U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey

Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses 

to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha 

River Basin, West Virginia,

Virginia, and North Carolina

By Douglas B. Chambers and Terence Messinger

Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4021

National Water-Quality Assessment Program

Charleston, West Virginia

2001
U.S. Department of the Interior 

BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Charles G. Groat, Director 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Information regarding the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program is available on the Internet via the World Wide Web. You may connect to the 

NAWQA Home Page at: http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/nawqa_home.html/.

Cover photo: Heptageniidae Mayfly nymph. Photo by Howell Daly, printed with permission of the North American Benthological Society.

For additional information write to:

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U.S. Geological Survey

11 Dunbar Street

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Foreword

Foreword III

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is committed 

to serve the Nation with accurate and timely scientific 

information that helps enhance and protect the overall 

quality of life, and facilitates effective management of 

water, biological, energy, and mineral resources. Information on the quality of the Nation’s water resources is 

of critical interest to the USGS because it is so integrally 

linked to the long-term availability of water that is clean 

and safe for drinking and recreation and that is suitable 

for industry, irrigation, and habitat for fish and wildlife. 

Escalating population growth and increasing demands 

for the multiple water uses make water availability, now 

measured in terms of quantity and quality, even more 

critical to the long-term sustainability of our communities and ecosystems.

The USGS implemented the National WaterQuality Assessment (NAWQA) Program to support 

national, regional, and local information needs and decisions related to water-quality management and policy. 

Shaped by and coordinated with ongoing efforts of other 

Federal, State, and local agencies, the NAWQA Program 

is designed to answer: What is the condition of our 

Nation’s streams and ground water? How are the conditions changing over time? How do natural features and 

human activities affect the quality of streams and ground 

water, and where are those effects most pronounced? By 

combining information on water chemistry, physical 

characteristics, stream habitat, and aquatic life, the 

NAWQA Program aims to provide science-based 

insights for current and emerging water issues. 

NAWQA results can contribute to informed decisions 

that result in practical and effective water-resource management and strategies that protect and restore water 

quality.

Since 1991, the NAWQA Program has implemented interdisciplinary assessments in more than 50 of 

the Nation’s most important river basins and aquifers, 

referred to as Study Units. Collectively, these Study 

Units account for more than 60 percent of the overall 

water use and population served by public water supply, 

and are representative of the Nation’s major hydrologic 

landscapes, priority ecological resources, and agricultural, urban, and natural sources of contamination. 

Each assessment is guided by a nationally consistent study design and methods of sampling and analysis. 

The assessments thereby build local knowledge about 

water-quality issues and trends in a particular stream or 

aquifer while providing an understanding of how and 

why water quality varies regionally and nationally. The 

consistent, multi-scale approach helps to determine if 

certain types of water-quality issues are isolated or pervasive, and allows direct comparisons of how human 

activities and natural processes affect water quality and 

ecological health in the Nation’s diverse geographic and 

environmental settings. Comprehensive assessments on 

pesticides, nutrients, volatile organic compounds, trace 

metals, and aquatic ecology are developed at the national 

scale through comparative analysis of the Study-Unit 

findings. 

The USGS places high value on the communication and dissemination of credible, timely, and relevant 

science so that the most recent and available knowledge 

about water resources can be applied in management and 

policy decisions. We hope this NAWQA publication 

will provide you the needed insights and information to 

meet your needs, and thereby foster increased awareness 

and involvement in the protection and restoration of our 

Nation’s waters. 

The NAWQA Program recognizes that a national 

assessment by a single program cannot address all waterresource issues of interest. External coordination at all 

levels is critical for a fully integrated understanding of 

watersheds and for cost-effective management, regulation, and conservation of our Nation’s water resources. 

The Program, therefore, depends extensively on the 

advice, cooperation, and information from other Federal, 

State, interstate, Tribal, and local agencies, non-government organizations, industry, academia, and other stakeholder groups. The assistance and suggestions of all are 

greatly appreciated.

Robert M. Hirsch

Associate Director for Water
CONTENTS

IV Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Description of the Kanawha River Basin ................................................................................................................................................ 2

Purpose and Scope................................................................................................................................................................................ 6

Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................................................................. 6

Study Design ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Fixed-Site Network Design and Sampling............................................................................................................................................... 6

Coal-Mining Synoptic Survey Design and Sampling ............................................................................................................................... 11

Invertebrate Sample Analysis ................................................................................................................................................................ 12

Land-Use Data........................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Seasonal Variability in the Data Set........................................................................................................................................... 13

Benthic Invertebrate Communities.................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Comparison of Samples Collected as Part of the Fixed-Site Network ..................................................................................................... 16

Comparison of Communities in Kanawha River Coal-Mining Region ........................................................................................................ 29

Effects of Selected Environmental Factors ....................................................................................................................................................... 34

Environmental Influences upon Communities at Fixed Sites.................................................................................................................... 34

Environmental Influences upon Communities in the Coal-Mining Region

 of the Kanawha River Basin ................................................................................................................................................................ 36

Similarities among Benthic Invertebrate Communities in the Coal-Mining Region

 of the Kanawha River Basin...................................................................................................................................................... 36

Comparison of Benthic Invertebrate Group Attributes in the Coal-Mining Region

 of the Kanawha River Basin...................................................................................................................................................... 39

Environmental Gradients Affecting Benthic Invertebrate Communities in the 

 Coal-Mining Region of the Kanawha River Basin ....................................................................................................................... 47

Summary and Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................................... 50

References Cited ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 51

FIGURES

Figure 1a. Map showing location of benthic invertebrate sampling sites and physiographic provinces,

 Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina, 1997-1998 ...................................................................4

Figure 1b. Map showing physiography and shaded relief, Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

 Virginia, and North Carolina.................................................................................................................................................5

Figure 2. Hierarchical classification of all indicator site samples in the Kanawha River Basin,

 showing seasonal variation in multiple samples from the same site......................................................................................14

Figures 3-8 Bar graphs showing:

3 a-d. Community composition metric values showing (A.) taxa richness, (B.) number

 of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera taxa, (C.) proportion of individuals as

 Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera, and (D.) proportion of individuals as

 Chironomidae for sites representing selected environmental settings in the Kanawha River Basin..........................................17

4 a-e. Proportions of (A.) collector-gatherers, (B.) collector-filterers, (C.) scrapers,

 (D.) shredders, and (E.) predators in May-June samples for sites representing selected

 environmental settings in the Kanawha River Basin...............................................................................................................19
Contents V

5 a-c. Pollution tolerance metric values for (A.) Modified Hilsenhoff Biotic Index,

 (B.) ratio of abundance of EPT taxa to abundance of Chironomidae and EPT taxa,

 and (C.) percent of sample comprised of the two dominant taxa for sites representing

 selected environmental settings in the Kanawha River Basin................................................................................................. 21

6 a-d. Community composition metric values showing (A.) taxa richness, (B.) number of

 Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera taxa, (C.) proportion of individuals as

 Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera, and (D.) proportion of individuals as

 Chironomidae for coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the Kanawha River Basin.................................................................... 31

7 a-e. Proportional representation of (A.) collector-gatherers, (B.) collector-filterers,

 (C.) scrapers, (D.) shredders, and (E.) predators for coal-mining synoptic-survey

 sites in the, Kanawha River Basin......................................................................................................................................... 32

8 a-c. Pollution tolerance metric values (A.) Modified Hilsenhoff Biotic Index, (B.) ratio of

 proportion of EPT to proportion of Chironomidae and EPT, and (C.) proportion of

 individuals consisting of the two dominant taxa for coal-mining region synoptic-survey

 sites in the Kanawha River Basin.......................................................................................................................................... 33

Figures 9 and 10. Dendrograms showing: 

9. Hierarchical classification, using TWINSPAN, of basic-fixed sites in the Kanawha River Basin .............................................. 35

10. Hierarchical classification, using TWINSPAN, of coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the

 Kanawha River Basin............................................................................................................................................................ 38

Figure 11. Detrended correspondence analysis plot of axis scores for first two axes for species data

 from coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the Kanawha River Basin.................................................................................... 39

Figures 12-14. Boxplots showing:

12 a-e. Comparison of metric values for Groups 1 and 2 of the TWINSPAN classification showing

 (A.) number of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera taxa, (B.) proportion of individuals

 as Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera, (C.) ratio of EPT abundance to EPT abundance

 plus Chironomidae abundance, (D.) Modified Hilsenhoff Biotic Index, and (E.) proportion of individuals

 as Chironomidae for coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the Kanawha River Basin ............................................................... 40

13 a-d. Comparison of (A.) pH, (B.) specific conductance, (C.) sulfate concentration, (D.) alkalinity,

 for TWINSPAN classification groups for coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the Kanawha River Basin................................. 42

13 e-f. Comparison of (E.) median streambed-particle size, and (F.) elevation, for TWINSPAN classification

 groups for coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the Kanawha River Basin .............................................................................. 43

 14 a-b. Coal-mining characteristics showing (A.) percentage of drainage area as quarries, strip mines, or

 gravel pits, and (B.) mean annual coal production in thousand tons per square mile for TWINSPAN

 classification groups of coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the Kanawha River Basin .......................................................... 44

Figures 15 and 16. Scatter plots and linear regressions of: 

15 a-c. Relations among EPT taxa numbers with (A.) specific conductance, (B.) sulfate concentration,

 and (C.) median streambed-particle size for coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the Kanawha River Basin45

16 a-c. Relations of modified Hilsenhoff Biotic Index scores with (A.) sulfate concentration,

 (B.) specific conductance, and (C.) median streambed-particle size for coal-mining synoptic-survey

 sites in the Kanawha River Basin.......................................................................................................................................... 46
Contents VI

Figures 17 and 18, Canonical correspondence analysis biplots of:

17. Site scores and environmental variable eigenvector of the first two axes for canonical

 correspondence analysis (CCA) of data from coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the

 Kanawha River Basin............................................................................................................................................................... 48

18. Taxon scores and environmental variable eigenvectors of the first two axes of canonical

 correspondence analysis (CCA) of data from coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the

 Kanawha River Basin............................................................................................................................................................... 49

Tables

Table 1. Station descriptions and land-use data for the basic fixed-site network sampled in the

 Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia and Virginia, 1997-1998 ................................................................................................ 7

 2. Environmental setting data and key to short names used in illustrations for coal-mining

 synoptic sites sampled in the Kanawha River Basin................................................................................................................ 8

3. Chemical and physical characteristics of streamwater measured as part of the coal-mining

 synoptic survey of the Kanawha River Basin.......................................................................................................................... 11

4. Chemical constituents analyzed in streambed-sediment samples collected as part of the

 coal-mining synoptic survey of the Kanawha River Basin ....................................................................................................... 12

5. Biological metrics used in comparisons of macroinvertebrate samples from sites sampled

 in the Kanawha River Basin ................................................................................................................................................... 15

6. Taxa collected, functional feeding groups, and pollution tolerance values for the modified

 Hilsenhoff Biotic Index for samples from riffle habitats in the Kanawha River Basin, 1997-1998 ........................................... 22

7. Canonical correspondence analysis axis eigenvectors and environmental-variable axis loadings

 for an ordination of samples from coal-mining synoptic-survey sites in the Kanawha River Basin............................................ 47

CONVERSION FACTORS, VERTICAL DATUM, WATER-QUALITY UNITS, AND OTHER ABBREVIATIONS

Temperature in degrees Celsius (oC) can be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (oF), and conversely, by the following equations: 

oF = (1.8 x oC) + 32 oC = (oF – 32) x 0.5555

Vertical datum: In this report, “sea level” refers to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD of 1929)—a geodetic datum 

derived from a general adjustment of the first-order level nets of both the United States and Canada, formerly called Sea Level

Datum of 1929. 

Abbreviated water-quality units: Chemical concentrations and water temperature are given in metric units. Chemical concentration

in water is given in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or micrograms per liter (mg/L). Milligrams per liter is a unit expressing the concentration

of chemical constituents in solution as weight (milligrams) per unit volume (liter) of water. One thousand micrograms per liter is

equivalent to one milligram per liter. For concentrations less than 7,000 mg/L, the numerical value is the same as for concentrations

in parts per million. 

Multiply By To obtain

 foot (ft) 0.3048 meter 

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second

gallon (gal) 3.785 liter

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer

fluid ounce 29.57 milliliter (mL)

pound (lb) 0.4536 kilogram

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer

square foot 0.0929 square meter
VII Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

OTHER ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND SYMBOLS USED IN THIS REPORT

CCA Canonical Correspondence Analysis

DCA Detrended Correspondence Analysis

EPT Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera

MRLC Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics

NAWQA National Water-Quality Assessment Program

TWINSPAN Two-Way INdicator SPecies ANalysis

USGS U. S. Geological Survey

WMA Wildlife Management Area

> greater than

< less than

Abstract 1

Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected 

Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia, 

Virginia, and North Carolina

by Douglas B. Chambers and Terence Messinger

Abstract 

The effects of selected environmental factors on the composition and structure of benthic 

invertebrate communities in the Kanawha River 

Basin of West Virginia, Virginia and North Carolina were investigated in 1997 and 1998. Environmental factors investigated include physiography, 

land-use pattern, streamwater chemistry, streambed-sediment chemistry, and habitat characteristics. Land-use patterns investigated include coal 

mining, agriculture, and low intensity rural-residential patterns, at four main stem and seven tributary sites throughout the basin. Of the 37 sites 

sampled, basin size and physiography most 

strongly affected benthic invertebrate-community 

structure. 

Land-use practices also affected invertebrate community structure in these basins. The 

basins that differed most from the minimally 

affected reference condition were those basins in 

which coal mining was the dominant nonforest 

land use, as determined by comparing invertebrate-community metric values among sites. 

Basins in which agriculture was important were 

more similar to the reference condition.

The effect of coal mining upon benthic 

invertebrate communities was further studied at 

29 sites and the relations among invertebrate 

communities and the selected environmental factors of land use, streamwater chemistry, streambed-sediment chemistry, and habitat 

characteristics analyzed. Division of coal-mining 

synoptic-survey sites based on invertebrate-community composition resulted in two groups—one 

with more than an average production of 9,000 

tons of coal per square mile per year since 1980, 

and one with lesser or no recent coal production. 

The group with significant recent coal production 

showed higher levels of community impairment 

than the group with little or no recent coal production. Median particle size of streambed sediment, 

and specific conductance and sulfate concentration of streamwater were most strongly correlated 

with effects on invertebrate communities. These 

characteristics were related to mining intensity, as 

measured by thousands of tons of coal produced 

per square mile of drainage area.

INTRODUCTION

Complex interactions of the physical and chemical 

environments of streams affect benthic invertebrate 

community structure in the Kanawha River Basin, as 

they do elsewhere. Geology, physiography, and landuse patterns in a basin directly affect the stream environments, thereby indirectly influencing invertebrate 

communities. Historically, land use in the Kanawha 

River Basin has included agriculture, forestry, oil and 

gas production, brine and salt production, chemical 

manufacturing, and coal mining (Messinger and 

Hughes, 2000). Currently (2000), coal mining has 

impaired more stream miles in the Kanawha River 
2 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Basin than any other land use (West Virginia Division 

of Environmental Protection, 303d report, 1998). Coalmining effects include increased sedimentation, alteration of streamwater chemistry, and landscape-scale 

changes in geomorphology. Some of these effects can 

continue for decades after mining ceases. 

Fecal matter, from both human and animal sources, 

degrades streams through the introduction of nutrients 

and pathogens. The contamination enters streams as 

either untreated sewage, the result of inadequate wastewater treatment for the basin’s decentralized population, or as agricultural runoff from pastures and 

feedlots. Other agricultural effects upon streams 

include pesticide and fertilizer runoff, erosion from 

heavily grazed fields, and loss of riparian habitat. Other 

significant, although generally localized, environmental 

effects are caused by logging, chemical manufacturing, 

industrial activities, and urbanization. 

As part of the National Water-Quality Assessment 

(NAWQA) Program, the U. S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) investigated the effects of selected environmental factors upon benthic invertebrate communities 

in the Kanawha River Basin of West Virginia, Virginia 

and North Carolina (fig 1.). The goal of the NAWQA 

Program is to describe the status and trends in the quality of the ground- and surface-water resources of the 

United States and to develop an understanding of the 

natural and human factors that affect these resources 

(Hirsch and others, 1988). Ecological investigations are 

an important component of the NAWQA Program.

Description of the Kanawha River Basin

The Kanawha River Basin (fig. 1) drains 

12,223 mi2 in North Carolina, Virginia, and 

West Virginia (Messinger and Hughes, 2000). The 

Kanawha River forms at the confluence of the New and 

Gauley Rivers. The New River, the major tributary of 

the Kanawha River, originates in North Carolina. Major 

tributaries (> 400 mi2

) of the New River are the Bluestone and Greenbrier Rivers in West Virginia. Other 

major tributaries of the Kanawha River are the Elk and 

Coal Rivers. The Kanawha River drains to the Ohio 

River at Point Pleasant, W. Va.

The Kanawha River drains parts of three physiographic provinces —the Appalachian Plateaus Province 

(7,334 mi2

), Valley and Ridge Province (2,811 mi2), 

and the Blue Ridge Province (2,078 mi2

) (Fenneman, 

1938). The headwaters of the Kanawha River are in the 

Blue Ridge, and the New River is the only major 

river that flows north from the Blue Ridge through the 

Valley and Ridge and into the Appalachian Plateaus. 

Hilltop altitude in the Appalachian Plateaus ranges 

from about 1,000 ft to about 4,000 ft, generally from 

northwest to east and southeast, and relief is generally 

greater in the area with greater altitude. 

The climate of the Kanawha River Basin is continental, with four distinct seasons and marked temperature contrast between summer and winter (Messinger 

and Hughes, 2000). Temperature decreases with 

increasing altitude, but is consistent among the physiographic provinces. Mean annual air temperature in the 

basin ranges from 48°F at several locations to 55°F near 

Charleston, W.Va. Precipitation in the Kanawha River 

Basin is strongly affected by orographic lifting, both 

locally and regionally. The maximum precipitation in 

the basin is greater than 60 in./yr both in the Allegheny 

Highlands and in the southern Blue Ridge. The minimum precipitation in the basin, about 36 in./yr, is in the 

Valley and Ridge and in the Greenbrier Valley, in a 

regional rain shadow.

Streamflow in the basin is most seasonally variable 

in the western Appalachian Plateaus and least seasonally variable in the Blue Ridge (Messinger and Hughes, 

2000). Flows are greatest in February and March, and 

least in September and October. Seasonal distribution 

of precipitation is different, with maximum precipitation in May-July and minimum precipitation in November-January; flows are strongly affected by 

evapotranspiration during April-October. 

Streams in the Blue Ridge follow a dendritic drainage pattern and have an extremely high gradient. Many 

mountain streams are cold and support (or formerly 

supported) brook trout populations, but the larger 

streams are warm. Streamwater is typically dilute (less 

than 200 mg/L dissolved solids) and neutral to slightly 

acidic. Streams of the Valley and Ridge Province follow a trellised drainage pattern. Bedrock in the valleys 

is typically shale and limestone, and waters in Valley 

and Ridge streams are generally neutral to slightly alkaline (pH = 7.0-8.0) and contain more dissolved solids 

(200-350 mg/L) than do streams in the Blue Ridge 

Province. 

Streams throughout the Appalachian Plateaus 

follow a dendritic drainage pattern. Streams in the 

Allegheny Highlands have an extremely high gradient. 

Many of them are cold, and even some streams draining areas larger than 100 mi2

 support trout populations. Bedrock in the Allegheny Highlands is generally 

inert, insoluble sandstone and shale. Streamwater is 
INTRODUCTION 3

typically very dilute (30-100 mg/L dissolved solids) 

and poorly buffered, and some streams have been 

degraded by acidic precipitation. 

Streams in the rest of the Appalachian Plateaus 

typically have high to moderate gradients. Some 

streams in the western Appalachian Plateaus are relatively flat and meandering, with long pools broken 

occasionally by short riffles, in contrast to the high-gradient streams with cascades and highly turbulent flow 

typical of most of the basin. The Greenbrier River and 

its eastern tributaries are underlain by limestone; their 

waters are neutral to mildly alkaline (pH = 7.0-8.0), 

well-buffered, and moderate in dissolved solids (150-

200 mg/L). Bedrock in the western part of the Appalachian Plateaus is predominantly sandstone, shale, and 

coal, with interbedded limestone. The shale typically is 

more soluble than the sandstone, and relative amounts 

of shale increase in a gradient from south to north. 

Streamwater in the western part of the Appalachian 

Plateaus contains more dissolved solids than any other 

part of the basin, with typical dissolved-solids concentrations of 500 mg/L in the Coal River and its tributaries, the downstream tributaries of the Elk River, and 

many minor tributaries of the Kanawha River. Most 

streamwater in this part of the basin is mildly alkaline 

and well-buffered. Streams throughout the basin are 

typically low in nutrients, although the Valley and 

Ridge and western Appalachian Plateaus contain more 

nutrients and are generally more productive than are 

streams in the Blue Ridge and the Allegheny Highlands.

The basin is mostly forest (81 per cent) with a 

substantial amount of agricultural land (16 percent) 

(Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Interagency 

Consortium, 1997). Forest types vary substantially with 

aspect because of local orographic effects, but in general are Mixed Mesophytic in the western Appalachian 

Plateaus, Northern Hardwood and Northern Evergreen 

in the Allegheny Highlands, Oak-Pine in the Valley 

and Ridge, and Northern Hardwoods and Appalachian 

Oak in the Blue Ridge (Messinger and Hughes, 2000). 

The entire basin was logged by about 1920 (Clarkson, 

1964). No old-growth forest larger 

than a few acres remains anywhere in the basin; therefore, no pristine reference sites are available for stream 

ecology studies. 

The population distribution in the basin is rural 

(Messinger and Hughes, 2000). Most people live in 

towns and cities of less than 10,000 people (U.S. Census Bureau, 1991). In 1990, about 870,000 people lived 

in the basin, of whom about 25 percent lived in the 

Charleston, W. Va., metropolitan area. Blacksburg, 

Va., (34,000) is the only other city in the basin with a 

population greater than 20,000. Population density in 

most of the basin is less than 130 persons/mi2

.

Major industries in the basin include coal mining 

and chemical manufacturing in West Virginia, timbering throughout most of the basin, and pasture agriculture in Virginia, North Carolina, and parts of West 

Virginia (Messinger and Hughes, 2000). The Kanawha 

River Basin is the source of about seven percent of the 

coal mined in the United States, mostly from a band of 

Pennsylvanian-age rocks in West Virginia running 

from Logan and Boone Counties to Randolph County. 

Most of the coal mined in the basin is low-sulfur (<1.5 

percent sulfur), and is burned to generate electricity. 

Acid mine drainage is generally not prevalent in the 

Kanawha River Basin. 

Coal production in the Kanawha River Basin has 

increased significantly since the Clean Air Act of 1990 

mandated reductions in sulfate emissions from coalburning facilities, although previous increases in equipment efficiency had already led to increased coal production from surface mines. Mountaintop removal coal 

mining, a practice in which an entire ridge top is 

removed to uncover thin, low-sulfur coal seams, and 

the overburden is placed in nearby valleys and streams 

(valley fills), has become increasingly prevalent. Major 

effects of coal mining on streams include addition of 

sulfate, aluminum, iron, and manganese to water, and 

an increase in stream sedimentation. Base flow 

(streamflow sustained by ground-water discharge) is 

increased downstream from valley fills (U.S. Geological Survey, Charleston, W.Va., unpub. data, 2000), but 

subsidence from underground mining beneath valley 

floors can dewater aquifers and streams (Hobba, 1981)
4 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin
INTRODUCTION 5
6 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Purpose and Scope

This report assesses the effect of selected environmental factors on benthic invertebrate communities in 

the Kanawha River Basin. Environmental factors investigated include land use/land cover, streamwater chemistry, streambed-sediment chemistry and habitat 

characteristics. We investigated the effect of several 

land uses important in the Basin. The report includes a 

comparison of community characteristics of four main 

stem and seven tributary sites that differ in land use and 

physiography throughout the Virginia and West Virginia portions of the study area. Sites were sampled in 

late spring and early summer of 1997 and 1998. The 

report also evaluates the effects of coal mining by comparing community characteristics of 29 sites in the 

Appalachian Plateaus. Benthic invertebrate, streamwater chemistry, and streambed sediment samples, as well 

as habitat data, from these 29 sites were collected, and 

the relations among these factors and land use were 

analyzed. Sites sampled varied in coal-mining intensity, 

mining practice, and other land-use characteristics.

Acknowledgments

We thank the following individuals for their help, 

patience, and good humor in the field, the office, and 

the laboratory: USGS colleagues Janet C. Steven, G. 

Wesley Gladwell, Jeremy S. White, Matthew S. 

Wooten, Georganne M. Gillespie, Charlynn S. Buchanan, Lary K. Rogers, Harold G. Henderlite, Lisa K. 

Ham, Mark D. Kozar, Marion T. Rosier, Steven Bolssen, and David I. Wellman. We also thank Robert M. 

Anderson, USGS, and Janice Smithson, West Virginia 

Division of Environmental Protection’s Office of Water 

Resources, for thoughtful comments on earlier drafts of 

this report, and Matthew G. Cooke, USGS, for editorial 

assistance.

STUDY DESIGN

The study consists of two overlapping components 

with different objectives. Samples were collected at 37 

sites throughout the Kanawha River Basin (fig. 1). Four 

“integrator” sites on the main stem of the Kanawha and 

New Rivers reflect multiple geologic and land-use settings in drainage basins larger than 3,700 mi2

. Seven 

“indicator” sites in basins of 40 to 300 mi2

 represent 

relatively homogeneous settings throughout the study 

area. Twenty-nine “synoptic” sites, including three 

sites from the fixed-site network, in West Virginia 

basins of 8.79 to 128 mi2

 represent a gradient of coalmining intensity ranging from unmined to heavily 

mined. 

Fixed-Site Network Design and Sampling 

The fixed-site network consists of the four integrator sites and the seven indicator sites (table 1). Indicator 

sites represent important land-use patterns in the 

Kanawha River Basin, namely coal mining and agriculture in the Appalachian Plateaus, Valley and Ridge, and 

Blue Ridge Provinces (Fenneman, 1938), and a highly 

distributed rural residential setting. At all sites, we 

selected a sampling reach so as to be representative of 

the stream segment, consisting of one repetition of two 

consecutive geomorphic channel units such as riffles, 

runs, or pools (Cuffney and others, 1993). Field teams 

collected benthic invertebrate samples, measured reachlevel habitat characteristics, and collected streambedsediment samples at least once at each of the sites. At 

three sites, Williams River at Dyer, W.Va., Reed Creek 

at Grahams Forge, Va., and Clear Fork at Whitesville, 

W. Va., three reaches were selected where we sampled 

invertebrates and measured habitat characteristics. At 

these three sites, we also collected invertebrates from 

one of the reaches for two consecutive years. 

Invertebrate samples were collected at all 11 fixed 

sites between May 5 and July 3, 1997; samples were 

collected from the multiple reach sites, including the 

reach sampled the previous year. This group of samples 

is referred to as May-June samples. Continuous discharge and temperature were measured at all sites. 

Streamwater was sampled monthly and additionally 

during high flow conditions at all sites. Streamflow, 

streamwater chemistry, and streambed-sediment data 

can be found in Ward and others (1998 and 1999); continuous water temperature data can be found in Ward 

and others (2000).

Benthic invertebrate samples were collected from 

the habitat expected to support the richest invertebrate 

community (most taxa) -- typically riffles with gravel, 

cobble, and boulder substrate. Samples were collected 

by disturbing a 0.25 m2

 area of riffle substrate immediately upstream of a Slack sampler (425 micrometer 

mesh) (Cuffney and others, 1993) and allowing the dislodged material to drift into the sampler. We also 

inspected cobble-sized and larger substratum for 

attached organisms, removing these with brushes and 

forceps. The Kanawha River at Winfield 
STUDY DESIGN 7

Table 1. Station descriptions and land-use data for the basic fixed-site network sampled in the Kanawha River Basin[mi, mile; MRLC, Multiple Resolution Land Characteristics data; superscript numbers correspond with site number given on figure 1; Transitional Areas, areas cu

as construction areas]

Percentage of Basin Area 

Station Name and Station Number 

(Abbreviated site name used in figures)

Drainage 

Area 

(mi2)

Station Heading Total Forest Total agriculture Resident

Commeri

Industr

Williams River at Dyer, W. Va.1

03186500 (Dyer) 128 Indicator: reference condition in Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province 96.8 2.2 0.03 

Reed Creek at Grahams Forge, Va.2

03167000 (Reed) 247 Indicator: agriculture in Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province 53.0 43.6 2.7 

Little River at Graysontown, Va303170000 (Little) 300 Indicator: agriculture in Blue Ridge Physiographic Province 62.8 36.4 0.18 Bluestone River near Spanishburg, W. Va.403178000 (Bluston) 199 Indicator: rural residential in both Valley and Ridge and Applachian Plateaus Physiographic Province 80.7 14.3 3.1 Second Creek near Second Creek, W. Va.503183000 (Second) 80.8 Indicator: agriculture in carbonate portion of Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province 72.0 25.3 0.13 Peters Creek near Lockwood, W. Va.603191500 (Peters) 40.2 Indicator: coal mining in Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province 88.2 7.7 0.69 Clear Fork at Whitesville W. Va.703198350 (ClrFk) 62.8 Indicator: coal mining in Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province 94.0 1.9 0.42 New River at Glen Lyn, Va.803176500 (GlenLyn) 3,768 Integrator of Blue Ridge and Valley and Ridge Physiographic Provinces 67.8 29.5 1.66 New River at Thurmond, W. Va.903185400 (Thurmond) 6,687 Integrator, below the Greenbrier River, the largest unsampled tributary 73.1 24.0 1.43 Kanawha River at Kanawha Falls, W. Va.1003193000 (KFalls) 8,371

Integrator, below major tributary, change in stream gradient, above head of navigation and industrial-urban center

76.3 20.5 1.3 

Kanawha River at Winfield, W. Va.1103201300 (Winfield) 11,809 Integrator, in navigable reach, below all urban and industrial land uses 80.7 15.8 1.53 
8 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin Table 2. Environmental setting data and key to short names used in illustrations for coal-mining synoptic sites sampled in 

Kanawha River Basin [PRE, mined before 1980 and not since; MIXED, (in time of mining column), mined both before and after 1980; DEEP, mined only using deep mining techniques; MImined using both deep- and surface-mining techniques; MRLC, Multi-resolution land characteristics data; Trans/Comm/Ind, mixed transportation, commercial and in

feet; WMA, Wildlife Management Area; superscript numbers correspond with site numbers given in figure one] Mining Setting MRLC land-use/land-cover data (Percent of b

Station Name Sample Name Time of Mining Mining Method Drainage Area (mi2

)

Elevation

(ft) Residential Mining

Trans/

Comm/

Ind

Forest 

Big Horse Creek at Altman, W. Va.12 BigHorse MIXED MIXED 28.4 664 0.24 3.33 0.01 93.5 Birch River atBoggs, W. Va.13 Birch MIXED MIXED 16.3 1,454 0.02 2.46 0.11 91.8 Blue Creek at Sanderson, W. Va.14 BluCk MIXED MIXED 50.1 711 0.16 0 0.17 98.6 Brier Creek at Brounland, W. Va.15 BrierCk PRE MIXED 15.8 714 0.34 0 0.12 98.1 Cabin Creek atDry Branch, W. Va.16 CabinCk MIXED MIXED 70.8 620 0.93 2.80 0.41 94.1 Camp Creek near Camp Creek, W. V.a17 CampCk PRE DEEP 18.8 2,013 0.08 0 0.17 92.6 Clear Fork at Whitesville, W. V.a7 ClrFkSYN MIXED MIXED 63.2 1,190 0.26 2.27 1.17 94.0 Davis Creek atDavis Creek, W. Va.18 DavisCk PRE MIXED 35.8 570 4.93 0.18 0.09 91.5 Williams River atDyer, W. Va.1 DyerSYN PRE MIXED 128 2,195 0.01 0 0.32 96.8 Falling Rock Creekat Falling Rock, W. Va19

FalRok PRE MIXED 24.6 608 0.01 0 0.05 97.9 
STUDY DESIGN 9

Mining Setting MRLC land-use/land-cover data (Percent o

Station Name Sample Name Time of Mining Mining Method Drainage Area (mi2) Elevation (ft) Residential Mining Trans/ Comm/ Ind Forest 

Gauley River atWilliams River,W. Va.20 Gauley MIXED MIXED 75.3 2,168 0.17 0.34 0.02 96.9 Grassy Creek atDiana, W. Va.21 Grassy MIXED MIXED 19.4 1,327 0.16 0.60 0.01 96.9 Laurel Fork atHacker Valley, W. Va.22

Hacker UNMINED UNMINED 11.5 1,492 0.01 0 0.02 99.0 

Williams River nearHandley WMA,W. Va.23

Handley1Handley2 PRE DEEP 51.6 2,938 0.02 0 0.66 93.7 

Hewitt Creek atJeffrey, W. Va.24 Hewitt MIXED MIXED 18.9 778 0.53 0.44 0.05 97.1 Kellys Creek atCedar Grove, W. Va.25 Kellys MIXED MIXED 24.1 598 0.63 2.31 0.53 92.8 Laurel Creek atHopkins Fork, W. Va.26 Laurel MIXED MIXED 41.3 705 0.09 2.44 0.03 95.8 Left Fork Holly Rivernear Replete, W. Va.27 LFHolly PRE DEEP 46.5 837 0.06 0.10 0.03 97.7 Little Bluestone Rivernear Jumping Branch, W. Va.28

LilBlue PRE MIXED 26.4 1,601 0.15 0.06 0.02 80.8 

Little Sandy Creekat Wills, W. Va.29 Lsandy UNMINED UNMINED 28.2 624 0.10 0 0.02 95.7 

Table 2. Environmental setting data and key to short names used in illustrations for coal-mining synoptic sites sampled 

Kanawha River Basin —Continued

[PRE, mined before 1980 and not since; MIXED, (in time of mining column), mined both before and after 1980; DEEP, mined only using deep mining techniquesmined using both deep- and surface-mining techniques; MRLC, Multi-resolution land characteristics data; Trans/Comm/Ind, mixed transportation, commercial an

feet; WMA, Wildlife Management Area; superscript numbers correspond with site numbers given in figure one] 
10 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin Mining Setting MRLC land-use/land-cover data (Percent of b

Station Name Sample Name Time of Mining Mining Method Drainage Area (mi2

)

Elevation

(ft) Residential Mining

Trans/

Comm/

Ind

Forest 

Mill Creek nearHopewell, W. Va.30 MillCk UNMINED UNMINED 22.41 1,308 1.12 0 0.30 88.7 Miller Creek atNallen, W. Va.31 Millers UNMINED UNMINED 8.79 1,904 0.0 1.68 1.00 94.8 North Fork Cherry River at Richwood,W. Va.32

NFCR@RW MIXED MIXED 36.4 2,223 0.04 0.01 0.03 98.3 

North Fork Cherry River near Richwood, W. Va.33

NFCRNRW

1

NFCRNRW

2

PRE DEEP 11.8 3,211 0.01 0.02 0.02 99.3 

Peters Creek nearLockwood, W. Va.6 PeterSYN MIXED MIXED 40.2 1,069 0.22 2.19 0.43 88.1 Pond Fork atBob White, W. Va.34 PondFk MIXED MIXED 58.3 844 0.69 4.22 0 93.1 Sandlick Creek nearArnett, W. Va.35

Sandlik1Sandlik2 MIXED MIXED 19.9 1,632 0.16 0.73 0 90.7 

Sewell Creek atEast Rainelle, W. Va.36 Sewell MIXED MIXED 40.1 2,400 1.08 0.36 1.66 85.9 Spruce Laurel Fork atClothier, W. Va.37 SprLauFk MIXED MIXED 31.8 810 0.14 2.54 0 96.0 

Table 2. Environmental setting data and key to short names used in illustrations for coal-mining synoptic sites sampled in 

Kanawha River Basin —Continued

[PRE, mined before 1980 and not since; MIXED, (in time of mining column), mined both before and after 1980; DEEP, mined only using deep mining techniques; MImined using both deep- and surface-mining techniques; MRLC, Multi-resolution land characteristics data; Trans/Comm/Ind, mixed transportation, commercial and in

feet; WMA, Wildlife Management Area; superscript numbers correspond with site numbers given in figure one] 
STUDY DESIGN 11

was the only site where we deviated from this procedure and sampled channel-margin shelves with a petite 

PONAR dredge because of the absence of both riffles 

and coarse-grained substrates. At each sampling point, 

we measured depth and current velocity, recorded 

dominant and codominant substrate size by Wentworth size class (Wentworth, 1922), and estimated 

substrate embeddedness. Five to seven such samples 

were combined as a composite sample for the reach. 

Details of sampling methods can be found in Cuffney 

and others (1993); benthic invertebrate-community 

data can be found in Ward and others (1999).

Coal-Mining Synoptic Survey Design and Sampling

A second network of sites was established to investigate the interactions of invertebrate communities and 

environmental conditions in the West Virginia coalmining region of the Kanawha River Basin. Secondarily, we used this synoptic as a measure of the representativeness of our fixed mining and reference sites. 

Sites represent a range of conditions from apparently 

unmined, to mined before enactment of the Surface 

Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, to currently being mined at various levels of intensity (table 

2). These sites, draining areas ranging from 8.79 to 128 

square miles, included three sites from the fixed-site 

network —Williams River at Dyer, Peters Creek near 

Lockwood, and Clear Fork at Whitesville. 

During July and August of 1998, we collected 

streamwater-chemistry samples, streambed-sediment 

samples, and benthic invertebrate samples; we also 

measured streamflow and physical habitat characteristics. We established sampling reaches at each site using 

the same criteria as for the fixed sites —one repetition 

of two consecutive geomorphic channel units such as 

riffles, runs or pools. The USGS’s National WaterQuality Laboratory (NWQL) analyzed streamwater 

samples for major ion concentrations and total and dissolved metal concentrations (table 3). Composite samples of the top 2-3 cm of stream-bottom material 

(Shelton and Capel, 1993) were analyzed by the NWQL 

for metal and trace elements concentrations (table 4). 

We collected invertebrate samples following the procedures described for invertebrate samples in the section 

on fixed-site network design. Replicate invertebrate 

samples from adjacent stream reaches were collected at 

three sites,—Williams River at Handley Wildlife Management Area, North Fork of the Cherry River near 

Richwood, and Sandlick Creek near Arnett. This group 

of samples is referred to as July-August, or synoptic 

samples. 

Physical habitat was characterized by measuring 

wetted channel width, bankfull height, and bankfull 

width at three transects corresponding to the two riffles 

and the intervening pool in a reach. At each transect, we 

also measured depth and current velocity at three 

points, and identified the dominant and subdominant 

substrate class at these three points. We also characterized particle-size distribution by measuring the intermediate axis of 100 streambed particles equally distributed 

among the three transects. Streamwater chemistry and 

benthic invertebrate-community data can be found in 

Ward and others, 1999; streambed-sediment-chemistry 

data can be found in Ward and others, 2000.

 Table 3. Chemical and physical characteristics of

streamwater measured as part of the coal-mining

synoptic survey of the Kanawha River Basin

[μS/cm, microSiemens per centimeter; mg, milligram; L, liter; μg, 

microgram]

Characteristic Units

Instantaneous Discharge Cubic Feet per Second

Water Temperature Degrees Celsius

Specific Conductance μS/cm at 25 Cο

Dissolved Oxygen mg/L

pH Standard Units

Dissolved Carbon Dioxide mg/L as CO2

Total Acidity mg/L as CaCO3

Dissolved Alkalinity mg/L as CaCO3

Dissolved Carbonate mg/L as CO3

Dissolved Bicarbonate mg/L as HCO3

Total Hardness mg/L as CaO3

Dissolved Noncarbonate 

Hardness mg/L as CaCO3

Dissolved Calcium mg/L as Ca

Dissolved Magnesium mg/L as Mg

Dissolved Sodium mg/L as Na

Dissolved Potassium mg/L as K

Dissolved Chloride mg/L as Cl

Dissolved Sulfate mg/L as SO4

Dissolved Fluoride mg/L as F

Dissolved Silica mg/L as SiO2

Total Iron μg/L as Fe

Dissolved Iron μg/L as Fe

Total Manganese μg/L as Mn

Dissolved Manganese μg/L as Mn

Total Aluminum μg/L as Al

Dissolved Aluminum μg/L as Al
12 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Invertebrate Sample Analysis

The Biological Group of the USGS’s National WaterQuality Laboratory analyzed all invertebrate samples. 

Subsamples were taken from the samples and up to 500 

organisms from the subsample were identified and 

counted (Moulton and others, 2000). Results were 

adjusted to total sample abundances, which were divided 

by area sampled to derive the number of individuals in 

taxa per m2

 (taxa density).

Land-Use Data

Relations among invertebrate communities and landuse characteristics, such as land-cover data and coal production, were analyzed. We used the Multi-Resolution 

Land Characteristics (MRLC) data set for all land-cover/

Table 4. Chemical constituents analyzed in 

streambed-sediment samples collected as part of 

the coal-mining synoptic survey of the Kanawha

River Basin

[μm, micrometer; μg, microgram; g, gram; All samples wet-seived at 63 

μm]

Constituent Units

Aluminum percent

Antimony μg/g

Arsenic μg/g

Barium μg/g

Beryllium μg/g

Bismuth μg/g

Cadmium μg/g

Calcium percent

Inorganic Carbon percent

Organic Carbon percent

Cerium μg/g

Chromium μg/g

Cobalt μg/g

Copper μg/g

Europium μg/g

Gallium μg/g

Gold μg/g

Holmium μg/g

Iron percent

Lanthanum μg/g

Lead μg/g

Lithium μg/g

Magnesium percent

Manganese μg/g

Mercury μg/g

Molybdenum μg/g

Neodymium μg/g

Nickel μg/g

Niobium μg/g

Phosphorus percent

Constituent Units

Potassium percent

Scandium μg/g

Selenium μg/g

Silver μg/g

Sodium percent

Strontium μg/g

Sulfur percent

Tantalum μg/g

Thorium μg/g

Tin μg/g

Titanium percent

Uranium μg/g

Vanadium μg/g

Ytterbium μg/g

Yttrium μg/g

Zinc μg/g

Table 4. Chemical constituents analyzed in 

streambed-sediment samples collected as part of 

the coal-mining synoptic survey of the Kanawha

River Basin —Continued

[μm, micrometer; μg, microgram; g, gram; All samples wet-seived at 63 

μm]
STUDY DESIGN 13

land-use data in our analysis. The MRLC dataset was 

based primarily on 1992 LANDSAT thematic mapper 

imagery, but incorporates LANDSAT data from 1986 

to 1994 (Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Interagency Consortium, 1997). We derived coal production 

data from production figures reported by companies to 

the Department of Energy’s Energy Information 

Administration. For the period of 1980-1995 (the most 

recent year for which data were available), we assembled production data and matched it with location coordinates for mining permits (Emil Attanasi, USGS, 

written comm., 1997). If the associated location fell 

within a basin’s drainage area, we assigned the production value to that basin. The assignment of coal production to a single point introduces error, however, 

because mining takes place over wide areas, not just at 

the coordinates indicated on the permit. This situation 

is true of surface mines, which can cover thousands of 

hectares and span drainage divides, and deep mines, 

which can also be areally extensive and may result in 

interbasin water transfers.

Seasonal Variability in the Data Set

Initially, we intended to use samples collected as 

part of the coal-mining synoptic survey to supplement 

samples from the fixed-site network. We collected 

samples, however, during two distinct seasons. Fixed 

sites were sampled primarily in late spring (May-June), 

and synoptic sites were sampled in mid summer (JulyAugust). Before combining these data sets for analysis, 

we examined the possibility of a seasonal effect on 

community composition because of sequential changes 

in taxa abundance as temperatures change and different 

species mature and emerge. These effects arise as species composition shifts in response to changing stream 

environments as seasons progress. We compared samples collected from the same reach during different seasons and during different years, and in different reaches 

of the same stream segment during the same year and 

season. Samples collected at the same site in different 

seasons of the same year were less similar than samples 

collected in the same reach in the same season, but in 

different years, indicating that data from different seasons were not directly comparable and could not be 

combined. The comparisons were made using hierarchical classification.

The TWINSPAN program (Two-Way INdicator 

SPecies ANalysis, Hill; 1979) was used to classify 

sampled sites on the basis of invertebrate-community 

composition. The basic approach of TWINSPAN is to 

classify samples in a divisive hierarchy, then use this 

classification to identify differential species, or species 

that 

show a clear ecological preference. TWINSPAN 

sequentially divides a set of samples into groups, 

known as clades, based on the similarity between the 

taxa and their abundances in each sample. Each clade 

can be distinguished from the adjacent clade by certain 

characteristic taxa. In Figure 2, for example, the clades 

separated in the first division of samples differed in the 

presence of the chironomid midges Cricotopus spp. and 

Orthocladius spp. in one clade versus the presence of 

several taxa such as Dolophilodes spp., Leuctra spp., 

and Acerpenna spp. in the other clade. It is assumed 

that the preference of species for particular sites is a 

reflection of both that species’ environmental requirements and the conditions in the stream at the time the 

sample was collected. 

In classification, as well as in ordination, data must 

commonly be edited and censored to reduce confusing 

taxonomical information, such as ambiguous taxa, and 

the inflated influence of rare species. Invertebrate specimens were identified to the lowest taxon practical, 

which resulted in some cases in ambiguous classifications within a sample – for example, some individuals 

of a given species identified at the generic level and 

other individuals in the same sample identified at the 

lower species level, possibly because of difficulty identifying immature or damaged specimens. To increase 

the consistency of data both within and among samples, 

we combined data at a generic level by adding specieslevel data to the counts for the parent genus. Where 

identifications were made at the family level, we distributed these counts proportionally among the daughter genera present in the sample. To reduce the effects 

of rare species, we censored taxa comprising less than 

0.04 percent of the total abundance of the data set. We 

transformed all edited and censored density data to relative abundance. Before classification, relative-abundance data were octave transformed, a base 2 

logarithmic transformation of percentage data resulting 

in values of 0-9 (Gauch, 1977). 

TWINSPAN classification of all indicator-site 

samples indicated a seasonal effect in the data (fig. 2). 

The samples collected in May-June differed significantly enough from the July-August samples that these 

groups are treated separately throughout this report. 

When all 48 indicator-site samples were considered 

together, six levels of division placed one to five samples in each final clade. For all three sites where samples were collected both during May-June and JulyAugust, the later sample divided from the earlier ones 
14 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 15

at the third level. In contrast, for five sites where 14 

samples were collected within one season, only one 

separated from its replicates, and then only at the final 

division. These seasonal effects are strong enough to 

obscure other factors in a combined analysis. It would 

be inappropriate therefore to combine data from samples collected in two different collecting seasons. In 

accordance with these findings, we elected to treat 

these two data sets, one from the fixed-site network 

and one from the coal-mining synoptic, as separate 

and to analyze them individually.

BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES

Invertebrate communities can be described in several 

ways —by species composition, habitat use, food-resource 

use, and mathematical summaries of other community 

attributes or metrics. We described samples from our two 

data sets on the basis of the community attributes listed in 

table 5. Where appropriate, we compared attribute values to 

reference or best-attained conditions in each data set.

 . 

Table 5. Biological metrics used in comparisons of macroinvertebrate samples from sites sampled in the 

Kanawha River Basin

[Metric definitions and expected responses from Barbour and others, 1999, and Bode and others, 1996] 

Metric Definition Expected response to increasing 

environmental impairment

EPT Number of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera taxa Decrease

EP Number of Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera taxa Decrease

EPT Abundance Relative abundance of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and 

Trichoptera taxa Decrease

Chironomidae Abundance Relative abundance of Chironomidae Increase

EPT Abundance: Chironomidae Abundance Ratio of EPT Abundance to Chironomidae Abundance Decrease

Percent Dominant Taxa Relative abundance of the single most abundant taxon Increase

Percent 2 Dominant 

Taxa Relative abundance of the two most abundant taxa Increase

Taxa Richness Number of taxa Decrease

Modified Hilsenhoff Biotic Index Summary of community tolerance to pollution Increase

Proportion of Shredders Relative abundance of taxa belonging to “shredder” feeding 

group

Decrease

Proportion of Collector-Filterers Relative abundance of taxa belonging to “Collector-Filterer” 

feeding group Variable

Proportion of Collector-Gatherers Relative abundance of taxa belonging to “Collector-Gatherer” 

feeding group Variable

Proportion of Scrapers Relative abundance of taxa belonging to “Scraper” feeding 

group

Variable

Proportion of Predators Relative abundance of taxa belonging to “Predator” feeding 

group

Variable

Scrapers:Collector-Filterers Ratio of Scrapers to Collector-Filterers Decrease

Scrapers:Collector-Filterers and Scrapers Ratio of Scrapers to Collector-Filterers and Scrapers Decrease

Proportion Hydropyschidae to Trichoptera Relative abundance of pollution tolerant caddisflies Increase

Proportion Baetidae to Ephemeroptera Relative abundance of pollution tolerant mayflies Increase

Proportion Orthocladiinae to Chironomidae Relative abundance of pollution-tolerant midges to all midges Increase

Proportion Tanytarsini to Chironomidae Relative abundance of pollution-intolerant midges to all 

midges Decrease

Proportion Tanytarsini to Total Relative abundance of pollution-intolerant midges to total 

abundance Decrease

Proportion Chironomidae to Total Relative abundance of midges to total abundance Increase

Percent Model Affinity

Similarity of taxa composition to “model” reference 

composition of 5% Oligochaeta, 40% Ephemeroptera, 5% 

Plecoptera, 10% Coleoptera, 10% Trichoptera, 20% 

Chironomidae, and 10% other taxa

Decrease
16 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Comparison of Samples Collected as Part of the 

Fixed-Site network

 The fixed-site data set consists of 20 samples 

from a relatively disparate collection of eleven sites, 

representing three physiographic provinces, four 

ecoregions, and drainage areas ranging from less than 

50 mi2

 to nearly 12,000 mi2. Such variety makes 

direct comparison of sites difficult, as reference conditions were defined in only one of the physiographic 

provinces. Furthermore, community composition varies with stream order and drainage area (Vannote and 

others, 1980) and the fixed-site network spans several 

orders of magnitude of drainage area. Lastly, because 

we used a different sampling method and targeted 

habitat at Kanawha River at Winfield, W. Va., results 

for this site were not compared with the other sites. 

Given these caveats, however, we made comparisons 

to our a priori defined reference conditions of Williams River at Dyer, using the mean value of all four 

samples from this site as our benchmark. Metric values for May-June samples are shown in figures 3-5 

with values for Williams River at Dyer samples first, 

followed by the remainder of the indicator-basin sites 

in downstream order, then the integrator-site samples.

Overall, metric values at Williams River at Dyer 

indicated communities with minimal impairment. 

Other sites with metric values that frequently 

exceeded those of the reference condition include Little River, Second Creek and some samples from Reed 

Creek. These three basins were similar in that agriculture represented the prevalent non-forest land cover, 

of which the majority is pasture and hay cultivation. 

Reed Creek samples were highly variable, both from 

reach-to-reach and from year-to-year, and generally 

reflected a higher level of impairment than the other 

agricultural sites. This fact may be due to not only the 

greater proportion of the basin used for agriculture but 

also other land uses, such as an interstate highway and 

the town of Wytheville, Va. Given the rather small set 

of sites to compare, agricultural practices in Kanawha 

River Basin appear to affect invertebrate communities 

to a lesser degree than mining affects invertebrate 

communities. Coal-mining indicator samples consistently reflected a greater degree of impairment than 

either reference or agricultural sites. Additionally, the 

Clear Fork samples indicated more impairment than 

Peters Creek, although coal production was higher in 

the Peters Creek basin. Metric values at integrator 

sites may be more indicative of the very different 

stream environment at these sites draining large basins 

than the influence of any land-use pattern.

Species-composition characteristics such as taxa 

richness, number of taxa belonging to certain groups, 

and proportional representation of specific taxa or taxa 

groups provided a basis for describing samples. Taxa 

richness -- the number of taxa present in a sample -- 

measures the diversity of a sample. Generally, high 

taxa richness is indicative of low community impairment. Taxa richness can be affected by several environmental characteristics, including stream order, 

trophic status, and water quality. Taxa richness was 

highest in the samples from Little River and the sample from Williams River at Dyer reach B, with 44 taxa 

in each sample (fig. 3a). Of the samples collected 

from riffles using a Slack sampler, the lowest taxa 

richness was 15 in the 1998 sample from Clear Fork, 

reach B. Mean taxa richness for all sites was 30. Taxa 

richness at Williams River at Dyer averaged 35 taxa 

per sample (range 23-44, standard deviation [s.d.] 

9.7). The number of taxa present was generally lower 

in samples from integrator sites than in samples from 

the indicator basins. Samples from the Clear Fork 

coal-mining indicator site departed from this pattern, 

with three out of four samples from this site yielding 

the fewest species of all the samples. Taxa richness at 

Peters Creek, the other coal-mining indicator site, 

exceeded the reference condition mean. The high taxa 

richness of the Williams River at Dyer samples belie 

the dilute, oligotrophic nature of the Williams, 

because productive streams will often support more 

species (Allan, 1995; Dodson and others, 2000). Agricultural and rural-residential indicator sites ranged 

widely in taxa richness values (23 to 44), although 

most exceeded the reference condition mean. Low 

taxa richness at Reed Creek, averaging 30 genera, was 

a clear exception among the agricultural indicator 

sites.

The presence of particular taxa or taxa groups, 

such as Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), or Trichoptera (caddisflies), which are collectively referred to as EPT taxa, can indicate general 

environmental conditions. For example, a high EPT 

score is associated with low levels of impairment 

because EPT taxa are generally intolerant of pollution. 

These taxa, however, are not all sensitive to the same 

forms of environmental degradation and the presence 

of many different EPT taxa indicates the absence of 

multiple stressors or sources of degradation. The 

number of EPT taxa, or EPT taxa richness, followed 

the same general pattern as overall taxa richness, with 
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 17
18 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

lower values for Clear Fork and integrator site samples. EPT taxa richness was highest in reach B of the 

Williams River at Dyer with 28 genera present (fig. 

3b). The fewest EPT taxa, five, were found in the 

1998 sample from Clear Fork, reach B. Samples 

from the Williams River at Dyer averaged 21 EPT 

taxa (range 13-28, s.d. 6.8). Among the agricultural 

indicator sites, the Little River and Second Creek 

samples exceeded the reference condition mean with 

25 and 23 EPT taxa, respectively. Samples from 

Reed Creek averaged 14 EPT taxa, but ranged from 8 

to 21. The Bluestone River, the rural residential indicator site, had relatively high taxa richness but few 

EPT taxa. The presence of many species at this site, 

but few sensitive taxa, may indicate the effects of 

nutrient enrichment, due to the multiple sources 

present in the basin such as runoff from pastures and 

waste-water discharges, coupled with generally poor 

habitat. Of the samples from the two coal-mining 

indicator basins, the Peters Creek sample contained 

twice as many EPT taxa than the Clear Fork sample 

with the most EPT taxa. 

Proportions of organisms intolerant to environmental degradation are expected to decrease with 

increasing degradation. The proportion of individuals 

belonging to EPT taxa is one measure of the representation of intolerant organisms. Proportion of EPT 

individuals ranged from 60 percent of the 1998 Williams River at Dyer reach A sample, to 10 percent of 

the sample from Kanawha River at Kanawha Falls 

(fig. 3c). The mean proportion of EPT individuals for 

Williams River at Dyer samples was 55 percent (range 

52 percent-60 percent, s.d. 3.7). Representation of 

EPT was generally higher in samples from agricultural 

indicator sites than those from coal-mining indicator 

sites. Proportion of EPT individuals was similar for 

mining sites and the Bluestone River rural residential 

indicator site. Of the three integrator sites, values for 

Glen Lyn and Kanawha Falls were the lowest of the 

May-June samples. The sample from Thurmond, 

however, had relatively high representation of EPT 

individuals, probably because of the rocky habitat and 

highly aerated waters of this high-gradient section of 

the New River.

In contrast to the pollution-intolerant EPT taxa, 

the dipteran family Chironomidae (midges) contains 

many taxa tolerant of highly degraded conditions. The 

proportion of chironomid individuals in a sample is 

generally believed to increase with increasing community impairment, as tolerant chironomids replace more 

sensitive taxa when conditions degrade. Chironomidae represented 86 percent of the sample from the 

Kanawha River at Kanawha Falls, but only 11 percent 

of the sample collected in 1998 from reach A of the 

Williams River at Dyer (fig. 3d). The mean value for 

the four Williams River at Dyer samples was 16 percent (range 11-30, s.d. 9.4). 

Invertebrate communities can be described by representation of groups of organisms that use resources 

in similar ways (table 5). The resource type most 

commonly used in such characterizations is food. The 

availability of food resources changes along gradients 

of environmental characteristics such as drainage area 

and stream order (Vannote and others, 1980). Energy 

sources change from coarse particulate organic matter 

(CPOM) of terrestrial origin to a combination of instream primary production and downstream transport 

of fine particulate organic matter (FPOM) as one 

moves from headwaters to downstream reaches (Vannote and others, 1980). Benthic invertebrates are 

grouped by feeding habit into functional feeding 

groups (FFG). These include collector-gatherers 

(detritivores such as those that feed on deposits of fine 

particulate organic matter), collector-filterers (those 

that use suspended fine particulate organic matter), 

scrapers (which graze periphyton), predators, and 

shredders (which consume coarse particulate organic 

matter). The River Continuum Concept (Vannote and 

others, 1980) predicts that proportions of functional 

feeding groups should change in response to the 

change in food from coarse particulate organic matter 

to fine particulate organic matter along a gradient of 

stream size.

Collector-gatherers dominated 12 of 19 riffle samples and represented over 50 percent of all individuals 

in the sample from Peters Creek, all samples from 

Clear Fork, and the 1997 Reed Creek sample (fig. 4a). 

Collector-filterers were the dominant group in two 

samples from the Williams River at Dyer, Little River 

at Graysontown, and the Kanawha River at Kanawha 

Falls (fig. 4b). Collector-filterer relative abundance 

was greatest at Kanawha Falls, where the greatest 

transport of FPOM would be expected. Scrapers represented the greatest portion of the samples from Bluestone River, New River at Glen Lyn, and the New 

River at Thurmond (fig. 4c). In-stream production of 

biomass is more important in larger streams, such as at 

the integrator sites, and nutrient-enriched streams, 

such as the Bluestone River (Allan, 1995), and greater 

periphyton production can support greater scraper 

populations. 
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 19
20 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Neither shredders nor predators dominated any 

sample. Shredders were most abundant in samples 

from Williams River at Dyer, Second Creek near Second Creek, and samples from Reed Creek. No shredder 

taxa were found at New River at Thurmond. The 

absence of shredder taxa at integrator sites can easily be 

explained by their preference for CPOM, which makes 

up a relatively smaller fraction of the available energy 

resources in larger streams such as those sampled at the 

integrator sites. Low shredder abundance at Peters 

Creek and Clear Fork is probably related to habitat degradation such as siltation, of which many shredder taxa 

are intolerant. Predators ranged in relative abundance 

from 0.4 percent in the 1997 sample from Reed Creek, 

reach A, to 20 percent in the Williams River at Dyer, 

reach C sample collected in 1998. Predators, because 

of their high position in food webs, are not expected to 

numerically dominate communities.

The Hilsenhoff Biotic index (HBI) was originally 

designed as an index of organic-pollution degradation 

based upon family-level data (fig. 5a) (Hilsenhoff, 

1988). The index is an abundance-weighted average of 

pollution-tolerance values assigned to each taxon. High 

tolerance values are assigned to tolerant taxa and low 

values to taxa sensitive to pollution (table 6). Low HBI 

scores indicate low levels of impairment and higher 

scores indicate increased impairment. We used a modification of the HBI using generic-level data and pollution-tolerance scores from Bode and others (1996). 

Sample scores for the Hilsenhoff Biotic Index ranged 

from 2.84 for the Williams River at Dyer (reach C sample from 1998) to 5.80 for the Kanawha River at 

Kanawha Falls. The mean score was 4.44 and the 

median was 4.51. The mean reference site score was 

3.41 (range 2.84-3.77, s.d. 0.40). A pattern of high HBI 

scores for integrator sites and samples from Clear Fork 

is evident, reflecting a grouping of samples similar to 

that seen for taxa richness, number of EPT taxa, and 

proportion of EPT taxa metrics. Consistent with

this pattern, Peters Creek reflects lower levels of 

impairment than does Clear Fork. HBI scores for the 

agricultural indicator sites were lower than those for the 

mining sites, but still higher than the reference condition mean. 

The ratio of intolerant taxa abundance in a sample 

to the abundance of tolerant taxa is used as a measure of 

impairment; the ratio increases with decreased community impairment. We used the ratio of EPT abundance 

to the combined abundances of Chironomidae and EPT 

(fig. 5b). Values for the EPT/Chironomidae+EPT ratio 

varied from 0.02 at the Kanawha River at Kanawha 

Falls to 0.71 in the Williams River at Dyer, reach A 

sample collected in 1998. The reference condition 

mean was 0.59 (range 0.44-0.71, s.d. 0.11), which was 

exceeded by three Williams River at Dyer samples and 

the 1998 sample from Clear Fork, reach A. Although 

this ratio was highly variable, it was generally lower 

than the reference-condition average of both coal-mining and agricultural indicator sites. At integrator sites, 

the ratio displayed no pattern other than being lower 

than the reference condition.

As environmental conditions are degraded, groups 

of sensitive taxa decrease in abundance, and a few tolerant species increase in the absence of competition 

from the intolerant taxa. The increasing dominance of a 

sample by a few taxa usually indicates increasing 

impairment. The proportion of a sample represented by 

the two most abundant, or dominant, taxa ranged from 

18 percent in the Reed Creek, reach B sample collected 

in 1998 to 59 percent in the Clear Fork, reach B sample 

collected in 1997 (fig. 5c). The mean value for all four 

Williams River at Dyer samples was 22 percent (range 

21.7 percent-22.8 percent, s.d. 0.46). Again, the integrators and Clear Fork samples show the greatest departure from the reference condition, and in this case the 

Peters Creek mining-indicator site has values more similar to the agricultural indicators.
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 21
22 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Table 6. Taxa collected, functional feeding groups, and pollution tolerance values for the modified 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index for samples from riffle habitats in the Kanawha River Basin, 1997-1998

[c-f, collector-filterer; c-g, collector-gatherer; scr, scraper; shr, shredder; prd, predator, For each taxon a short name is provided for use in graphs. 

Taxa are listed in phylogenetic order (Thorp and Covich, 1991, Merritt and Cummins, 1996)*, Bode and others, 1996]

Order or higher 

taxa family Taxa Name Short name Functional Feeding Group*

Pollution 

Tolerance Value*

Phylum 

Platyhelminthes

Class Turbellaria Turbellaria Tur_CL c-g 6

Phylum Nematoda Nematoda Nemtod c-g 6

Class Oligochaeta Oligochaeta Oli_CL c-g 8

Super Order 

Megadrile Megadrile MegaSO c-g 8

Lumbriculida Lumbriculidae Lumbriculidae Lum_FM c-g 8

Haplotaxida Naididae Naididae Nai_FM c-g 6

Haplotaxida Tubificidae Tubificidae Tub_FM c-g 10

Class Hirudinea Hirudinea Hir_CL prd 7

Phylum Mollusca

Class Gastropoda Gastropoda GSTRPOD scr 5

Basomattophora Ancylidae Anc_FM scr 6

Neotaenioglossa Pleuroceridae Elimia sp. Eli_sp scr 6

Neotaenioglossa Pleuroceridae Leptoxis sp. Let_sp scr 6

Neotaenioglossa Pleuroceridae Pleurocera sp. Ple_sp scr 6

Class Bivalvia

Veneroida Corbiculidae Corbicula sp. Cor_sp c-f 6

Veneroida Sphaeriidae Sphaerium sp. Spha_sp c-f 6

Phylum 

Arthropoda

Class Arachnida

Subclass Acarina Hydrachnidia Hyd_OR prd 6

Class 

Malacostraca

Isopoda Asellidae Caecidotea sp. Cae_sp c-g 8

Amphipoda Gammaridae Gammarus sp. Gam_sp c-g 6

Decapoda Cambaridae Cambarus sp. Cam_sp c-g 6

Decapoda Cambaridae Orconectes sp. Orc_sp c-g 6

Class Insecta
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 23

Order or higher 

taxa family Taxa Name Short name Functional Feeding Group*

Pollution 

Tolerance Value*

Collembola Collembola Coll_OR c-g 5

Ephemeroptera Baetidae Acentrella sp. Ace_sp c-g 4

Ephemeroptera Baetidae Baetis sp. Bae_sp c-g 6

Ephemeroptera Baetidae Centroptilum/

Procloeon sp.

Cent/Pro c-g 2

Ephemeroptera Baetidae Heterocloeon sp. Het_sp scr 2

Ephemeroptera Baetidae Plauditus sp. Plau_sp c-g 6

Ephemeroptera Isonychiidae Isonychia sp. Iso_sp c-g 2

Ephemeroptera Heptageniidae Epeorus sp. Epe_sp scr 0

Ephemeroptera Heptageniidae Heptagenia sp. Hep_sp scr 4

Ephemeroptera Heptageniidae Leucrocuta sp. Leu_sp scr 1

Ephemeroptera Heptageniidae Stenacron sp. Ste_sp scr 7

Ephemeroptera Heptageniidae Stenonema sp. Sto_sp scr 3

Ephemeroptera Ephemerellidae Drunella sp. Dru_sp scr 0

Ephemeroptera Ephemerellidae Ephemerella sp. Efe_sp c-g 1

Ephemeroptera Ephemerellidae Eurylophella sp. Eur_sp c-g 2

Ephemeroptera Ephemerellidae Serratella sp. Ser_sp c-g 2

Ephemeroptera Ephemerellidae Timpanoga sp. Tim_sp c-g 2

Ephemeroptera Leptohyphidae Tricorythodes sp. Trc_sp c-g 4

Ephemeroptera Caenidae Caenis sp. Cae_sp c-g 6

Ephemeroptera Leptophlebiidae Paraleptophlebia

sp. Pal_sp c-g 1

Ephemeroptera Potamanthidae Anthopotamus sp. Ant_sp c-g 4

Ephemeroptera Ephemeridae Ephemera

guttulata Pictet Ephgut c-g 2

Odonata Gomphidae Ophiogomphus sp. Oph_sp prd 1

Odonata Aeshnidae Boyeria grafiana

Williamson Boygra prd 2

Odonata Macromiidae Macromia

taeniolata Rambur Mac_tae prd 2

Odonata Coenagrionidae Argia sp. Arg_sp prd 6

Plecoptera Pteronarcyidae Pteronarcys sp. Pte_sp shr 0

Plecoptera Peltoperlidae Peltoperla sp. Plto_sp shr 0

Table 6. Taxa collected, functional feeding groups, and pollution tolerance values for the modified 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index for samples from riffle habitats in the Kanawha River Basin, 1997-1998 —Continued

[c-f, collector-filterer; c-g, collector-gatherer; scr, scraper; shr, shredder; prd, predator, For each taxon a short name is provided for use in graphs. 

Taxa are listed in phylogenetic order (Thorp and Covich, 1991, Merritt and Cummins, 1996)*, Bode and others, 1996]
24 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Order or higher 

taxa family Taxa Name Short name Functional Feeding Group*

Pollution 

Tolerance Value*

Plecoptera Peltoperlidae Tallaperla sp. Talla_sp shr 0

Plecoptera Nemouridae Amphinemura sp. Amp_sp shr 3

Plecoptera Leuctridae Leuctra sp. Luc_sp shr 0

Plecoptera Leuctridae Paraleuctra sp. Prl_sp shr 0

Plecoptera Perlidae Acroneuria sp. Acr_sp prd 0

Plecoptera Perlidae Agnetina sp. Agn_sp prd 2

Plecoptera Perlidae Neoperla sp. Neo_sp prd 3

Plecoptera Perlidae Paragnetina

immarginata (Say) Prgimm prd 1

Plecoptera Perlidae Perlesta sp. Per_sp prd 5

Plecoptera Perlodidae Isoperla sp. Isp_sp prd 2

Plecoptera Chloroperlidae Suwallia sp. Suw_sp prd 0

Plecoptera Chloroperlidae Sweltsa sp. Swel_sp prd 0

Hemiptera Veliidae Rhagovelia sp. Rha_sp prd 5

Megaloptera Corydalidae

Corydalus

cornutus

(Linnaeus)

Corcor prd 4

Megaloptera Corydalidae Nigronia sp. Nig_sp prd 0

Megaloptera Sialidae Sialis sp. Sia_sp prd 4

Trichoptera Philopotamidae Chimarra sp. Chim_sp c-f 4

Trichoptera Philopotamidae Dolophilodes sp. Dol_sp c-f 0

Trichoptera Psychomyiidae Psychomyia sp. Psy_sp c-g 2

Trichoptera Polycentropodidae Paranyctiophylax

sp. Pan_sp prd 6

Trichoptera Polycentropodidae Polycentropus sp. Pol_sp prd 6

Trichoptera Hydropsychidae Ceratopsyche sp. Cer_sp c-f 5

Trichoptera Hydropsychidae Cheumatopsyche

sp. Chu_sp c-f 5

Trichoptera Hydropsychidae Hydropsyche sp. Hyd_sp c-f 4

Trichoptera Rhyacophilidae Rhyacophila sp. Rhy_sp prd 1

Trichoptera Glossosomatidae Agapetus sp. Aga_sp scr 0

Trichoptera Glossosomatidae Glossosoma sp. Glo_sp scr 0

Trichoptera Glossosomatidae Protoptila sp. Prt_sp scr 1

Table 6. Taxa collected, functional feeding groups, and pollution tolerance values for the modified 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index for samples from riffle habitats in the Kanawha River Basin, 1997-1998 —Continued

[c-f, collector-filterer; c-g, collector-gatherer; scr, scraper; shr, shredder; prd, predator, For each taxon a short name is provided for use in graphs. 

Taxa are listed in phylogenetic order (Thorp and Covich, 1991, Merritt and Cummins, 1996)*, Bode and others, 1996]
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 25

Order or higher 

taxa family Taxa Name Short name Functional Feeding Group*

Pollution 

Tolerance Value*

Trichoptera Hydroptilidae Hydroptila sp. Hyr_sp scr 6

Trichoptera Hydroptilidae Leucotrichia sp. Leu_sp scr 6

Trichoptera Hydroptilidae Mayatrichia

ayama Mosely May_aya scr 6

Trichoptera Hydroptilidae Ochrotrichia sp. Ochr_sp scr 6

Trichoptera Brachycentridae Brachycentrus sp. Bra_sp c-f 1

Trichoptera Brachycentridae Micrasema sp. Mic_sp shr 2

Trichoptera Lepidostomatidae Lepidostoma sp. Lep_sp shr 1

Trichoptera Limnephilidae Pycnopsyche sp. Pyc_sp shr 4

Trichoptera Apataniidae Apatania sp. Apa_sp scr 3

Trichoptera Goeridae Goera sp. Goe_sp scr 3

Trichoptera Uenoidae Neophylax sp. Nph_sp scr 3

Trichoptera Helicopsychidae Helicopsyche 

borealis (Hagen) Helbor scr 3

Trichoptera Odontoceridae Psilotreta labida

Ross Psilab scr 0

Trichoptera Leptoceridae Ceraclea sp. Cea_sp c-g 3

Trichoptera Leptoceridae

Mystacides

sepulchralis

(Walker)

Myssep c-g 4

Trichoptera Leptoceridae Nectopsyche sp. Nec_sp shr 3

Trichoptera Leptoceridae Oecetis sp. Oec_sp prd 5

Lepidoptera Pyralidae Petrophila sp. Pet_sp scr 5

Coleoptera Gyrinidae Dineutus sp. Din _sp prd 4

Coleoptera Elmidae Ancyronyx

variegata (Germar) Ancvar c-g 5

Coleoptera Elmidae Dubiraphia sp. Dub_sp c-g 6

Coleoptera Elmidae Macronychus

glabratus Say Macgla c-g 5

Coleoptera Elmidae Microcylloepus

pusillus (LeConte) Mcy_pus scr 3

Coleoptera Elmidae Optioservus sp. Opt_sp scr 4

Coleoptera Elmidae

Oulimnius

latiusculus

(LeConte)

Oullat scr 4

Coleoptera Elmidae Promoresia sp. Prm_sp scr 2

Table 6. Taxa collected, functional feeding groups, and pollution tolerance values for the modified 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index for samples from riffle habitats in the Kanawha River Basin, 1997-1998 —Continued

[c-f, collector-filterer; c-g, collector-gatherer; scr, scraper; shr, shredder; prd, predator, For each taxon a short name is provided for use in graphs. 

Taxa are listed in phylogenetic order (Thorp and Covich, 1991, Merritt and Cummins, 1996)*, Bode and others, 1996]
26 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Order or higher 

taxa family Taxa Name Short name Functional Feeding Group*

Pollution 

Tolerance Value*

Coleoptera Elmidae Stenelmis sp. Stn_sp scr 5

Coleoptera Psephenidae Ectopria sp. Ect_sp scr 5

Coleoptera Psephenidae Psephenus herricki

(DeKay) Pseher scr 4

Coleoptera Staphylinidae Staphylinidae Sta_FM prd 5

Diptera Nematocera Ncera_SO -- --

Diptera Blephariceridae Blepharicera sp. Ble_sp c-g 0

Diptera Ceratopogonidae Atrichopogon sp. Atric_sp prd 6

Diptera Ceratopogonidae Bezzia/Palpomyia

sp.

Bez/Pal prd 6

Diptera Ceratopogonidae Dasyhelea sp. Das_sp c-g 6

Diptera Ceratopogonidae Probezzia sp. Prob_sp prd 6

Diptera Chironomidae Ablabesmyia sp. Abl_sp prd 8

Diptera Chironomidae Labrundinia sp. labr_sp. prd 7

Diptera Chironomidae Thienemannimyia

group sp.

Thi_G prd 6

Diptera Chironomidae Zavrelimyia sp. Zacr_sp prd 8

Diptera Chironomidae Diamesa sp. Dia_sp c-g 5

Diptera Chironomidae Pagastia sp. Pag_sp c-g 1

Diptera Chironomidae Potthastia sp. Pot_sp c-g 2

Diptera Chironomidae Corynoneura sp. Cory_sp c-g 4

Diptera Chironomidae Thienemanniella

sp. Thi_sp c-g 6

Diptera Chironomidae Brillia sp. Bri_sp shr 5

Diptera Chironomidae Cardiocladius sp. Car_sp prd 5

Diptera Chironomidae Cricotopus

bicinctus group

CribicG scr 7

Diptera Chironomidae Cricotopus sp. Cri_sp shr 7

Diptera Chironomidae Cricotopus

trifascia group

CritriG shr 6

Diptera Chironomidae Cricotopus/

Orthocladius sp. Cr/Or_sp c-g 6

Diptera Chironomidae Eukiefferiella sp. Euk_sp c-g 4

Diptera Chironomidae Lopescladius sp. Lop_sp c-g 4

Table 6. Taxa collected, functional feeding groups, and pollution tolerance values for the modified 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index for samples from riffle habitats in the Kanawha River Basin, 1997-1998 —Continued

[c-f, collector-filterer; c-g, collector-gatherer; scr, scraper; shr, shredder; prd, predator, For each taxon a short name is provided for use in graphs. 

Taxa are listed in phylogenetic order (Thorp and Covich, 1991, Merritt and Cummins, 1996)*, Bode and others, 1996]
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 27

Order or higher 

taxa family Taxa Name Short name Functional Feeding Group*

Pollution 

Tolerance Value*

Diptera Chironomidae Nanocladius sp. Nclad_sp c-g 7

Diptera Chironomidae

Orthocladius

(Symposiocladius) 

sp.

OrtSym c-g 6

Diptera Chironomidae Orthocladius sp. Or_sp c-g 6

Diptera Chironomidae Parachaetocladius

sp. Prch_sp c-g 2

Diptera Chironomidae Parakiefferiella sp. Pak_sp c-g 4

Diptera Chironomidae Parametriocnemus

sp. Pam_sp c-g 5

Diptera Chironomidae Pseudosmittia sp. Pss_sp c-g 5

Diptera Chironomidae Rheocricotopus sp. Rhe_sp c-g 6

Diptera Chironomidae Synorthocladius

sp. Syn_sp c-g 6

Diptera Chironomidae Tvetenia sp. Tve_sp c-g 5

Diptera Chironomidae Chironomus/

Einfeldia sp. Chi_sp c-g 10

Diptera Chironomidae Cryptochironomus

sp. Cry_sp prd 5

Diptera Chironomidae Dicrotendipes sp. Dit_sp c-g 8

Diptera Chironomidae Microtendipes sp. Mcr_sp c-f 5

Diptera Chironomidae Phaenopsectra sp. Pha_sp scr 7

Diptera Chironomidae Phaenopsectra/

Tribelos sp. Ph/Tr_sp scr 7

Diptera Chironomidae Polypedilum sp. Pop_sp shr 6

Diptera Chironomidae Robackia sp. Rob_sp c-g 6

Diptera Chironomidae Saetheria sp. Sae_sp c-g 4

Diptera Chironomidae Stenochironomus

sp. Stc_sp c-g 5

Diptera Chironomidae Tribelos sp. Trb_sp c-g 7

Diptera Chironomidae Pseudochironomus

sp. Psc_sp c-g 5

Diptera Chironomidae Cladotanytarsus

sp. Cla_sp c-f 5

Diptera Chironomidae Constempellina sp. Con_sp c-g 4

Diptera Chironomidae Krenopsectra/

Micropsectra sp.

Kre/Mic c-g 7

Table 6. Taxa collected, functional feeding groups, and pollution tolerance values for the modified 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index for samples from riffle habitats in the Kanawha River Basin, 1997-1998 —Continued

[c-f, collector-filterer; c-g, collector-gatherer; scr, scraper; shr, shredder; prd, predator, For each taxon a short name is provided for use in graphs. 

Taxa are listed in phylogenetic order (Thorp and Covich, 1991, Merritt and Cummins, 1996)*, Bode and others, 1996]
28 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

Order or higher 

taxa family Taxa Name Short name Functional Feeding Group*

Pollution 

Tolerance Value*

Diptera Chironomidae Micropsectra sp. Mic_sp c-g 7

Diptera Chironomidae Micropsectra/

Tanytarsus sp.

Mic/Tan c-g 7

Diptera Chironomidae Neozavrelia sp. Neoz_sp c-g 6

Diptera Chironomidae Paratanytarsus sp. Prtsp c-f 6

Diptera Chironomidae Rheotanytarsus sp. Rht_sp c-f 6

Diptera Chironomidae Stempellinella sp. Stm_sp c-g 2

Diptera Chironomidae Sublettea sp. Sub_sp c-f 4

Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsus sp. Tta_sp c-f 6

Diptera Simuliidae Simulium sp. Sim_sp c-f 5

Diptera Tanyderidae Tanyderidae Tde_FM -- 5

Diptera Tipulidae Antocha sp. Ano_sp c-g 3

Diptera Tipulidae Dicranota sp. Dic_sp prd 3

Diptera Tipulidae Hexatoma sp. Hex_sp prd 2

Diptera Tipulidae Lipsothrix sp. Lips_sp shr 4

Diptera Tipulidae Tipula sp. Tip_sp shr 6

Diptera Athericidae Atherix lantha

Webb Athe_lan prd 4

Diptera Empididae Chelifera/

Hemerodromia sp. Ch/He_sp prd 6

Table 6. Taxa collected, functional feeding groups, and pollution tolerance values for the modified 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index for samples from riffle habitats in the Kanawha River Basin, 1997-1998 —Continued

[c-f, collector-filterer; c-g, collector-gatherer; scr, scraper; shr, shredder; prd, predator, For each taxon a short name is provided for use in graphs. 

Taxa are listed in phylogenetic order (Thorp and Covich, 1991, Merritt and Cummins, 1996)*, Bode and others, 1996]
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 29

Comparison of Communities in Kanawha River CoalMining Region

In the coal-mining synoptic survey, reference conditions were first defined by identifying sites representing basins with no history of mining. From this group 

of four unmined sites, three were used to calculate a 

mean reference condition, Mill Creek at Hopewell, 

Millers Creek at Nallen, and Laurel Fork at Hacker Valley. The fourth unmined site, Little Sandy Creek at 

Wills, experienced a major flood six weeks before sampling, which acutely disturbed the benthic community. 

Two of the three reference sites, Millers Creek and Laurel Fork, were the two smallest basins sampled as part 

of this study, and both basin area and location within 

the river continuum strongly affect community structure. These sites still represented the minimally 

affected condition in the coal-mining region of the 

Kanawha River Basin, and we used the mean of metric 

values from these three sites for comparison to the rest 

of the sites.

As with the fixed-site network, we compared metrics that describe species composition, trophic structure, 

and pollution tolerance. Figures 6 through 8 present 

metric values for samples with sites arranged by mining 

history, using 1980 as the date when the regulatory 

changes brought about by SMCRA would have been 

implemented. Although SMCRA pertains only to surface mining, all basins mined after 1980 were mined 

using both surface- and deep-mining techniques. 

Unmined sites are at the left of the bar graphs. Sites 

mined before 1980, but not since, and by using only 

underground mining techniques are to their right; followed by basins mined before 1980, but not since, and 

using multiple mining methods; and lastly sites mined 

from 1980 through 1995 in ascending order of basin 

mean 1980-1995 coal production. Generally, a pattern 

of increasing impairment is seen as mining intensity 

increases; metric values for many sites that were deep 

mined before 1980 were similar to those for reference 

conditions. 

The number of taxa found in samples from the coalmining region ranged from 22 taxa at Kellys Creek at 

Cedar Grove to 53 taxa at Gauley River above Williams 

River (fig. 6a). The mean and median values were both 

38 taxa per sample. The mean value for the reference 

sites was 40 (range 37-44, s.d. 3.5). The most intensively mined sites differed most significantly from the 

reference condition. Two other sites—the unmined but 

recently flooded Little Sandy Creek and the highly 

modified Davis Creek—supported few taxa. 

The number of EPT taxa ranged from three taxa at 

Davis Creek at Trace Fork to 30 at Williams River at 

Dyer. The mean reference-condition value was 22 

(range 17-25, s.d. 4.6). As with overall taxa richness, 

EPT taxa richness decreased with increasing coal production. EPT taxa richness, however, was more variable in response to mining intensity than overall taxa 

richness. This finding may be due in part to the effects 

of land uses other than mining, such as agricultural, residential and commercial areas, but also to the relatively 

greater tolerance of some Trichopterans to environmental changes due to coal-mining (Allan, 1995). These 

land uses represent a particularly strong influence in the 

Davis Creek Basin, which has a high proportion of residential areas and where several large cut-and-fill construction projects were underway in 1998. 

The percentage of individuals represented by EPT 

taxa varied widely, from a low of 2.7 percent at Davis 

Creek to a high of 82 percent in the sample from Williams River at Handley Wildlife Management Area 

(WMA), reach A (Handley1 on fig. 6c). The mean reference-condition value was 68 percent (range 60 percent-80 percent, s.d. 11). Proportional representation of 

EPT taxa was highest in unmined basins and basins that 

had been only deep mined before 1980. Several of 

these basins are also in the Allegheny Highlands portions of the Appalachian Plateaus. The value of this 

metric for Little Sandy Creek exceeded the reference 

site mean, suggesting that even though the number of 

total and EPT taxa probably declined due to the flood 

disturbance, the proportion of EPT taxa remained high 

and indicative of the lack of mining disturbance. 

As with proportion of EPT taxa, the percent of a 

sample represented by Chironomidae had a wide range, 

from a low of 6.4 percent at Camp Creek to a high of 63 

percent at Kellys Creek (fig. 6d). The mean value for 

the reference sites was 15 percent (range 9 percent-24 

percent, s.d. 11). In a pattern complementary to that of 

proportion of EPT taxa, proportion of midges was lowest in unmined sites and basins deep mined before 

1980. No other readily discernible pattern was detected 

in midge representation.

Functional feeding groups, although useful for 

describing sites, respond variably to environmental 

conditions (fig. 7a-e). Large departures from an average condition, however, may indicate some level of 

environmental stress. Collector-filterers and collectorgatherers—organisms that consume fine and coarse
30 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

particulate organic material—dominated the samples. 

Collector-filterers averaged 34 percent of samples; 

collector-gatherers averaged 31 percent. Samples that 

departed from this pattern include Davis Creek where 

only 2 percent of the individuals were collector-filterers, Spruce Laurel Fork at Clothier, where collectorfilterers made up nearly 70 percent of individuals, and 

Kellys Creek, where nearly 70 percent of the individuals were collector-gatherers. After the collector 

groups, scrapers represented the next largest fraction 

of samples with an average of 20 percent. Of all the 

feeding groups examined, only shredder representation varied consistently with level of mining and degradation. Shredders preferentially inhabit smaller, 

headwater streams where their food resources are most 

abundant (Vannote and others, 1980). Also, many 

shredders cannot tolerate environmental degradation 

(Barbour and others, 1999). Shredders were most 

abundant in the smallest basins with little anthropogenic disturbance, namely Laurel Fork at Hacker Valley (18 percent), Millers Creek (15 percent), and the 

two replicates from North Fork Cherry River near 

Richwood (14 percent and 13 percent). 

The modified Hilsenhoff Biotic Index (HBI), an 

abundance-weighted average of species tolerance to 

pollution, ranged from 2.84 at Williams River at Handley WMA, reach B (Handley2), to 5.61 at Cabin Creek 

at Dry Branch (fig. 8a). The reference-condition mean 

was 3.46 (range 3.04-3.99, s.d. 0.49), which compares 

favorably with the fixed-site network reference condition mean HBI score of 3.2. The HBI scores for samples increased with increasing coal production, the 

response being strongest at higher levels of production. High scores for samples from basins with little or 

no coal production were related to other sources of disturbances such as flooding (Little Sandy Creek), construction and residences (Davis Creek), or streamchannel modification (Sewell Creek). The HBI can 

indicate many forms of stream degradation other than 

the organic pollution for which it was originally 

designed.

The ratio of EPT taxa to EPT and Chironomidae 

measures relative abundances of intolerant to tolerant 

taxa groups (fig. 8b). Values ranged from 0.043 for 

both Big Horse Creek and Davis Creek to 0.87 for Little 

Sandy Creek at Wills. The mean reference-site values 

averaged 0.65 (range 0.54-0.71, s.d. 0.09). The ratio of 

intolerant EPT to tolerant midges and EPT taxa combined indicates increasing impairment correlates with 

increasing coal production. Little indication of impairment was evident in basins either unmined or only deep 

mined before 1980.

The proportion of a sample represented by the two 

dominant taxa ranged from 22 percent of the sample at 

Sewell Creek to 64 percent at Davis Creek (fig. 8c). 

Reference sites averaged 34 percent (range 28 percent38 percent, s.d. 5.2). This metric was useful in differentiating between impaired and unimpaired sites in the 

fixed-site network. In the case of the synoptic sites, 

however, the proportion of the two dominant taxa was 

of little value in differentiating sites.

Sites where little or no recent mining has occurred 

have metric values similar to those in basins that have 

never been mined. Basins that were only deep mined 

before 1980 were most similar to the unmined conditions. These basins all had much smaller recoverable 

coal reserves than basins mined since 1980; the general 

pattern was that most basins with extensive mineable 

coal had been mined almost continuously using a variety of techniques. 

Community impairment increased with increasing 

coal production. However, there was also evidence of 

community impairment due to land-use practices other 

than mining. Basins with extensive non-mining disturbances, such as construction at Davis Creek or channel 

dredging and riparian area clearing at Sewell Creek, 

had metric values as suggestive of impairment as did 

basins with high coal production. The habitat effects of 

construction may be short lived (Chisholm and Downs, 

1978). Coal mining is the most important disturbance 

in the Kanawha River Basin because it is the most 

extensive
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 31

.
32 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin
BENTHIC INVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES 33
34 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL

FACTORS

Differences in invertebrate-community characteristics, such as those reflected in metrics, result from differences in environment factors in the streams, but it is 

often difficult to determine which environmental factors most strongly affect community structure. Complex interactions of geology, topography, climate and 

land use do not equally shape invertebrate communities 

at all sites, but form a gradient from low effect to high 

effect. Using multivariate techniques of gradient analysis, we identified important environmental factors 

affecting invertebrate communities in our two data sets, 

the fixed-site data and the coal-mining synoptic data.

Basin size and physiography most strongly affected 

community composition in a comparison of fixed-site 

network samples. Coal mining, and basin attributes 

related to mining, most strongly affected community 

composition within the coal-mining region of the 

Kanawha River Basin. Similarity among fixed-sites 

was more a factor of basin size and physiography than 

any land-use pattern. Basin size ranged from about 40 

mi2

 to nearly 12,000 mi2. In contrast, coal-mining synoptic sites largely varied along a gradient of land-use 

attributes, primarily coal production and water-chemistry and habitat characteristics related to coal mining. 

Environmental Influences upon Communities at

Fixed Sites

The fixed-site network study design stratified sites 

by environmental setting, covering a wide range of 

drainage area, physiography, and land use (table 1), so 

we expected significant differences among these sites. 

TWINSPAN analysis was used to classify the fixed-site 

samples and we inferred significant environmental differences among the resulting groups. This data set of 

May-June samples from the fixed-site network was 

edited and censored in the same manner as that 

described for the classification of indicator and synoptic 

sites.

At the first division, TWINSPAN separates 

Kanawha River at Winfield from all other sites (fig. 9). 

At Winfield, the Kanawha River lacks riffle habitat 

altogether, and samples were collected from depositional areas along the channel margins. The sample 

consisted of two taxa, tubificid worms, which were the 

indicator taxa used in the division, and larvae of the chironomid genus Tribelos. The separation of this sample 

reflects not only the differences between the Winfield 

site’s environmental setting and the environmental setting of all other sites, but also reflects the habitat sampled and the sampling method used. 

The next level of division separated the four Williams River at Dyer samples, Peters Creek near Lockwood, and Second Creek near Second Creek from the 

remaining sites, largely on the basis of the presence of 

the stonefly genera Leuctra and Acroneuria and the 

dragonfly genus Ophiogomphus. These sites are all in 

the northeastern portion of the Kanawha River Basin in 

the Appalachian Plateaus, and are in basins with drainage areas less than 130 mi2

. Using the ephemerellid 

mayfly Drunella spp. as an indicator, TWINSPAN further separated these sites into two groups; the group in 

which Drunella spp. was present consisted of the Williams River at Dyer samples, and Peters and Second 

Creeks are grouped where the indicator was absent. The 

Williams River at Dyer site, our reference condition, 

has minimal anthropogenic influences with nearly 97 

percent of the basin in forest cover and less than 2.25 

percent of the basin area in agricultural uses (table 1). 

Second Creek and Peters Creek samples differed in the 

presence of nematode worms in the Peters Creek sample, while their basins differed mainly in surficial geology. Peters Creek is in a noncarbonate setting and is a 

heavily mined basin, but Second Creek drains mostly 

carbonate rock with no economically important coal 

reserves in the basin. These two basins also differed in 

the amount of land used for agriculture — about 7 percent in the Peters Creek Basin and 25 percent in the 

Second Creek Basin.

Further division of the group of samples that did 

not contain Leuctra, Acroneuria, and Ophiogomphus, 

initially resulted in two more groups, one consisting of 

the four Clear Fork at Whitesville samples, which did 

not contain the elmid beetle genus Stenelmis, and 

another group where Stenelmis was found. This group 

consisted of the Kanawha River at Kanawha Falls, the 

New River sites at Thurmond and Glen Lyn, the Reed 

Creek samples, Bluestone River, and Little River. The 

Clear Fork site differed from the others in several significant aspects; primarily, the drainage area of the 

Clear Fork site (63.7 mi2

) is considerably smaller than 

the other basins, which ranged from 247 to 8,371 mi2

. 

The Clear Fork Basin also held the highest proportion 

of quarries, strip mines, and gravel pits of any of the 

fixed sites (2.27 percent), and was the only basin in this 

division entirely within the Appalachian Plateaus.
EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 35
36 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

The large stream basins separated into a group of 

New River main stem sites where the snail Leptoxis 

was present, and a group of tributary streams and the 

Kanawha Falls site where Leptoxis was not found. It is 

not surprising that these sixth-order New River main 

stem sites, whose faunas differ in the presence of Turbellarian flatworms at Glen Lyn, should group 

together. TWINSPAN divided the group consisting of 

tributary sites and the Kanawha Falls site into two 

smaller groups—Reed Creek and Bluestone River, and 

Little River and Kanawha Falls. Invertebrate communities in these groups differed by the presence of larvae 

of the chironomid Eukiefferiella, which was present in 

greater than 2 percent of the total abundance of samples 

from Reed Creek and Bluestone River, but was not 

present in the Little River and Kanawha Falls samples. Reed Creek and Bluestone River are similarly 

sized streams, 247 and 199 mi2

, respectively, and drain 

basins either entirely or mainly within the Valley and 

Ridge Physiographic Province. The Little River and 

Kanawha Falls sites apparently have little in common, 

and may be grouped only because they are more similar 

to one another than they are to any other sample.

Results of TWINSPAN analysis of the fixedsite network indicate that geographical influences, 

such as physiography and basin drainage area, 

control invertebrate community structure. Discerning other factors or sources of disturbance 

through comparison of sites would be difficult, 

given the disparate nature of the fixed sites. These 

results do not strongly support all of our original 

hypotheses regarding similarities among sites. We 

expected sites with similar land-use patterns, such 

as coal mining at Clear Fork and Peters Creek, or 

agriculture in carbonate geology at Reed and Second Creeks, to harbor similar invertebrate communities. These expectations were not borne out in 

this analysis, possibly due to the overriding influences of basin size and physiography. We also 

expected the New River sites at Glen Lyn and 

Thurmond to be similar because carbonate water 

sources, from the Valley and Ridge at Glen Lyn 

and from the Greenbrier River above Thurmond, 

were expected to affect communities in similar 

ways. 

Environmental Influences upon Communities in the 

Coal-Mining Region of the Kanawha River Basin

Indirect and direct gradient-analysis approaches 

were used to investigate the influence of environmental 

characteristics upon community structure in the coalmining region of the Kanawha River Basin. Indirect 

gradient analysis groups sites on the basis of species 

composition alone; therefore, researchers must infer 

environmental gradients from the patterns seen in site 

and species groupings (Gauch, 1982). Direct gradient 

analysis uses both species and environmental data to 

detect patterns in species distribution and the influence 

of environmental gradients deemed important beforehand by the researcher (Gauch, 1982). TWINSPAN 

and detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) were 

used for indirect gradient analysis; canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was used for direct gradient 

analysis of environment-community interactions. 

Coal production, streamwater specific conductance, sulfate concentrations, and streambed-particlesize distribution most strongly affect benthic invertebrate community structure, according to our analyses. 

Classification of synoptic sites on the basis of species 

composition and abundance resulted in two groups differing in the degree of impairment, as determined by 

comparison of metrics. Coal production, specific conductance, and sulfate concentrations were all higher 

and median streambed particle size lower in the more 

impaired basins. Direct gradient analysis using CCA 

indicates a replacement of pollution-sensitive taxa with 

pollution-tolerant taxa over a gradient of increasing 

coal production, specific conductance, and sulfate concentrations and decreasing median streambed-particle 

size. 

Similarities among Benthic Invertebrate Communities 

in the Coal-Mining Region of the Kanawha River 

Basin

By comparing species composition and abundance, 

TWINSPAN and DCA divide the 29 synoptic sites into 

two groups that differ largely in intensity of coal mining and environmental attributes related to mining. 

Attributes of the two groups were compared using 

Tukey’s honestly significant difference test in the computer program, SYSTAT 8.0 (Wilkinson, 1998). 

Basins in these two groups differed significantly in 

median coal production, defined as thousands of tons 

produced per square mile from 1980-1995 (P=0.012), 

and percentage of basin area disturbed by mines, quar-
EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 37

ries and gravel pits (P=0.017). Invertebrate community 

composition and metrics also differed between the two 

groups. Indicator species identified by TWINSPAN 

and metric values for the group with greater mining 

intensity reflect greater impairment, whereas indicator 

species and metric values for the group with little mining activity reflect lesser impairment. The less 

impaired group of sites was also significantly lower in 

mining-related attributes such as specific conductance 

(P=0.004), sulfate concentration (P=<0.001), and alkalinity (P=0.002). Furthermore, the less impaired basins 

had better habitat, as evidenced by significantly larger 

median streambed-particle sizes (P=<0.001).

The first TWINSPAN division separates sites on 

the basis of the presence of the indicator taxa Epeorus 

spp. in greater than 2 percent relative abundance, Dolophilodes spp., and Rhyacophila spp. (fig. 10). These 

taxa are generally intolerant of environmental degradation, and both Dolophilodes spp. and Epeorus spp. are 

more specifically intolerant to accumulations of finegrained sediments (Malas and Wallace, 1977, Gurtz and 

Wallace, 1984, Minshall, 1967). TWINSPAN further 

separates each of these initial divisions, Group 1, with 

lower coal production and lower percentages of basin 

disturbed by mines, is marked by the presence of the 

indicator species, and Group 2, with more coal production and disturbance, is marked by their absence, into 

smaller groups. 

In Group 1, TWINSPAN first separates the two 

replicate samples from North Fork of the Cherry River 

near Richwood on the basis of the absence of the Baetid 

mayfly genus Acentrella (Group 1A). The remaining 

Group 1 sites are divided by the presence of the Leptophlebdiidae mayfly genus Paraleptophlebia in a 

group of five (Group 1B), and are divided by the presence of Megadrile Oligochaete worms in another group 

of six (Group 1C). All three sites that were used as a 

reference condition in the comparison of coal-mining 

sites were in Group 1, Millers Creek and Laurel Fork at 

Hacker Valley in Group 1B and Mill Creek in Group 

1C. The classification of reference-condition sites in 

two separate groups can be explained by Millers Creek 

and Laurel Fork differing from Mill Creek not only in 

basin size but degree of anthropogenic disturbance as 

well (higher in Mill Creek Basin).

Sites in Group 2 are first separated on the basis of 

whether baetid mayflies in the genus Baetis were 

present. No Baetis spp. were found in samples from 

Big Horse Creek at Altman or Davis Creek at Trace 

Fork (Group 2C). Of the sites where Baetis was 

present, TWINSPAN formed two groups. The first, 

where heptageniid Stenonema mayflies made up over 2 

percent of the samples and nematode worms were 

found, consisted of five sites (Group 2A). The other 

group, characterized by Baetis spp. as more than 5 percent of samples and the Cricotopus bicinctus chironomid midge group making up more than 2 percent of 

samples, consisted of ten sites (Group 2B).

A second analytical technique grouped the sites in 

much the same pattern as TWINSPAN. We used 

detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), an ordination technique for species-abundance data, to identify 

sites with similar community composition (Hill, 1979). 

By examining groupings of sites and species associations, we indirectly inferred environmental gradients 

controlling species distribution. Relative-abundance 

data were octave transformed (Gauch 1982) before 

ordination. The DCA results largely agree with the 

results of the TWINPSAN analysis (fig. 11). Most of 

the groups identified by TWINSPAN are visible in the 

DCA plot. There are, however, some differences. Notably, TWINSPAN grouped the two North Fork Cherry 

River near Richwood replicates (Group 1A) separate 

from all other Group 1 samples, but DCA clusters these 

samples with Group 1B samples. Other differences 

consist mainly of group outliers, such as Birch River, a 

Group 1B site, clustering with Group 1C sites. The 

DCA results generally confirm the TWINSPAN results, 

supporting use of TWINSPAN groupings.

The first TWINSPAN division is significant 

because it divides sites along a gradient of mining 

intensity, as measured by thousands of tons of coal production per square mile of basin from 1980-1995. The 

dichotomy between the two groups of sites is stark. 

Invertebrate-community impairment, indicated by metric values, was significantly lower in Group 1, sites 

where intolerant indicator taxa were found, than in 

Group 2. Group 1 also differed significantly from 

Group 2 in other respects as well. It had a lower intensity of coal mining, as quantified by coal production per 

square mile, and fewer mining-induced changes in 

streamwater chemistry. Group 1 also had land-use and 

physical-habitat characteristics attributable to coal mining or other landscape-scale disturbances. These two 

groups do not differ significantly in most land-cover 

characteristics such as proportions of agriculture, forested lands, or residential land uses. Groups 1 and 2 do, 

however, differ significantly in elevation; most of the 

Group 1 sites are in the higher Allegheny section of the 

Appalachian Plateaus. Within Groups 1 and 2, few differences exist
38 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

. 
EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 39

There are some exceptions, however, as Group 1C 

showed slightly higher levels of impairment than either 

1A or 1B. This group also had slightly higher levels of 

several anthropogenic disturbances, including both 

mining and agriculture. Metric values for Group 2C, 

consisting of two sites with very poor habitat, indicated 

greater levels of impairment than the rest of Group 2. 

Comparison of Benthic Invertebrate Group Attributes 

in the Coal-Mining Region of the Kanawha River Basin

Groups 1 and 2 differed significantly in several 

metrics (fig. 12 a-e), all indicating lower levels of community impairment in Group 1. Taxa richness, number 

of EPT taxa, proportion of EPT taxa, and ratio of abundance of EPT taxa to abundance of chironomid taxa 

plus abundance of EPT taxa—low values of which indicate environmental degradation—were all significantly 

higher in Group 1. Group 2 values of the modified 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index and proportion of Chironomidae were significantly higher than Group 1, both metrics indicating increased representation of tolerant taxa. 

Percent representation of dominant taxa and proportion 

of functional feeding groups (with the exception of 

shredder taxa) did not differ significantly between the 

groups.
40 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin
EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 41

Chemical and physical stream environments differed significantly between Groups 1 and 2. Although 

pH did not differ between the two groups, specific conductance, sulfate concentration and alkalinity were all 

significantly higher in Group 2 (fig. 13 a-d). Streambottom particle distribution, represented by measurement of the intermediate axis of 100 streambed particles 

randomly selected from transects in one pool and two 

riffles per reach, also varied between the groups. 

Median streambed-particle size was smaller in Group 2 

(fig. 13 e), indicating increased transport and deposition 

of fine-grained sediment in basins with greater mining 

intensity. Each of these differences is associated with 

coal mining. Sampling sites in Groups 1 and 2 also differed significantly in elevation (fig. 13 f), which is typically correlated with stream temperature, gradient and 

particle-size distribution.

On the basis of an analysis of MRLC data, land-use 

characteristics did not vary between groups, except 

with respect to those characteristics related to coal mining (fig. 14). The two groups did not differ with respect 

to proportion of agricultural lands, residential areas, 

transportation, or commercial/industrial land cover. 

Characteristics of coal mining, such as coal production 

and percent of land cover as mines, quarries and gravel 

pits, were significantly higher in Group 2. The maximum identified coal production in Group 1 was 9.2 

thousand tons/mi2

, a level exceeded by two thirds of the 

basins in Group 2. Although seven of the 12 basins in 

Group 1 were disturbed by mining or quarries, in only 

two basins did the disturbances exceed 1 percent of 

basin area. This is in sharp contrast to the eight of 17 

basins in Group 2 with more than 1 percent of basin as 

mined areas or quarries.

According to this analysis, coal mining, more than 

any other land use, affects the in-stream environment 

and thereby shapes benthic invertebrate communities in 

the Kanawha River. Coal mining or any other activity 

that involves moving significant amounts of earth and 

rock alters the chemistry and geomorphology of these 

basins. Values for constituents related to total dissolved solids, such as specific conductance and sulfate 

concentration, most likely increase above background 

levels as water percolates through the highly fractured, 

unconsolidated material that is the

result of such activities. Flow through this newly 

unconsolidated material typically results in higher dissolution and mobilization of minerals in the parent rock 

than would occur in undisturbed rock, where flow paths 

along bedding planes left minerals virtually unexposed 

to water. 

The stream’s physical character is affected by the 

same processes. The fracturing of rock overlying coal 

seams increases the transport and deposition of finegrained material in the stream reaches. As fine-grained 

sediment accumulates downstream, it fills the interstitial spaces in the substrate, which reduces the quantity 

and quality of available habitat for benthic invertebrates.

As in most ecological studies, a combination of 

influences was found to affect benthic-invertebrate 

communities. In this study, the chemical and physical 

habitat are altered by coal mining and other activities 

that involve moving vast amounts of earth and rock. 

The number of EPT taxa present in a sample is negatively correlated with sulfate concentration and specific 

conductance (fig. 15 a-c). It is unknown whether this 

correlation reflects the effect of increased ionic strength 

represented by these increases in sulfate and specific 

conductance, or if these constituents are surrogates for 

another co-variable. The number of EPT taxa in a sample is positively correlated with median particle size of 

streambed sediments. Particle-size distribution is an 

important factor in habitat availability because many 

intolerant taxa require open interstitial spaces in the 

substrate. Scores for the HBI responded to increased 

disturbance in a manner consistent with that for number 

of EPT taxa. Higher HBI scores, indicating increased 

impairment, correlated with higher values for sulfate 

concentration, specific conductance, and median particle size (fig 16 a-c). 

Comparison of TWINSPAN first-division groups 

indicates a higher level of invertebrate-community 

impairment related to mining and similar activities that 

increase specific conductances and concentrations of 

dissolved constituents and decrease median particle 

sizes. At subsequent levels of division, differences 

between groups became more subtle. Land-use characteristics of subsequent groups within first-division 

groups did not significantly differ.
42 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

 
EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 43
44 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin
EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 45
46 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin
EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 47

Environmental Gradients Affecting Benthic 

Invertebrate Communities in the Coal-Mining Region 

of the Kanawha River Basin

Using the Canoco software package (ter Braak and 

Smilauer, 1998), we investigated the influence of environmental gradients (chemical concentration, land-use 

characteristic, or other factor that varies along a gradient from high to low) through canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), a direct gradient analysis 

ordination technique. CCA is a unimodal model used 

to relate species data to environmental variables. It linearly combines measured environmental variables into 

synthetic gradients or axes. These synthetic gradients 

are calculated so that species scores are maximally dispersed. In other words, each axis is a combination of 

environmental influences that explains the distribution 

of species among sites (ter Braak, 1987, ter Braak and 

Verdonschot, 1995). The CCA results can be plotted 

with environmental variables, site data, species data, or 

combinations of the three. As stated, the axes are synthetic combinations of multiple environmental data. 

Eigenvectors representing the influence of individual 

environmental variables that comprise the synthetic 

axes are also plotted. The direction the eigenvector 

arrows point indicates the “direction of maximum 

change of the associated variable” and the arrow’s 

length is proportional to “ the maximum rate of change” 

(ter Braak and Verdonschot, 1995). The positions of 

site points relative to environmental variable eigenvectors approximate the influence exerted by the variable 

upon the site. Furthermore, species points projected 

onto environmental eigenvectors indicate the weighted 

average for that species along a gradient of the environmental variable. 

For CCA analyses, we used data that had been 

edited, censored and octave-transformed in the same 

manner described for TWINSPAN analyses. Initially, 

we conducted analyses with up to 28 environmental 

variables possibly affecting invertebrate communities, 

but focused upon environmental characteristics that differed significantly among the TWINSPAN groups 

described earlier in this section. Many variables were 

collinear, in which case we selected the variable exerting the strongest influence upon the ordination and 

deleted the weaker co-linear variables from the analysis. We continued this series of analyses in an iterative 

fashion until a stable ordination was reached that 

explained the greatest proportion of species-environment variability.

As with the earlier analyses, CCA indicates that 

coal mining’s effects, both chemical and physical, act 

strongly to shape invertebrate communities in the coalmining areas of the Kanawha River Basin. The first 

two axes, consisting of a combination of the median 

streambed-particle size, tons of coal production per 

square mile of basin area (1980-1995), specific conductance, sulfate concentration in streamwater, total aluminum concentration in streamwater, and mercury 

concentration in stream-bottom material, explained 60 

percent of the variance of the species-environment relation (fig. 17, table 7). Sites are plotted by their scores 

on the synthetic axes and species points represent the 

weighted average of the sites where these species occur. 

The significant environmental gradients identified 

through CCA agree with those that significantly differed among TWINSPAN groups, specifically median 

streambed-particle size, coal production, specific conductance, and sulfate concentration. This analysis also 

indicated that total aluminum affected communities. 

Aluminum may be mobilized from sources near acidic 

mine drainages, then precipitate when these waters 

reach streams with excess acid neutralizing capacity. 

Mercury concentration in stream-bottom material also 

appears to significantly affect communities, although 

this is likely a surrogate variable for an effect of higher 

precipitation and atmospheric deposition of mercury 

that occurs in the Allegheny Highlands section of the 

Appalachian Plateaus, where mercury concentrations in 

sediment were highest (Messinger and Hughes, 2000).

Table 7. Canonical correspondence analysis axis

eigenvectors and environmental variable axis loadings 

for an ordination of samples from coal-mining synopticsurvey sites in the Kanawha River Basin

Axis 1 Axis 2

Eigenvalue 0.2402 0.1059

Environmental 

Factor Environmental Factor Loading

Specific conductance 0.7556 0.1123

Sulfate concentration 

in streamwater 0.6972 0.0267

Total aluminum in 

streamwater 0.0558 -0.3494

1980-1995 coal 

production per square 

mile of basin area

0.5117 0.6303

Median streambedparticle size -0.8366 -0.0016

Mercury 

concentration in 

streambed sediment

-0.2648 -0.2959
48 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin
EFFECTS OF SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 49
50 Benthic Invertebrate Communities and Their Responses to Selected Environmental Factors in the Kanawha River Basin

The gradients identified through CCA affect invertebrate distribution in a pattern similar to that identified by TWINSPAN analysis (fig. 18). The mayfly 

genus Epeorus and the caddisfly genus Dolophilodes, 

indicator species in the first division of sites in the 

TWINSPAN analysis, show a strong preference for 

larger median particle sizes. This analysis more 

clearly links species response to the environmental 

characteristics that comparison of TWINSPAN groups 

suggested was important. Several taxa dominated sites 

that scored high along the specific conductance and 

sulfate concentration eigenvectors and low on the 

median particle size eigenvectors, sites mainly in 

basins that were mined before 1980, but not since. 

Among these taxa were the midges Cladotanytarsus 

and Dicrotendipes, the elmid beetle Stenelmis, and the

hydroptilid caddisfly genus Ochrotrichia. No taxa 

were strongly associated with the coal-production 

eigenvector, although the hellgrammite Corydalus cornutus and Hydropsyche caddisflies were commonly 

found at high production sites.

Direct gradient analysis of benthic-invertebrate 

communities in the coal-mining region of the Kanawha 

River Basin yielded results similar to those of the indirect gradient analysis, namely that median particle 

size, specific conductance, and sulfate concentrations 

strongly affect these communities. Furthermore, these 

factors were affected, in part, by the intensity of coal 

mining in the basin. Direct gradient analysis through 

CCA also indicated total aluminum concentrations and 

mercury concentrations in stream-bottom material as 

having roles in structuring invertebrate communities.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of invertebrate communities and environmental factors in the Kanawha River Basin indicates 

that the effects of coal mining, such as changes in 

streamwater chemistry and benthic habitat quality, 

strongly shape those communities. Although basin 

size and physiography were also important in structuring communities, coal mining was the greatest anthropogenic influence in basins of less than 128 mi2

. Other 

major land uses in the basin included low-intensity 

agriculture and low densities of rural residences, but 

these uses did not affect communities to the extent that 

coal mining did.

Coal mining, agriculture and rural residential 

land-use patterns all resulted in benthic invertebrate 

communities that were impaired relative to reference 

conditions. Agricultural activities in the Kanawha 

River Basin, primarily pasturage and hay cultivation, 

minimally affected communities. Metric values in 

basins where agriculture was the dominant non-forest 

land use commonly approached and in some cases 

exceeded the values for the reference condition. Values for basins selected as indicators of coal mining or 

rural residential land use rarely approached reference 

conditions.

Coal mining, as indicated by the coal-mining synoptic study, appears to influence upon invertebrate 

communities in several ways. These include increased 

habitat degradation and mineralization of surface 

waters, both of which are most noticeable in areas of 

high coal production and extensive surface mining. 

Specifically, median particle size of streambed material, and the specific conductance and sulfate concentration of streamwater most strongly affected 

invertebrate communities in the coal-mining region of 

the Kanawha River Basin, and these physical and 

chemical characteristics were related to mining intensity. Conspicuously absent from the coalfields of the 

Kanawha River Basin is the classic acidic mine drainage often seen as the greatest source of environmental 

damage related to mining. This general absence is 

largely due to the relatively high alkalinity of the calcareous shales in this region, but also to treatment of 

acidic mine drainage required by regulation.

The increased mineralization of surface waters in 

extensively mined basins of the Kanawha River Basin, 

as indicated by elevated specific conductances and 

concentrations of sulfate relative to basins with little or 

no coal production, is related to a lesser representation 

of sensitive taxa in the communities. The mineralization of surface waters most likely occurs both as a 

result of mine drainage from deep mines and from percolation of runoff through the unconsolidated rock of 

valley fills. The valley-fill material is chemically similar to the surrounding rock, but altered flow paths and 

a much higher porosity allows for increased water contact and dissolution of minerals present in the fill that 

would not have been exposed to water in the parent 

material. Although increased sulfate concentrations 

correlate with loss of sensitive taxa and increases in 

tolerant taxa as well or better than specific conductance, it is unclear whether sulfate concentration or the 

overall dissolved solids concentration, as represented 

by specific conductance, is responsible for these 

changes in the invertebrate community. Further-
REFERENCES CITED 51

more, it is unclear whether these chemical changes 

affect communities by altering osmoregulatory efficiency, ion-specific toxicity, or some other mechanism. 

The mechanism by which habitat degradation 

affects an invertebrate community is clear; sensitive 

taxa are displaced as the habitat they require to complete their life cycle is altered. The decrease in median 

particle size (d50) of streambed sediment was the habitat characteristic that most strongly correlated to loss of 

sensitive taxa groups and increases in tolerant taxa. 

This change in the stream environment was also related 

to mining intensity; median particle size decreased as 

coal production per square mile of basin increased. We 

also noted a decrease in median particle size for basins 

where landscape level alterations other than surface 

mining had occurred, such as large construction 

projects and stream dredging. Investigating the processes by which surface mining changes stream habitat 

will be important, because it is currently uncertain 

whether these changes are associated solely with the 

actual mining process or may also be ramifications of 

alterations of stream geomorphology. Although it is 

clear that the surface-mining process itself mobilizes 

sediments that can enter adjacent streams, it is unclear 

whether the construction of valley fills alters the geomorphology of stream basins to an extent that would 

cause channel adjustments resulting in increased bank 

erosion and streambed instability.

Investigation of the relations among invertebrate 

communities and environmental variables indicates that 

coal mining is the most significant cause of impairment 

to benthic invertebrate communities in streams in the 

Kanawha River Basin. Coal mining alters both the 

physical and chemical characteristics of these streams 

to a degree that, in turn, alters the composition of invertebrate assemblages. The most significant of the coalmining induced changes are increases in specific conductance and sulfate concentration and decreases in 

median streambed-particle size. Investigations of the 

effects of other land-use practices in the Kanawha River 

Basin, specifically agriculture and rural residential patterns, showed that these land uses minimally affected 

invertebrate communities, probably because of the low 

level of intensity at which most farming is conducted 

within the basin. Communities from the one site used 

as an indicator of rural residential land use, a mix of 

dispersed residences, forest and very low intensity agriculture, were moderately impaired.

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