Technical Report 711

Training Lessons Learned from Peak

1100'aPerformance Episodes

J. L. Fobes

ARt Field Unit at Presidio of Monterey, California

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Basic Research ~ *~

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C...)U. S. Army

Lj~jReserchInsttuteforthe Behavioral and Social Sciences

June 1986

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TRAINING LESSONS LEARNED FROM PEAK PERFORMAN4CE Fina ReportEPSOESOctober 1984-December 1985 %

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Sports psychologyN

Training

Self -regulation

Enkephalin

Endorphin

20. AEST1ACT (Vowthse ea reverseeb N uneev an Ider.Iiy by block numbet)

)- An examination of episodes of peak performance indicates that three cogni- .

tive components enable these episodes: psychological readiness (activating .

optimal arousal and emotion appropriate for the task), information processing

(attending to and interpreting key stimuli), and endurance management (controlling fatigue and pain for sustained performance). There is also evidence

suggesting that-endorphins underlie these three processes. Accordingly, performance can be enhanced through two strategies; one technique is teaching

(Continued)

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ARI Technical Report 711 %

20. (Continued)

self-regulation of endorphin levels. The other more immediately available

solution is to use contemporary sports psychology training techniques to

optimize cognitive processes underlying superior performance. With either e

strategy, optimal performance will result from an enhanced ability to cope e..

specifically and continuously tailored to meet the conditions and demands jb -

of a particular activity.

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Technical Report 711

V, V

Training Lessons Learned from Peak

Performance Episodes

ARI Field Unit at Presidio of Monterey, California

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MiltonKatz, irec..

4.: Jue 198

Army ~ ~ ~ ~ Bai ResearherBsi Rserc1

5001ve Efenor Avubirelean:disritVirginied 23-50

Office.~~~~~~~ tf o esne DeuyCfo 
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ARI Research Reports and Technical Reports are intended for sponsors of

R&D tasks and for other research and military agencies. Any findings ready L

for implementation at the time of publication are presented in the last part

of the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recoin-.

mendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriate military

agencies by briefing or Disposition Form.

4 w

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FOREWORD .

The Army Research Institute is seeking new ways to enhance"...

performance as emphasized by the Army Science Board Subgroup on

Emerging Human Technologies. This report describes a promising '__

approach based upon the results of an examination of instances of exceptional military and sports achievement. Psychological

components found to be important for optimal performance can be".-'"

manipulated, with training techniques from sports psychology, .... such that they are specifically and continuously tailored to meet . [ the conditions and demands of military tasks. This approach to

training has maor implications for optimizing both individual

and team performance. or

EDG AR M J5OHNSi N |- Technical Directoraletme

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TRAINING LESSONS LEARNED FROM PEAK PERFORMANCE EPISODES .1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Requirement:

High quality performance will be essential to prevail on the

battlefield envisioned for the 21st Century. Consequently, a

major challenge confronting US Army readiness is obtaining

optimal performance from both its human and machine resources.

Force modernization towards ARMY 21 has benefited, greatly from

R&D on equipment technologies. Comparable R&D efforts are needed

to obtain breakthroughs for optimizing individual and group

performance. This requirement can be met in part through an

understanding of performance regulation and related training technologies that can enhance Army performance.

Procedure:

The training concept described here is derived from an

examination of inztanceo of exceptional achiovement - peak

performances. Factors accompanying episodes of peak performance

in n soldiers and athletes were identified through two major

sources. Information was obtained from literature reviews of

data bases dealing with peak performance in the military, sports

psychology/medicine, and biological sciences as well as from

interviews conducted with athletes and members of the military.

Findings:

The examination of episodes of peak performance indicates

that three cognitive components enable these episodes:

psychblogical readiness, information processing, and endurance L

management, There is also evidence indicating that endorphins

underlie these processes. Accordingly, performance can be

enhanced through two strategies; one approach for future

development is teaching self-regulation of endorphin levels. The

other more immediately available solution is to use contemporary

sports psychology training techniques to optimize the

psynchological processes underlying superior performance. With -ith!er rtrategy, supeirior performance will result from an

enhanced cognitive ability to cope that is specificaliy and

continuously tailored to meet the conditions and demands of

particular activities.

Vii
Utilization of Findings:

This report identifies the scientific basis for several

training strategies that can be developed for enhanced Army%

performance. These training approaches will help to meet the

ARMY 21 goal to accomplish more with less manpower.

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TRAINING LESSONS LEARNED FROM PEAK PERFORMANCE EPISODES

ICONTENTS

Page

" INTRODUCTION ........ ..................... 1

AN ALTERED PERCEPTION SYNDROME ...... ............ 3

PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES ........ ................ 5 

Psychological Readiness - Arousal and Affect . 5.

Information Processing - Perception and Memory .. . 6"

Endurance Management - Fatigue and Pain ..... . 8

UNDERLYING PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSORS ......... . 9

A MODEL OF NEURAL REGULATION .... ............. -11

TRAINING TAILORED TO MEET TASK CONDITIONS ....... . 14

TRAINING PROGRAM DEVELUPMENT .... ............. 18

Physiological Processors ..... .............. 19

Psychological Processes .............. 19

CONCLUSION ...................... 21

REFERENCES ......... ...................... 23

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1. The relationship between psychological

processes and task conditions .......... 16

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TRAINING LESSONS LEARNED FROM PEAK PERFORMANCE EPISODES

INTRODUCTION

A major challenge confronting the US Army is to obtain

optimal performance from both its' human and machine resources.

Force modernization has benefited greatly from R&D on equipment

technologies. Comparable R&D efforts are needed to obtain

training breakthroughs for optimizing individual and team

performance. The general approach undertaken here accordingly

emphasizes investigations of a neglected aspect of technology -

human technologies - as stressed by the Army Science Board

Subgroup on Emerging Human Technologies (Blanchard, Clark,

Sidwell, Ley, Jr., & Weddle, 1983). The impetus for the training

concepts described here derives from an examination of instances

of exceptional achievement - peak performances. Factors

accompanying such performance episodes in soldiers and athletes

were identified through two major sources. Information was

obtained from literature reviews of data bases dealing with peak

performance issues in the military, sport sciences/medicine, and

biological sciences as well as interviews conducted with athletes

*' and members of the military.

The general public views world-class athletes as physical

-uprrm-r and ouperwomen, Athletes themselves frequently remark

tit,: :',. much aw. 90'/, of tit ir computit~ive edge and aucceub ir,

attributable to "mental factor". The importance of
psychological influences on performance was not lost on Bruce

Jenner: "I always felt that my greatest asset was not my physical

ability, it was my mental ability" (Garfield & Bennett, 1984).

Despite athletes' belief in the importance of peychological

processes, the overwhelming proportion of American research on

sports concentrates on other factors. However, the tendency to

disregard psychological variables is being reversed with the

emergence of the field of sports psychology. During the past two

decades, this discipline has promoted general interest in the

neglected psychological concomitants of performance.

Current research offers the intriguing prospect that

soldiers and leaders can train to perform mental and physical

feats vastly superior to the norm. Peak performances, usually

associated with elite athletes, are experienced by almost

everyone at some time. Such performance episodes seem to occur

most frequently in competitive sports, because of the emphasis on

striving for excellence where performance quality is indicated by

objective measures. Top performers frequently report that

attaining truely exceptional levels of performance depends vpon

their mental state. Some believe that peak performance episodes

result from being in a special or "altered state" of

consciousness which can not be deliberately or voluntarily

evoked,

i[. t':yt~ na , y , tht. sIport.-, i):;,t'ho lofty liter ah ture i.s.

predominantly theoretical in terms of psychological processes

j - 2, -

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contributing to performance. Techniques for the psychological

enhancement of performance accordingly lack the organization and

integration that can ensue from a theoretical account. Many

related training interventions are instead driven by

trial-and-error and represent more of an art form than

application of scientific principles. The theory of peak

performance presented here includes psychological factors which

are susceptible to self-regulation. Guidance is also-provided

about the circumstances under which these psychological factors

need to be modified.

AN ALTERED PERCEPTION SYNDROME

The sports psychology and military literature (Browne &

Mahoney, 1984; Epuran, 1978; Hickman, 1979; Marshall, 1947;

Murphy & White, 1978; Privette, 1981), as well as interviews with

athletes (Unesthal, 1982) and the military (Goldman & Fuller,

1983; Marshall, 1967, 1967; Sullivan, 1984; 1985), indicate,

surprisingly, that performance is frequently at its best during

episodes which include marked perceptual alterations. Changes

are initially moderate and frequently beneficial, reflecting

focused attention as well as factors related to strength.

Progressing further along this dimension of altered perception

results in increasing distortion that can be counterproductive to

optimal performance. This altered perception syndrome ranges

along a continuum through im2rms;.n. of" tred

attention/concentration - slowed passage of time - objects

-3-
-. . -J,

appearing larger -detachment and control -reduced fatigue/pain __

-exceptional energy or strength -serenity - invincibilitypsychokinetic or telepathic sensations - out of body sensations.

Partial amnesia also commonly occurs for peak performance

episodes, as exemplified by reports that "After a very good jump, *.

I remember nothing from the moment I'm about to leave. My memory

returns just before I touch down. If, however, I have had a bad

jump, I remember clearly the entire jump" (ski jumper) (Unesthal,

1982). Amnesia is unfortunate here because of its' negative

"'a

consequences for interviewing performers about their mental

control. Both this amnesia and the perceptual distortions

emphasize the importance of psychobiological contributions for

understanding peak performance regulation. - eg

A satisfactory theory of peak performance must encompass

both the exceptional level of performance exhibited and

correlated perceptual and memory phenomena. This review

conceptualizes the psychological processes involved in both

superior performance and the associated altered perception

syndrome. These psychological contributions to peak performance

are based upon three highly interactive e l and ongoing processes:po 

ipsychological readiness, information processing, and endurance

management. nhiep , . .. !

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PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Psychological Readiness - Arousal and Affect

Psychological regulation of performance quality begins with

a foundation of cognitive preparedness to meet task conditions.

This readiness consists of having an appropriate level of both

arousal (psyched-up or -down) and affect (emotions and

attitudes). The optimal activation level depends upon the nature .

of the task and activation is frequently related to performance--

by an inverted U-shaped function. That is, performance is

enhanced by increased activation up to some point; beyond this,

performance deteriorates (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908).

The relationship between performance quality and optimal

activation level also varies with task complexity and other

conditions such as a performer's skill level. More complex (or

poorly learned) tasks are typically better performed with low - <- "

activation levels. In contrast, relatively simple (or well

learned) tasks can be better performed under high activation. It

is important to determine the optimal activation needed, for a

particular set of task conditions, because inaJequate levels of

arousal are associated with poor performance, Excessively high

arousal levels are even more debititatir,? aF th-v - tn resull in

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confusion, loss of confidence and fear 1 tlure, and an

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impaired ability to attend to important cues (Browne & Mahoney,

1984; Landers, 1978). Numerous attempts have been made to

regulate athletes' activation levels through auto suggestion. '--

These techniques (e.g., autogenic training, biofeedback,

breathing exercises, progressive muscle relaxation) are commonly

found to influence activation levels (Hickman, 1979; Sandweiss &

Wolf, 1985; Wilson & Bird, 1982).

Information Processing - Perception and Memory

Optimal performance requires an ongoing collection of

information about task conditions. This material is then

processed, compared with memories of relevant experiences, and a S..-

course of action is chosen. Ongoing responding is then modified, A

as appropriate, in a continuous feedback loop. This information .._

extraction and comparison process in decision making begins with

the vast amount of material in short-term sensory storage.

Orientation and selective attention reduce this overwhelming

amount of material into that transferred to short-term memory.

Information is then assessed and interpreted in this cognitive

workspace. Processing includes interacting with long-term memory

to attach meaning to sensory input and to select from the stored

repertoire of response patterns.

* For an individual who is psychologically ready to respond,

awareness must focus on critical triggerinv s. Tu Th' - n.-iu Ainformation about both internal (e.g., body -- nditiorn and

-6-

V,-'%, %-%-- --. V 
positioning) and external factors (e.g., particular aspects of

task conditions) which experience has shown to be essential for

good performance. Concentration enhances critical task

components and elite performers report being "Completely

concentrated on what I am doing. Oblivious to the surroundings"

(swimmer) (Unestahl, 1982). This intense selective attention can

result in feelings of dissociation from nonessential factors.

Soldiers report that "I felt the presence of other beings on the

right and left of me, but my intense concentration ... made it

impossible to see them" (Sullivan, 1984). At the extreme,

performing as if in a 'trance' is experienced. For example,

"When I think back on my Olympic race, I remember mainly what I

saw on the videotape afterwards. It was a perfect race. I was

as if in a trance" (swimmer)(Unestahl, 1982). This is variously

called having a hot night (basketball), playing out of one's head

(tennis), skying out of one's mind, or losing onesself injogging

and-swimming.

Intense concentration can also be accompanied by

particularly striking alterations in the perception of time and

space. Time appears to advance very slowly during peak

performance episodes and reports of behaving in "slow motion" are

common from soldiers and athletes. A soldier reported that the

point man "was outside time; it was as if the bullets took two or

three minutes in flight, and he was watching them." (Goldman &

Fuller, 1983). Similarly, "Sometimes everything slows dowr, which

-7-
makes it possible to make moves that normally would have been

impossible" (Formula 1 driver) and "Sometimes I can experience my

performance as a dance on a film shown in slow motion"

(figureskater)(Unestahl, 1982). Spatial distortions are less

common and typically involve perceptual enlargement of critical %

objects in the environment. For example, reports that: "the

pigeons become very big and slow" (marksman)(Unestahl, 1982).

Formal sports psychology approaches to optimizing decision

making emphasize the long-term memory aspect of the perceptual

J. %

axis. In addition to enhancing basic skills through traditional

practice sessions, preparation has recently been extended to

include cognitive rehearsal or imagery. This training procedure

consists of rehearsing by thinKing about conducting the various

performance components. Forming mental images and anticipating

emotional responses can also be included and mental rehearsal is

particularly appropriate for tasks high in symbolic or cognitive

elements (Feltz & Landers, 1983).

Endurance Management - Fatigue and Pain

Supression of fatigue and pain sensations is necessary to

sustain performance. Numerous reports indicate increased

tolerance of and/or decreased awareness of fatigue and pain for a ip"

variety of circumstances including injuries received in military

actions and competitive sports (Henry, 1982). Feelings of

well-being, and an absence of fatigue or pain even under

-8-

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strenuous conditions which may result in bodily injury, are

commonly reported. Such experiences include soldier reports that

"then ... stripped the man's jump jacket away and found six

bullet holes in his upper right arm and shoulder; the soldier had

not been aware of his wounds until that moment" (Marshall, 1947).

Athletes also report such endurance management, "Everything felt

terrific" (runner) and that "The body was working by itself . ,

without effort and without any feelings of fatigue or pain"

(skier)(Unestahl, 1982). -.

Endurance is typically approached only in terms of physical

conditioning and few training regimens attempt to manipulate

psychological processes for endurance management. One approach

is to ignore fatigue and pain by distracting attention away from

these sensations (Broad, 1979). A more formal technique is

incorporated in the psychical self-regulation program developed

in Russia. This program uses techniques from numerous training

systems (meditation, yoga, hypnosis, autogenic training, martial

arts) in the attempt to mentally regulate physiological

functioning. Included are procedures purportedly useful for

influencing pain threshold and obtaining quick recovery from .**-.

strenuous competition (Hickman, 1979).

'I..-V.

UNDERLYING PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSORS

Nt, -ral m-id ation of these three psvyhological processes is ?*444

associated with different brain areas. F'sychological Readiness 'p-

'99

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is influenced by several brain regions. The reticular **

formation/activating system regulates the arousal component of '_V%

readiness. This region also influences attention, modulates

sensory cortical input, and affects muscle tone for response

readiness. The richly interconnected forebrain structures of the

limbic system regulate affect, the other component of

psychological readiness.

Information Processing requirements for peak performance

primarily involve perceptual and memory processes. These are

substantially influenced by specific limbic structures as well as

by sensory processing in cortical projection areas. The

J amygdaloid and hippocampal limbic structures are highlighted here

because of their involvement in perception and memory. For '-£

example, the amygdala is implicated in attention/orientation,

memory, and emotion (e.g., fear, anxiety). Additionally, it is

involved in perceptual distortions such as hallucinations (e.g.,

impressions of heaviness, floating), illusions of familiarity,

and disturbed awareness and confusion (Breathnach, 1980; Halgren,

1982; Saunders, Murray, & Mishkin, 1984). The hippocampus is

particularly implicated in memory processes including ". .

representational or recognition memory and cognitive ,% o.

spatiotemporal maps. It is also involved in disturbances of

recent memory such as the amnestic syndrome (Breathnach, 1980;

O)ak i - . 114 1- : P.9iridv1- X, Y- t- i-i- , 1 984

Analgesic. contribut,,Yr; t.,- Eridurance Management of fatigut10- "%%
71 717 % ,7

and pain have their physiological basis in spinal transmission

and cortical projection areas. It is noteworthy that the

afferent nociceptive pathway includes projections to both the

reticular formation (arousal) and the limbic system (affect).

ln sum, in addition to physical capability and basic skills,

peak performance:

o Is accompanied by an altered perception

syndrome;

o Is modulated by cognitive processes of psychological

readiness, information processing, and endurance

management;

o Is ultimately regulated by neural areas underlying

these_- zvi t.LC'a pzychoiogicai pfKl',_,-t ..- ,,"

4%" A MODEL OF NEURAL REGULATION

The recently discovered endorphins include three families of

endogenous opiate-like peptides - enkephalins, endorphins, and

dynorphins - that function as transmitters or modulators of

neural activity. Endorphin levels are influenced by task

conditions through both physical (effort, aversive circumstances)

and psychological variables (conditioning, fear. suggestion)

. .. , 99

Specific endnrphin involvement with psychological processes

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in performance is indicated by studies of anatomical,

pharmacological, and behavioral function. Endorphin

.,. :

distributions are concentrated within brain regions associated

with the psychological performance components emphasized here.

Endorphins also effect specialized receptors similarly

concentrated within these brain regions (Dores, Akil, & Watson,

1984; Feldman & Qu..zer, 1984; Frost et al, 1985; Goodman,

Fricker, & Snyder, 1983; Ikeda et al, 1983; La Motte, Snowman,

Pert, & Snyder, 1978; Miller & Pickel, 1980; Roberts, Allen,

Crow, & Polak, 1983; Rossier & Bloom, 1982; Simantov, Kuhar,

Pasternak, & Snyder, 1976; Watson, Khachaturian, Akil, Coy, &

Goldstein, 1982). Studies of behavioral effects of endorphins

also indicate their importance for psychological processes

contributing tu purfrran:e

The clearest and most researched endorphin function is an

analgesic contribution to endurance management. Afferent pain

pathways are richly endowed with endorphins involved in the ,'-',

* . 4,

transmission of pain information (Dores et al, 1984; Prezewlocki,

Gramsch, Pasi, & Herz, 1983). Efferent inhibiting systems are

thought to block nociceptive information with endorphins (Mense,

1983). The perception of fatigue during exercise is modulated by

endogenous opioids (Harber & Sutton, 1984) that also contribute

to endurance management through pain suppression mediated by

n 'invo.l E o f,.veme n nC?t1,], & He rnformai i p' --ti "- 

.. ... .. . - .< .

Erndorphirn involvement in infcormation prcessin includes a:n

4.. 4 . " "-
influence on all aspects of the perceptual axis. They mediate

attention by gating perceptual information (Bolles & Fanselow,

1982), influencing sensory input at the attention and perception

levels (Kovacs & de Wied, 1981). A progressively greater

influence is then exerted by endorphins at successively higher

levels of sensory information processing in the cortex (Lewis et

al, 1981). Strong support also exists for memory being altered by

endorphin involvement in the mechanism underlying the modulation

of memory storage (MeGaugh, Martinez, Jr., Messing, Liang,

Jensen, Vasquez, & Rigter, 1982). Endorphins are also involved in

regulating arousal level through activity in the limbic and

extrapyramidal systems (Thompson, 1984).

Endorphins have been previously implicated in athletics as a

potential basis for the "runners' high" (Carr et al, 1981).

Studies of this effect report increased blood concentrations in

response to both acute and chronic exercise (Harber & Sutton,

1984). The difficulty with this research involves undetermined

brain involvement accompanying observed changes in peripheral

concentrations. Changes in central endorphin concentrations have

also been reported in response to stress (see, for example, Barta

& Yashpal, 1981) and the present model is based upon endorphin

activity in the central nervous system.

The possibility that changed endorphin levels during peak

p rformanco ar,', ?i'poriiblo l for th' ;iltered percoptiort syndrome

in particularly apparent. Opiates are associated with emotional

- 13 -
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changes, ranging from a sense of well being to euphoria, that

accompany the loss of inhibition and anxiety. Hypnotic

trance-like effects are also commonly encountered along with

generalized alterations in arousal, attention, perception and

memory. Extreme perceptual distortions resulting from opiates _

include the impression of being dissociated from one's body as

well as auditory, olfactory, and visual hallucinations (Carr,

1983; Feldman & Quenzer, 1984; Olson, Olson, Kastin & Coy, 1982;

Pickar, Dubois, & Cohen, 1984).

TRAINING TAILORED TO MEET TASK CONDITIONS

What does all of this mean for military training programs?

The above characterization of performance modulation depicts

superior performance as being enabled by psychoouriicai readings,.

information processing, and endurance management. There is also

:% %"

evidence suggesting that endorphin activity, in associated neural

regions, substantially contributes to these processes.

Accordingly, performance can be enhanced through two different

approaches. One strategy is teaching self-regulation of

endorphin levels. The other much more immediately available

solution is to influence important congitive processes through % '

training techniques from sports psychology. With either Re

strategy, optimal performance will result from tailoring

capabilities to meet a task's conditions and demands. ...

[h : meshing of psychclori ooi process.,s with task ,olfi . -

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14-

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and demands to be met requires an encompasing characterization of

task requirements. This can be provided by constructing a

taxonomy of the major task variables (e.g., complexity, risk)

encountered in various military tasks. Individual tasks would be

assessed to determine the relative importance of each variable

for that task. Ensuing profiles of the importance of task

- variables, for each particular activity, would then be matched

with psychological contributions needed to optimally accommodate

these task variables. Such profiles of optimal cognitive

functioning are expected to display considerable overlap across

activities. Thus, many tasks could be accommodated by being able

to meet a limited number of unique sets of task conditions. This

would facilitate generalized approaches to self-regulation;

however, profiles are also anticipated to identify ur:w ...

training needs.

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Table 1

The Relationship between Psychological Processes L I.

'5 and Task Conditions

I NFANTRY TASK CONDITIONS

SQUAD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a,c a,c a,b a~b

VTASKS Effort Duration Complexity Risk

- -- - -- -- - -- ------ ---- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Attack High Low High High

Def end Low Medium Medium Low

---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ------- ---- ---- ---- ---

-Note: Task conditions make demands on the cognitive

factors of .

a : Psychological Readiness

b: Information Processing

5.. c:Endurance Management

.5- 

P-41

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These points are illustrated in the hypothetical example

depicted in Table 1. Of the two infantry squad tasks, the attack

is typically high on effort, complexity, and risk while low on

duration. In contrast, the defense can be characterized as lower

on effort and risk while medium on duration and complexity.

These differing profiles of task conditions are best accommodated

by different levels of readiness, information processing, and

endurance management. Therefore, preparation and execution for

the two tasks must differentially reflect coaching and

self-regulation for each cognitive component.

Each task condition in this example must be considered to

determine the appropriate level of psychological readiness. In

general, high effort tasks, such as attacking, benefit from high

activation levels. However, recalling that the optimal

activation level varies with task complexity, high complexity and

risk conditions for an attack are best accommodated by a lower

activation level. A medium level of activation may be a

reasonable compromise here. The defense, in contrast, is ideally

undertaken with much greater activation to enhance performance

under conditions of reduced effort and duration. The medium

complexity and lower risk involved can also be better

accommodated by higher activation. These two task demand

profiles have an obvious implication for interventions

influencing psychological readiness. Optimal activation for

defending is much higher than for attacking which may require a

- 17 -
reduction in arousal.

Information processing needs are moderate for defending but

the complexity and risk involved in attacking require rapid and

accurate decision making. The risk condition also necessitates

optimizing information processing while perceptual distortions

are minimized. Preparation should include cognitive rehearsal

for appropriate memory storage of behaviors which can be recalled

during mission execution. Finally, the higher effort required in

the attack makes endurance management more of a concern in that

mission than it is for the defense.

In sum, a theory and model of peak performance is presented

which proposes that psychological processes in performance:

o Reflect endorphin activity within

underlying physiological processors;

o Need to be tailored to task conditions and

demands.

TRAINING PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

An examination of peak performance episodes indicates

critical psychological contributions from: psychological

readiness to respond to task conditions/demands, information

processing, and endurance management for sustained performance.

Activity within brain regions associated with thlese processes

further suggests the importance of endorphins in performance

18
modulation. Self-regulation training for performance enhancement

can accordingly be directed at either the psychological processes

or their underlying physiological processors.

Physiological Processors

Considerable basic research is needed to benefit from the

endorphin-mediated physiological basis of performance. In

general, research is needed to: 1) determine optimal endorphin

*levels in brain regions supporting cognitive processing, and 2)

develop self-regulation procedures to manipulate endorphin levels

*in a noninvasive manner. Much of this research and development

would most appropriately be conducted by an agency with a medical

mission, such as the Army Medical R&D Command.

Psychelogical Processes

Self-regulation of psychological processes can be

accomplished in the near-term. Such an effort would start with

identifying relevant sports psychology training techniques for

self-regulation of the psychological factors emphasized here.

This includes coaching procedures and techniques for individual

manipulation of psychological readiness (e.g., biofeedback for

affecting arousal level), information processing (e.g., cognitive

rehearsal to enhance memory), and endurance management (e.g.,

reduced awareness of fatigue and pain). Sports psychology

techniques would also be identified for enhancing group dynamics

(e.g., increased motivation from cohesion, attitudes, and values;

- 19 -
enhanced decision making from communication flow aids).

Individual and team military tasks would then be N

characterized according to their degree of dependence upon each

of the three critical cognitive processes. A pilot program of F

instruction would then be developed for teaching behavioral %%

control within the context of existing military instruction and

training. This self-regulation training should be specifically

tailored to match psychological processes to task conditions and

demands to be met.

In sum, a prototype performance enhancement training program

is conceptualized to incorporate:

U .

o A training concept, from the sport sciences,

to influence critical psychological processes;

o A training concept, from psychobiology, to

influence underlying physiological processors

•L

...t

* q

., 0'U

-20-

NN

~'% ~ ~ 'V %' .% *~ % *. .. ~%% ~. ~~*U.**~% ~ UUUp~ %*' *o "d
, %,*-I.

CONCLUS ION

An examination of episodes of peak performance indicates

that three cognitive components enable these episodes:

psychological readiness (activating optimal arousal and emotion

appropriate for the task), information processing (attending to

and interpretating key stimuli), and endurance management

(controlling fatigue and pain for sustained performance). There

is also evidence suggesting that endorphins underlie these

psychological processes. Accordingly, performance can be

enhanced through two strategies; one approach is teaching

self-regulation of endorphin levels. The other more immediately .P

available solution uses contemporary sports psychology training

techniques to optimize psychological processes underlying

superior performance. With either strategy, optimal performance

results from enhanced coping ability specifically and

continuously tailored to meet the conditions and demands of a

particular activity.

21 --

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4. ."

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V 21

e, _

V;
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