TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Table of Contents

Executive Summary.............................................................................................................. 1

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Monitoring Report...................................................... 7

1.1 The Territory of American Samoa................................................................................ 7

1.2 Coral Reef Management.............................................................................................. 8

1.3 Ecosystem Approach to Management....................................................................... 12

1.4 Background and Purpose of the Pacific Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program 

(RAMP)...................................................................................................................... 13

1.5 Scope of the Pacific RAMP........................................................................................ 15

1.6 Limitations of Pacific RAMP..................................................................................... 18

1.7 Structure of Report..................................................................................................... 23

Chapter 2 Program Design, Operational Background, Data Collection, and 

 Processing Methodologies.......................................................................... 27

2.1 Operational Background............................................................................................ 28

2.2 Benthic Habitat Mapping........................................................................................... 29

2.2.1 Operational Background and Logistics......................................................... 30

2.2.2 Acoustic Mapping.......................................................................................... 32

2.2.3 Optical Validation Surveys............................................................................ 34

2.3 Oceanography and Water Quality............................................................................... 36

2.3.1 Operational Background and Survey Design................................................ 37

2.3.2 Shipboard Surveys......................................................................................... 37

2.3.3 Nearshore Spatial Surveys............................................................................. 38

2.3.4 Surface Moorings.......................................................................................... 39

2.3.5 Subsurface Moorings..................................................................................... 40

2.3.6 Oceanographic Equipment Deployment........................................................ 41

2.3.7 Satellite Remote Sensing and Ocean Modeling............................................ 42

2.3.8 Surface Drifters............................................................................................. 43

2.3.9Bioacoustic Surveys....................................................................................... 44

2.4 Reef Benthic (Coral, Algae, Macroinvertebrate) and Fish Surveys........................... 45

2.4.1 REA Surveys................................................................................................. 46

 2.4.1.1 Coral and Coral Disease.................................................................... 49

 2.4.1.2 Algae................................................................................................. 55

 2.4.1.3 Other Macroinvertebrates.................................................................. 57

 2.4.1.4 Reef Fish........................................................................................... 58

2.4.2 Towed-diver Surveys..................................................................................... 59

References............................................................................................................................. 67

Chapter 3 Tutuila and Aunu`u Islands...................................................................... 69

3.1 Geopolitical Context.................................................................................................. 69

3.2 Survey Effort.............................................................................................................. 70

3.3 Benthic Habitat Mapping and Characterization......................................................... 72

3.3.1 Acoustic Mapping and Optical Validation..................................................... 72

3.3.2 Habitat Characterization................................................................................ 76

3.4 Oceanography and Water Quality............................................................................... 81

3.4.1 Hydrographic Data........................................................................................ 81

 2002 Spatial Surveys..................................................................................... 81
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 2004 Spatial Surveys..................................................................................... 84

 2006 Spatial Surveys..................................................................................... 86

3.4.2 Temporal Comparison—Hydrographic Data................................................ 90

3.4.3Time Series Observations.............................................................................. 91

3.4.4Bioacoustic Observations.............................................................................. 96

3.5 Coral and Coral Disease............................................................................................. 98

3.5.1 Coral Surveys................................................................................................ 98

 2002 Spatial Surveys..................................................................................... 98

 2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 101

 2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 107

3.5.2 Coral Disease Surveys................................................................................. 113

 2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................... 113

3.5.3 Temporal Comparison—Coral and Coral Disease...................................... 115

3.6 Algae........................................................................................................................ 118

3.6.1 Algal Surveys.............................................................................................. 118

 2002 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................... 118

 2004 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................... 119

 2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 122

3.6.2 Coralline Algal Disease Surveys................................................................. 124

 2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 124

3.6.3 Temporal Comparison—Algae.................................................................... 125

3.7 Benthic Macroinvertebrates..................................................................................... 128

3.7.1 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Surveys............................................................ 128

 2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 128

 2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 129

 2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 131

3.7.2 Temporal Comparison—Benthic Macroinvertebrates................................. 132

3.8 Reef Fish.................................................................................................................. 134

3.8.1 Reef Fish Surveys........................................................................................ 134

 2002 Spatial Surveys..................................................................................... 134

 2004 Spatial Surveys..................................................................................... 137

 2006 Spatial Surveys..................................................................................... 140

3.8.2 Temporal Comparison—Reef Fish............................................................. 141

3.9 Island Summary and Integration.............................................................................. 142

References........................................................................................................................... 149

Chapter 4 Ofu and Olosega Islands......................................................................... 151

4.1 Geopolitical Context................................................................................................ 151

4.2 Survey Effort............................................................................................................ 152

4.3 Benthic Habitat Mapping and Characterization....................................................... 155

4.3.1 Acoustic Mapping and Optical Validation................................................... 155

4.3.2 Habitat Characterization.............................................................................. 157

4.4 Oceanography and Water Quality............................................................................ 163

4.4.1 Hydrographic Data...................................................................................... 163

 2002 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 163

 2004 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 166

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 169
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4.4.2 Temporal Comparison—Hydrographic Data.............................................. 173

4.4.3 Time Series Observations........................................................................... 173

4.5 Coral and Coral Disease........................................................................................ 175

4.5.1 Coral Surveys.............................................................................................. 175

 2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 176

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 178

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 184

4.5.2 Coral Disease Surveys................................................................................. 190

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 190

4.5.3 Temporal Comparison—Coral and Coral Disease...................................... 191

4.6 Algae....................................................................................................................... 194

4.6.1 Algal Surveys.............................................................................................. 194

2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 194

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 195

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 196

4.6.2 Coralline Algal Disease Surveys................................................................. 199

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 199

4.6.3 Temporal Comparison—Algae.................................................................... 200

4.7 Benthic Macroinvertebrates..................................................................................... 202

4.7.1 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Surveys............................................................ 202

2002 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 202

2004 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 203

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 205

4.7.2 Temporal Comparison—Benthic Macroinvertebrates................................. 206

4.8 Reef Fish.................................................................................................................. 208

4.8.1 Reef Fish Surveys....................................................................................... 208

2002 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 208

2004 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 210

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 213

4.8.2 Temporal Comparison—Reef Fish............................................................. 215

4.9 Island Summary and Integration............................................................................... 216

Chapter 5 Ta`u Island................................................................................................. 223

5.1 Geopolitical Context................................................................................................ 223

5.2 Survey Effort........................................................................................................... 224

5.3 Benthic Habitat Mapping and Characterization...................................................... 227

5.3.1 Acoustic Mapping and Optical Validation................................................... 227

5.3.2 Habitat Characterization.............................................................................. 230

5.4 Oceanography and Water Quality............................................................................. 236

5.4.1 Hydrographic Data...................................................................................... 236

2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 236

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 238

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 241

5.4.2 Temporal Comparison—Hydrographic Data.............................................. 245

5.4.3 Time Series Observations............................................................................ 246

5.5 Coral and Coral Disease........................................................................................... 248

5.5.1 Coral Surveys.............................................................................................. 248
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2002 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 248

2004 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 251

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 257

5.5.2 Coral Disease Surveys................................................................................. 263

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 263

5.5.3 Temporal Comparison—Coral and Coral Disease...................................... 264

5.6 Algae........................................................................................................................ 267

5.6.1 Algal Surveys.............................................................................................. 267

2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 267

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 268

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 270

5.6.2 Coralline Algal Disease Surveys................................................................. 272

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 272

5.6.3 Temporal Comparison—Algae.................................................................... 272

5.7 Benthic Macroinvertebrates..................................................................................... 275

5.7.1 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Surveys............................................................ 275

2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 275

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 276

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................... 278

5.7.2 Temporal Comparison—Benthic Macroinvertebrates................................. 279

5.8 Reef Fish.................................................................................................................. 281

5.8.1 Reef Fish Surveys........................................................................................ 281

2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 281

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 283

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 285

5.8.2 Temporal Comparison—Reef Fish............................................................. 287

5.9 Island Summary and Integration............................................................................... 288

References........................................................................................................................... 292

Chapter 6 Rose Atoll................................................................................................... 293

6.1 Geopolitical Context................................................................................................ 293

6.2 Survey Effort............................................................................................................ 293

6.3 Benthic Habitat Mapping and Characterization....................................................... 296

6.3.1 Acoustic Mapping and Optical Validation................................................... 296

6.3.2 Habitat Characterization.............................................................................. 298

6.4 Oceanography and Water Quality............................................................................. 303

6.4.1 Hydrographic Data...................................................................................... 303

2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 303

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 306

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 308

6.4.2 Temporal Comparison—Hydrographic Data.............................................. 311

6.4.3Time Series Observations............................................................................ 313

6.5 Coral and Coral Disease........................................................................................... 316

6.5.1 Coral Surveys.............................................................................................. 316

2002 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 316

2004 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 319

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 326
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6.5.2 Coral Disease Surveys................................................................................. 332

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 332

6.5.3 Temporal Comparison—Coral and Coral Disease...................................... 334

6.6 Algae........................................................................................................................ 338

6.6.1 Algal Surveys.............................................................................................. 338

2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 339

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 340

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 342

6.6.2 Coralline Algal Disease Surveys................................................................. 344

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 344

6.6.3 Temporal Comparison—Algae.................................................................... 344

6.7 Benthic Macroinvertebrates..................................................................................... 347

6.7.1 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Surveys............................................................ 347

2002 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................... 347

2004 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................... 348

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................... 350

6.7.2 Temporal Comparison—Benthic Macroinvertebrates.................................351

6.8 Reef Fish.................................................................................................................. 354

6.8.1 Reef Fish Surveys................................................................................... .....354

2002 Spatial Surveys..... .............................................................................354

2004 Spatial Surveys..... .............................................................................356

2006 Spatial Surveys..... .............................................................................358

6.8.2 Temporal Comparison—Reef Fish..... ........................................................360

6.9 Island Summary and Integration..... ..........................................................................362

References..... ......................................................................................................................366

Chapter 7 Swains Island............................................................................................. 367

7.1 Geopolitical Context................................................................................................ 367

7.2 Survey Effort............................................................................................................ 367

7.3 Benthic Habitat Mapping and Characterization....................................................... 370

7.3.1 Acoustic Mapping........................................................................................ 370

7.3.2 Habitat Characterization.............................................................................. 372

7.4 Oceanography and Water Quality............................................................................. 377

7.4.1 Hydrographic Data...................................................................................... 377

2002 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 377

2004 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 380

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 383

7.4.2 Temporal Comparison—Hydrographic Data.............................................. 386

7.4.3Time Series Observations........................................................................... 387

7.5 Coral and Coral Disease........................................................................................... 389

7.5.1 Coral Surveys.............................................................................................. 389

2002 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 389

2004 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 392

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 399

7.5.2 Coral Disease Surveys................................................................................. 405

2006 Spatial Surveys.................................................................................. 405

7.6 Algae........................................................................................................................ 409
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7.6.1 Algal Surveys.............................................................................................. 409

2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 409

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 410

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 412

7.6.2 Coralline Algal Disease Surveys................................................................. 413

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 413

7.6.3 Temporal Comparison—Algae.................................................................... 413

7.7 Benthic Macroinvertebrates..................................................................................... 415

7.7.1 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Surveys............................................................ 415

2002 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 415

2004 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 416

2006 Spatial Surveys................................................................................... 418

7.7.2 Temporal Comparison—Benthic Macroinvertebrates..... ............................419

7.8. Reef Fish..... .............................................................................................................422

7.8.1 Reef Fish Surveys..... ...................................................................................422

2002 Spatial Surveys..... ..............................................................................422

2004 Spatial Surveys..... ..............................................................................424

2006 Spatial Surveys..... ..............................................................................426

7.8.2 Temporal Comparison—Reef Fish..... ........................................................427

7.9 Island Summary and Integration..... ..........................................................................429

Chapter 8 Archipelagic Comparisons........................................................................ 433

8.1 Geopolitical Context................................................................................................ 433

8.2 Survey Effort............................................................................................................ 435

8.3 Benthic Habitat Mapping and Characterization....................................................... 436

8.4 Oceanography and Water Quality............................................................................. 440

8.4.1 Vertical Structure........................................................................................ 440

8.4.2 Seasonal Variation...................................................................................... 443

8.5 Coral and Coral Disease........................................................................................... 447

8.5.1 Coral Surveys.............................................................................................. 447

8.5.2 Coral Disease Surveys................................................................................. 455

8.6 Algae........................................................................................................................ 458

8.6.1 Algal Surveys.............................................................................................. 458

8.6.2 Coralline Algal Disease Surveys................................................................. 465

8.7 Benthic Macroinvertebrates..................................................................................... 466

8.8 Reef Fish.................................................................................................................. 468

8.9 Archipelagic Summary............................................................................................. 470

References........................................................................................................................... 472

Appendices......................................................................................................................... A1

Appendix I Methods, Instrumentation, Classification................................................... A1

Appendix II Oceanographic Instrument Deployments................................................... A4

Appendix III Coral Abundance........................................................................................ A7

Appendix IV Reef Fish Surveys..................................................................................... A-17