before filling in the page. The size 

of the stand or landscape is necessary for area plot sampling so that a finite population correction factor (Krebs 1989) can be applied in cases where the area sampled 

represents a large proportion of the entire landscape. 

When the Single button is clicked, SnagPRO automatically fills in the needed 

cells from the Optimal page using information from the transect length increment 

that minimized sampling effort. The variable estimate, its standard error, bound, 

upper and lower limits, and the current level of precision are all given below.

Users may also override the optimal transect length and choose the transect 

length they want to evaluate. This would be done if, for example, results from 

subsegments were serially correlated, but segments were not. In this example 

users would: 

1. From the Settings menu, select Optimal Selection.

2. Click on Single stratum.

3. Select Segments.

4. Click on the Single button on the variable page again. 

To change back, just choose Auto from the selection menu and re-click the 

Single button. 

Users may also 

override the optimal 

transect length and 

choose the transect 

length they want 

to evaluate. This 

would be done if, 

for example, results 

from subsegments 

were serially 

correlated, but 

segments were not.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

39

Parameter estimates for a stratified landscape—

To obtain estimates for a stratified stand or landscape, click the tab with the name 

of the desired variable. Activate the Stratified Random Sampling Equation page 

by clicking on the tab with this name. For LIM analyses, click on the tab labeled 

Stratified to have information transferred to this sheet. For SPM analyses, enter the 

area of each stratum before clicking the Stratified button. Then SnagPRO automatically fills in the necessary cells from the Optimal page using information from 

the transect length that minimized sampling effort for each stratum. The variable 

estimate, its standard error, bound, upper and lower limits, and the current level of 

precision are all provided. 

As with a single stratum, users may also override the optimal transect length 

for each stratum following the directions above. This may occur when transects 

are chosen as the optimal length within a certain stratum, but results in a substantial length of transect required within that stratum. If more sampling is required, 

examine sample size requirements for various transect lengths before deciding on 

a length. 

Sample size determination—

The estimated sample size for nonstratified landscapes or stands is given on the 

Optimal page under Estimated Sample Size Required (n) and is converted to meters 

or feet in the next column. 

For stratified subwatersheds, go to the Sample Size page. SnagPRO provides 

both the proportional allocation and optimal method for sample size estimates, 

breaking it down into transect lengths for each stratum. 

Proportional Allocation of the sample size allocates the samples among the 

strata based on the proportion of the total area in each stratum (weight Wi 

). By 

contrast, Optimal Allocation incorporates both the stratum proportional area (Wi 

) 

and variance (s2

i 

) to determine how many samples are required within each stratum 

(Krebs 1989). Both methods calculate the number of samples required to obtain a 

parameter estimate that is within 20 percent of the true mean 90 percent of 

the time. 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

40

The sample size (Krebs 1989) required by the proportional allocation method is 

determined by the equation:

B2

tα

2 ∑Wi Si

n =

2

 [10]

where

n = total sample size required in stratified sampling,

B = desired bound for 1 - α, we have substituted the symbol B (to denote 

bound) for the d listed in Krebs (1989) equations,

t

α = student’s t value for 90-percent confidence limits (1 - α),

Wi= stratum weight (Ai/A),

si

2

 = variance in stratum i,

A = total number of hectares in landscape, and

Ai = number of hectares in stratum i.

The number of samples within each stratum (ni 

) is determined by multiplying 

the total number of samples needed (n) by the weight (Wi ) of each stratum. 

ni = nWi [11]

Sample size for the optimal allocation method (Krebs 1989) is found by the 

following equation:

– + – ∑Wisi ta A

B 2 1

∑Wi si

n =

2

2

 [12]

where

si

 = standard deviation in stratum i.

The number of samples needed within each stratum is estimated by: 

∑ Aisi

Ai si

ni = n [13]

Each of the allocation methods has its advantages and disadvantages. The 

proportional allocation method offers the advantage of dropping the stratification 

and combining all samples after the sampling is done, such as when users find little 

or no difference in parameter estimates across strata. This yields a larger sample 

size (n) and a smaller variance. This option is not available if the optimal allocation 

method is used.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

41

The optimal allocation method, however, provides the best estimate for the least 

cost in situations where large differences in a variable exist across strata. With this 

method, sampling is concentrated in the stratum that has the highest variance. By 

contrast, proportional allocation concentrates sampling effort in the largest stratum, 

regardless of the variance within each stratum. 

It is important to remember that the sample sizes given are only estimates of the 

number required to obtain a desired precision. Consequently, we recommend that 

data be analyzed periodically to gauge the precision of estimates. 

Confidence intervals for parameters—

A minimum of 60 samples for the landscape, or 20 samples from each stratum 

(whichever is higher), are required before the mean density (or other variables) 

of logs can be estimated. Analysis can then be done to evaluate whether enough 

samples have been collected to achieve objectives. See the “Establishing Transects” 

section of this report for an exception to the minimum number of samples required.

The two analysis options for evaluating adequacy of sample size are (1) estimate average parameter and (2) compare to target parameter. Both allow the user to 

either obtain an average log parameter that is within 20 percent of the true mean at 

a desired confidence level, or determine whether the estimated value is significantly 

different from the targeted value, respectively. Users may choose both options. Go 

to the Densities (Percent Cover, Total Length, Volume, or Weight) page to obtain 

an estimated average for the parameter of interest. 

Estimate average parameter—

This option requires one of two equations based on which sampling method—

simple or stratified random—is used. To see these equations, go to the Densities 

(Percent Cover, Total Length, Volume, or Weight) page. 

For the simple random sampling method, the average is calculated in the 

standard way (equation 6). The variance is calculated by:

n

s2

s–

x = [14]

where

–

x 

 = population mean,

n = sample size,

s2

 = variance of the measurements,

s x= standard error of the mean –

x 

, and
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

42

The confidence interval is calculated using a normal approximation 

(Krebs 1989):

x ± tα sx

– – [15]

where

t

α = Student’s t value for 90-percent confidence limits (1 - α).

As in the previous sheets, all shaded boxes require input from the user. The 

t-value is preset at 1.67, for a sample size equal to 60 to obtain a 90-percent confidence interval. If a different level of confidence is desired, the t-value can be 

changed. In the first section of each variable sheet, an estimated mean is given 

based on simple random sampling methods.

In the second section, a parameter estimate with a bound is calculated based 

on stratified random sampling methods. The stratified mean for each variable is 

computed by the following equation:

A

i=1 Ai xi

xst =

–

L

∑ – [16]

where

 xst

– = stratified population mean (number per hectare),

 xi

– = observed mean in stratum i,

Ai  = number of hectares in stratum i,

A = total number of hectares in subwatershed, 

i = stratum number, and

L = number of strata.

To calculate a confidence interval, the stratified variance must first

 be determined:

Variance of 

ni

Wi si

 xst = ∑

i=1

L 2 2

– [17]

where

ni

 = number of samples in stratum i,

si

2

= variance in stratum i, and

Wi = stratum weight or proportion of area in stratum i(Ai/A).
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

43

Then the confidence interval is calculated by the normal approximation:

 xst ± tα √var( xst – – ) [18]

SnagPRO is designed to accommodate landscapes with different numbers of 

strata; therefore, the user must enter the correct number when prompted by the 

Number of Strata message box. This tells SnagPRO which equation to use. We 

set the limit at four strata because it is rare that more than four sampling categories will be used. In particular, with increasing number of strata comes the law 

of diminishing returns. That is, for each additional stratum, there needs to be an 

additional 10 transects (100 m or 400 ft) of sampling line. If, however, resource 

specialists find that they need to divide a landscape into five or more strata, they 

can use the Simple-Random Sampling Equation page within SnagPRO to obtain 

their stratum means (equation 6) and variances (equation 8) and then calculate a 

stratified mean estimate and its bound using equations 16 through 18.

Compare to Target Density—

The second parameter option is an informal statistical test that allows users to 

determine whether the estimated log value (density, cover, etc.) is significantly 

different from the targeted value identified as part of their standards and guidelines. 

A minimum of 60 samples for the landscape, or 20 samples from each stratum 

(whichever is higher), are required. For subwatersheds >2800 ha (7,000 ac) it may 

be necessary to increase sampling effort to compensate for the natural variability of 

logs owing to elevational gradients and other environmental conditions. 

Example: A 8097-ha (20,000-acre) subwatershed that encompasses three distinct forest community types may require about 100 samples to adequately conduct 

the Compare to Target Density test. This translates into an increase of about 1.5 

transects (100 m long) for every 405 ha (1,000 ac) surveyed above 2800 ha (7,000 

ac). This option is especially useful in situations where densities are low and the 

sampling effort is necessarily high to obtain an estimate within 20 percent of the 

true mean (90 percent of the time). Sampling is designed to assess whether the subwatershed meets management guidelines for logs. See the “Establishing Transects” 

section for details in transect establishment. 

The t-test is the most common way to test for a significant difference between 

two means. The t-test compares the mean along each transect to the target mean. 

This works well in single-stratum landscapes, but becomes complicated where different transect lengths or widths are used. Consequently, SnagPRO uses confidence 

intervals to compare means among multiple samples (Zar 1984). 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

44

Confidence intervals can be used to evaluate whether the targeted value is different than the estimated value. The bound on the parameter estimate is calculated 

by using a t-statistic, so is analogous to a t-test and approximates the same distribution as the Student’s t-test statistic. This approach simplified the process with 

stratified landscapes. 

The statistical comparison to estimate whether the targeted value falls within 

the confidence interval of the estimated value can be used after meeting the minimum number of samples. The Statistical Test page in SnagPRO enables users to 

graph the estimated and targeted densities of a sample to visually display whether 

they are significantly different. Users simply enter the targeted value and the 

estimated value and its bounds from the log survey; the resulting graph is automatically plotted. See example 2 in the “Tutorial” section for specific details. 

Wildlife Use Signs

Documenting the degree of wildlife use of logs may be of interest. For example, 

users may want to identify which log species, log diameter, or length class is associated with the most foraging signs by woodpeckers. This can be done with SnagPRO 

and SPM data. Analysis of wildlife use is only available with SPM data because 

this method was found to be more accurate than the LIM in predicting wildlife use 

(Bate and others 2004). Wildlife use that could be visually detected, such as woodpecker foraging or middens, was evaluated by Bate and others (2004).

SnagPRO can evaluate every log for five factors: (1) LED, (2) length, (3) 

condition, (4) species, and (5) wildlife use. (The main utility of the Wildlife Use

function is to estimate use by wildlife.) Percentage of logs used by wildlife is 

calculated by dividing the number of logs with wildlife use by the total number of 

logs encountered.

Lt

Ls

P u 100 [19]

where

Pu = percent use,

Ls = number of logs with wildlife use signs, and

Lt = total number of logs available or encountered.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

45

Tutorials

Example I: Metric Weight and Density Estimates for a Single 

Stand With LIM and SPM Tally

Background example—

In the tutorial, we describe a specific example of how our log sampling methods 

can be used. In our example, managers are interested in assessing log conditions 

in a 24-ha, mixed-conifer stand before a seed-tree harvest to determine how much 

downed woody material should be retained during harvest. Specifically, the goal 

is to estimate the weight and density (within 20 percent of the true mean, with 

90 percent confidence) of logs that are >1 m long and >15 cm LED. The stand is 

relatively steep with slopes averaging 60 percent. The stand is buffered on most 

sides by young and mature stands. Weight of logs by species also is of interest, and 

consequently, log species are recorded.

Stratification—

In our example, a ground check revealed no evident differences in log distributions 

inside, versus along the edges, of the stand. Consequently, the stand is treated as a 

single stratum. A combination of sampling methods is selected to meet objectives. 

For estimates of weight, the LIM is used because log density appears to be moderate (6 to 11 logs per 100 m of transect), but travel will be difficult (table 2). The 

SPM tally method will be used to estimate density.

Pilot survey—

Because of the steepness of the slope, pairs of transects that are perpendicular to 

each other are established. Five pairs of transects (10 transects) are established by 

placing a grid over a map of the stand, and then randomly selecting 10 grid points 

for the starting point of each transect. Starting points are paired together based 

on their proximity to each other. The first transect of each pair is set in a random 

compass direction, and the second transect is set 90 degrees from the first direction. 

Each 100-m transect is then divided into eight 12.5-m-long subsegments. Each 

transect is assigned a unique numeric identifier while numbering the subsegments 

1 through 8. This is done so that during the computer analysis of field data, the 

shorter subsegments can be joined into 25- and 50-m-long transect sections to 

determine the optimal transect length. For transects extending beyond stand boundaries, the “bounce-back” method is used to keep the transect within the sampling 

area while continuing to sample with standardized transect lengths to include stand 

edges (fig. 7). 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

46

Field forms are secured by making copies of the data entry sheet found in the 

file named LIMdata.xls (fig. 8). (See “Field Forms” under “General Surveying 

Procedures” for complete details.) Field copies of appendix 2 are made to describe 

the sample information required under each field heading.

In the field, all intersected logs based on a minimum specific size (≥1 m long 

and ≥15 cm LED) are sampled. For each log intersected, the following information 

is collected for weight estimates:

• Species

• Diameter (cm) at intersection

• Diameter (cm) of LED for size class analyses

• Condition (sound = 1; rotten = 2) (Brown 1974)

For subsegments where no logs are intersected, “9999” is entered in the 

LED column. 

For density estimates, logs were tallied if they met minimum size requirements 

and had endpoints (fig. 4) within 2 m of the transect line. This number was entered 

in the column labeled “Tally 1.” For subsegments containing no log endpoints, a “0” 

was placed in the Tally 1 column (fig. 8). Recall that a log did not have to be intersected by the transect line to qualify for the SPM tally (fig. 4). 

Data entry—

Use Sheet 1 of the file LIMdata.xls to enter data. In our example, data have been 

entered as part of the process described above. Open the file LIMdata.xls and 

click on the tab in the lower left corner, labeled “Tutorial Data-I.” Here you will 

find that the log data collected from 10 transects have been entered for this stand. 

Also notice that although the Length and Qualify columns are empty, they are still 

included so that the correct format is maintained (fig. 8).

Consecutive subsegments—

Before analyses, sort transects and subsegments in ascending order to ensure 

that eight subsegments compose each transect. In Excel, click a single cell in the 

first row and then click Data | Sort. Make sure that the entire data set has been 

highlighted for sorting. Then select Sort By transect and Then By subsegment. 

Scroll through the entire data set to ensure that eight subsegment lengths have 

been entered for each transect, and the beginning subsegment of each transect is 

numbered “1.” 

Creating a CSV file—

SnagPRO imports only CSV files. To create a CSV file, follow these steps:

1. Activate the Tutorial_data_I sheet by clicking anywhere on the sheet: 

Select File | Save As.

A log did not have 

to be intersected 

by the transect line 

to qualify for the 

SPM tally.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

47

2. Click Save as Type at the bottom of the Save As message box.

3. Select “CSV (comma delimited)(*.csv).”

4. Assign a new file name in the File Name box.

5. Click Save. When saving as a CSV file, only the active sheet is retained. 

By saving the file with a different name, the original file is kept intact.

6. Click OK and Yes for first and second warning boxes, respectively.

Importing to SnagPRO—

Import the CSV file of log data using these steps:

1. Launch SnagPRO by double-clicking on the desktop icon or the executable 

file— SnagPRO.exe.

2. Click Logs.

3. Go to Measurement and click Metric.

4. Go to Method and click LIM.

5. Go to File | Open. In the message box, Look In, browse to the folder containing the CSV data and select the file name.

This process should successfully import the CSV file. Note that additional 

columns have been added to your file. First, the Section and Segment columns were 

inserted between Transect and Subsegment. And second, SnagPRO combined consecutive subsegments (12.5-m lengths) into segments (25-m lengths), and segments 

into sections (50-m lengths) to allow for optimal transect length analysis.

Formula entry—

The next step is to have SnagPRO fill in the appropriate formula in the Qualify 

column. This formula determines which logs are included in the current analysis. 

To do this, click on Weight under the Formula menu on the Single/Combined page. 

Then click on Set Criteria button located in the bottom-left of the screen.

To create the correct formula, based on sampling objectives, enter:

1. “15” for LED

2. “0” for Length (the default when log lengths are not measured)

3. “9999” for Species (all logs are considered)

SnagPRO evaluates each log according to the criteria listed above. For logs 

meeting all criteria, SnagPRO takes the intersect diameter of each log, squares it, 

and then multiplies it by the appropriate specific gravity, 0.4 and 0.3 for sound and 

rotten logs, respectively. The values contained in the Qualify column are then used 

in the LIM estimator (equation 5a) to obtain weight estimates.
Figure 11—Summary Statistics page: averages, standard deviations, and number of samples to the right of summed 

values for each transect length for analysis using LIM to obtain log weight estimates. Data are from the Tutorial 

Data-I sheet in the LIMdata.xls file. 

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

48

Analyzing by transect length—

SnagPRO now calculates averages and standard deviations for each transect length 

within each stratum on the Summary Statistics page. To calculate the statistics for 

the current forest conditions:

1. Click on the Summary Statistics tab.

2. Click on the Single/Combined circle in the “Analyze Data From” section.

3. Click on the Calculate Statistics button. 

SnagPRO subtotals the values for each transect length (Subsegment_12.5, Segment_25, Section_50, and Transect_100) (fig. 11). The number on the end of each 

label gives the length of transect in meters. To the right of the subtotaled values are 
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

49

the averages, standard deviations, and current sample sizes for each transect length. 

These values were simultaneously transferred to the Optimal page (fig. 12). 

Optimal transect length—

To determine the transect length that optimizes sampling, switch to the Optimal

page (fig. 12). First, write a brief description of the study area and log characteristics included in this sample in the box labeled Qualifying Logs. For example, for 

this analysis you might write: 

Qualifying Logs: Stand 709; logs ≥15 cm LED; ≥1 m long.

Under the heading Single/Combined on the Optimal page, each transect is 

listed by name and length. The column Average provides the estimated average 

Figure 12. Optimal page: optimal transect length analysis for obtaining weight estimates of logs in single stand. Results 

show estimated log weight and estimated transect length required using each of four transect lengths. Data from the Tutorial 

Data-I sheet in the LIMdata.xls file.
To select the optimal 

transect length, look 

at the Estimated 

Total Survey 

Distance Required 

column. Which 

transect section 

requires the shortest 

transect length?

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

50

values (squared intersects multiplied by specific gravity) from the Qualify column 

for the four transect lengths. Standard deviations for these same values are shown 

in the next column. 

Under Weight (metric tons per hectare), the averages from the Qualify column 

have been converted to actual weight measurements (fig. 12) using equation 5a. 

Similarly, the standard deviations for each length are inserted into the equation to 

obtain an estimate of the variance. For our example, SnagPRO estimates that the 

stand supports about 15.2 metric tons/ha of logs in this size class. Notice that the 

English equivalent is given in the last column of this section (about 6.8 tons/ac). The 

column Estimated Sample Size Required calculates the total number of sampling 

units (expressed in transect sections) required to obtain a weight estimate that is 

within 20 percent of the true mean 90 percent of the time. In the Estimated Total 

Survey Distance Required column, the sampling units required are expressed in 

total length of transect. 

To select the optimal transect length, look at the Estimated Total Survey 

Distance Required column. Which transect section requires the shortest transect 

length? In this example, the subsegments, which are 12.5-m long, require the least 

amount (2012 m). By contrast, if 100-m transects are used, 4140 m of transect 

length would be required. 

We stated earlier that SnagPRO’s equations require a minimum of 60 samples. 

The Minimum Transect Required column represents the minimum length in meters 

of transect for a pilot sample. See the “Establishing Transects” section for more 

detail. SnagPRO then evaluates the Current Number of Samples Collected and 

calculates the Additional Samples Required. For this example, a little over 1000 m 

of additional sampling (about 10 transects) would be required to obtain a weight 

estimate within 20 percent of the true mean with a 90-percent confidence interval. 

But are subsegments independent? 

Test for independence—

To test for independence, switch to the Summary Statistics page and run the serial 

correlation test. To do this:

1. Click on the Correlation button in the bottom-right corner of the screen.

2. Enter “Subsegment” when the first message box appears labeled 

Correlation Length. 

The message box displays the correlation coefficient (r = 0.083) and coefficient 

of determination (r2

 = 0.0069). The low r2 value (0.0069) implies that adjacent 

subsegments along a transect are independent sampling units. Consequently, subsegments can be used for the remainder of the analysis along 100-m transects. One 
Figure 13—Weight page: estimated log weight, standard error, bound, upper and lower limits, and current level of 

precision for estimates in a single stand. Data are from the Tutorial Data-I sheet in the LIMdata.xls file. 

Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

51

caveat here: remember to rerun this analysis when sampling is completed to ensure 

independence of sampling units.

Weight analysis

Assuming all sampling has been completed, the final weight estimate, its bound, 

and precision level are given on the Weight page (fig. 13). To obtain these values, 

follow these steps:

1. Click on the Weight tab.

2. Click on the Simple-Random Sampling Equation tab.

3. Click the Single button under the Calculate heading.

Our example results indicate that the stand supports an estimated 15.2 ± 4.31 

metric tons/ha of logs ≥15 cm LED and ≥1 m in length (fig. 13). The precision of 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

52

an estimate is calculated by dividing the bound by the mean. In this example, the 

bound of 4.31 is divided by the mean of 15.2, and then multiplied by 100. The result 

is 28.4 percent, which states that you are 90-percent confident that your density 

estimate is within 28.4 percent of the true mean. 

Density analysis by tally

The next step is to obtain density estimates using the tally data. To do this: 

1. Click on Tally from the Formula menu. (Notice that the Formula list also 

includes Density, but this calculation is performed only if log lengths have 

been measured.)

2. Click Yes when asked “Do you want to clear this analysis and reload the 

current database?”

3. Click the Set Criteria button.

4. Enter “Tally 1” when asked for the name of the column you would like 

to tally.

5. Click on the tab at the top of the screen labeled Summary Statistics.

6. Click on the Single/Combined circle under the section labeled “Analyze 

Data From.” 

7. Complete the process by clicking on the Calculate Statistics button. 

Switch to the Optimal page to determine which transect length is best for 

density estimates. Example results estimate that the stands contain 248 logs/ha (100 

logs/ac). Looking under the Estimated Total Survey Distance Required column, 

we see that subsegments again appear to be the optimal transect length within this 

stand. They require only 1242 m of transect. Therefore, only two or three more 

transects are needed to reach the desired precision. But are subsegments independent for density estimates? To test for independence:

1. Switch back to the Summary Statistics page.

2. Click on the Correlation button.

3. Enter “Subsegment” into Correlation Length box. 

The message box displays the correlation coefficient (r = 0.115) and the coefficient of determination (r2

 = 0.013) for log densities. Similar to the weight correlation 

analysis, subsegments appear to be independent.

To obtain the current level of precision of your density estimate:

1. Click on the Tally page tab.

2. Highlight the Simple-Random Sampling Equation tab.

3. Click the Single button.

4. Enter “24” into the Single Stratum box.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

53

It is estimated that there are 248 ± 53.8 logs/ha in this stand. Precision is just 

below 22 percent.

Conclusions for single-stand weight and density analysis

From the pilot survey data alone, the desired precision for density has nearly been 

reached. To obtain this precision for weight, however, about 10 additional transects would have to be sampled. If, however, the current precision of 28 percent is 

deemed adequate, sampling can cease. If it is deemed important to improve precision to ≤20 percent, then the 10 additional transects should be surveyed.

Example II: English Parameter Estimates and Statistical 

Test for a Stratified Landscape Using SPM 

Background information

A second example is forest compliance monitoring for wildlife, specifically to 

evaluate whether log management goals have been met on a landscape scale. 

The landscape comprises mixed-conifer forest communities. Many areas have 

been clearcut or seed-tree harvested. The remaining stands are mature or oldgrowth forests.

Current wildlife guidelines stipulate retention of an average of 20 logs/ac and 

>2 percent log cover across the landscape (composed of logs with a LED >10 in and 

>6 ft long). The monitoring goal is to estimate both density and percentage cover 

within 20 percent of the true mean 90 percent of the time to evaluate guidelines. 

Woodpecker and small mammal use of logs also is of interest within the different 

forest structural conditions.

Stratification—

Aerial photographs show that the landscape is highly fragmented and geospatial 

data verify that clearcut and seed-tree harvests have been the primary methods 

of timber harvesting. Therefore, stands will be placed into one of two strata: (1) 

harvested or (2) unharvested mature/old-growth stands. A map of the stand polygons for each stratum is established with GIS. Each stand’s acreage and the total 

acreage within each stratum is summed. There are 750 and 224 ac in strata 1 and 

2, respectively. Field reconnaissance is then done to verify that each stand has been 

placed in the proper stratum.

Pilot survey—

An initial reconnaissance indicates that it is uncommon to intersect >10 large 

logs (>10 in LED and >6 ft long) per 330 ft of transect (see table 2 for details). 

Furthermore, sampling must be as efficient as possible because of substantial travel 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

54

required to sample at random points across the landscape. Consequently, SPM is 

selected as the sampling method. Also, LED data are collected as a continuous 

variable so that analysis can be done on a variety of size classes. 

Five stands in each stratum are randomly selected in which two 400-ft-long 

transects are established (fig. 6). Starting points for each transect are selected by 

randomly placing a grid over each stand and randomly choosing a grid intersection 

for the starting point. The compass direction is also random. 

Each transect is assigned a number, and then divided into eight 50-ft subsegments, numbering them 1 through 8 so that during analysis, the shorter subsegments can be joined into 100-ft (segments) and 200-ft (sections) transect lengths. 

Then SnagPRO can help determine the best transect length for each stratum. The 

bounce-back method is used for transects heading outside stand boundaries (fig. 7). 

Continue to sample with standardized transect lengths and include stand edges. 

The SPM Field Form sheet found in the file named SPMdata.xls (fig. 9) is used 

as the field form. (See “Field Forms” under “General Surveying Procedures” for 

complete details.) Appendix 3 is customized to describe the information required 

under each field heading, as an aid to field sampling, and copies of figures 4 and 5 

also are made to help guide fieldwork. 

Only the portions of logs >10 in LED and >6 ft long within sampling boundaries are measured. The LEDs of each log are measured as shown in fig. 5. For each 

log, record:

1. Diameter (in) of large end regardless if it is in or out of the plot.

2. Whether the endpoint of the log (fig. 5) is in (enter 1) or out (enter 0) of 

the plot.

3. Diameter (in) of largest portion of the log contained within the plot.

4. Diameter (in) of smallest portion of the log contained within the plot.

5. Length (ft) of portion of log contained within the plot.

6. Condition based on three-class decay system (Bull and others 1997).

7. Species.

8. Wildlife use: 0 = no use, 1 = woodpecker foraging, 2 = small mammal 

middens.

For subsegments where no qualifying logs are encountered, enter “9999” in the 

LED column. 

Data entry—

To enter your own data, use Sheet 1 of the file SPMdata.xls. In our example, data 

have been entered in Excel as part of the tutorial. Open the file SPMdata.xls and 
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

55

click on the tab in the lower left corner that is labeled “Tutorial Data-II.” Here 

you will find that the log data collected from 20 transects have been entered for 

our example. 

Consecutive subsegments—

Before analysis, sort transects and subsegments in ascending order to ensure that 

there are eight subsegments for each transect. In Excel, click a single cell in the 

first row and then click Data | Sort. Make sure that the entire data set has been 

highlighted for sorting. Then select Sort By transect and Then By subsegment. 

Scroll through the entire data set to ensure that eight subsegment lengths have 

been entered for each transect and the beginning subsegment of each transect is 

numbered “1.” 

Creating a CSV file—

SnagPRO imports only CSV files. To create a CSV file, follow these steps:

1. Activate the Tutorial_Data_II sheet by clicking anywhere on the sheet.

2. Select File | Save As.

3. Click Save as Type at the bottom of the Save As message box.

4. Select “CSV (comma delimited)(*.csv)”.

5. Assign a new file name in the file name box.

6. Click Save. When saving as a CSV file, only the active sheet is retained. 

By saving the file with a different name, the original file is kept intact.

7. Click OK and Yes for first and second warning boxes, respectively.

Importing to SnagPRO—

Import the CSV file of log data using these steps:

1. Launch SnagPRO by double-clicking on the desktop icon or the executable 

file—SnagPRO.exe.

2. Click Logs.

3. Go to Measurement, and click English.

4. Go to Method and click SPM.

5. Go to File | Open. In the message box “Look In,” browse to the folder 

containing the CSV data and select the file name.

This should successfully import the CSV file onto the Single/Combined page of 

SnagPRO. Note that the Section and Segment columns have been added to your file. 

SnagPRO combined consecutive subsegments (50-ft lengths) into segments (100-ft 

lengths), and segments into sections (200-ft lengths) to allow for optimal transect 

length analysis.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

56

Formula entry—

The next step is to have SnagPRO insert the appropriate formula into the Qualify 

column for each stratum. This formula determines which logs are included in the 

analysis. To do this:

1. Click on the Stratum 1 tab to activate the sheet.

2. Click on Density under the Formula menu.

3. Click the Apply and Sort button.

 To create the correct formula for all logs >10 in LED, enter

1. “10” for LED.

2. “0” for EstimLength because all logs will be included.

3. “3” for Condition (all decay classes are included).

4. “9999” for Species (all log species included).

SnagPRO evaluates each log for the criteria listed above. For logs meeting all 

criteria, and with endpoints contained within the plot, SnagPRO places a “1” in the 

Qualify column. Note that log lengths are based on the EstimLength column rather 

than the Length column. The Length column only represents the length of the logs 

within the strip plots and not their entire lengths. EstimLength is the total length of 

log, both inside and outside the plot. See EstimLength in the “SnagPRO’s Equations” section for more information.

Analyzing by transect length—

SnagPRO now calculates averages and standard deviations for each transect length 

within each stratum on the Summary Statistics page. To calculate the statistics for 

stratum 1:

1. Click on the Summary Statistics tab.

2. Click on the Stratum 1 circle in the Analyze Data From section.

3. Click on the Calculate Statistics button. 

To determine the transect length that optimizes sampling in stratum 1, switch 

to the Stratum 1 sheet on the Optimal page. First, write a brief description of the 

study area and log characteristics included in this sample in the box labeled “Qualifying Logs.” For example, for this analysis you might write: 

Qualifying Logs: Stratum 1; >10 cm LED; >1 m long.

To the far left on this page, each transect is listed by name and length. The 

Average column provides the estimated average values (summed endpoints) from 

the Qualify column for the four transect lengths. Standard deviations for these 

same values are shown in the next column. Under Density (logs/ac), the summed 

endpoints from the Qualify column have been converted to density. 
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

57

SnagPRO estimates that there are 14.5 logs/ac. Notice that the metric equivalent is given in the last column (35.9 logs/ha). The column Estimated Sample Size 

Required calculates the total number of sampling units (expressed in number of 

strip plots) required to obtain a density estimate within 20 percent of the true mean 

90 percent of the time. In the Estimated Total Survey Distance Required column, 

the sampling units required are expressed in total length of transect. 

To select the optimal transect length, look at the Estimated Total Survey 

Distance Required column. Which transect section requires the shortest transect 

length? In this stratum, the segments, which are 100 ft long, require the least 

amount (21,905 ft). Notice that the 200-ft lengths (section) are the second-best 

choice, with 22,226 ft of transect required. 

Earlier, we stated that SnagPRO’s equations require a minimum of 60 samples. 

The Minimum Transect Required column represents the minimum length in feet of 

transect for a pilot sample. See the “Establishing Transects” section for more detail. 

SnagPRO then evaluates the Current Number of Samples Collected and calculates 

the Additional Samples Required. 

For this stratum, about five times as many segments as have been sampled 

are needed to obtain a density estimate with desired precision. Sampling effort is 

high because of low log density and high variance within this stratum. In addition, 

SnagPRO currently considers this a single landscape, which is necessary to determine the optimal transect length. Sampling effort will be less within this stratum, 

however, once it is considered in conjunction with stratum 2.

Now check and see if segments can be considered independent sampling units. 

To do this: 

1. Switch back to the Summarize Statistics page.

2. Click on the Correlation button.

3. Enter “Segment” into the Correlation box.

The message box displays the correlation coefficient (r = 0.105) and the coefficient of determination (r2

 = 0.011) for log densities in stratum 1. Based on these 

results, adjacent segments can be considered independent and used as the sampling 

unit for stratum 1. 

To determine the optimal transect length for stratum 2, repeat all steps described for stratum 1. The stratum 2 sheet on the Optimal page shows that the 

estimated log density for stratum 2 (mature/old-growth stands) is 39.9 logs/ac and 

transect lengths (400-ft lengths) appear to optimize the sampling effort (7,754 total 

ft of transect required). 
Figure 14—Densities page: estimated log density, standard error, bound, upper and lower limits, and current level of 

precision for estimates in on a stratified landscape. Data are from the Tutorial Data-II sheet in the SPMdata.xls file. 

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

58

Stratified density analysis—

To obtain an estimate of the required sample size for the entire landscape, we first 

need an estimate of the stratified mean density to enter in the sample size equation. 

To do this:

1. Go to the Densities page (fig. 14).

2. Click on the Stratified Random Sampling Equation tab.

3. Enter “750” into the Stratum 1 box in the Stratum Size (acres) section.

4. Enter “224” into the Stratum 2 box.

5. Click the Stratified button under Calculate.

Once the Stratum Sizes (acres) have been filled in, SnagPRO transfers all statistics from the Optimal page to the Density page. The results on the Density page (fig. 

14), estimate an average density of 20.3 ± 5.81 logs/ac. Precision is 28.6 percent. 
Figure 15—Sample size page. Optimal and proportional sample size calculations for obtaining estimates of log 

density on a landscape containing two strata. Data are from the Tutorial Data-II sheet in the SPMdata.xls file. 

Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

59

Sample size determination—

The next step is to determine the required sample size to obtain the desired 

precision. Sample sizes for stratified subwatersheds are calculated on the Sample 

Size page, so activate this page (fig. 15). Notice that SnagPRO transferred the 

statistics to the Sample Size page once the stratified density estimate on the Density 

page was calculated.

At the bottom of the Sample Size page (fig. 15), output from two sample 

size equations are shown—Optimal Allocation and Proportional Allocation. 

The optimal allocation method, which incorporates the stratum variance in its 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

60

calculations, estimates that 93 samples are required to obtain a stratified mean 

within 20 percent of the true mean, 90 percent of the time. These 93 samples are 

then divided between the two strata: 75 samples in stratum 1 (harvested stands) and 

19 samples in stratum 2 (mature/old-growth stands). Segments are the sampling unit 

for stratum 1 and transects are the sampling unit for stratum 2. These estimates are 

equal to about 7,500 ft of transect in stratum 1 and 7,600 ft in stratum 2. Recall, 

however, that 4,000 ft of transect have already been sampled in both strata.

On the bottom right of the page is the heading “Proportional Allocation.” This 

method uses the overall variance of the subwatershed and then allocates the samples 

based on the size of each stratum. Results show that 103 samples are needed to 

obtain the desired precision, which in turn requires 8,000 ft of transect in stratum 

1 and 9,600 ft in stratum 2.

Both sample size equations agree that additional samples are needed. It is 

important to remember that sample size requirements may change with additional 

sampling, owing to changes in the variance of estimates. This possibility increases 

if the pilot sample is ultimately shown to be a poor representation of the variation within a stratum. Consequently, the best way to avoid oversampling (where 

large sample sizes are required) is to periodically enter your data, and re-run the 

SnagPRO analysis. In addition, sometimes it is helpful to “override” the default for 

transect length. For example, what would happen if you changed the transect length 

to something shorter in stratum 2, such as segments? To do this, follow these steps:

1. From the Settings menu, highlight Optimal Selection.

2. Click on Stratum 2.

3. Check Segment instead of Auto.

By overriding the default transect length for stratum 2, precision changes 

slightly, from 28.6 to 29.2 percent. Sample size requirements, however, drop from 

7,600 ft to only 4,800 ft under the optimal allocation method. However, sample 

requirements in stratum 1 increase to 8,700 ft. These changes demonstrate the 

sensitivity of the equations and the chosen sample size. Given the uncertainty, it 

may be best to sample about five additional stands within each stratum, and then 

reanalyze the data to see how the additional information affects the chosen transect 

length and precision.

Compare to target density—

Once 60 samples have been collected, the test of whether the estimated density 

of qualifying logs meets the targeted density of 20 logs/ac can be done. The 

null hypothesis is that no difference exists between the estimated and targeted 

log densities.

Both sample size 

equations agree 

that additional 

samples are needed. 

It is important 

to remember 

that sample size 

requirements 

may change with 

additional sampling, 

owing to changes 

in the variance 

of estimates.
Figure 16—Statistical test page. Graph depicting test for significant differences between estimated and targeted 

densities of qualifying logs on stratified landscape. Estimated value and its bound are from the Densities page 

(fig. 14). Data are from the Tutorial Data-II sheet in the SPMdata.xls file.

Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

61

Go to Statistical Test page to conduct the test (fig. 16).

Follow these steps:

1. Enter the targeted density of “20” into the box labeled Target Value.

2. Enter the estimated log density of “20.3 logs/ac” into the box labeled 

Estimated Value.

3. Enter “5.81” into the estimated Bound box. 

Results are automatically plotted as a graph (fig. 16), which shows that the line 

representing the target density is within the upper and lower limits of the estimated 

density, just below the targeted density. Consequently, the null hypothesis is not 

rejected. That is, results indicate, with 90 percent confidence, that the log density 

on this landscape is adequate to meet agency guidelines. 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

62

Percentage cover analysis—

To analyze percentage cover estimates, change the variable selection:

1. Click on Percent Cover under the Formula menu.

2. Click Yes when asked “Do you want to clear this analysis and reload the 

current data set?”

At this point, the steps to conduct the analysis for percentage cover are identical 

to the steps taken for the density analysis:

1. Activate the Stratum 1 page.

2. Click the Set Criteria button.

3. Enter the correct log characteristics for LED, EstimLength, Condition 

and Species.

4. Switch to the Summary Statistics page.

5. Click on the Stratum 1 circle.

6. Click the Calculate Statistics button.

7. Click on the Stratum 2 circle.

8. Click the Calculate Statistics button.

9. Switch to the Optimal page to view results for stratum 1.

Percentage cover for stratum 1 is estimated to be 0.54 percent. Based on these 

results, it appears that segment lengths are the optimal transect length requiring 

11,872 ft of transect. The serial correlation test conducted on the Summary Statistics page (see instructions above from density analysis) indicates that segments are 

independent sampling units (r2

 = 0.0008).

Clicking on the Stratum 2 sheet of the Optimal page shows an estimated cover 

value of 2.6 percent for stratum 2. In this stratum, the subsegments, or shortest 

transects, are the optimal length. Only 3,666 ft of total transect is required (which 

has already been collected) to obtain an estimate that is within 20 percent of the 

true mean, 90 percent of the time. Serial correlation test conducted on the Summary Statistic page also shows subsegments to be independent (r2

 = 0.0008).

To conduct the statistical test to compare cover estimates, first obtain a stratified estimate for cover:

1. Activate the Percent Cover page.

2. Click on the Stratified-Random Sampling Equation sheet.

3. Enter “750” into the Stratum 1 area box.

4. Enter “224” into the Stratum 2 box.

5. Click the Stratified button.
Figure 17—Statistical test page. Graph depicting test for significant differences between estimated and targeted percent cover 

values of qualifying logs on stratified landscape. Estimated value and its bound are from the Percent Cover page. Data are 

from the Tutorial Data-II sheet in the SPMdata.xls file.

Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

63

Results indicate a stratified estimate of percentage cover of 1.02 ± 0.184. The 

current precision (18 percent) exceeds the goal of being within 20 percent of the 

true mean. To test for a difference between targeted and estimated percentage 

cover, switch to the Statistical Test page.

Of interest is whether the estimated cover of logs across this landscape equals 

or exceeds the targeted value of 2 percent. In this case, the null hypothesis is that 

no difference exists between estimated cover of logs across this landscape and the 

target of 2 percent. To test, enter the percentage cover estimate, its bound, and the 

target value into the appropriate boxes on the Statistical Test page (fig. 17).
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

64

The resulting graph shows that the red line (top line), representing the target 

cover, is not within the upper and lower limits of cover estimated for the entire 

landscape (fig. 17). This is in contrast to the results observed from the density 

analysis. Therefore, the null hypothesis of “no difference between the harvested 

and unharvested density estimates,” is rejected. Results suggest that you can be 

90-percent confident that log cover across the landscape does not equal or exceed 

the target of 2 percent. 

Wildlife use—

The final objective is to evaluate wildlife use of logs in harvested stands versus 

unharvested stands. To calculate use of logs with signs of woodpecker foraging:

1. Activate the Summary Statistics page.

2. Click on the Stratum 1 circle from the Analyze Data From section.

3. Click on the Wildlife Use button.

4. Enter “10” into the message box labeled LED.

5. Enter “0” into the EstimLength box.

6. Enter “3” into the Condition box.

7. Enter “9999” into the Species box.

8. Enter “1” into the Wildlife use box. 

Results in the Wildlife section of this page show that within Stratum 1, there 

were 38 logs available for woodpecker foraging use and 6 showed signs of use for a 

use of 15.8 percent in harvested stands. For stratum 2, results show that out of 126 

logs available, 21 showed woodpecker foraging signs for a use of 16.7 percent in 

unharvested stands.

For small mammal use (wildlife code = 2) in stratum 1, 38 logs were available 

and 3 had evidence of middens, resulting in use of 7.9 percent in harvested stands. 

This compares to 40 out of 126 available logs having small mammal middens, for a 

use of 31.7 percent in unharvested stands. 

Conclusions for multiple strata using SPM—

Statistical tests comparing log estimates with management goals revealed different 

results. Although log densities met agency guidelines, the percentage of cover did 

not. These results suggest that an adequate number of logs were retained in harvested stands, but were short in length or small in diameter. Consequently, the small 

size or short length of logs contributed little toward cover. Results of the wildlife 

use analysis suggest that woodpecker foraging use was about equal in harvested 

and unharvested stands. By contrast, squirrel use of logs in unharvested stands was 

about four times that in harvested stands. 

These results 

suggest that an 

adequate number of 

logs were retained 

in harvested 

stands, but were 

short in length or 

small in diameter. 

Consequently, the 

small size or short 

length of logs 

contributed little 

toward cover.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

65

Example III: Metric Parameter Estimates for a Stratified 

Landscape Using a Combination of LIM and SPM

Background information—

In this example, two resource disciplines are interested in information on log conditions in a subwatershed. Fire managers are interested in volume of logs ≥15 cm 

LED and ≥1 m long for separate areas within the subwatershed. Wildlife managers 

need a stratified estimate of log volume for the entire subwatershed, but only for 

larger logs (≥25 cm LED and ≥1 m long). Both fire and wildlife managers want 

estimates to be as precise as possible because of pending management actions, but 

budget constraints may limit the number of stands that can be sampled.

Aerial photographs and geospatial data indicate that less than half the subwatershed has been harvested in the past 40 years. Log volumes are anticipated to be 

low in these stands. About one-third of the subwatershed is composed of mature 

forests with pockets of old-growth interspersed. Of special concern, however, are 

a number of stands that have undergone high mortality owing to an outbreak of 

spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis Free.) (Sheehan 1996) during the past 

10 years. Travel is difficult within these stands because of the high log abundance.

Stratification—

Based on a ground reconnaissance, the harvested stands appear to be accurately 

represented in the GIS database and support a low number of logs. Log density is 

initially checked by estimating how many logs are intersected by several randomly 

established transect lines within the typical harvested stand on this subwatershed 

(see table 2 for details). On average, it appears that three to four logs are intersected 

with every 100 m of transect in the harvested stands.

The remaining unharvested stands have greater log abundance, and individual 

stands require visual examination to determine whether abundance is moderate 

or high. Reconnaissance indicates high log abundance in stands that are undergoing the budworm outbreak; in these stands, over 30 logs per 100-m transect were 

intersected. The remaining stands appear to support moderate abundance, with 

an average of 10 to 15 logs per 100 m of transect. Based on this information, three 

strata are established: (1) recent clearcut and seed-tree harvest units with low log 

abundance, (2) mature stands with moderate log abundance, and (3) mature stands 

with high log abundance. For this example there are 812, 654, and 490 ha in strata 

1, 2, and 3, respectively. 

In strata 2 and 3 where log abundance is moderate and high, respectively, LIM 

(table 2) is used to sample logs. Because of the low abundance of logs in harvested 

stands, however, SPM is used for estimates of log volume in stratum 1 to minimize 

the number of transects required. 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

66

Pilot survey—

Five stands from each stratum are randomly selected for sampling. Starting points 

for each transect are selected by placing a grid over each stand and randomly 

choosing a grid intersection for the starting point. The compass direction also is 

randomly determined. 

Each 100-m transect is divided into eight 12.5-m-long subsegments. Each 

transect is assigned a unique numeric identifier while numbering the subsegments 1 

through 8. This is done so that the shorter subsegments can be evaluated as 25- and 

50-m transect sections to determine the optimal transect length during analysis. 

The bounce-back method is used to keep the transect within the sampling area that 

otherwise would extend beyond stand boundaries, while continuing to sample with 

standardized transect lengths to include stand edges (fig. 7). 

The SPM Field Form sheet, found in the file named SPMdata.xls (fig. 9), is 

used as the field form in stratum 1. (See “Field Forms” under “General Surveying 

Procedures” for complete details.) Appendix 3 is customized to describe the information required under each field heading as an aid to field sampling, and copies of 

figures 4 and 5 also are made to help guide fieldcrews to determine the appropriate 

place to measure LED. 

Only the portions of logs ≥15 cm LED and ≥1 m length within the boundaries 

are measured. The LEDs of each log are measured as shown in figure 5. For each 

qualifying log, record:

1. Size class (record either 15 for ≥15 or 25 for ≥25) of LED.

2. Diameter (cm) of largest portion of the log contained within the plot.

3. Diameter (cm) of smallest portion of the log contained within the plot.

4. Length (m) of portion of log contained within the plot.

For subsegments where no qualifying logs are encountered, “9999” is entered 

in the LED column. For data collection in strata 2 and 3, make copies of the data 

entry sheet found in the file named LIMdata.xls (fig. 8) for use as a field form. (See 

“Field Forms” under “General Surveying Procedures” for complete details.) Customize appendix 2 to describe the information required under each field heading of 

the field form, as an aid to fieldwork.

In the field, for each qualifying log intersected, the following volume measurements are recorded:

1. Diameter (cm) at intersection.

2. Size class (either 15 or 25 cm) of LED.

For subsegments where no qualifying logs are intersected, “9999” is entered in 

the LED column. 
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

67

Data entry—

When using a combination of LIM and SPM, data from each stratum must be stored 

separately because of differences in data collection techniques and equations. First, 

obtain an estimate of the variable of interest (in this case, volume) for each stratum. 

Then estimates from each stratum can be entered in a special page in SnagPRO 

named Combination found under the Method menu. Estimates of the stratified 

mean, precision level, and sample sizes within each stratum and across the landscape are then calculated on this page.

To enter LIM data analysis, use Sheet 1 of the file LIMdata.xls. For SPM 

analysis, use Sheet 1 of the SPMdata.xls file. For this example, however, the data 

have already been entered. For LIM analysis, open the file LIMdata.xls and click 

on the tab in the lower left corner that is labeled “Tutorial Data-III-Stratum 2.” 

Here you will find log data collected from 10 transects for this stratum. 

Consecutive subsegments—

Before analyses, sort transects and subsegments in ascending order to ensure that 

there are eight subsegments for each transect. In Excel, click a single cell in the 

first row and then click Data | Sort. Make sure that the entire data set has been 

highlighted for sorting. Then select Sort By transect and Then By subsegment. 

Scroll through the entire data set to ensure that eight subsegment lengths have 

been entered for each transect, and the beginning subsegment of each transect is 

numbered “1.” 

Creating a CSV file—

SnagPRO imports only CSV files. To create a CSV file for stratum 2, follow 

these steps:

1. Activate the “Tutorial_Data_III-Stratum 2” sheet by clicking anywhere on 

the sheet.

2. Select File | Save As.

3. Click Save as Type at the bottom of the Save As message box.

4. Select “CSV (comma delimited)(*.csv).”

5. Assign a new file name in the file name box.

6. Click Save. When saving as a CSV file, only the active sheet is retained. 

By saving the file with a different name, the original file is kept intact.

7. Click OK and Yes for first and second warning boxes, respectively.

To create the CSV file for stratum 3, repeat the procedure above with the 

worksheet labeled “Tutorial_Data_III-Stratum 3” found in the LIMdata.xls file. To 

create the CSV file for stratum 1, repeat the procedure above using the worksheet 

labeled “Tutorial Data-III” found in the SPMdata.xls file. 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

68

Importing to SnagPRO—

Import the CSV file of stratum 2 log data using these steps:

1. Launch SnagPRO by double-clicking on the desktop icon or the executable 

file—SnagPRO.exe.

2. Click Logs.

3. Go to Measurement and click Metric.

4. Go to Method and click LIM.

5. Go to File | Open. In the message box “Look In,” browse to the folder 

containing the CSV data, and select the file name.

This should successfully import the CSV file onto the Single/Combined page 

of SnagPRO. Although there are three strata for this analysis, each is treated as if 

it is part of a nonstratified landscape to obtain the information necessary for input 

onto the Combination page. Therefore, all analyses will be based on the Single/

Combined page.

Note that additional columns have been added to your file. The Section and 

Segment columns were inserted between Transect and Subsegment. SnagPRO combined consecutive subsegments (12.5-m lengths) into segments (25-m lengths), and 

segments into sections (50-m lengths) to allow for optimal transect length analysis.

Formula entry—

The next step is to have SnagPRO insert the appropriate formula in the Qualify 

column. This formula determines which logs are included in the current analysis. 

Begin with all logs >15 cm LED. To do this, click on Volume under the Formula

menu on the Single/Combined page. Then click on Set Criteria button located in 

the bottom-left of the screen.

To create the correct formula, based on your survey objectives, enter:

1. “15” for LED.

2. “0” for Length (the default when log lengths are not measured).

3. “0” for Condition (the default when log condition is not measured).

4. “9999” for Species (all log species are considered).

SnagPRO evaluates each log by the criteria listed above. For logs meeting all 

criteria, SnagPRO takes the intersect diameter of each log, squares it, and places 

this value in the Qualify column. Then SnagPRO inserts these values in the LIM 

estimator (equation 4a) to obtain volume estimates.

Analyzing by Transect Length—

SnagPRO calculates averages and standard deviations for each transect length 

within each stratum on the Summary Statistics page. To calculate the statistics for 

the current forest conditions:
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

69

1. Click on the Summary Statistics tab.

2. Click on the Single/Combined circle in the Analyze Data From section.

3. Click on the Calculate Statistics button. 

SnagPRO subtotals the values for each transect length (Subsegment_12.5, 

Segment_25, Section_50, and Transect_100). The number on the end of each label 

gives the length of the transect in meters. To the right of the subtotaled values are 

the averages, standard deviations, and current sample sizes for each transect length. 

These values were simultaneously transferred to the Optimal page. 

Optimal transect length—

To determine the transect length that optimizes sampling in current forest conditions, switch to the Optimal page. First, write a brief description of the study area 

and log characteristics in the box labeled Qualifying Logs. For example, for this 

analysis you might write: 

Qualifying Logs: Stratum 2; logs ≥15 cm LED; ≥1 m long. 

Under the heading Single/Combined on the Optimal page, notice each transect listed by name and length. The Average column provides the estimated average 

values (squared intersects multiplied by specific gravity) from the Qualify column 

for the four transect lengths. Standard deviations for these same values are shown 

in the next column. 

Results under the heading Volume (m3

/ha) show that this stand supports about 

72.8 m3/ha of logs in this size class of interest (≥15 cm LED; ≥1 m long). Note that 

the English equivalent is given in the last column (1,041 ft3/ac). The two columns 

labeled Estimated Sample Size Required and Estimated Total Survey Distance Required, calculate the total number of transect sections and total length of transect, 

respectively, required to obtain a weight estimate within 20 percent of the true 

mean 90 percent of the time. 

To select the optimal transect length, look at the column Estimated Total Survey Distance Required. In this example, the subsegments, which are 12.5 m long, 

require the shortest length for sampling (2304 m). By contrast, if 100-m transects 

are used, 6942 m of transect length would be required. But are subsegments independent? To test for independence:

1. Switch back to the Summary Statistics page.

2. Click on the Correlation button.

3. Enter “Subsegment” into Correlation Length box. 

The message box displays the correlation coefficient (r = 0.255) and the coefficient of determination (r2

 = 0.067). Based on these results, subsegments appear 

independent and may be used in this analysis.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

70

The last column in section two of the Optimal page is Additional Samples Required. This states how many meters of transect are still required to obtain a precise 

estimate after taking into account the sampling completed during the pilot survey. 

For this example, a little over 1300 m additional sampling would be required in 

stratum 2 to obtain a volume estimate within desired precision.

Volume analysis—

Volume estimates with a bound and precision level are given on the Volume page in 

SnagPRO. To obtain these values:

1. Click on the Volume tab.

2. Click on the Simple-Random Sampling Equation tab.

3. Click the Single button under the Calculate heading.

Results indicate that this stand supports an estimated 72.8 ± 22.1 m3

/ha of logs 

in this size class. (Recall that the precision of an estimate is calculated by dividing 

the bound by the mean.) In this example, the estimated precision is 30.4 percent, 

which can be interpreted as being 90 percent confident that the volume estimate in 

stratum 2 is within 30.4 percent of the true volume. At this point, a decision must be 

made as to whether the estimate is precise enough to meet management objectives, 

or whether to sample along 13 more 100-m transects (as indicated on the Optimal 

page) to improve the precision within this stratum. 

To ensure that accurate numbers are entered onto the Combination page, print 

the results from the Volume page. To do this: 

1. From the File menu select Print Preview.

2. Then choose either Print Portrait or Print Landscape.

3. Click Print. 

The next step is to obtain volume estimates of logs ≥25 cm LED. To do this, 

repeat all steps listed above, starting with the “Formula Entry” section, but when 

prompted to enter the qualifying LED, enter 25 instead of 15. 

On the Optimal page, results indicate that subsegments are the optimal transect 

length, requiring about 3354 m of transect. Check if these lengths are independent 

by clicking on the Correlation button on the Summary Statistics page. Results 

show that adjacent subsegments for this log size class are independent (r = 0.17; r2

 = 

0.029). Therefore, we will proceed with this length.

On the Volume page, click on the Single button to have the results from the 

Optimal page transferred. It is estimated that there are 54.1 ± 19.8 m3

/ha of logs 

in this size class (773 ft3/ac). Precision is 36.6 percent. Print this page to save the 

statistics for input onto the Combination page.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

71

Stratum 3 analysis—

To obtain volume estimates for stratum 3, import the data by clicking on File and 

directing SnagPRO to the CSV file containing data for stratum 3. Then repeat 

all instructions for stratum 3, as listed above for stratum 2. Print results from the 

Volume page for both log size classes when completed. 

Based on the results shown on the Optimal page, stratum 3 supports an estimated 145 m3

/ha of logs ≥15 cm LED, or 2,076 ft3/ac. It appears that the best transect 

length in stratum 3 is the segment. Using this length requires an estimated 443 m of 

transect, assuming the segments are independent. 

The serial correlation test, however, shows that segments may not be independent (r = 0.45). Values above this level are not considered independent (r = 0.403; 

r2

 = 0.163). Although we will continue to use this transect length for our analysis, 

assume for a moment that we want to choose a different length. The next best 

choice would be subsegments based on the results on the Optimal page. The correlation test on subsegments shows that this length can be considered independent 

(r = 0.063; r2 = 0.004). Subsegments, rather than segments, are better sampling units 

in this case because of the systematic distribution of logs. Segments were likely 

regularly hitting, or missing, clumps of logs, whereas using subsegments minimized 

this phenomenon. Note that the optimal transect length identified by SnagPro can 

be overriden by selecting a different Optimal Selection from the Settings menu 

and using the resulting statistics in the analysis. 

The Volume page shows that stratum 3 supports an estimated 145 ± 19.3 m3/ha. 

In addition, because log volume was consistently high throughout the stands, with 

low variability, the precision for this size class, 13.3 percent, has exceeded the 

desired level. Print the results on the Volume page for use on the Combination page.

Repeating this process for large (≥25 cm LED) logs in stratum 3 shows a volume of 89.1 ± 20.6 m3

/ha. The precision of 23.1 percent is approaching the desired 

level of 20 percent. Subsegments provide the most precise measurement and can 

be considered independent (r = 0.187; r2 = 0.035). Sample size required equals 1334 

m of transect length. Print results on the Volume page for use on the Combination 

page. This completes the analysis with LIM data.

Strip-plot method of analysis—

To obtain SPM volume estimates for stratum 1, import the data into the SPM 

portion of SnagPRO by using the following steps:

1. Click Logs under Habitat Component.

2. From the Method menu click SPM.

3. Click Yes to reaffirm a new analysis.

Subsegments, rather 

than segments, are 

better sampling units 

in this case because 

of the systematic 

distribution of logs. 

Segments were likely 

regularly hitting, 

or missing, clumps 

of logs, whereas 

using subsegments 

minimized this 

phenomenon.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

72

4. Click Open in the File menu.

5. Direct SnagPRO to the folder where the CSV file containing the SPM data 

can be found.

This should successfully import the CSV file onto the Single/Combined page 

of SnagPRO. Note that the Section and Segment columns have been added to the 

file, inserted between Transect and Subsegment. Also note that although information about endpoints (for density estimates) were not collected, a column labeled 

Endpoint appears on the data sheet. This formatting is necessary for SnagPRO to 

work properly. 

Formula entry—

The next step is to have SnagPRO insert the appropriate formula in the Qualify 

column for stratum 1. This formula determines which logs are included in the current analysis. To do this: 

1. From the Formula menu, select Volume.

2. “10” for LED.

3. “0” for EstimLength because you want all logs to be included and only 

logs ≥1 m long were measured.

4. “3” for Condition (all decay classes considered).

5. “9999” for Species (all log species considered).

For logs meeting the above criteria, SnagPRO calculates the volume of 

each portion of the log contained within the plot. This value is placed in the 

Qualify column. 

Analyzing by transect length—

SnagPRO calculates averages and standard deviations for each transect length 

within each stratum on the Summary Statistics page. To calculate the statistics for 

stratum 1:

1. Click on the Summary Statistics page.

2. Click on the Single/Combined circle in the Analyze Data From section.

3. Click on the Calculate Statistics button. 

Optimal transect length—

Switch to the Optimal page and write a brief description of the stratum and size 

class of log being analyzed. For example:

Qualifying Logs: Stratum 1; SPM; logs ≥15 cm LED; ≥1 m long.

The results in the Volume (m3

/ha) column show that this stand supports about 

39.3 m3/ha (562 ft3/ac) of logs (>15 cm LED and >1 m long). Segments appear to be 

the best choice for transect length, requiring an estimated 3254 m. Results of the 
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

73

serial correlation test, shown on the Summary Statistics page, indicate that adjacent 

segments are independent (r = 0.126; r2 = 0.016). 

Volume analysis—

Once the Volume page is activated, enter the area of stratum 1 (812) in the box 

labeled “Landscape Area.” Results show that stratum 1 contains an estimated 39.3 

± 14.2 m3

/ha. Precision is 36.1 percent. Print the results on the Volume page for use 

on the Combination page at the end.

Results for large (≥25 cm LED) logs in stratum 1, using the same analytical 

process, yields a volume of 33.8 ± 14 m3/ha. Precision is 41.4 percent. Segments 

provide the most precise measurement and are independent (r = 0.134; r2 = 0.018). 

Estimated sample size required equals 4270 m. Print the results on the Volume page 

for use on the Combination page. 

Stratified volume analysis—

To obtain a stratified volume estimate using both the LIM and SPM sampling 

methods, the statistics expressed in a per-unit basis from each Volume page generated above, must be entered onto the Combination page. To do this:

1. Click on Combination from the Method menu.

2. Click Yes to change the method.

3. Click Volume from the Formula menu.

There are two sheets available on the Combination page. Shaded boxes require 

input from users. The Parameter Estimate page (fig. 18) uses a stratified-random 

sampling equation to calculate a mean, bound, and precision for measurements 

expressed in a per-unit basis (hectares or acres). The Sample Sizes page provides 

the Estimated Sample Size Required for estimates expressed in hectares or acres. 

Follow these steps to obtain an estimate of log volume (≥15 cm LED) for the 

entire subwatershed using the results printed out for each stratum: 

1. Enter the numbers “1,” “2,” and “3” under the heading Stratum.

2. Under the heading Transect Section Names select Segment, Subsegment,

and Segment from the drop-down menu for strata 1, 2, and 3, respectively.

3. Enter the numbers “812,” “654,” and “490” for number of hectares in strata 

1, 2, and 3, respectively.

4. Enter the estimated volume of logs per hectare for each strata under the 

heading Parameter Estimates. For strata 1, 2, and 3 there were 39.3, 72.8, 

and 145 m3

/ha, respectively.

5. Enter the estimated variance for strata 1, 2, and 3. These values were 2884, 

14,027, and 5,370, respectively. 

6. Enter the number of samples for each stratum. This should be 40, 80, and 

40 for strata 1, 2, and 3, respectively. 
Figure 18—Parameter Estimates spreadsheet in Combo file: stratified mean volume estimate with a 90-percent confidence 

interval for qualifying logs. Data are from Tutorial III using line-intersect method (LIM) for one stratum and strip-plot 

method (SPM) for another.

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

74

The stratified volume estimate for this subwatershed is 77 ± 10.6 m3/ha with 

a precision of 13.8 percent (fig. 18). Repeating this process for large logs yields a 

stratified volume estimate of 54.4 ± 10.2 m3/ha with a precision of 19 percent. 

Conclusions for multiple strata using a combination of LIM and SPM—

Although the estimates of log volume within strata 1 and 2 were not as precise as 

desired (were not <20 percent), the stratified estimates of log volume for the entire 

subwatershed exceeded the desired precision for logs in both size classes. This suggests that both the sampling design and stratification process for this subwatershed 

worked well to meet objectives. 
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

75

As shown by these Tutorials, SnagPro offers a variety of analysis procedures 

geared to meet different management objectives. Key analytical steps included in 

these examples were importing data from an Excel spreadsheet, obtaining a variety 

of basic metrics on unstratified and stratified data, and use of a pilot sample to 

estimate the appropriate sample size needed to meet overall survey objectives.

The importance of logs in research and management to meet a variety of 

resource objectives suggests that methods outlined here are needed as an efficient 

and accurate way to evaluate log conditions. Supporting SnagPro software provides a process of data entry, management, and analysis that is easy to follow and 

minimizes analysis mistakes. We urge researchers and managers of logs to consider 

using these tools to aid in the work on this important resource. 

Acknowledgments

We thank Ray Davis, Deb Hennessy, Jennifer Weikel, and Christina Vojta for 

detailed comments on SnagPRO operations and this manuscript. Kim Mellen and 

Amy Jacobs reviewed earlier versions of our manuscript. Daniel Jones, Jennifer 

Carpenedo, Gene Paul, Kent Coe, Alexa Michel, Darren Hopkins, Damon Page, 

Cynthia Sandoval, Eric Sandoz, Lee Stultz, and Peter Barry assisted in data collection. Andrew Youngblood and Kerry Mettlen assisted in obtaining land area 

measurements. The USDA Forest Service—specifically the Pacific Northwest Research Station and Washington office of National Forest System—provided funding 

for this project. The Flathead National Forest in Montana provided equipment and 

consultation. We also thank James Brown and Tim Max for their assistance with 

sampling methods pertaining to the line-intersect method. Kirk Steinhorst provided 

advice and reviews of statistical methods presented here. 

English Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To find:

Centimeters (cm) 0.394 Inches (in)

Meters (m) 3.281 Feet (ft)

Square meters (m2

) 10.76 Square feet (ft2)

Hectares (ha) 2.471 Acres (ac)

Logs per ha (logs/ha) .405 Logs per acre (logs/ac)

Meters per ha (m/ha) 1.328 Feet per acre (ft/ac)

Cubic meters per ha (m3

/ha) 14.29 Cubic feet per acre (ft3/ac)

Metric tons per ha .446 English tons per acre

Kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3

) .0624 Pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3)

The importance of 

logs in research and 

management to meet 

a variety of resource 

objectives suggests 

that methods outlined 

here are needed as an 

efficient and accurate 

way to evaluate log 

conditions.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

76

References

Bartels, R.; Dell, J.D.; Knight, R.L.; Schaefer, G. 1985. Dead and down woody 

material. In: Brown, E.R., tech. ed. Management of wildlife and fish habitats 

in forests of western Oregon and Washington. Part 1: Chapter narratives. 

R-6F&WL-191-1985. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Region: 171–186.

Bate, L.J.; Garton, E.O.; Wisdom, M.J. 1999a. Estimating snag and large tree 

densities and distributions on a landscape for wildlife management. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. PNW-GTR-425. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 76 p.

Bate, L.J.; Torgersen, T.R.; Garton, E.O.; Wisdom, M.J. 1999b. Estimating 

the density, total length, and percent cover of logs on a landscape for wildlife 

management. Unpublished report. On file with: USDA Forest Service, Forestry 

and Range Sciences Laboratory, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR 97850.

Bate, L.J.; Torgersen, T.R.; Garton, E.O.; Wisdom, M.J. 2004. Performance of 

two sampling methods to estimate log characteristics for wildlife. Forest Ecology 

and Management. 199(2004): 83–102.

Bate, L.J.; Wisdom, M.J.; Garton, E.O.; Clabough, S.C. [In press]. SnagPRO: 

snag and large tree sampling methods and analyses for wildlife. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

Research Station.

Bell, G.; Kerr, A.; McNickle, D.; Woollons, R. 1996. Accuracy of the line 

intersect method of post-logging sampling under orientation bias. Forest Ecology 

and Management. 84(1996): 23–28.

Brown, J.K. 1974. Handbook for inventorying downed woody material. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. INT-GTR-16. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 24 p.

Brown, J.K.; See, T.E. 1981. Downed dead wood fuel and biomass in the Northern 

Rocky Mountains. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-117. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. 48 p.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

77

Bull, E.L.; Carter, B.; Henjum, M. [and others]. 1991. Monitoring protocolOctober 1991. Protocol for monitoring woodpeckers and snags in the Pacific 

Northwest region of U.S. Forest Service. Unpublished report. 8 p. On file with: 

USDA Forest Service, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory, 1401 Gekeler 

Lane, La Grande, OR 97850.

Bull, E.L.; Henjum, M.G. 1990. Ecology of the great gray owl. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

PNW-GTR-265. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Pacific Northwest Research Station. 39 p.

Bull, E.L.; Holthausen, R.S. 1993. Habitat use and management of pileated 

woodpeckers in northeastern Oregon. Journal of Wildlife Management. 

57: 335–345.

Bull, E.L.; Parks, C.G.; Torgersen, T.R. 1997. Trees and logs important to 

wildlife in the interior Columbia River basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-391. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

Research Station. 55 p.

Bull, E.L.; Torgersen, T.R.; Wertz, T.L. 2001. The importance of vegetation, 

insects, and neonate ungulates in black bear diet in northeastern Oregon. 

Northwest Science. 75: 244–253.

Carey, A.B.; Johnson, M.L. 1995. Small mammals in managed, unharvested 

young, and old-growth forests. Ecological Applications. 5: 336–352.

Cochran, W.G. 1977. Sampling techniques. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley and 

Sons. 428 p.

De Vries, P.G. 1973. A general theory on line intersect sampling with application 

to logging residue inventory. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Mededelingen 

Landbouwhogeschool 73–11. 23 p.

Franklin, J.F.; Cromack, K., Jr.; Denison, W. [and others]. 1981. Ecological 

characteristics of old-growth Douglas-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-118. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p.

Fischer, W.C. 1981. Photo guide for appraising downed woody fuels in Montana 

forests: grand fir-larch-Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western hemlock-western 

redcedar, and western redcedar cover types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-96. Ogden, 

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 53 p.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

78

Harmon, M.E.; Franklin, J.F.; Swanson, F.J. [and others]. 1986. Ecology of 

coarse woody debris in temperate ecosystems. Advances in Ecological Research. 

15: 133–302.

Harvey, A.E.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J.; Graham, R.T. 1987. Decaying 

organic materials and soil quality in the inland Northwest: a management 

opportunity. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-225. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. 15 p.

Hayes, J.P.; Cross, S.P. 1987. Characteristics of logs used by western red-backed 

voles and deer mice. Canadian Field Naturalist. 101: 543–546.

Hazard, J.W.; Pickford, S.G. 1978. Simulation studies on line intercept sampling 

of forest residue. Forest Science. 24: 469–483.

Hazard, J.W.; Pickford, S.G. 1986. Simulation studies on line intersect sampling 

of forest residue, Part II. Forest Science. 32: 447–470.

Hurlbert, S.H. 1984. Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field 

experiments. Ecological Monographs. 54(2): 187–211.

Husch, B.; Miller, C.I.; Beers, T.W. 1972. Forest mensuration. 2nd ed. New York: 

Ronald Press Company. 410 p. 

Jurgensen, M.F.; Harvey, A.E.; Graham, R.T. [and others]. 1997. Impacts of 

timber harvesting on soil organic matter, nitrogen, productivity, and health of 

inland Northwest forests. Forest Science. 43: 234–251.

Koehler, G.M.; Aubry, K.B. 1994. Lynx. In: Ruggiero, L.F.; Aubry, K.B.; 

Buskirk, S.W. [and others], tech. eds. The scientific basis for conserving forest 

carnivores. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-254. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station: 74–98.

Krebs, C.J. 1989. Ecological methodology. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 

Inc. 654 p.

Lofroth, E. 1998. The dead wood cycle. In: Voller, J.; Harrison, S., eds. 

Conservation biology principles for forested landscapes. Vancouver, BC: UBC 

Press: 185–214.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

79

Maser, C.; Anderson, R.G.; Ralph, G. [and others]. 1979. Dead and down woody 

material. In: Thomas, J.W., tech. ed. Wildlife habitats in managed forests—the 

Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 533. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 78–95.

Mellen, K.; Marcot, B.G.; Ohmann, J.L. [and others]. 2006. DecAID, the 

decayed wood advisor for managing snags, partially dead trees, and down wood 

for biodiversity in forests of Washington and Oregon. Version 2.0. Portland, 

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region 

and Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish 

and Wildlife Service, Oregon State Office. http://wwwnotes.fs.fed.us:81/pnw/

DecAID/DecAID.nsf. (19 December 2007).

Norris, L.A. 1990. An overview and synthesis of knowledge concerning natural 

and prescribed fire in the Pacific Northwest forest. In: Walstad, J.D.; Radosevich, 

S.R.; Sandberg, D.V., eds. Natural and prescribed fire in Pacific Northwest 

forests. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press: 7–22. Chapter 2.

Powell, R.A.; Zielinski, W.J. 1994. Fisher. In: Ruggiero, L.F.; Aubry, K.B; 

Buskirk, S.W. [and others], tech. eds. The scientific basis for conserving forest 

carnivores. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-254. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station: 38–73.

Quigley, T.M.; Haynes, R.W.; Graham, R.T., tech. eds. 1996. Integrated 

scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia basin 

and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-382. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

Research Station. 303 p.

Sandberg, D.V.; Ottmar, R.D. 1983. Slash burning and fuel consumption in the 

Douglas-fir subregion. In: Proceedings of the 7th American Meteorological 

Society and Society of American Foresters conference on fire and forest 

meteorology. Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society: 90–93. 

Sheehan, K.A. 1996. Effects of insecticide treatments on subsequent defoliation by 

western spruce budworm in Oregon and Washington: 1982-92. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

PNW-GTR-367. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Pacific Northwest Research Station. 55 p.

Sokal, R.R.; Rohlf, F.J. 1981. Biometry. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 

859 p.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

80

Swihart, R.K.; Slade, N.A. 1985. Testing for independence of observations in 

animal movements. Ecology. 66(4): 1176–1184.

Tallmon, D.; Mills, S. 1994. Use of logs within home ranges of California redbacked voles on a remnant of forest. Journal of Mammalogy. 75: 97–101. 

Torgersen, T.R.; Bull, E.L. 1995. Down logs as habitat for forest-dwelling ants—

the primary prey of pileated woodpeckers in northeastern Oregon. Northwest 

Science. 69: 294–303.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1991. Field procedures guide: 

stand examination program. Portland, OR: Pacific Northwest Region. 62 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1995. Flathead National Forest 

Plan. Kalispell, MT. 555 p.

Walstad, J.D.; Radosevich, S.R.; Sandberg, D.V. 1990. Natural and prescribed 

fire in Pacific Northwest forests. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 

317 p.

Warren, W.G.; Olsen, P.F. 1964. A line intersect technique for assessing logging 

waste. Forest Science. 10(3): 267-276.

Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 

718 p.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

81

Appendix 1: Customized Log Measuring Sticks

We recommend buying calipers for log surveys, but realize that the investment 

in calipers to measure log diameters may make log sampling cost prohibitive. 

Although not as accurate as calipers, customized log measuring sticks provide an 

economical and efficient alternative. The stick consists of three parts: (1) straight 

rule on one side, (2) graduated rule on opposite side, and (3) square. The straightruled side is for measuring log lengths within the strip plots. The graduated rule is 

a Biltmore stick, which gives diameter measurements. Finally, the square is useful 

to help determine the outer boundaries of the plots used in the strip-plot method 

(SPM) (fig. 2a and 2b). The figure below illustrates the design and construction 

using a hardwood with metric measurements. For English measurement users, the 

measuring stick should be 3 ft long.

Biltmore sticks should be held 63.5 cm (25 in) from the eyes. This can be 

customized, however, to meet the needs of the user. Closing one eye, line up the 

zero end of the stick with one side of the tree. Both the straight and graduated rules 

should begin at the far side of the stick. Then shift the same eye, while maintaining 

the position of your head, to read where the opposite side of the tree intersects the 

Biltmore graduations. The place where the two intersect, indicates the diameter of 

the log. 

The graduations for creating the Biltmore side of the stick can be found by the 

following equation (Husch and others 1972):

B D

D

E

=

1+

where

B = distance from zero point of the stick to the position for a given diameter,

D = log diameter, and

E = perpendicular distance from eye to stick.
Height = 2.9 cm

Width = 1.9 cm

 1.0 m

30 cm

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 130 170 200

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

82

Straight rule on back side

Graduated rule on front side
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

83

Appendix 2: Line-Intersect Method 

(LIM) Field Form Explanations

Example of log definition:

For the purposes of this study, a “log” is defined as any down wood piece whose 

large-end diameter (LED) is >7.6 cm (3 in). A log qualifies if its central axis (the 

center of the bole or the pith) is intersected by the transect line (fig. 3). Its axis must 

lie above the ground (above duff and mineral soil layer). Dead stems attached to 

a live tree are not counted. Multiple branches attached to dead trees or shrubs are 

each tallied separately. For leaning dead trees, if the angle between the dead tree 

and the ground is <45 degrees it is a log; if greater, it is a snag. If the central axis of 

a suspended log is <1.8 m above the ground where the transect passes, tally the log 

on the transect; otherwise, disregard it. 

1. Stratum: Enter the stratum number: 1, 2, 3, or 4. 

2. Location: Enter the stand number in which the plot is contained.

3. Transect: Assign a unique numeric identifier to indicate which 100-m 

or 400-ft transect is being surveyed (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4). No two transects 

within a survey area should be the same regardless of the stratum.

4. Subsegment: Assign a unique numeric identifier (1 through 8) to indicate 

which 12.5-m (or 50-ft) subsegment is being surveyed. Most importantly, 

the first subsegment of each transect should start with “1.” This will allow 

SnagPRO to correctly join consecutive subsegments.

5. Species: SnagPRO can accommodate either alpha (six characters) or numeric data. Listed below are the standardized species codes taken from 

the stand exam program in the Pacific Northwest Region [USDA Forest 

Service 1991]. Customize for your own use.

Douglas-fir/redwoods:

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) 202

Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl.) 211

True firs:

Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis Dougl. ex Forbes) 011

White fir (Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr.) 015

Grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl.) 017

Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.) 019

California red fir (Abies magnifica A. Murray var. magnifica A. Murray) 020

Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica A. Murray var. shastensis Lemmon) 021

Noble fir (Abies procera Rehd.) 022
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

84

Cedars:

Port Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murr.) Parl.) 041

Alaska cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach) 042

Incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens (Torr.) Florin) 081

Western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don) 242

Larch:

Western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) 073

Spruce:

Brewer spruce (Picea breweriana Wats.) 092

Englemann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry ex Englm.) 093

Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) 098

Pines:

Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.) 108

Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) 116

Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana Dougl.) 117

Western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Don) 119

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) 122

Hemlock:

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) 263

Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr.) 264

Hardwoods:

Bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum Pursh) 312

Red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) 351

Western paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) 376

Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii Pursh) 361

Golden chinkapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla (Dougl.) A. DC) 431

Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia Benth.) 542

Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus (Hook. & Arn.) Rehd.) 631

Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) 746

Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa Torr. & Gray) 747

Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana Dougl. ex Hook.) 815

California black oak (Quercus kelloggii Newb.) 818

Oregon myrtle (Umbellularia californica (Hook. & Arn.) Nutt.) 981
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

85

Other conifers:

Subalpine larch (Larix lyallii Parl.) 072

Cypress (Cupressus) 050

All junipers (Juniperus) 060

Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia Nutt.) 231

Knobcone pine (Pinus attenuate Lemm.) 103

Limber pine (Pinus flexilis James) 113

Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis Engelm.) 101

6. Intersect: Enter the diameter (cm or in) of the qualifying log at the point 

where the transect intersects the log (fig. 3). 

7. LED: Enter the LED in centimeters (in) of the qualifying log that is 

intersected. If roots are still attached, measure the LED just above the 

butt swell where the breast height would occur if the tree were still standing (fig. 5). This is important: If no logs are encountered along the entire 

length of the subsegment, enter “9999” in the LED space.

8. Condition: Enter the numeric value (1 or 2) for the corresponding decay 

class (hard or soft) of the log encountered. See Maser and others (1979) 

and Bull and others (1997) for more detailed decay classes and definitions 

that also can be used.

1= Sound (hard, would burn for awhile)

2= Rotten (decayed, not much fuel value)

9. Length: (Optional) Enter the total length of the log including the rootwad, 

if present. Measure out to where the small-end diameter is 2.5 cm or 1 in 

(fig. 1a). 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

86

Appendix 3: Split-Plot Method 

(SPM) Field Form Explanations

Example of log definition:

For the purposes of this study, a log is defined as any down woody piece with a 

large-end diameter (LED) >23 cm (9 in) and >1 m (39 in) in length. To be counted, 

>0.1 m (4 in) length of a log must be contained within the plot (fig. 1). For logs 

broken into two pieces, treat them as one log if the pieces are touching. Otherwise, 

treat them as separate logs. Its axis must lie above the ground (above duff and 

mineral soil layer). Dead stems attached to a live tree are not counted. Multiple 

branches attached to dead trees or shrubs are each tallied separately. For leaning 

dead trees, if the angle between the dead tree and the ground is <45 degrees, it is 

a log; if greater, it is a snag. If the central axis of a suspended log is >1.8 m (6 ft) 

above the ground within the strip plot, disregard it. 

1. Stratum: Enter the stratum number: 1, 2, 3, or 4. 

2. Location: Enter the stand number in which the plot is contained.

3. Transect: Assign a unique numeric identifier to indicate which 100-m 

or 400-ft transect is being surveyed (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4). No two transects 

should be the same regardless of the stratum.

4. Subsegment: Assign a unique numeric identifier (1 through 8) to indicate 

which subsegment is being surveyed. Most importantly, the first subsegment of each transect should start with “1.” This will allow SnagPRO to 

correctly join consecutive subsegments.

5. LED: Enter the LED of the qualifying log, regardless if it falls in or out of 

the boundaries of the strip plot, to the nearest centimeter or inch. If roots 

are still attached, measure the LED just above the butt swell where breast 

height would occur if the tree were still standing (fig. 5). Otherwise, measure diameter at largest point where log is still intact. This is important: 

enter the number “9999” if no logs were contained within this plot. 

6. Endpoint: For each qualifying log whose endpoint (LED) falls within the 

boundaries of the plot, enter “1”; otherwise, enter “0.” If density is the only 

parameter of interest, simply conduct a tally of logs whose endpoints are 

contained within the strip plot boundaries. If no endpoints are contained 

within a subsegment, record “9999” in the LED column and “0” in the 

Endpoint column.

7. Large: For logs within the plot boundaries, enter the diameter (cm or in) of 

the log at its large end (see fig. 1b).

8. Small: For logs within the plot boundaries, enter the diameter (cm or in) of 

the log at its smallest end (fig. 1b). 
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

87

9. Length: If the entire log lies within the bounds of the plot, enter the length 

of the log between the small- and large-end diameters (fig. 1b). Otherwise, 

measure the length of the log that lies within the plot (fig. 9). Length measurements should not extend past 2 m (6 ft) from the centerline. The 2 m 

(6 ft) distance is the perpendicular distance along the ground between the 

centerline transect and the central axis (pith) of the log. 

10. Condition: Enter the numeric value for the corresponding decay class 

(hard or soft) of the log encountered. See Maser and others (1979) and 

Bull and others (1997) for more detailed decay classes and definitions that 

also can be used.

1 = Sound (hard, would burn for awhile)

2 = Rotten (decayed, not much fuel value)

11. Use: Enter the appropriate code to indicate whether or not the log displays 

wildlife signs. This should be customized for the species of interest.

0 = None observed

1 = Wildlife signs (e.g., woodpecker foraging, bear foraging, squirrel middens, other).

12. Species: SnagPRO can accommodate either alpha (six characters) or numeric data. Listed below are the standardized species codes taken from the 

Pacific Northwest Region stand exam program in (USDA Forest Service 

1991). Customize for your own use.

Douglas-fir/redwoods:

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) 202

Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl.) 211

True firs:

Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis Dougl. ex Forbes) 011

White fir (Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr.) 015

Grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl.) 017

Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.) 019

California red fir (Abies magnifica A. Murray var. magnifica A. Murray) 020

Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica A. Murray var. shastensis Lemmon) 021

Noble fir (Abies procera Rehd.) 022

Cedars:

Port Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murr.) Parl.) 041

Alaska cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach) 042

Incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens (Torr.) Florin) 081

Western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don) 242
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

88

Larch:

Western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) 073

Spruce:

Brewer spruce (Picea breweriana Wats.) 092

Englemann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry ex Englm.) 093

Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) 098

Pines:

Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.) 108

Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) 116

Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana Dougl.) 117

Western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Don) 119

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) 122

Hemlock:

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) 263

Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr.) 264

Hardwoods:

Bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum Pursh) 312

Red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) 351

Western paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) 376

Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii Pursh) 361

Golden chinkapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla (Dougl.) A. DC) 431

Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia Benth.) 542

Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus (Hook. & Arn.) Rehd.) 631

Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) 746

Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa Torr. & Gray) 747

Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana Dougl. ex Hook.) 815

California black oak (Quercus kelloggii Newb.) 818

Oregon myrtle (Umbellularia californica (Hook. & Arn.) Nutt.) 981

Other conifers:

Subalpine larch (Larix lyallii Parl.) 072

Cypress (Cupressus) 050

All junipers (Juniperus) 060

Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia Nutt.) 231

Knobcone pine (Pinus attenuata Lemm.) 103

Limber pine (Pinus flexilis James) 113

Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis Engelm.) 101
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

89

13. % Length (optional)

Enter the number that best describes what percentage of the log length is 

contained within the strip plot boundary:

<10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

90

Appendix 4: General Instructions 

for Analysis Within a Single Stratum

1. To get started

a. Double click on SnagPRO.exe.

b. Click on the Logs button under Habitat Component.

c. From the Measurement menu, select Metric or English.

d. From the Method menu select the sampling method: LIM or SPM.

e. From the Formula menu select the variable of interest: Density, 

Length, Percent Cover, Tally, Volume, or Weight.

f. Open your data file by clicking on Open under the File menu.

g. Highlight the name of your CSV file and click Open.

2. To set criteria

a. Single click on tab labeled Single/Combined.

b. Notice segment and section field names have been added and computed 

 for each column.

c. Click on button in bottom left of screen labeled Set Criteria.

d. Enter minimum LED in message box labeled LED.

e. Enter minimum length of logs to be considered in message box labeled 

 Length. Enter “0” if all lengths will be considered or log lengths were 

 not measured.

f. Enter maximum value for condition class (or decay class) in message 

 box labeled Condition (this box does not appear when calculating 

 weight estimates).

g. Enter numeric code of log species you would like to exclude in box 

 labeled Species.

3. Calculate statistics

a. Click on tab for page labeled Summarize Statistics.

b. On Summarize Statistics page, under Analyze Data From, click on 

 Single/Combined.

c. Then click the Calculate Statistics button found directly below.

d. Click on Optimal tab.

e. Check desired level of precision and t-value; if different values are 

 desired, enter them and repeat steps 3a through 3d.

f. Enter brief description of stratum and log characteristics for 

 your records.

g. Examine Optimal page for statistics, estimated sample size required, 

 additional samples required, and optimal transect length.

h. Run serial correlation analysis for selected plot size.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

91

i. Print copy of page if desired by selecting Print Preview from the File

 menu, then clicking tab labeled Print.

4. Variable estimate

a. Click on tab with the name of the variable of interest: Density, Length, 

 Percent Cover, Tally, Volume, or Weight.

b. Check to ensure t-value is correct for the analysis.

c. Select tab labeled Simple-Random Sampling Equation.

d. For SPM analyses, enter landscape area (hectares or acres).

e. Under Calculate heading click tab labeled Single.

f. Examine variable sheet for estimated parameters and current level of 

precision to decide whether an adequate number of samples have been 

taken. Refer back to the Optimal page for additional number of 

samples to take to reach desired level of precision.

5. Statistical test

a. Enter the target value of the variable you are testing.

b. Enter the estimated value of the variable you are testing.

c. Enter the bound.

d. If target value (red line) falls within the bounds (green lines) of the 

estimated value (blue line), accept the null hypothesis: There is no 

difference between the estimated and target values for the given 

variable; otherwise, reject the null hypothesis.

e. For borderline cases, consider additional sampling effort.
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-746

92

Appendix 5: General Instructions for 

Analysis Within a Stratified Landscape

1. To get started

a. Double click on SnagPRO.exe.

b. Click on the Logs button under Habitat Component.

c. From the Measurement menu, select Metric or English.

d. From the Method menu select the sampling method: LIM or SPM.

e. From the Formula menu select the variable of interest: Density, 

Length, Percent Cover, Tally, Volume, or Weight.

f. Open your data file by clicking on Open under the File menu.

g. Highlight the name of your CSV file and click Open.

h. Notice that segment and section field names have been added and 

computed for each column.

2. To set criteria to all strata

a. Click on tab labeled Stratum 1.

b. Click on the Apply and Sort button.

c. Enter minimum LED in message box labeled LED.

d. Enter minimum length of logs to be considered in message box labeled 

Length. Enter “0” if all lengths will be considered or log lengths were 

not measured.

e. Enter maximum value for condition class (or decay class) in message 

box labeled Condition (this box does not appear when calculating 

weight estimates).

f. Enter numeric code of log species you would like to exclude in box 

labeled Species.

3. Calculate statistics

a. Click on Summarize Statistics page.

b. On Summarize Statistics page, under heading “Analyze Data From,” 

click on Stratum 1.

c. Then click the Calculate Statistics button found directly below.

d. Repeat 3b and 3c for each stratum.

e. Click on page labeled Optimal.

f. Check desired level of precision and t-value; if different values are 

desired, enter them and repeat steps 3a through 3d.

g. Enter brief description of stratum and log characteristics for 

your records.

h. Examine Optimal page for statistics, estimated sample size required, 

additional samples required, and optimal transect length for stratum 1.
Log Sampling Methods and Software for Stand and Landscape Analyses

93

i. Run serial correlation analysis for selected plot size.

j. Print copy of page if desired by selecting Print Preview from the File

menu, then clicking tab labeled Print.

k. Repeat 3g through 3i for all strata.

4. Variable estimate

a. Click on tab with the name of the variable of interest: Density, Length, 

Percent Cover, Tally, Volume, or Weight.

b. Check to ensure t-value is correct for the analysis.

c. Select tab labeled Stratified-Random Sampling Equation.

d. Enter the correct stratum size (in hectares or acres) in each of the input 

boxes that corresponds to the number of strata in your analysis at the 

bottom of the page; otherwise, leave blank.

e. Under Calculate heading click the Stratified tab.

f. Examine variable sheet for estimated parameters and current level 

of precision.

5. Sample size required

a. Click on page labeled Sample Size.

b. Examine Optimal and Proportional sections for estimated sample sizes 

required within each stratum. Refer to the “Parameter Estimates for a 

Stratified Landscape” section on differences between the two 

allocation methods.

6. Statistical test

a. Click on Statistical Test page.

b. Enter the target value of the variable you are testing.

c. Enter the estimated value of the variable you are testing.

d. Enter its bound.

e. If target value (red line) falls within the bounds (green lines) of the 

estimated value (blue line), accept the null hypothesis: There is no 

difference between the estimated and target values for the given 

variable; otherwise, reject the null hypothesis.

f. For borderline cases, consider additional sampling effort.

Pacific Northwest Research Station

Web site http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw

Telephone (503) 808-2592

Publication requests (503) 808-2138

FAX (503) 808-2130

E-mail pnw_pnwpubs@fs.fed.us

Mailing address Publications Distribution

 Pacific Northwest Research Station

 P.O. Box 3890

 Portland, OR 97208-3890
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Pacific Northwest Research Station

333 SW First Avenue

P.O. Box 3890

Portland, OR 97208-3890

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use, $300