The Atlantic Council promotes constructive U.S. leadership and engagement in international 

affairs based on the central role of the Atlantic community in meeting the international challenges

of the 21st century. 

The Council embodies a nonpartisan network of leaders who aim to bring ideas to power and to

give power to ideas by: 

• stimulating dialogue and discussion about critical international issues with a view to enriching

public debate and promoting consensus on appropriate responses in the Administration, the 

Congress, the corporate and nonprofit sectors, and the media in the United States and

among leaders in Europe, Asia and the Americas; 

• conducting educational and exchange programs for successor generations of U.S. leaders so 

that they will come to value U.S. international engagement and have the knowledge and

understanding necessary to develop effective policies. 
 

The Future of NATO-Russia Relations: 

Or, How to Dance With a Bear 

and Not Get Mauled

 

 

 

Lieutenant Colonel Gordon B. Hendrickson 

United States Air Force 

 

Atlantic Council Senior Fellow 

Occasional Paper 

December 2005
For further information about the Atlantic Council of the United States and/or its 

Senior Fellows Program, please call (202) 778-4959.

Information on Atlantic Council programs and publications is available 

on the world wide web at http://www.acus.org 

Requests or comments may be sent to the Atlantic Council 

via Internet at info@acus.org

11TH FLOOR, 1101 15TH STREET, N.W. 

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20005
Table of Contents 

About the Author...........................................................................................................................vi 

Author’s Preface ............................................................................................................................vii 

Executive Overview.....................................................................................................................viii 

I. Introduction..................................................................................................................................1 

II. Background – The Long Road to Rome ................................................................................2 

The Early Years...........................................................................................................................2 

The Founding Act and Permanent Joint Council ..................................................................3 

Rome and the NATO-Russia Council........................................................................................5 

III. Russian Responses and Perspectives .....................................................................................7 

Popular Misconceptions of NATO Intent ................................................................................8 

Economic Conditions and Realities .........................................................................................9 

Philosophical Internal Debate—To Westernize or Not? ...................................................10 

IV. Contentious Issues..................................................................................................................12 

NATO Expansion.......................................................................................................................12 

Recent Enlargement Rounds......................................................................................................12 

Future Enlargement..................................................................................................................13 

The Special Case of Ukraine.....................................................................................................15 

NATO’s Changing Roles and Missions ...................................................................................18 

NATO Military Activities...........................................................................................................19 

Air Policing..............................................................................................................................19 

Possible East European Future Basing Options ........................................................................19 

Other Political Challenges .......................................................................................................20 

V. Areas of Cooperation...............................................................................................................21 

Closer Political Integration ......................................................................................................21 

 Improved Consultation – NATO-Russia Council and Military Liaison Missions.............22 

 Better Practical Cooperation and Confidence-Building Measures ....................................23 

 Cooperation on Russian Defense Reform ............................................................................26 

VI. Recommendations – The Way Ahead .................................................................................27 

Underlying Issues......................................................................................................................27 

Fear of Encirclement and Need for Security...............................................................................27 

Need to be Respected .................................................................................................................29 

Desire for Economic Prosperity..................................................................................................30 

Need for a Strong Euro-Atlantic Security Framework and Dialogue .........................................31 

Need for Conflict Resolution, Crisis Management and Greater Interoperability...........................33 

 Bottom Line...............................................................................................................................34 

VII. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................35 

Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................37 
ABOUT THE AUTHOR vi 

About the Author 

Lieutenant Colonel Gordon B. Hendrickson was the 2004-2005 United States Air Force 

Senior Fellow at the Atlantic Council of the United States. Prior to his tenure at the Council, 

Lt. Colonel Hendrickson was Commander of the 381st Intelligence Squadron at Elmendorf 

Air Force Base in Alaska. During his nineteen years as an intelligence officer with the Air 

Force, Hendrickson has held positions such as Officer in Charge of two intelligence 

squadrons, and Chief of Command and Control Protection Operations in Europe. After 

completing language training in 2000, he served two years as the Air Attaché to Russia. 

Hendrickson is a graduate of the Air Force Academy, and has a master’s degree in national 

security affairs, and Soviet & East European studies from the Naval Postgraduate School 

and a master’s degree in military operational art and science from the Air Command and 

Staff College. 

Lt. Colonel Hendrickson, who was recently selected below the zone for the rank of colonel, 

left the Council in July, 2005 to serve as Special Adviser to the Vice President for National 

Security Affairs. He wrote this report while in residence at the Council as a Senior Fellow. 

The Council is pleased to present his work. However, the views presented in this document 

are entirely those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of the Atlantic 

Council or the official policy or position of the US government or the Department of 

Defense. In accordance with Air Force Instruction 51-303, it is not copyrighted, but is the 

property of the United States government. 
vii AUTHOR’S PREFACE

Author’s Preface 

The genesis of this paper began several years ago while I was living in Europe when NATO

began considering its most recent rounds of enlargement. During four years of extensive 

travel throughout Western Europe and two years of working in the U.S. Embassy in 

Moscow, I could clearly see the impact that relations between NATO and the Russian

Federation have not only on their foreign and defense policies, but also the very real and 

personal impact they have on me as a US military officer. As a result, when the opportunity 

arose I wanted to understand better the issues and stakes involved in such an important

relationship. 

I would like to gratefully acknowledge the assistance of my Senior Fellowship institution, the 

Atlantic Council of the United States. Lyn Soudien and Matt Schumann have been terrific in 

helping to facilitate what has been a rich and rewarding year of “broadening my horizons.” I 

also thank Fran Burwell and Sara Tesorieri for the opportunity to see and experience 

Europe’s leadership institutions firsthand, as well as my colleagues and other Senior Fellows 

at the Atlantic Council for their comments and discussions during the writing and 

presentation of this paper. Their perspectives and insights helped me to understand better

the wide range of views represented in this important area and to form my own views on

this relationship. I finally and most importantly thank my wife, Kim, for her patience and 

support during my seemingly endless research, and for once again tolerating the stacks of 

source materials that invaded our home these past months. 

Lt. Colonel Gordon B. Hendrickson, USAF

Senior Fellow 

Atlantic Council of the United States 
EXECUTIVE OVERVIEW viii 

Executive Overview 

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, NATO has enlarged its 

membership twice with countries formerly under Soviet influence and control, and the 

Alliance is now preparing to begin the process for a third expansion effort. During this 

time, Russia has watched the borders of NATO creep ever closer to its own, but has generally 

been powerless to prevent it. Although NATO has taken pains to include and consult with 

Russia regarding its actions and future plans, the Kremlin cannot reasonably be expected to 

continue to watch NATO’s expansion eastward without eventually pushing back hard. 

Without question, many significant issues and challenges must still be solved before 

enlarging the Alliance once again. In light of this, NATO must work rigorously to continue to 

keep Russia engaged in a productive and mutually beneficial relationship as both sides work 

through the future obstacles that inevitably will arise in the NATO -Russia relationship. 

I found most of my material for this project from local sources in the Washington, D.C., 

area, from NATO printed publications and materials, and from Internet sources. I used 

materials from all sides of the problem and from all significant parties involved. Although 

the relationship continues to evolve, my research led me to conclude that, in order to keep 

Russia reassured and working productively with NATO, there are a number of concrete 

actions the Alliance can and must take to avoid squandering the historic opportunity before 

it. 
 

The Future of NATO-Russia Relations: 

Or, How to Dance With a Bear 

and Not Get Mauled 

I. Introduction 

We need to be Russia’s toughest critic, but we also need to be Russia’s best friend. 

—U.S. Representative Curt Weldon (R-Pennsylvania) 

Over the past decade, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) has undergone the 

most significant changes of its more than 50-year existence. Since the end of the Cold War,

NATO has expanded twice, in 1999 and 2004, and has added 10 new members in the past six 

years. The Alliance has also undergone a fundamental shift in focus, from purely a collective 

defense alliance designed to counter the Soviet and Warsaw Pact threat during the Cold War

to a collective security organization designed to bolster and fortify the overall security 

posture of the Euro-Atlantic area. This shift has significantly included a new NATO mission

of out-of-area operations, most notably in Afghanistan and Iraq. 

NATO leaders continue to stress that the “door remains open” to even more new members, 

provided they are willing and able to meet NATO’s entrance requirements. As NATO now 

prepares for another likely round of enlargement within the next few years, its leaders must 

seriously consider the impact yet another growth eastward will have on the Russian 

Federation. Moscow has thus far accepted with relatively little protest NATO’s last two 

expansion rounds, which encompassed countries formerly under Soviet influence. This was 

partly due to Russia’s lack of ability to effectively prevent the Alliance from expanding, as

well as the effort Alliance leaders made to keep Russia engaged with and included in NATO

affairs. However, in considering another round of new members, which undoubtedly will 

include countries directly bordering the Russian Federation, NATO leaders will have to 

redouble their efforts and creativity to allay Russian fears of Western encirclement or 

encroachment. This paper will look at several concrete actions the Alliance can take in an 

effort to reach that goal. 

Chapters Two and Three provide a history and overview of the development of NATORussia relations over the past 15 years since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with a 

survey of Russian attitudes and responses. Chapter Four examines some of the major

contentious issues now facing the two sides, with a particular focus on the underlying 

sources of those problems which will continue to affect future NATO-Russia dealings. 
2 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

Chapter Five focuses on many of the cooperative programs and successes the Alliance and 

Russia have achieved in the past few years, and Chapter Six deals with the previously 

mentioned sources of conflict between NATO and Russia, and then outlines several concrete 

actions NATO can take to continue engaging Russia productively and positively, even in light 

of another probable round of enlargement. 

The NATO-Russia relationship is without question one of the most important and pressing 

issues that affects overall Euro-Atlantic security. It is a relationship that can, and must, 

survive future tests of differences in policies, actions and even sometimes values. However, 

it is a relationship worth fighting for, and leaders from both sides must find a way to work 

constructively through their differences. The future path of Euro-Atlantic security will 

depend on it. 

II. Background – The Long Road to Rome 

We have come a long way from opposition to dialogue, and from confrontation to cooperation. 

—Russian President Vladimir Putin 

The Early Years 

The relationship between NATO and Russia began informally in December 1991 with the 

inaugural session of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC), later renamed the 

Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). NATO leaders created the council after the end of 

the Cold War as a forum for political dialogue, consultation, and cooperation in an attempt 

to foster a new relationship with Central and Eastern European countries.1

 Although it 

stopped short of establishing a formal relationship between NATO and Russia, it did at least 

create the initial conditions for the two to begin consultations and dialogue, and set the stage 

for future developments. This was particularly important, due to the rapid pace of political 

change in Europe. In fact, while the NACC was meeting at NATO Headquarters for this 

inaugural session, the Soviet Union actually disintegrated, with the result that the Soviet 

ambassador present was only able to speak on behalf of the Russian Federation by the end.2

 

The relationship continued after the creation of the EAPC when former U.S. President Bill 

Clinton introduced the Partnership for Peace (PfP), an initiative to reach out to the countries 

of the former Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact, along with others that also had been under 

Soviet influence. The PfP was designed to be a major program of practical security and 

defense cooperation between NATO and individual Partner countries, and was created to be 

the operational wing of the EAPC. In particular, the PfP focused, and still does, on activities 

 

1 Incidentally, it was while this very meeting was taking place that the Soviet Union dissolved. “NATO-Russia 

Relations,” NATO Issues, 30 August 2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 07 September 2004, available from 

<http://www.nato.int/issues/nato-russia/index.html>. 2 Christopher Bennett, “Building Effective Partnerships,” NATO Review - Istanbul Summit Special, June 2004, 22. 
BACKGROUND – THE LONG ROAD TO ROME 3 

to help Partners build forces capable of participating in peacekeeping operations alongside 

NATO troops.3 

By 1994, Russia decided to join the PfP, and gradually began to join in a greater degree of 

cooperation and participation with NATO activities.4 In 1996, Russian peacekeepers even 

deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina to serve alongside their Allied counterparts in the 

NATO -led Implementation Force (IFOR) and later in the Stabilization Force (SFOR) to 

oversee implementation of the Dayton Peace Accord ending the war in Bosnia and

Herzegovina. Notably, the Russian contribution was the largest non- NATO contingent in 

these forces.5

 Although politically contentious issues surrounding this deployment arose in 

later months, especially by the end of the 1990s, the fact that Russian forces deployed at all 

and had regular interaction with NATO forces was significant in itself. 

The Founding Act and Permanent Joint Council 

At the same time, President Clinton made the initial decision in the fall of 1996 to push for 

expansion of NATO’s membership ranks. NATO’s leaders eventually endorsed Clinton’s 

proposal at the Madrid Summit in July 1997, and NATO subsequently invited Poland, the 

Czech Republic, and Hungary to start accession talks. In March 1999, these three countries 

were admitted into the Alliance on the eve of its 50th anniversary celebration.

6

 Additionally, 

the Allies also made clear to all that the door was open for the eventual admission of other

candidates, according to Article 10 of the Washington Treaty. At the 50th anniversary 

summit, the Alliance specified in its Strategic Concept that “no European democratic

country whose admission would fulfill the objectives of the Treaty will be excluded from 

consideration.”7

NATO’s leaders realized that this particular round of NATO expansion, the Alliance’s fourth 

since its inception in 1949 but the first after the end of the Cold War, would be particularly 

sensitive since it would bring former Soviet satellites into the Western Alliance. Knowing

Russia’s perception of NATO as a military bloc hostile to its interests, this was a key issue 

throughout deliberations for this enlargement. However, they had to respect the right of 

each independent European state to seek its own security arrangements and to belong to 

international organizations, as well as the right of the members of the Alliance to make their 

 

3 “The Euro-Atlantic Partnership,” NATO Issues, 31 March 2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 07 September 2004, 

available from <http://www.nato.int/issues/eap/index.html>. 4 The policies NATO established through PfP have resulted in one of the Alliance’s great post-Cold War 

successes, as the policies have been steadily extended in order to build more effective relationships with a wide 

variety of countries and international institutions. See “Expanding Operations, Improving Capabilities, 

Enhancing Cooperation,” NATO After Istanbul, 14 July 2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 07 September 2004, available 

from <http://www.nato.int/docu/nato_after_istanbul/nato_after_instanbul_en.pdf>. (sic.) 5 “Growing NATO-Russian Cooperation,” NATO Istanbul Summit Reader’s Guide, 2004, 125-126. 6 Robert Mroziewicz, “Enlargement and the Capabilities Gap,” in Transforming NATO Forces: European Perspectives,

ed. C. Richard Nelson and Jason S. Purcell (Washington, D.C.: The Atlantic Council of the United States, 

January 2003), 79. 7 “The Alliance’s Strategic Concept,” Approved by the Heads of State and Government participating in the meeting of the 

North Atlantic Council in Washington, D.C., on 23 and 24 April 1999 (Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy 

Division, 1999), 12. 
4 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

own decisions.8 As a result, although Alliance leaders invited several former Warsaw Pact 

members to join NATO, they also decided a more formal structure should be developed in 

NATO’s relationship with Russia. Their answer was to create a Permanent Joint Council (PJC) 

for NATO and Russia, giving Russia the capability to sit at the same table with the members 

of the Alliance. 

The original purpose of the PJC was to demonstrate in a real and tangible way the shared 

resolve of NATO member states and Russia to work together more closely towards the 

common goal of building a lasting and inclusive peace in the Euro-Atlantic area.9

 Thus, 

formal relations between NATO and Russia began with the signing of the NATO-Russia 

Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation, and Security in May 1997. The 1999 50th

Anniversary Summit reiterated this important relationship by declaring that “a strong, stable 

and enduring partnership between NATO and Russia is essential to achieve lasting stability in 

the Euro-Atlantic area.”10

With the Founding Act, regular consultations between NATO and Russia began to take place 

on common security issues. Moscow followed by establishing a Russian mission to NATO, 

although its personnel were simply taken from, and remained primarily accredited to, 

Russia’s diplomatic mission to Belgium. Under the PJC, the 16 (later 19) NATO Allies and 

Russia sat at the table in a basically consultative format of “16+1” (later “19+1”). However, 

one of the biggest drawbacks to this arrangement was that the Allies would meet separately 

beforehand to coordinate all positions on the issues facing the Council, and then sit down 

together across from their Russian counterparts with a unified front. Needless to say, open 

and transparent discussion was not one of the hallmarks of this arrangement. 

Although the Founding Act took a good additional step forward in NATO-Russian relations, 

unfortunately it did not fully close the still-yawning gap between the Alliance and Russia. As 

the ensuing years would reveal, the deep mistrust of the Cold War years proved difficult to 

overcome, and each side’s suspicions of each other’s motives persisted. Ambassador 

Nicholas Burns, former U.S. Permanent Representative to NATO, explained that “one 

abiding legacy of the Cold War has been a deeply entrenched suspicion of NATO’s intentions, 

especially as the Alliance has expanded eastward and struggled to redefine its mission in the 

post-Soviet world. This feeling of distrust might be best summed up by the idea that, if it is 

good for NATO, it must be bad for Russia.”11 

As NATO carried out its expansion efforts, coinciding also with the European Union’s (EU) 

separate efforts to enlarge, Russia remained largely on the outside. The Kremlin was very 

much struggling with its own democratic reforms, looking toward the West with both EuroAtlantic aspirations and some lingering imperial ambitions, and wondering where its new 

 

8 NATO Transformed (Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, June 2004), 20. 9 “NATO-Russia Relations.” 10 “The Alliance’s Strategic Concept,” 11. 

11 R. Nicholas Burns, “The NATO-Russia Council: A Vital Partnership in the War on Terror,” Remarks at 

Spaso House, Moscow, Russia, United States Mission to NATO, 4 November 2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 18 

November 2004, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/ambassador/2004/2004Nov04_Burns_ 

Moscow.htm>. 
BACKGROUND – THE LONG ROAD TO ROME 5 

place was in the world. Despite increased cooperation through growing shared interests, 

such as the previously mentioned joint deployment to the Balkans, NATO and Russia still had 

trouble overcoming the long legacy of Cold War hostility and suspicion.12 Furthermore, and 

unfortunately for NATO-Russia relations, the accession of three former Soviet satellites to 

NATO on the eve of its 50th anniversary also coincided with the eve of the conflict in 

Kosovo. By this time, rivalry and mutual suspicion had overtly crept into the relationship, 

culminating in a rupture in relations during the early 1999 Kosovo crisis and Russia’s 

withdrawal from the PJC. According to Paul Fritch, Head of the Russia and Ukraine 

Relations Section in NATO’s Political Affairs and Security Policy Division, when Russia 

walked out of the PJC, “many on both sides honestly believed that nothing of great value had

been lost.”13 

Rome and the NATO-Russia Council 

Toward the end of 1999, however, hope once again started to creep back into NATO-Russia 

relations. When Lord Robertson became NATO Secretary-General in October of that year, 

he committed himself to break the stalemate that followed the Kosovo rupture in the 

relationship. Furthermore, following Vladimir Putin’s election as President of Russia in the 

spring of 2000, he announced that he would work to rebuild relations with NATO in a spirit

of pragmatism.14 

Then came the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the first-ever invocation of 

Article V of the Washington Treaty.15 The security challenges now facing the Alliance—

terrorism, weapons of mass destruction proliferation, regional instability, and trafficking in 

drugs, arms, and even human beings—clearly showed the West that any lasting solution to 

these problems would have to include Russia. What was lacking in the PJC, as former NATO

Secretary-General Lord Robertson described it, was “a true sense of shared purpose and 

urgency.” However, the events of 9/11 provided that impetus—“a stark reminder of the 

need for comprehensive and coordinated action to respond to common threats.16 

As a result, NATO leaders decided a new forum was necessary. After discussions at the 

Rome Summit in May 2002, they agreed that, despite a joint commitment to peacekeeping in 

the Balkans and the development of a substantial program of practical security and defenserelated cooperation, underlying “inhibitions” remained on both sides and should be dealt 

with in a new organization. The May 2002 Rome Declaration on “NATO-Russia Relations: a 

 

12 Paul Fritch, “NATO’s Strategic Partnerships: Building Hope On Experience,” NATO Review, Autumn 2003, 

n.p., on-line, Internet, 16 November 2004, available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2003/ 

issue3/english/art3.html>. 13 Ibid. 

14 NATO-Russia: Forging Deeper Relations (Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, 2004), 7. 15 Article V is the core clause of NATO’s founding charter, which states that an armed attack against one Ally 

shall be considered an attack against them all. In response to an invocation of Article V, each Ally determines, 

in consultation with other Allies, how it can best contribute to any action deemed necessary to restore and 

maintain the security of the North Atlantic area, including the use of armed force. See NATO Transformed, 5. 16 George Lord Robertson, “Introduction,” in NATO-Russia Council: Rome Summit 2002 (Brussels, Belgium:

NATO Office of Information and Press, 2002), 5. 
6 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

New Quality” thus established the NATO-Russia Council (NRC), which met for the first time 

in May 2003 in Moscow. 

The timing of the NRC’s establishment was none too soon, as it coincided with several other 

significant events in US, European, and Russian relations, including welcoming seven new 

members into the Alliance in 2004 and creating a partnership with the EU under Berlin 

Plus.17 The NRC reinforced the need for coordinated action against common threats both 

NATO and Russia faced, and was set up to serve as the main forum for advancing NATORussia relations. It was designed to give the NATO-Russia partnership new impetus and 

substance over the previous PJC. Within the NRC, the Allies and Russia work together as 

equal partners to identify and pursue opportunities for joint action, regularly consulting on 

current security issues and developing practical cooperation in a wide range of areas of 

common interest.18 

Specifically, the Council works on the basis of continuous political dialogue on security 

issues to identify early on any emerging problems, determine common approaches, and 

conduct joint operations as appropriate.19 The NRC laid out an ambitious plan. According to 

the Rome Declaration, 

The NATO-Russia Council will provide a mechanism for consultation, consensus-building, 

cooperation, joint decision, and joint action for the member states of NATO and Russia on a 

wide spectrum of security issues in the Euro-Atlantic region. The NATO-Russia Council will 

serve as the principal structure and venue for advancing the relationship between NATO and 

Russia. It will operate on the principle of consensus.... NATO member states and Russia will 

continue to intensify their cooperation in areas including the struggle against terrorism, crisis 

management, non-proliferation, arms control and confidence-building measures, theater 

missile defense, search and rescue at sea, military-to-military cooperation, and civil 

emergencies.20

Comprising three committees, seven standing working groups, and a number of other ad 

hoc expert groups designed to develop further cooperation in key areas, the NRC goes far 

beyond the previous PJC by seating Russia equally “at 27” with the 26 Allies for open, 

transparent discussions, rather than having the Allies first arrive at consensus and then face 

Russia later with a consolidated front. This arrangement has allowed Russia to take part in 

 

17 Colin Powell, “Powell Sees Bright Future For NATO,” United States Mission to NATO, 09 December 2004, n.p., 

on-line, Internet, 09 December 2004, available from <http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/ 

remarks/39635.htm>. 18 “NATO-Russia Relations.” 19 Meetings of the NRC are chaired by NATO’s Secretary General and are held at least monthly at the level of 

ambassadors and military representatives, twice yearly at the level of foreign and defense ministers and chiefs of 

staff, and occasionally at summit level. Another important innovation under the NRC is the Preparatory 

Committee, which meets at least twice a month to prepare ambassadorial discussions and to oversee all experts’ 

activities under the auspices of the NRC. See “NATO-Russia Council,” NATO Issues, 30 August 2004, n.p., online, Internet, 07 September 2004, available from <http://www.nato.int/issues/nrc/index.html>. 20 “NATO-Russia Relations: A New Quality. Declaration by Heads of State and Government of NATO Member 

States and the Russian Federation,” NATO-Russia Council: Rome Summit 2002 (Brussels, Belgium: NATO Office 

of Information and Press, 2002), 6-7. See also “NATO-Russia Council,” NATO Issues, 30 August 2004, n.p., online, Internet, 07 September 2004, available from <http://www.nato.int/issues/nrc/index.html>. 
RUSSIAN RESPONSES AND PERSPECTIVES 7 

discussions as much more of a partner in fact, and has been far more satisfactory to Moscow 

than the previous “NATO +1” format under the PJC.

21 Furthermore, as with the North 

Atlantic Council, decisions taken by the NATO-Russia Council are made on the basis of

consensus.22 

One of the biggest advantages for Russia of the NRC over the previous PJC is that Russia can 

now see firsthand frank discussion and even disagreements among NATO allies. Although 

that raises the prospect of Russia potentially taking advantage of these differences to try to 

drive a wedge between NATO members, it also gives Russia the benefit of participating in 

actual, genuine debate and discussion with Alliance members over policies and actions, 

which it clearly did not have under the previous structure. 

The NRC also now involves far more areas and organizations than did the PJC. The Council

involves a wide variety of professionals, including intelligence officers, border guards, 

interior ministry troops, and civil emergency planning experts. In addition, Russian scientists

have made regular and substantial contributions to the NRC and, significantly, the Russian

Mission to NATO is now no longer just an adjunct of the Russian Embassy to Belgium. 

After years of formalities and stiff coordination, the Alliance and Russia finally feel much 

more like partners.23 

III. Russian Responses and Perspectives 

A nation has neither permanent enemies nor friends, only permanent interests. 

—Charles de Gaulle 

While Russia has accepted NATO expansion thus far and is consulting with the Allies in the 

NRC, the Kremlin nonetheless has continued to express its view that enlargement of the 

Alliance is unnecessary and unhelpful in furthering Euro-Atlantic security. In its view, other

international bodies and organizations are perfectly suited to take on the role of collective 

security that NATO has grown into over the past few years. President Putin, in his remarks at 

the Rome Summit, made clear the Russian position that other international agreements and 

bodies will also play a critical role in supporting the new NATO-Russia relationship under the 

NRC. He stated, 

Russia is primarily interested in it as a working instrument. It is of fundamental importance

that cooperation at twenty should be based on a firm foundation of international law—the

UN Charter, the Helsinki Final Act and the OSCE Charter on European Security....For

Russia, with its geopolitical position, the enhancement of cooperation with NATO as equal 

partners is one of the real embodiments of the multiple approach, to which there is no

alternative and which we intend to pursue resolutely. We do not think of ourselves as

 

21 The NRC working groups and committees focus on cooperation on terrorism, proliferation, peacekeeping, 

theater missile defense, airspace management, civil emergencies, defense reform, logistics, scientific cooperation 

and on challenges of modern society. See “NATO-Russia Council” and also “NATO-Russia Relations.” 22 NATO in the 21st Century (Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, 2004), 13. 23 Fritch. 
8 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

outside Europe, but it is also unthinkable for us that the role of approved cooperation 

mechanisms in Asia and in the Commonwealth of Independent States should be 

underestimated. Only by harmoniously combining our actions in all these areas will we open 

up wide-ranging possibilities for building a single security region—from Vancouver to 

Vladivostok.24 

Thus, the Russian government acknowledges publicly that working with NATO is useful and 

beneficial for both Russia and the Alliance, in the interest of overall security. The Russian 

Mission to NATO has certainly “toed the party line” and acknowledged this as well. General 

Konstantin Totskiy, Russian Ambassador to NATO, elaborated in an interview that “the days 

of confrontation are past and Russians no longer associate NATO with the enemy. Quite the 

reverse. In recent years, people have come to understand that the common threats and 

challenges of the modern world call for ever-closer cooperation.”25 

Popular Misconceptions of NATO Intent 

Privately, however, general Russian suspicion still runs deep when considering its former foe 

from beyond the Fulda Gap. NATO is by far the least popular of all international 

organizations among the general Russian population. Polls conducted after the latest round 

of NATO enlargement in 2004 suggest approximately 52 percent of Russians believe NATO

enlargement threatens Russia’s national interests, while 58 percent believe that NATO is an 

aggressive military bloc.26 Most Russians believe the United Nations (UN) is the best 

international body for global cooperation, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in 

Europe (OSCE) for non-military crisis management in Eastern European crisis regions, the 

EU for economic matters, and the United States for strategic partnership, despite recent 

challenges to that relationship.27 

In contrast to these views, though, Russians still generally dislike NATO and almost anything 

it stands for. In the words of Rolf Welberts, Director of NATO’s Information Office in 

Moscow, many Russians still consider NATO “an illegitimate, US-dominated remnant of the 

Cold War, a potentially aggressive military bloc the world would be better off without.”28 

Many Russians still mirror-image NATO with the previous Soviet-dominated Warsaw Pact, 

and remain highly skeptical of the idea that the United States does not dominate NATO, 

despite the recent very public disagreements among the Allies over the war in Iraq. 

NATO Secretary-General de Hoop Scheffer has tried valiantly to dispel these perceptions. In 

Moscow in April 2004, he reiterated that the recent addition of seven new NATO members 

 

24 Vladimir Putin, “Address,” NATO-Russia Council: Rome Summit 2002 (Brussels, Belgium: NATO Office of 

Information and Press, 2002), 18. 

25 Konstantin V. Totskiy, “Interview—General Totskiy: Russian Ambassador to NATO,” NATO Review, Autumn 

2003, n.p., on-line, Internet, 16 November 2004, available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2003/ 

issue3/english/art3.html>. 26 Ekaterina Kuznetsova, “NATO: New Anti-Terrorist Organization?” International Affairs: A Russian Journal of 

World Politics, Diplomacy and International Relations 50, no. 3 (2004): 22. 27 Rolf Welberts, “Explaining NATO In Russia,” NATO Review, Autumn 2003, n.p., on-line, Internet, 16 

November 2004, available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2003/issue3/english/art3.html>. 28 Ibid. 
RUSSIAN RESPONSES AND PERSPECTIVES 9 

was not aimed against Russia and that the Alliance wants to cooperate with Russia to address 

global threats. He stated in a Moscow radio interview, “I consider it my job, my 

responsibility, to convince (Russians) that NATO has no ulterior motives. NATO wants to

cooperate. NATO needs Russia and Russia needs NATO. We live in a dangerous world and 

we can only solve these problems together.”29 

The United States has also continued to try to make clear to Russia that it has nothing to fear

from further enlargement of the Alliance. Former Secretary of State Colin Powell reiterated 

in April 2004 that President Bush has given repeated assurances that “you’re not our 

enemies anymore” and any concerns about NATO enlargement near Russia’s borders are 

groundless.30 

Although perceptions are slow to change, there is still room for hope and progress following

the opening of the NATO Information Office in 2001. One of its many successes has been 

the creation of a NATO column in the newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda (Red Star), the official 

newspaper of the Russian Armed Forces and one that is traditionally very critical of the 

Alliance.31 The fact that this newspaper allows a commentary by an “adversary” such as 

NATO does indeed point to no small progress, no matter how far there is still to go in the 

relationship. 

Economic Conditions and Realities 

Russia is definitely struggling with its own economy, particularly since the fall of 1998, and 

the state of disrepair throughout the Russian Armed Forces is shocking. The author noted 

this sad state of affairs shortly after arriving at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow in the summer

of 2000,32 when the Kursk submarine tragedy occurred. Although this particular mishap 

highlighted the condition of the Russian Navy, it was also indicative of the state of the other

services in Russia’s forces. President Putin has taken several tangible steps to try to correct 

the problem, but it will be a long time before Russia’s forces regain very much of their

former strength and pride. Russia simply does not have the money or ready resources that 

the former Soviet Union once had. 

As a result, Russia is looking hard for whatever resources it does still own to help rebuild its 

flagging economy. In particular, Russia’s natural resources and its arms sales to other

countries, especially China and India, are a major source of continuing revenue. Moscow is

also putting on a “full-court press” to try to integrate further into European and 

international economic structures, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the EU. 

 

29 Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, “NATO, Russia Enhance Military Cooperation,” United States Mission to NATO, 14 April

2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 15 April 2004, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp? 

ID=70E14E9A-4D76-4469-8344-278F2E8D0042>. 30 Colin Powell, “Russia Need Not Worry Over NATO Enlargement, Powell Says,” United States Mission to NATO,

04 April 2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 13 September 2004, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/ 

Article.asp?ID=86EB170C-9938-4898-B7C5-4D5A0E98289A>.. 31 Welberts. 32 The author served as Assistant Air Attaché and Air Attaché at the US Embassy in Moscow from June 2000 

to June 2002. 
10 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

Conventional wisdom currently holds that Russia’s prospects for EU membership are slim 

to none, at least in the near- to mid-term future. As a senior U.S. administration official 

stated at a press conference just prior to the February 2004 NATO Summit in Brussels, “the 

question of Russia’s membership in the EU is not only hypothetical, it is more than that—it 

is somewhat beyond hypothetical at the present time. And that really isn’t on anyone’s 

agenda, including Russia’s.”33

Russia’s prospects for entry into the WTO rate somewhat higher. President Bush recently 

expressed support for closer integration of the Russian Federation into European and 

Western organizations. During his February 2005 address to the EU at Concert Noble in 

Brussels, he stated that he believes “Russia’s future lies within the family of Europe and the 

transatlantic community. America supports WTO membership for Russia, because meeting 

WTO standards will strengthen the gains of freedom and prosperity in that country.”34 

However, this strong support comes with a price. For the United States, continued Russian 

progress toward greater democratization and reform is paramount to show genuine 

commitment on Russia’s part to join the international family of democratic nations. 

President Bush also pointed out in Brussels that “for Russia to make progress as a European 

nation, the Russian government must renew a commitment to democracy and the rule of 

law. We recognize that reform will not happen overnight. We must always remind Russia, 

however, that our alliance stands for a free press, a vital opposition, the sharing of power, 

and the rule of law—and the United States and all European countries should place 

democratic reform at the heart of their dialogue with Russia.”35 

Philosophical Internal Debate—To Westernize or Not? 

The Russian people have struggled for centuries to define their identity and place in the 

world. As an enormous empire and still the world’s geographically largest country by far, 

even after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia straddles the European and Asian 

continents, in more than just a physical sense. Throughout Russia’s rich history, outside 

influences have had profound impacts on its development as a society, culture, and nation—

sometimes violently and sometimes gradually. One of the biggest resulting internal debates 

Russians themselves have had over the centuries has centered on whether to “Westernize” 

or to “remain true to Mother Russia,” pure and undefiled by outside influences. This is a 

question Russia has struggled with almost from its very beginnings, and more so during the 

past 300 years, especially as Europe modernized and progressed. Peter the Great was one of 

 

33 “NATO Lauded as ‘Centerpiece’ of U.S. Efforts in Europe,” United States Mission to NATO, 21 February 2005, 

n.p., on-line, Internet, 21 February 2005, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp? 

ID=7A10F6CE-5894-431E-9372-B38896E62FEA>. 34 George Bush, “President Discusses American and European Alliance in Belgium,” United States Mission to 

NATO, 21 February 2005, n.p., on-line, Internet, 21 February 2005, available from <http://www. 

whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/02/20050221.html>. 35 Ibid. 
RUSSIAN RESPONSES AND PERSPECTIVES 11 

the earliest “Westernizers,” and strongly pushed his country toward Europe, to the point of

founding St. Petersburg as his “window on the West.”36 

But the Empire eventually spread to the Pacific Ocean and Russia’s crest shows a doubleheaded eagle for a very good reason—it symbolized the Tsar’s (and now the President’s) 

watchful eye over both continents of the Russian Empire, Europe and Asia. Russia was and 

is both European and Asian, and will not fall completely into either camp, nor forsake either

continent’s legacy. As much as Russia feels itself to be a part of a larger Europe, it also 

considers itself to be a global and Eurasian power. Ivan Ivanov, a former deputy Russian 

foreign minister, very well summed up the Russian view that, “while stressing our European 

identity we prefer to have a free hand in our policy towards and cooperation with all regions, 

including Asia, the United States, and above all, the CIS.”37 

The double-headed eagle on the Russian crest not only signifies the Tsar’s watchful eye over 

both directions of his vast empire, it may also symbolize the Russian soul, torn between East 

and West. The result of this is that in many ways, Russians feel that they do not belong fully 

to East or West, and thus have their own special history and calling in the world. Though

many in the West view this as simply a philosophical or even spiritual outlook having little to 

do with tangible realities, it actually resonates at the heart of the Russian soul and colors the 

way Russians look at the rest of the world. NATO is now seeing the results of this outlook as

it seeks to grow eastward, and now must find more and more creative ways to assuage 

Russian fears and distrust. 

At present, Russia is still interested in pursuing continuing closer ties with NATO and Europe 

in general. Andrei Kelin, Deputy Director of the Department of General European

Cooperation in the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, recently shed some light on

Moscow’s thinking in this regard. He described NATO as “one of the main European 

community institutions, and if we want to steer a course for normal relations with each 

community state, which, properly speaking, we have sought to do lately, it will be logical to

form civilized working ties with all key European organizations, NATO included.”38 The

importance of NATO capitalizing on this sentiment through continued close cooperation

with Russia cannot be overstated. 

 

36 David MacKenzie and Michael W. Curran, A History of Russia and the Soviet Union: Revised Edition

(Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press, 1982), 197-198. 37 The Twain Shall Meet: The Prospects for Russia-West Relations (Washington, D.C: Atlantic Council of the United 

States, September 2002), 37. 38 Andrei Kelin, “Attitude to NATO Expansion: Calmly Negative,” International Affairs: A Russian Journal of World

Politics, Diplomacy and International Relations 50, no. 1 (2004), 17. 
12 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

IV. Contentious Issues 

Any extension of the zone of NATO is unacceptable. 

—Mikhail S. Gorbachev, 1990 

In light of these issues, NATO and Russia still face significant challenges to their relationship. 

This chapter will examine a number of these contentious issues and will highlight their root 

causes, for it is these causes that will continue to plague the Alliance in its relations with 

Russia. These issues are highlighted due to their underlying sources of friction and

disagreements, problems that both sides can expect to continue into future years, and that 

must be dealt with to make it possible for NATO and Russia to continue working together

productively. Chapter Six will later address several recommendations for the Alliance 

leadership as it strives first to understand, and then to work effectively with Russia in its

decision-making process. 

 

NATO Expansion 

Recent Enlargement Rounds 

Russian leaders publicly maintain they have no official objection to NATO’s recent 

expansions (NATO has now had five enlargements since its inception in 1949—see Figure 1 

for a timeline of all expansions to date). In May 2002, at the opening of the NATO Military 

Liaison Mission in Moscow, then-First Deputy Chief of the General Staff (now Chief) 

Colonel-General Yuri Baluyevsky stated that Russia “does not fear NATO’s expansion if its

new members do not threaten its national security and use their infrastructure to deploy 

strategic arms.” He went on to explain that Russia’s policy has become more predictable 

and that Russia does not threaten any other nation, but he also added significantly that it has 

defended and will defend its national sovereignty.39 

1949 1952 1955 1982 1999 2004

Belgium Greece Federal Republic Spain Czech Republic Bulgaria

Canada Turkey of Germany Hungary Estonia 

Denmark Poland Latvia 

France Lithuania 

Iceland Romania 

Italy Slovakia 

Luxembourg Slovenia 

Netherlands

Norway

Portugal 

United Kingdom

United States Figure 1 Timeline of NATO Enlargement 

(Source: NATO Istanbul Summit Reader’s Guide, 2004, 120-121)

 

39 Baluyevsky, “General Baluyevsky: Russia Does Not Fear NATO Expansion.” 
CONTENTIOUS ISSUES 13

However, the true underlying Russian position on NATO expansion is clear and not 

surprising—Russia does not support it. Russian concerns center around the prospect of

facing potential new military bases, military units, and the infrastructure of a powerful 

military alliance right on its borders. Russian opinion holds this to be an “echo of the past, a 

relic of the Cold War,” and Moscow clearly favors more universal security mechanisms for 

the Euro-Atlantic area, such as the UN and the OSCE. Despite NATO’s many assurances to 

Russia, Moscow continues automatically to view with suspicion any expansion farther 

eastward. There also remains a persistent belief that one of the main reasons for NATO

expansion was to contribute to the weakening of Russia, which began in the early 1990s with 

the dissolution of the Soviet Union.40 As General Totskiy understated it, “we do not 

consider NATO’s further enlargement to be a cause for celebration.”41 

Russian concerns over NATO expansion only deepened after the most recent round brought 

the Baltic republics, which physically border Russia, into the NATO fold. It is true that 

Russia lodged no strenuous, lasting objections to either of the two most recent rounds of 

NATO expansion. However, this was undoubtedly more due to Russian preoccupation with 

pressing domestic and internal issues, such as their economy and challenges with their own 

version of terrorism originating in their southern regions, as well as the fact that most of the 

new NATO members did not physically border Russia (with the exception of the small Baltic 

republics). As U.S. Ambassador to Russia Alexander Vershbow pointed out recently at 

Princeton University, the Russian reaction, while “not enthusiastic, was not negative as some 

had expected.”42 

Future Enlargement 

That reaction, however, undoubtedly will not continue to be the case when NATO prepares

to offer future membership to more former Soviet satellite countries in another round of 

enlargement, which is expected to occur within the next few years. At the June 2004 

Istanbul Summit, NATO leaders made it clear that they intended to leave the “door” wide 

open to any country wishing to join and able to meet its entry requirements, and that the 

seven countries that had just joined would not be the last. To that end, they welcomed

progress toward membership made by Albania, Croatia, and the former Yugoslav Republic 

of Macedonia in the framework of the Membership Action Plan.43 Former Secretary of State 

 

40 Mikhail Troitski, The Transatlantic Union 1991-2004: Transformation of the U.S.-European Partnership in the PostBipolar World (in Russian) (Moscow, Russia: Institute for the U.S. and Canadian Studies, Russian Academy of

Sciences, 2004), 146. 41 Totskiy, “Interview—General Totskiy.” 42 Alexander Vershbow, “The United States and Russia: The Next Four Years,” Remarks at the Woodrow

Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University, in “Vershbow Sees ‘Strong, Positive’ 

U.S. Relationship with Russia,” United States Mission to NATO, 17 November 2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 18 

November 2004, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=786EAE89-D432-4795-93EAE0F33FA782C9>. 43 “NATO’s Open Door,” NATO Istanbul Summit Reader’s Guide, 2004, 119. The MAP offers aspiring members

practical advice and targeted assistance. In turn, aspiring members are expected to meet certain political goals,

including the peaceful resolution of territorial disputes, respect for democratic procedures and the rule of law, 

and the democratic control of their armed forces. Participation in the plan does not offer any guarantee of 
14 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

Powell reiterated this view a few months later following his last North Atlantic Council 

meeting as Secretary of State in December 2004. He stated, 

 

[T]o become a member of NATO is to coordinate and connect yourself to all of Europe. But 

not just Europe. You connect yourself in a very important way to North America, to the 

United States and Canada. That’s why the Alliance is thriving. That’s why more and more 

nations want to become part of this great Alliance. So, I see a bright future for NATO

....There are more nations out there waiting for their turn to join the Alliance: an Alliance 

that continues to grow, that continues to have the complete commitment of its original 

members and the new energy of its new members and aspiring members as an Alliance that 

will continue to be valuable, continue to be vital, as part of the transatlantic family, 

partnership.44

In addition to the three candidates mentioned above, the Alliance will also very likely 

consider “opening the door” to Georgia, Moldova, and even Ukraine, a country to which 

Russia has far stronger strategic and historical ties. According to former U.S. Ambassador to 

NATO Nicholas Burns, the Alliance is reaching out to the region as it establishes “for the 

very first time liaison offices in the Caucasus and Central Asian region, and that reflects the 

increased cooperation with the countries of those regions.” He also reiterated NATO’s desire 

to engage Ukraine, particularly following that country’s December 2004 presidential election 

(more on this below). Keeping in mind Russian sensitivities, he also spoke of making an 

attempt to give more attention to NATO-Russia relations and to strengthen those relations, 

adding that “there’s reason to think that we have a lot more that we can do with Russia in 

terms of our partnership.”45 However, if membership expands to several more countries 

bordering Russia, that partnership will surely be sorely tested. 

Of course, the Central and Eastern European countries being considered for membership 

are eagerly anticipating that possibility. They still have a tendency to view NATO as a sort of 

U.S. tool for protecting its European partners against military aggression from third parties, 

mainly Russia. This view is understandable, given the role the former Soviet Union played in 

dominating the Warsaw Pact. However, it does not accurately reflect today’s reality, and 

NATO’s challenge is to help Central and Eastern European countries realize there is much 

more to NATO membership than developing relations with just one or even a few new 

partners, rather than with the entire Alliance.46 

NATO continues, however, to lay the groundwork for potential new aspirants in the next 

probable round of expansion. According to the Georgian Foreign Ministry, the Secretary 

General’s newly appointed special representative for Caucasus and Central Asia countries, 

 future membership, but it does help countries to adapt their armed forces and to prepare for the obligations 

and responsibilities Alliance membership would bring. See “NATO in the 21st Century,” 14. 44 Powell, “Powell Sees Bright Future For NATO.”. 45 Nicholas Burns, “Pre-Ministerial Briefing With Journalists,” United States Mission to NATO, 06 December 2004, 

n.p., on-line, Internet, 06 December 2004, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/ambassador/2004/ 

2004Dec06_Burns_Brussels.htm>. 46 Robert Mroziewicz, “Enlargement and the Capabilities Gap,” in Transforming NATO Forces: European 

Perspectives, ed. C. Richard Nelson and Jason S. Purcell (Washington, D.C.: The Atlantic Council of the United 

States, January 2003), 91. 
CONTENTIOUS ISSUES 15

Robert Simmons, visited Georgia in early February 2005 to hold talks with the Georgian 

President, the Prime Minister, the State Minister for Euro-Atlantic Integration Issues, the 

Foreign Minister, and other top-level Georgian officials. Significantly, the North Atlantic 

Council in October 2004 approved Georgia’s Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP),

which establishes specific defense and political reform goals for Georgia. The next month, 

NATO Secretary General de Hoop Scheffer paid a one-day visit to Georgia, saying that 

“Georgia matters for the [sic] NATO,” and calling on the Georgian authorities to implement 

IPAP.

47 

Georgia has responded by raising the stakes recently in its overtures toward NATO by 

insisting in ever-stronger terms that Russian forces vacate their bases in Georgia. On 10 

March 2005, the Georgian Parliament voted 159-0 to urge the Georgian government to set a

deadline for Moscow to close two Russian military bases, again highlighting the longstanding 

dispute between the two countries. This is only one of several issues that have been sore

spots between the two governments since Georgia’s “Rose Revolution” in 2004, and that are 

not likely to go away until Russian forces leave and the question of South Ossetia is finally 

resolved.48 

In light of this likely third round of enlargement into what Moscow considers its immediate 

sphere of influence, Russian mistrust will surely only deepen and their protests (and 

response) undoubtedly will grow more strident. The Kremlin already has a hard time 

accepting that former Warsaw Pact members it once dominated are now members of NATO

and enjoy the privilege of NATO Article V protection. Any expansion that includes the 

Caucasus and especially Ukraine will, in Moscow’s view, directly threaten its influence over 

an area that it perceives to be its own and that borders the Russian Federation. This is 

particularly true in view of the fact that the Russian empire had its beginnings in Kievan Rus 

(current-day Ukraine) as far back as the 9th century.49 

The Special Case of Ukraine 

NATO-Ukraine relations were formally launched in 1991, when Ukraine joined the NACC

immediately after achieving independence following the breakup of the Soviet Union. In

1994, Ukraine became the first of the Commonwealth of Independent States to join the 

Partnership for Peace program, and subsequently demonstrated its commitment to

contribute to NATO-led peacekeeping operations in the Balkans.50 By 1997, the two sides

had signed in Madrid the NATO-Ukraine Charter on a Distinctive Partnership, which 

recognized the importance of an independent, stable and democratic Ukraine to European 

stability. That same year, the Alliance established a NATO Information and Documentation 

Center in Kyiv to facilitate wider access to information on NATO, particularly in the postCold War era and concerning Ukrainian benefits from their Distinctive Partnership. Two 

 

47 Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, “NATO Envoy to Visit Georgia,” Online Magazine – Civil Georgia, 01 February 2005, 

n.p., on-line, Internet, 01 February 2005, available from <http://www.una.org.ge/publicat.html>. 48 “Vote in Parliament Raises Stakes in Row With Moscow,” Washington Post Metro Express, 11 March 2005, 6. 49 MacKenzie and Curran, A History of Russia and the Soviet Union: Revised Edition, 24. 50 “Further Developing NATO-Ukraine Relations,” NATO Istanbul Summit Reader’s Guide, 2004, 130-131. 
16 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

years later in 1999, NATO also opened a Liaison Office in Kyiv to help Ukraine’s 

participation in the PfP and to support Ukrainian defense reform efforts.51 

Ukrainian leadership has also made several overtures toward NATO. On the eve of the 1999 

50th Anniversary NATO celebration, then-Ukrainian President Leonid Kuchma spoke in 

glowing terms of this new relationship, saying, “the Ukraine- NATO distinctive partnership is 

important and indispensable to the new European security architecture,” and that “there is 

no doubt that these events will not only open a new page in the 50-year history of the 

Alliance, but foreshadow a new stage in the dynamic development of the Ukraine-NATO

distinctive partnership, all on behalf of Euro-Atlantic security and stability.”52 Kuchma later 

declared boldly in May 2002, just before the fifth anniversary of the Distinctive Partnership, 

that Ukraine now had the goal of eventual NATO membership.53 The Alliance responded 

later that same month, agreeing to explore ways to take the NATO-Ukraine relationship to a 

qualitatively new level beyond their previous support, where they had already cited the 

importance of Ukrainian “sovereignty and independence, territorial integrity, democratic 

development, economic prosperity and its status as a non-nuclear weapons state as key 

factors of stability and security in central and eastern Europe and in Europe as a whole.”54

Current Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko also has made clear his plans to integrate 

further into Europe’s various structures and organizations. At the Brussels summit, he 

thanked the Alliance for its support during his election ordeal, saying, “our declarations, 

which correspond to our actions, a course of integration in the European and Euro-Atlantic 

structures, from now on will determine the strategy and tactics of our policy. We believe 

that Ukraine’s participation and engagement in the North Atlantic community of democratic 

peoples will strengthen peace and security on the European continent. We are ready to 

make all necessary efforts to achieve this noble goal. We have already created a strong 

foundation for our mutual relations and can extend it....The European future of Ukraine is 

inseparably linked with the deepening of its relationship with the Alliance.”55

From the Alliance perspective, there is now renewed interest in Ukraine’s prospects for 

drawing closer to NATO. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice stated at a February 2005 press 

conference in Brussels, “we look very much forward to continuing to work with Ukraine as 

it develops its democratic future.” She reminded her audience that “Ukraine has an action 

plan with NATO that we can be more active on now, and we should do exactly that so that 

we begin to take the practical steps that can support Ukraine’s democratic process and can 

 

51 “New Relationships: Practical Cooperation and Dialogue,” The Prague Summit and NATO’s Transformation: A 

Reader’s Guide (Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, 2003), 44. 52 Leonid Kuchma, “Message from Leonid Kuchma, President of Ukraine,” NATO Review: 50th Anniversary 

Commemorative Edition, 1999, 49. 53 NATO-Ukraine: A Distinctive Partnership (Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, 2004), 2. 54 “The Alliance’s Strategic Concept,” 12. 

55 Viktor Yushchenko, “Opening Statement at the Meeting of the NATO-Ukraine Council at the level of Heads 

of State and Government,” NATO Speeches— NATO Summit, 22 February 2005, n.p., on-line, Internet, 22 

February 2005, available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/2005/s050222e.htm>. 
CONTENTIOUS ISSUES 17

support Ukraine’s coming toward Europe and toward mainstream Europe.”56 At a press

background briefing in Brussels just prior to the February NATO-Ukraine Summit, a senior 

U.S. administration official candidly acknowledged that “the general attitude within 

NATO...is that NATO ought to be open to a new relationship with Ukraine. That is going to 

be focused, at this point, on fulfilling a partnership plan that we developed with the 

Ukrainians a couple of years ago. We didn’t make much progress on that, for obvious 

reason, given the politics in Ukraine over the last year. But there’s strong hope that in 2005 

we might deepen our partnership with Ukraine.”57 

Other NATO leaders also reaffirmed this commitment to Ukraine during the summit, saying 

the Alliance leadership “pledged continued support and welcomed their aspirations for 

building a democratic and prosperous Ukraine and strengthening their integration into the 

Euro-Atlantic community.”58 Secretary-General de Hoop Scheffer elaborated even further

during the summit when he mentioned the PfP Trust Fund project that was about to be 

launched to help Ukraine deal with old ammunition, small arms, and light weapons

stockpiles, the largest initiative of its kind ever undertaken. He addressed Ukrainian

President Yushchenko directly and declared, “NATO is ready to work with you, to support 

you, and to help you build a better future. All Allies are committed—are fully committed, to 

a rich and progressively stronger partnership with Ukraine.”59 

Ukraine, however, still faces some difficult decisions balancing its potential membership in 

NATO with the necessity of maintaining its relationship with Russia. Due to geopolitics and 

centuries of intertwined economics, culture, and history, Ukraine and Russia have been and 

will continue to be inextricably linked together into the future. This point was brought

home shortly after the break-up of the Soviet Union during a visit to Ukraine by the thenhead of the U.S. Information Agency (USIA), Ambassador Henry Catto. While meeting with 

Ukrainian Minister of Culture Larysa Khorolets and Foreign Minister Anatoliy Zlenko,

Khorolets stated clearly that “Russia is our partner—our equal partner. We may differ, but 

they are our neighbors and we are linked economically.”60 

Even with EU and NATO aspirations, this view from the windows of Kiev toward their

northern neighbor has not changed substantially. President Yushchenko most recently 

 

56 Condoleezza Rice, “Remarks at The North Atlantic Treaty Organization Headquarters,” U.S. Department of 

State, 09 February 2005, n.p., on-line, Internet, 09 February 2005, available from <http://www.state.gov/ 

secretary/rm/2005/42047.htm>. 57 “NATO Lauded as ‘Centerpiece’ of U.S. Efforts in Europe,.” 58 “Statement Issued by the Heads of State and Government participating in a meeting of the North Atlantic 

Council in Brussels,” NATO On-Line Library: NATO Press Release, 22 February 2005, n.p., on-line, Internet, 22

February 2005, available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/pr/2005/p05-022e.htm>. 59 Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, “Opening Statement at the press conference following the meeting of the NATOUkraine Council at the level of heads of State and Government,” NATO Speeches— NATO Summit, 22 February 

2005, n.p., on-line, Internet, 22 February 2005, available from <http://www.int/docu/speech/

2005/s050222f.htm>. See also Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, “Opening Remarks,” NATO Speeches— NATO Summit, 

22 February 2005, , n.p., on-line, Internet, 22 February 2005, available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/

speech/2005/s050222a.htm>. 60 Henry E. Catto, Jr., Ambassadors At Sea: The High and Low Adventures of a Diplomat (Austin, TX: University of

Texas Press, 1998), 333. 
18 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

addressed Ukraine’s relationship to Russia, even as he pushed further for NATO membership. 

Despite Russia’s recent blatant and distasteful meddling in the 2004 Ukrainian presidential 

election, Yushchenko was still able to say, “I would like to clearly state once again that 

Russia is our strategic partner and Ukraine’s policy towards NATO by any means will be 

against [viewed in consideration of] the interests of other countries, including Russia.”61 

NATO’s Changing Roles and Missions 

NATO’s own roles and missions also are evolving with the ever-changing strategic world 

environment. In a recent speech to the Atlantic Treaty Association’s (ATA) 50th General 

Assembly in Rome, Secretary-General de Hoop Scheffer emphasized that this new 

environment needs the broadest possible international cooperation. He pointed out that this 

cooperation is “the heart of the ‘wide web’ of international security, including NATO’s 

dialogue with Ukraine and Russia.” He went on to also clarify that NATO’s responsibility is 

no longer simply Euro-centric territorial defense. In his view, NATO will continue to have 

out-of-area operations, such as those now going on in Afghanistan and to a limited extent in 

Iraq.62 

General James Jones, Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), also discussed the 

changing NATO focus at the ATA General Assembly when he stated that NATO is undergoing 

the “most fundamental transformation in its history.” The goal of NATO, he said, is to be 

“as relevant in the 21st century as it was in the 20th century.”63 Certainly, Russian leaders who 

hear these statements come to the only logical conclusion that NATO has no intention of 

disbanding, or even of merging with another international security body, such as the OSCE, 

which Russia would much prefer. The message is that NATO is here to stay, and will 

continue to adapt and change to the world around it, much to the chagrin of Kremlin 

leadership. 

NATO also will continue to maintain a presence in former Yugoslav territories in the Balkans, 

primarily in Kosovo. Alliance leaders reiterated this intent in a joint statement during the 

February 2005 NATO Summit in Brussels. According to the statement, “we remain firm in 

our commitment to stability in the Balkans and see the future of this region firmly anchored 

in the Euro-Atlantic community. NATO will maintain its strong presence in Kosovo and 

contribute to the UN-led political process of building a multiethnic, peaceful and prosperous 

society.”64 As it is an historically Slav-dominated region (“Yugoslav” means “southern Slav” 

in Russian and Serbo-Croatian), Russia is undoubtedly less than thrilled with this continuing 

Alliance presence in this contentious area. 

 

61 Viktor Yushchenko, “Opening Statement at the Press Conference following the Meeting of the NATOUkraine Council at the level of Heads of State and Government,” NATO Speeches— NATO Summit, 22 February 

2005, n.p., on-line, Internet, 22 February 2005, available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/2005/ 

s050222g.htm>. 62 Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, Secretary-General, NATO, address to the Atlantic Treaty Association 50th General 

Assembly Convention, Rome, Italy, 1 December 2004. 63 General James L. Jones, Supreme Allied Commander Europe, NATO, address to the Atlantic Treaty 

Association 50th General Assembly Convention, Rome, Italy, 1 December 2004. 64 “Statement Issued by the Heads of State and Government.” 
CONTENTIOUS ISSUES 19

NATO Military Activities 

Air Policing 

When the 10 most recent aspirants became full NATO members in 1999 and 2004, they 

immediately fell under NATO’s formal collective security and defense umbrella, which

happens to include routine policing of all NATO airspace as required. Historically, all 

Alliance members have either performed their own air policing functions or fulfill the 

mission in cooperation with neighboring NATO nations. Examining the most recent seven 

adherents, Romania, Bulgaria, and Slovakia have their own defense capabilities, and 

Slovenian airspace will be covered by a combination of its own early warning system and air 

policing support provided by the Italian Air Force. However, the Baltic states—the only 

ones physically bordering Russia—Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania called on NATO to provide 

initial air policing over the extended NATO skies. As a result, in March 2004, four NATO F16 aircraft began a rotating deployment to Estonia to provide the same level of routine 

security as for all Alliance members, sparking vigorous protest from the Russian 

government.65 

Although the Alliance’s new air policing operation over the Baltic states initially caused bitter

complaints from Moscow, especially from the Duma, these concerns eventually were 

assuaged. The new policy was justified to Russia as a deterrent to would-be terrorists and

other “renegades” who might try to enter the European continent’s airspace illegally through 

the Baltics. Furthermore, Moscow could not realistically argue that four NATO F-16s were a 

threat to the entire Russian armed forces or to Russia’s well-being or sovereignty. Former 

Secretary of State Powell gave strong assurances that the deployment of these fighters was in

no way directed against Russia, asserting that NATO would “adjust to the new threats that are 

out there. We’re not worried about the old threat of the Soviet Union.” He also noted the 

Russian government still has an obligation to make sure its armed forces are defending the 

Russian Federation, stating “they are passionate about that and they have to reflect the 

public opinion and the intellectual opinion that exists within Russia.” The Russians now 

seem to have accepted the deployment and, in the words of Secretary Powell, are “taking it 

in stride.”66 

Possible East European Future Basing Options 

In conjunction with Russian fears about NATO’s eastward growth, the Kremlin is particularly

concerned about the future possibility that NATO will base its soldiers on the territory of the 

newest NATO members. Admittedly, it is problematic when Russia sees active plans for 

NATO forces to be stationed on former Warsaw Pact soil. For example, plans are already 

under way to create a Joint Force Training Center in Poland. NATO is using this facility,

 

65 “Air Policing Over The Baltics,” NATO Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) News, 31 March

2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 18 November 2004, available from <http://www.nato.int/shape/news/

2004/03/i040331.htm>. 66 Powell, “Russia Need Not Worry Over NATO Enlargement, Powell Says”. 
20 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

along with other arrangements, to initiate a complete overhaul of Alliance training, under the 

direction of the Allied Command Transformation, based in Norfolk, Virginia.67 

NATO, on the other hand, has downplayed the plans and tried to convince Russia they are 

not directed against the Russian Federation. NATO leaders insist the planned troop 

deployments does not mean NATO is trying to surround Russia with more troops. The 

United States in particular is doing just the opposite and is leading the Western effort to 

“downsize” through its own defense transformation. Secretary Powell put it succinctly when 

he stated that the United States is “not putting more troops in to surround Russia” but 

rather “moving troops out of Europe even more than we’ve moved over the last 10 or 12 

years,” which has been significant in itself.68 However, the general Russian public remains 

unconvinced. 

Other Political Challenges 

NATO (particularly the United States) and Russia still have fundamental disagreements over 

the Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty, which has not yet been ratified years after 

the end of the Cold War. The Western position is that the treaty will not be submitted for 

ratification until Russia complies with stipulations to remove its armed forces from Georgia 

and Moldova. Russia now is using recent NATO accessions to argue that the spirit of the CFE

Treaty has the potential to be violated, particularly considering the new status of the Baltic 

Republics as NATO members. As General Totskiy pointedly stated, “Russia’s legitimate 

security interests must be taken into account. We realize that the seven states invited to join 

NATO will not increase the Alliance’s overall military capabilities by much. But in terms of 

infrastructure and geography, the potential for NATO deployments is increasing. Moreover, 

NATO membership for the Baltic countries, which border Russia, brings with it a host of 

unresolved issues that directly affect our interests. At present, for example, there are no 

force-deployment limitations in the Baltic Republics under the Treaty on Conventional 

Forces in Europe. In effect, this means that this territory could become an ‘arms controlfree zone.’ I think that the way Russians view NATO will largely depend on how this issue is 

resolved.”69 

Furthermore, Russia is taking an opportunity to counter NATO moves by expanding its own 

influence and presence with countries near its borders, particularly in Central Asia. In 

October 2003, President Putin and Kyrgyzstan President Askar Akayev signed an agreement 

within the framework of the Collective Security Treaty Organization regarding the stationing 

of a Russian airbase in Kant. According to Colonel-General Yevgeniy Yuryev, the 

commander of the Ural Air Force and Air Defense Combined Formation, the declared 

purpose of the agreement with Kyrgyzstan was to reinforce the “unified security system” in 

Central Asia with SU-25 attack aircraft and military transport helicopters. Currently, 250 

personnel are stationed at the base, with plans for a considerable increase, and assignment of 

 

67 Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Transformation (DSACT), NATO, address to 

the Atlantic Treaty Association 50th General Assembly Convention, Rome, Italy, 1 December 2004. 68 Powell, “Russia Need Not Worry over NATO Enlargement, Powell Says.” 69 Totskiy, “Interview—General Totskiy.” 
AREAS OF COOPERATION 21 

more modern SU-27 fighter aircraft. This action also corresponds to the reorganization of 

the 201st Motorized Rifle Division, already stationed in Tajikistan, as a full military base.70 

Finally, the eventual status of Kosovo remains a challenging thorn in the side of both Russia 

and the West, and the Kremlin is keeping a keen eye on events in the Balkans. Still a formal 

part of Serbia, the longstanding battle over Kosovo’s self-determination vs. Belgrade’s

sovereignty has strong implications for numerous semi-autonomous regions throughout the 

Russian Federation. In particular, Moscow is concerned about “rebel” separatist actions in 

Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and especially Chechnya. Growing NATO (or other Western) 

involvement in these and other areas has already drawn Kremlin criticism of the West’s

intentions, and will likely continue until the issue is satisfactorily resolved for all interested 

parties. 

V. Areas of Cooperation 

A second marriage is a triumph of hope over experience, all the more so when the partners 

are the same. 

—Anonymous 

Closer Political Integration 

Despite the significant challenges and obstacles still facing the Alliance and Russia, both 

sides have seen the need to cooperate more fully in areas of mutual security concern, and 

have dedicated themselves to working more closely together, particularly over the past two

years. Although President Putin has again made clear recently that he has no intention of

joining NATO,

71 he has personally made good relations with NATO a priority. General 

Totskiy relates that before he left for Brussels, President Putin summoned him and 

instructed him that “NATO is now a serious and important organization with a visible role to 

play in international affairs” and with which Russia needs to have “effective working 

relations.”72 Sergey Rogov, director of the Institute for US and Canadian Studies at the 

Russian Academy of Sciences, has elaborated further on the distinction Putin has drawn: the 

key issue is Russia’s relationship with NATO, not Russia’s role in NATO.

73 

The United States has also emphasized that close relations with Russia are important, within 

the Alliance as well as on a bilateral basis. During Secretary of State Rice’s February 2005 

 

70 Colonel-General Yevgeniy Yuryev, “Kant Air Base: The First Year Has Passed,” Moscow Krasnaya Zvezda in

Russian, 22 October 2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 22 October 2004, available from <http://www.redstar.ru/ 

2004/10/22_10/index.shtml>. 71 Just prior to his recent February 2005 summit with President Bush in Bratislava, Slovakia, Putin once again

emphasized that Russia would not join NATO, as this would mean a partial loss of Russian national sovereignty 

and certain restrictions in political decision-making. Vladimir Putin, “Putin Determined To Argue With Bush

During Russia-USA Summit In Bratislava,” On-Line Pravda, 24 Feb 2005, n.p., on-line, Internet, 24 February 

2005, available from <http://english.pravda.ru/main/18/88/354/15010_summit.html>. 72 Totskiy, “Interview—General Totskiy.” 73 Rogov, “The Window of Opportunity in Russian-Western Relations,” 72. 
22 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

trip to Europe, she stated that “we are in complete agreement that there are trends in Russia 

that need to be watched, that we are concerned that Russia’s isolation would be a terrible 

thing for the international community, and that we intend to continue to work with our 

Russian colleagues for a better future.”74 Ambassador Burns has also pointed out the value 

of Russian relations with NATO, an organization he calls the “most effective vehicle for 

multilateral action available to Europe, the U.S., and Canada,” and that “brings together the 

NATO Allies and the Partnership nations—Russia, Ukraine, and our friends in Central Asia 

and the Caucasus—in a way that reinforces the common values we share.”75 He further 

asserted that “the U.S. certainly recognizes that a healthy, democratic Russia is in its longterm strategic interest....The logic behind NATO’s partnership with Russia is, therefore, not 

‘zero-sum.’ It is ‘win-win.’ We realize we can accomplish much more together than we can 

apart.” The key will be to “overcome our differences, and to recognize the strength of our 

collective bond.”76 

Improved Consultation – NATO-Russia Council and Military Liaison Missions 

Despite the two most recent rounds of expansion, Russia nonetheless has drawn closer to 

NATO through the NRC, and the Council is continuing to make noticeable strides toward 

better NATO-Russia cooperation. Ambassador Burns reinforced this view when he noted, 

“the Council is only just beginning to hit its stride as an effective security partnership—it will 

grow in stature and influence as NATO and Russia eventually overcome remaining Cold War 

stereotypes and strengthen their developing military and political ties.77 General Totskiy also 

asserted that NATO-Russia cooperation was a priority for Russia. He has said Russia is 

convinced that by further enhancing NATO-Russia cooperation across the entire range of 

areas set out in the Rome Declaration, Russia will be able to make a major contribution to 

the evolution of a new security architecture in the Euro-Atlantic area (a major Russian goal, 

to be sure), and that the NRC will be one of the leading elements of such an architecture.78 

The final aftermath of the December 2004 Ukrainian presidential elections also yielded a 

significant joint statement from (an albeit reluctant) Russia and NATO referencing a free and 

fair electoral process and the rule of law in Ukraine. Former Secretary of State Powell 

expressed his encouragement over this joint statement after his December 2004 trip to 

Brussels when he said he was “pleased that Russia was able to join with NATO in agreeing to 

the statement.” He continued, “I think what we ought to do is accept what we see today in 

the NATO-Russia Council statement as an expression of the Russian position and I’m pleased 

 

74 Condoleezza Rice, “U.S., Europe Looking Beyond Past Disagreements, Rice Says,” United States Mission to 

NATO, 10 February 2005, n.p., on-line, Internet, 10 February 2005, available from 

<http://nbato.usmission.gov/ Article.asp?ID=C3C71785-2D58-4F74-952D-AFF87A086846>. 75 R. Nicholas Burns, “NATO and the Transatlantic Relation,” United States Mission to NATO, 8 November 2004, 

n.p., on-line, Internet, 18 November 2004, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/ambassador/ 

2004/2004Nov08_Burns_Berlin.htm>. 76 Burns, “The NATO-Russia Council.” 77 Ibid. 78 Totskiy, “Interview—General Totskiy.” 
AREAS OF COOPERATION 23 

that we leave here today with this union of views with respect to what happens next in

Ukraine.”79 

Russia has also been more amenable to cooperation with NATO following the 9/11 attacks, 

and now uses the NATO-Russia Council more and more for this effort. For example, 

Colonel-General Yuri Baluyevsky, Chief of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces 

since June 2004, has met several times with senior NATO personnel. In November 2004 in 

Mons, Belgium, he met with General James Jones, NATO’s Supreme Allied Commander.

Their consultations centered on expanding the current NATO-Russia military-to-military 

cooperation plan, which the NATO-Russia Council was discussing. Among the topics they 

covered was the future supply of Russian weapons to the Iraqi army, along with an offer of 

Russian military training to the new Iraqi army in using these weapons. This is particularly 

important to Russia, as Iraq has long been a customer of Soviet and Russian weapons 

systems.80 

In addition to the NRC, the formal military liaison missions both sides established have been 

particularly useful in helping to carry out programs of practical cooperation. Following the 

installation of a NATO Military Liaison Mission in Moscow in May 2002, NATO and Russia 

signed additional agreements in April 2004 to create a Russian Military Liaison Office at the 

NATO Operational Command in Mons, Belgium, and the NATO Transformation Command

in Norfolk, Virginia. The agreements came during NATO Secretary-General de Hoop

Scheffer’s visit to Moscow, where it was further agreed that the Moscow mission would be 

strengthened with additional personnel. During his two-day visit, de Hoop Scheffer held 

talks with President Putin, Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov, Defense Minister Sergei Ivanov,

Secretary of State of the Security Council Igor Ivanov, and members of the Duma, the 

Russian Parliament. Key issues they discussed included NATO-Russia relations and curbing 

the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, among others.81 

Better Practical Cooperation and Confidence-Building Measures 

NATO-Russia military-to-military cooperation had noticeably blossomed by the last quarter of 

CY 2003. In that year, 68 events were scheduled. These were in the areas of interoperability 

communications events, NATO Defense College events, and other events such as theater 

missile defense, procedural exercises, defense reform and industries, NRC meetings, transport 

aircraft and the Cooperative Airspace Agreement, non-lethal weapons, and secure 

communications. All but three of 68 events took place, with almost 450 Russian and NATO

military and civilian officials interacting. More than 186 events were planned through the fall 

of CY 2004, in the same general categories, and that number was still rising toward the end 

 

79 Powell, “Powell Sees Bright Future For NATO.” 80 Roger McDermott, “General Baluyevsky Building Trust With NATO,” The Jamestown Foundation Eurasia Daily 

Monitor, Volume 1, Issue128, 16 November 2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 16 November 2004, available from 

<http://www.jamestown.org/publications_details.php?volume_id=401&issue_id=3142&article_id=2368858> 81 Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, “NATO and Russia Enhance Military Cooperation,” NATO Update, 7-8 April 2004, 

n.p., on-line, Internet, 16 April 2004, available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2004/04-

april/e0407c.htm>. 
24 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

of the year. More significantly, approximately 800 Russian and NATO officials were 

scheduled to work together in these events.82 

In other practical terms, NATO and Russian foreign ministers at the Istanbul Summit in June 

2004 reaffirmed their commitment to continue the military-to-military cooperation the two 

sides had increased during the previous two years. They also reiterated their adherence to 

the goals, principles, and commitments contained in the Founding Act, the Rome 

Declaration, and past NRC decisions, and their determination to stand together against shared 

threats. They expressed their mutual desire to broaden NRC political dialogue, and to 

promote common approaches and possible future joint actions. They welcomed the 

concrete, practical contributions the NRC made to Euro-Atlantic security, specifically noting: 

• their solidarity in their stand against terrorism 

• the success of the March 2004 Theater Missile Defense Command Post Exercise 

in Colorado 

• the results of the civil emergency planning and response exercise Kaliningrad 

2004 hosted by Russia 

• the progress achieved in enhancing military-to-military cooperation and the 

interoperability of NATO and Russian forces 

• the anticipated completion of the NRG Cooperative Airspace Initiative Feasibility 

Study by the end of 2004 

• the ongoing work of the NATO-Russia nuclear experts consultations and the 

Russian offer to attend a field demonstration on nuclear weapons incident 

response procedures 

• the Ad Hoc Working Group on Defense Reform to continue ongoing work on 

interoperability and ongoing efforts to enhance practical work on militarytechnical cooperation, and 

• their resolve to strengthen cooperation in crisis management 

Finally, the ministers again welcomed Russia’s offer to provide practical support to the 

NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan and reaffirmed their 

commitment to further practical cooperation in this regard.83 

Russia also agreed in Istanbul to join Operation ACTIVE ENDEAVOR, NATO’s anti-terrorist 

naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea begun in October 2001.84 Russia followed up by 

formally signing an agreement during a December 2004 meeting of the NATO-Russia Council 

in Brussels. Although NATO and Russian forces have worked together in the Balkans, this 

operation is significant in that it is carried out under Article 5 of the Washington Treaty, and 

 

82 Briefing, NATO Military Liaison Mission to Moscow. subject: NATO-Russia Interoperability Events, 26 

October 2004. 

83 “Chairman’s Statement of the meeting of the NATO-Russia Council at the level of Foreign Ministers, Istanbul 

28 June 2004,” NATO Istanbul Summit Reader’s Guide, 2004, 90-91. 84 “NATO, Russia Review Cooperative Activities,” United States Mission to NATO, 28 June 2004, n.p., on-line, 

Internet, 28 June 2004, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=783FB225-A31D-4CB4-

9EA4-01277CB9DE25>. 
AREAS OF COOPERATION 25 

therefore is a formal NATO collective defense operation. It is noteworthy that plans call for 

the Russian forces, after training and certification, to operate under NATO command. There 

will also be a certification process, and two Russian ships will participate. This is the first 

time for Russia to contribute to such a NATO operation.85 

The Russian Navy took part in 11 exercises in 2004—three in the North Atlantic, three in

the Baltic, and four in the Mediterranean Sea. A Russian Northern Fleet nuclear submarine 

also made a port visit to the French port of Brest in an historic, though largely symbolic, 

event. However, General Baluyevsky indicated the visit signaled a genuine intent to develop

further the levels of military cooperation with the Alliance, stating, “I am certain that today 

there are objective conditions to allow Russia to fine-tune a new mode of coordination with

NATO.”86 

In addition to the areas mentioned above, the NATO-Russia partnership also has had 

successes in joint intelligence assessments on terrorist threats, future NATO-Russia 

peacekeeping operations, emergency response exercises in Russia in conjunction with the US 

Federal Emergency Management Agency, and submarine crew escape and rescue. Further

highlights include a successful NATO-Russia Retraining Center for military personnel leaving 

the Russian armed forces and reintegrating into Russia civilian society, a Russian air crew 

survival training program, and experts nearing agreement on a comprehensive common

assessment of proliferation dangers.87 

NATO-Russia operational cooperation continues to grow and strengthen as well. For 

example, Russia has offered to support the NATO mission in Afghanistan—ISAF—with 

overflights, transit, and airlift, and NATO is now seriously studying this offer.88 Other

programs such as the Cooperative Airspace Agreement and the Airlift Implementing

Agreement also were on track for implementation. 

Finally, ongoing NATO operations in the Balkans following the Allied intervention in BosniaHerzegovina provided a good proving ground for burgeoning joint operations with Russia, 

along with other non-NATO countries. Russian and NATO soldiers have generally worked 

together effectively since 1996, both within IFOR and later SFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina,

reflecting the shared goals and joint political responsibility for the implementation of the 

1995 Dayton Peace Accords. Subsequently, although both sides had significant political 

disagreements over NATO actions in Kosovo during the recent low point in their relations, 

Russia eventually played a vital diplomatic role in securing an end to that conflict. This came 

about after Russia signed an agreement with NATO in Helsinki following the conclusion of

the Military Technical Agreement between NATO and Yugoslav military commanders in June 

1999 and the UN Security Council Resolution 1244 of that same month, which established 

 

85 “Russia to Support NATO’s Anti-Terror Effort in Mediterranean,” United States Mission to NATO, 10 December

2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 10 December 2004, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp?

ID=6F07739A-AE27-47D8-AB7E-3A6D604FB7B8>. 86 McDermott, “General Baluyevsky Building Trust With NATO.” 87 Fritch. 

88 Burns, “The NATO-Russia Council.” 
26 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

the basis for an international security presence in Kosovo.89 While this type of cooperation 

between West and East was certainly unprecedented, it showed the potential for how the 

two sides’ forces could work together, especially in the field. Although NATO and Russian 

leaders did not always agree on issues, in the field their commanders and forces achieved a 

remarkable level of cooperation, especially considering their recent past as adversaries.90 

Cooperation on Russian Defense Reform 

Reform of the Russian armed forces is a high priority for both the Russian Federation and 

NATO, and is one of the highest priorities of the NRC. Russia believes the NRC Ad Hoc 

Working Group on Defense Reform, set up at the end of 2002, is doing a good job of 

coordinating cooperation in this area, and that the cooperation program is being 

implemented according to schedule. The expert working groups on manning in the armed 

forces and on macroeconomic and social aspects of military reform also received high praise 

from Russian leaders, and two Russian military researchers even began working at the NATO

Defense College in Rome in September 2004.91 

The need for defense reform in Russia has recently been highlighted in several areas. One of 

the most problematic is the social status of thousands of people who possess unique, and 

potentially dangerous, knowledge and skills. Should these skills and knowledge spread 

uncontrolled, the security of many countries around the world could be jeopardized. 

Additionally, the Russian defense industry, a major contributor to the Russian economy and 

gross domestic product, is in desperate condition. As of 2004, defense-related enterprises 

are on average operated at under 22 percent capacity. The physical depreciation of fixed 

assets is 50 percent and that of machinery and equipment is up to 70 percent. Furthermore, 

as much as 95 percent of this machinery and equipment has not been renovated for a 

decade.92 

The July 2004 sacking of General Anatoly Kvashnin, the controversial and pugnacious Chief 

of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces, and his replacement by General-Colonel 

Yuri Baluyevsky, also appears to have helped Russian military cooperation with NATO. 

Baluyevsky has widespread support throughout Moscow, will work more closely with the 

civilianized Russian Ministry of Defense, and many consider him to be one of the finest 

Russian generals on the General Staff. He has already appeared much more likely to pursue 

serious military reform than his predecessor, who instead actively pursued only his personal 

ambitions. Baluyevsky played a significant part in recent arms reduction negotiations and 

also was involved in setting up the NATO-Russia Council.93 Although Russia has no real

 

89 “New Relationships: Practical Cooperation and Dialogue,” 39. 90 Lawrence S. Kaplan, “NATO’s First Fifty Years,” NATO Review: 50th Anniversary Commemorative Edition, 1999, 

17-19. 

91 Totskiy, “Interview—General Totskiy.” 

92 Vladimir Rubanov, “On the cooperation with NATO in Defense Industry,” International Affairs: A Russian 

Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy and International Relations 50, no. 6 (2004): 68. 93 Roger McDermott, “Baluyevsky: New Chief Of The Russian General Staff,” The Jamestown Foundation Eurasia 

Daily Monitor, Volume 1, Issue 56, 21 July 2004, n.p., on-line, Internet, 21 July 2004, available from 

<http://www.jamestown.org/publications_details.php?volume_id=401&issue_id=3022&article_id=2368275> 
RECOMMENDATIONS – THE WAY AHEAD 27 

national military strategy yet, and no real consensus on one, there is at least now some hope 

that situation will improve under the leadership of General-Colonel Baluyevsky. 

 

VI. Recommendations – The Way Ahead 

And above all, don’t tell us what to do. 

—Mikhail S. Gorbachev 

Underlying Issues 

In light of the previously mentioned underlying issues that have either caused contention or 

contributed to better cooperation between NATO and Russia, NATO can and should take a 

number of recommended actions and policies to foster better relations with Russia. 

Although there will always be disagreements and contentious issues between NATO and 

Russia, these recommendations are based on actions that will minimize those contentious 

issues in the future, along with accentuating the policies that are more likely to contribute to 

continuing success between the two. This chapter will examine specific underlying Russian 

causes for concern, and then will describe concrete actions the Alliance can take to work 

together more productively with its Russian partner. 

Fear of Encirclement and Need for Security 

Throughout the past several centuries, Russians have had a fear of threats from outside 

powers and forces to their borders and security. Sometimes these fears have been well

founded, and sometimes not. However, the Russian perception is that there is always that 

danger and possibility, and that they have to be constantly on their guard to do whatever is 

necessary to prevent it. This is one of the main reasons NATO expansion is such a perceived

threat to Russia. After several centuries of invasions from the west (for example, from the 

Poles, French, and Germans—all of whom are now NATO allies) as well as from the east and 

south (such as the Mongol hordes and the Cossacks), Russians are understandably sensitive

to that possibility, and very often see Western actions from that viewpoint. As a result, 

NATO expansion has in many ways alarmed Russians, leading many there to believe NATO’s 

designs on Central and Eastern Europe are to weaken Russia and surround it with the 

Western Alliance. 

Russian leaders have also voiced concerns that enlargement would only serve to marginalize 

Russia, hamper and undermine its efforts to reform, and create unnecessary new divisions 

throughout Europe. They insisted NATO’s eastward expansion wouldn’t actually deal

effectively with the real security issues facing Europe, but would rather force Russia to react 

to NATO’s moves and would undermine, rather than enhance, European security.94 Because 

of this, NATO must proceed carefully in considering its future rounds of enlargement. It is

clear that the Alliance plans to continue its expansion, and has left the door open to any 

 

94 Wesley K. Clark et al., Permanent Alliance? NATO’s Prague Summit and Beyond (Washington, D.C.: The Atlantic 

Council of the United States, April 2001), 20. 
28 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

country willing and able to meet the Alliance’s entrance requirements. However, as NATO’s 

borders draw closer to Russia’s, NATO leaders can expect Russian protests to grow stronger 

and more resistant. 

Some potential NATO adherents will not raise strong protests from Moscow, due to their 

distance from Russia’s borders or clear lack of strong military capability (such as Albania or 

Croatia). However, vehement protests undoubtedly will arise when countries belonging to 

the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) or otherwise directly bordering Russian join 

NATO, such as Georgia and especially Ukraine, due to its very strong historical, cultural and 

economic ties to Russia. If the Alliance eventually accepts Ukraine, NATO leaders will have 

to deal with how to keep Russia on their side and proactively engaged with the Alliance, 

without feeling threatened by the presence of the Western Alliance on its immediate 

southwestern flank. NATO must think not only twice, but three times, before finally 

extending membership to Ukraine, and should have a clear understanding of the benefits 

and drawbacks to this relationship for all parties involved. NATO leaders must also keep in 

mind Ukraine’s necessity to maintain its relationship with Russia, and act accordingly. 

Alliance leaders also should turn to new NATO members to gain even better understanding 

of Russia. The 10 most recent adherents all came out of the shadow and domination of the 

former Soviet Union, and can give the Alliance a unique perspective on not only their 

historic relationship with Moscow, but also the Kremlin’s general views and thoughts. To 

date, this perspective has not yet been significantly aired in Brussels. Tomáš Valášek, 

Director of the Brussels office of the Center for Defense Information, asserts this more 

finely tuned “Russia” radar could definitely benefit NATO, since it would bring to light the 

knowledge and experience of some of those countries that know Moscow best. NATO’s 

challenge will be to allay any of the irrational fears of some of these newer members, while 

tapping into the energy and focus they offer. This is all the more important due to the 

attention Russia has given to NATO enlargement.95 

Russia still tends to see current global relationships in more of a 19th century “great power” 

context and mirror that view onto the West, particularly the United States. Russian leaders 

automatically assume a “great power” and geopolitical framework drives Western policy, so 

they see the net of Western relationships in Eurasia as a form of neo-containment meant to 

restrict Russian power and influence. It will be vitally important for NATO to continue to 

pursue economic trade, investment, and engagement, while holding firm to principled 

policies upholding international law, respect for sovereignty, democracy, and human rights. 

As Celeste Wallander, Director for the Russia and Eurasia Program at the Center for 

Strategic and International Studies, recently testified at a House hearing on U.S.-Russia 

relations, “like the Europeans, the United States needs to more consistently see Russia as a 

work in progress in which we continue to have a very large stake.”96 NATO must also 

continue to see the very large stake it has in Russia’s success and security. 

 

95 Tomáš Valášek, “The Meaning of Enlargement,” NATO Review - Istanbul Summit Special, June 2004, 10. 96 Celeste A. Wallander, Testimony on “Developments in U.S.-Russian Relations”: Hearings before the House Subcommittee 

on Europe and Emerging Threats, 109th Cong., 1st sess., 09 March 2005, 6-7. 
RECOMMENDATIONS – THE WAY AHEAD 29 

One insight into how to proceed may come from the Russian perspective itself. Russia has 

been clear and firm regarding its own prospects of future membership in NATO. President 

Putin has said many times that Russia has no aspirations to join NATO. General Totskiy 

explained further that the issue of membership is not especially relevant to Moscow: “What 

is more important is the way in which relations between nations, or alliances of nations, are 

built, and on what basis; the aims they pursue in their cooperation; and the benefit this 

cooperation brings to others. We believe that NATO -Russia relations form a natural part of 

Europe’s evolving security architecture and that the NRC is becoming a pillar of international 

relations. NATO and Russia have taken on a serious commitment for the future of Europe. 

And as far as this Mission is concerned, it makes no difference whether we join the Alliance 

or cooperate on a different basis.”97 NATO leaders must, above all else, ensure that Russia

continues to understand that NATO has, and will always have, a serious commitment to 

Russia for the future security of Europe. 

The key for NATO leaders during any future expansion will be to ensure that Russia still 

believes it is in Europe’s overall best interests for more countries, such as Ukraine, to join

NATO, a tall order indeed. While doing this, they must also keep uppermost in mind the 

inescapable fact that geography matters to Russia, and must continue to find ways to make 

the benefits to Russia of NATO expansion outweigh the perceived losses of geographic 

security. This also applies to NATO’s future deployments of troops on the soil of new 

members from Central and Eastern Europe. The purpose of these deployments must be 

clearly portrayed to Russia, and more importantly understood by them, as not posing any 

threat to Russian security. NATO must continue to engage and include Russia in the planning 

and execution of Alliance exercises and even operations, so that Russian leaders understand 

the value NATO leaders place on their participation, while at the same time encouraging 

Russian responsibility and active participation. 

Need to be Respected 

Another critical component to the Russian mind is the need to be respected by the world. 

More than almost anything, Russia wants to be respected and treated as an equal to other

countries, and to be considered the great power Russians feels she is. In a revealing episode 

in 1992, shortly after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ambassador Henry Catto, then

head of USIA, had the opportunity to interview former Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev.

Gorbachev passed on a message through Ambassador Catto for U.S. decision-makers that 

still applies today: “Make up your mind what you want Russia to be. Is she a great power to 

be worked with or a candidate for breaking into even smaller pieces? And above all, don’t 

tell us what to do.”98 

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the ensuing challenges to its economy and 

society, Russians have struggled to regain not only the foundations of their society and 

national strength, but also the respect of the world they feel they have lost over the past 15 

years. The author saw firsthand this desire for respect during one of the many Russian 

 

97 Totskiy, “Interview—General Totskiy.” 98 Catto, 335-36. 
30 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

delegations he took to the United States during his time at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow. 

During this trip, the delegation visited Fort Carson in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and 

toured the state-of-the-art tank simulators at the base. The author was quite impressed—

even as a U.S. military officer accustomed to high-tech equipment—and later asked some of 

the delegation members for their impressions. “Normal’no (“normal”),” they casually 

shrugged, as if to say it was exactly like what they have in Russia. However, having lived and 

worked in Russia, the author knew far better. But it was clear they wanted very much to be 

respected and to have other countries not think poorly of them or of their capabilities. 

At a recent U.S. House of Representatives hearing on developments in U.S.-Russia relations, 

Congressman Curt Weldon gave a summary of how the West should treat Russia. In his 

testimony, he asserted that “they don’t want our money—they want our respect! If we are 

going to call them partners, we need to treat them like partners. For us to have the respect 

of Russia, we have to give them our respect.”99 To Russians, this means listening to them, 

not “telling them what to do” and not prying into their internal affairs. On this latter issue, 

NATO will have to continue to walk its tightrope of insisting on conformity to international 

law and norms of behavior, especially in areas such as Chechnya, while at the same time not 

being seen as meddling in the otherwise legitimate internal politics of a sovereign nation. 

Desire for Economic Prosperity 

One of the strongest driving forces in Russian foreign and economic policy is its desperate 

need to rebuild its economic foundation. Russia’s foreign policy is greatly influenced by its 

economic interests for the sake of power, autonomy, and global position. Although 

economic interests do not solely drive Russian foreign policy, they are extremely important 

to it.100 NATO should continue to find a way to engage Russia economically, realizing the 

current limitations to Russia’s finances. Economic incentives go far in this regard, and NATO

must find ways to continue to develop trade with Russia, perhaps through its energy sector 

or possibly even through its military-industrial complex and arms capabilities. 

Russia has made clear its desire to join the WTO, a move that would be in NATO’s best 

interests, provided Russia can meet the entry requirements. The United States supports this 

endeavor. President Bush reaffirmed this when he and President Putin held a joint press 

conference in Bratislava after their February 2005 summit, saying the two leaders had 

“agreed to accelerate negotiations for Russia’s entry into the WTO.”101 It is also worth noting 

that President Putin made a special effort to thank President Bush for the “serious message” 

that Russian negotiators noticed in the course of the WTO negotiations during the summit. 

Putin said it was “a message aimed at resolving all the problems that stand in the way of 

 

99 Congressman Curt Weldon, Testimony on “Developments in U.S.-Russian Relations”: Hearings before the House 

Subcommittee on Europe and Emerging Threats, 109th Cong., 1st sess., 09 March 2005. 100 Wallander, 4. 

101 “Bush, Putin Address Concerns About Russian Democracy,” United States Mission to NATO, 24 February 

2005, n.p., on-line, Internet, 24 February 2005, available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp? 

ID=235C74C6-32D7-48B7-8667-3AC52F69161C>. 
RECOMMENDATIONS – THE WAY AHEAD 31 

Russia’s accession to the WTO” and opined that “not only the Russian economy, but also the 

U.S. economy are interested in the positive outcome.”102 

Leading intelligence experts also highlight the importance of a strong Russian economy to 

the security of Europe, and of the role Europe can play in drawing Russia closer. In their 

view, if Russia knows Western Europe wants to forge a “special relationship” with a Russia 

that is economically stronger, Moscow is more likely to be tolerant of former Soviet states

moving closer to Europe.103 Such a closer relationship to European institutions and 

structures would also provide Russia a vital counterweight to the strong economic lure of 

weapons of mass destruction and other weapons proliferation, as well as reducing its

perceived need for growing ties with other regions and countries, such as China, India, and

Iran. President Putin has made clear this Russian need and desire for further development,

stating shortly after his re-election in March 2004, 

The main goal of our policy is not to demonstrate some or other imperial ambitions, 

but rather to secure favorable external conditions for the development of Russia.

There is nothing unusual in that. And we will be building a multi-vector foreign 

policy, we will work together with the United State, the European Union, and with 

individual countries of Europe. We will work together with our Asian partners, with 

China, India, and with countries of the Asia-Pacific region.104 

As a result, the support of NATO and other Western institutions takes on vital importance in

keeping Russia positively engaged in and cooperating with the rest of Europe. 

Need for a Strong Euro-Atlantic Security Framework and Dialogue 

Russia is now more readily acknowledging, at least publicly, the value of NATO and of closer 

relations with the Alliance. Ambassador Anatoly Adamishin, President of the Russian 

Association for Euro-Atlantic Cooperation, recently affirmed this view when he opined that 

NATO-Russian relations are currently exemplary, despite some disagreements. As he pointed 

out, Russia must “have an alliance with the Alliance” and any quarrels between the two must 

be settled without taking sides. He put it plainly when he said, “NATO is necessary.” The

challenge, he said, is to avoid tackling new problems with old, obsolete methods.105 

It is vital for the Alliance to encourage this view and to keep Russia engaged with the West.

Without a continuation of strong, active, and regular engagement from NATO and other

important Western institutions, such as the EU, Russia naturally will look for support,

security and prosperity from other sources, such as China, India, and even Iran, if they offer 

 

102 Ibid. 103 National Intelligence Council, Mapping the Global Future: Report of the National Intelligence Council’s 2020 Project,

Based on Consultations with Nongovernmental Experts Around the World (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing 

Office, December 2004), 74. 104 Anatolii Torkunov, “Russia and the West: Common Security Interests,” International Affairs: A Russian 

Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy and International Relations 50, no. 4 (2004): 3-4. 105 Anatoly Adamishin, President of the Russian Association for Euro-Atlantic Cooperation, address to the 

Atlantic Treaty Association 50th General Assembly Convention, Rome, Italy, 1 December 2004. 
32 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

much-needed economic capital for Russia. NATO’s European members will be particularly 

key players in this regard, both multilaterally and even bilaterally, as Moscow looks more and 

more toward integration into European institutions and seeks to regain what it considers its 

rightful, prominent role on the continent. 

Without such continued active engagement, NATO could face a hardening of Russian 

attitudes toward the West. The likely result would be for Russia to close more of its society 

and become even more secretive than it already is, clearly a step backward from the 

Alliance’s goal of transparency. NATO has to avoid these pitfalls, insofar as it can possibly 

influence them. Above all, NATO should avoid marginalizing Russia, which will take 

creativity as NATO’s borders expand further eastward toward Russia’s. The Alliance could 

encourage a more active Russian role in the PfP, include more Russian officers in technical 

ventures such as joint exercises and force planning, and even possibly integrate Russia into 

its own efforts at military reform.106 One thing NATO leaders can count on is that as NATO

expands its membership, especially to the east, Russia will continue to look more to other 

nations to establish or strengthen other alliances and partnerships in response. 

NATO’s leaders also must keep in mind that words matter to the Russians. The details and 

exact wording of international treaties, agreements, and even simple diplomatic notes matter. 

The author saw this repeatedly during his time in Moscow, when reaching agreement on the 

seemingly smallest details sometimes took excruciating lengths of time. In the Russian view, 

the spirit and intent of an agreement cannot necessarily be proven—only that which is 

written can be proven. Accurate words also prevent a subsequent administration or 

government from changing the intent of an agreement without resorting to formal channels. 

Russian leaders believe they can avoid being cheated or taken advantage of by correctly 

spelling out everything. Conversely, they do not see a problem in taking advantage of 

loopholes in treaties and agreements, if the letter of the law is not violated. In their view, it 

is perfectly fair, even if it might violate the intent of the law. Otherwise, their treaty partner 

should have seen this possibility and guarded against it. The moral: Whenever Alliance 

leaders can join formally with Russia in an activity or partnership, they should do it. 

Close, honest and transparent dialogue is critical to NATO success in continuing to engage 

Russia, and the NRC definitely has been a step in the right direction. Fortunately, the 

Alliance has recognized this, and should do everything it possibly can to encourage dialogue. 

Ambassador Maurizio Moreno, Italian Permanent Representative to the North Atlantic 

Council, recently commented on the importance of dialogue regarding NATO’s new history 

in its relations with Russia. In his view, Russia is now an equal partner and the process 

within the NRC is working well, even on sensitive issues such as Iraq, Afghanistan, Georgia, 

and the recent Ukrainian presidential election. Although there are natural differences of 

opinions, and even some differences between NATO and Russian values, he believes the two 

sides can work successfully through these challenges. According to Moreno, “there are 

values we can share” and he stated that we have done so recently through the NRC. 

 

106 The Twain Shall Meet: 13. 
RECOMMENDATIONS – THE WAY AHEAD 33 

Although Russia has not joined NATO, and most likely will not, in his view there is still the 

definite possibility for beneficial and productive dialogue.107 

Former NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson captured the essence of NATO’s success in 

the NRC when he presciently stated in 2002, “the real difference between ‘19+1’ and ‘20’ is 

not a question of mathematics, but one of chemistry: the success of the NATO-Russia

Council will depend on the political will of the participants.” Based on the apparent 

willingness of both sides to make it work, he believed “the prospects for a genuinely new 

quality in NATO-Russia relations appear bright.”108 

Thus far, his belief in the NRC’s prospects has proven well founded. Now, it is up to

Alliance and Russian leaders to ensure that chemistry remains strong and positive. This will

undoubtedly require a skillful mix of patient dialogue combined at times with more forceful 

pressure, without resorting to confrontation. As history has shown, confrontation, 

demands, and ultimatums will accomplish very little with Russia (as indeed, these tactics 

accomplish little with any country). The best prospects for NATO-Russia relations will result 

from NATO leaders honestly listening to and considering Russian views, even if in the end 

Moscow does not like the answer. To the extent possible, NATO must avoid marginalizing 

Russia. 

Need for Conflict Resolution, Crisis Management and Greater Interoperability 

 

In today’s challenging world security environment, it is more important than ever that NATO

and Russia find ways to cooperate effectively in conflict resolution, peacekeeping, and crisis 

management operations. Much is already being done, and NATO leaders should continue

this positive trend toward greater cooperation and interoperability of NATO and Russian 

armed forces. For possible future joint operations, for example, NATO and Russia are 

preparing the groundwork for cooperation in peacekeeping through several areas. The NRC

Working Group on Peacekeeping has prepared a joint document titled “Political aspects of 

the generic concept of NATO-Russia joint peacekeeping operations,” which is being tested in 

procedural exercises. In addition, a program for improving interoperability between NATO

and Russian peacekeeping units has been approved and is being implemented.109 

In considering whether Russia would join NATO in crisis management operations, the 

Russian view is that the UN should play the lead role. This view is understandable since 

Russia is a permanent member of the UN Security Council and holds veto power. Still, 

Russia recently has shown much more willingness to operate together with the Alliance, and 

has agreed to help out in current hot spots such as Afghanistan and Iraq to a limited extent.

As for the issue of whether Russia is prepared in principle to conduct further joint 

107 Maurizio Moreno, Italian Permanent Representative to the North Atlantic Council, address to the Atlantic

Treaty Association 50th General Assembly Convention, Rome, Italy, 1 December 2004. 108 Robertson, “Introduction,” 5. 109 Totskiy, “Interview—General Totskiy.” 
34 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

operations with NATO, even outside its traditional area of responsibility as it is doing at 

present, Russian leaders do not “rule out this possibility.”110 

A useful example of good cooperation (for the most part) is the joint operations NATO and 

Russian forces have conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the Balkans, NATO and 

Russian forces showed that they have the capability to work together effectively, given the 

right circumstances and the will to succeed. From the Russian viewpoint, when joint forces 

have clear tasking and are working under a UN Security Council mandate, they are perfectly 

capable of operating effectively together in the most difficult conditions. General Totskiy 

proudly related that “Russian soldiers and commanders, who worked shoulder to shoulder 

with their NATO colleagues, have fond memories of the spirit of camaraderie and 

cooperation, which frequently provided a source of support during the difficult days of the 

Balkan operations.”111 

Despite good will and national resolve, NATO and Russian forces remain a long way apart 

from anything close to true military interoperability. However, the encouraging cooperation 

within the NRC also is yielding broader cooperation within the EAPC and PfP. Both NATO

and Russia now have the opportunity to take that cooperation and bring greater technical 

interoperability to their military forces, communications equipment, aircraft, naval vessels, 

and other fields. This will require money, something Russia and some NATO member states 

lack. However, one productive way to accomplish the goal is through deeper Russian 

engagement in existing practical cooperative projects in the PfP framework, with the final 

goal of developing true joint capabilities between both parties’ armed forces.112 

Bottom Line 

Much of the NATO-Russia relationship can be determined by the attitude of cooperation 

from the Alliance. Martin van Heuven, former U.S. Deputy Permanent Representative to 

the European Office of the UN and International Organizations in Geneva and former 

member of the U.S. National Intelligence Council, has summarized the benefits of this 

cooperation, pointing out that “a purposeful Western policy of cooperation will remain 

important to help Russia reform and to meet the sensitive issue of Russia’s perception of 

itself as a world power. But Western cooperation will be validated only to the degree reform 

will create some form of dependency on the West, creating mutual incentives for 

cooperation.” He points out that “an unstable Russia would make for an unstable Europe. 

On the other hand, a Russia that is focused forward on reform rather than backward on lost 

empire, and that cooperates with NATO will be an indispensable and positive factor in 

European security. This should be the continuing objective of NATO policy.”113 

 

110 Ibid. 111 Ibid. 112 Fritch. 

113 Martin H.A. van Heuven, NATO in 2020 (Washington, D.C.: Atlantic Council of the United States, August 

1999), 3, 6. 
CONCLUSION 35 

Western institutions in general and NATO in particular should continue their strong focus on 

giving Russia a genuine voice in international decision-making. Otherwise, Russia will not 

perceive itself to have the same stake in these institutions as its western members and will 

continue to look to other partners, such as China and India, for support and security. 

Although Russia will undoubtedly not become a member of all western institutions, it can 

still play a vital role and, more importantly, remain more closely integrated with these 

institutions. Granted, Russia must still show significant reform in several different areas in 

order to be taken seriously by Western institutions and integrated more closely into its

structure. However, without weakening its own position or influence, the West can also still

ensure that Moscow has a legitimate international voice commensurate with its perceived 

“great power” role, reasonable and competitive economic possibilities compatible with its 

own goals, and the opportunity to agree on many international foreign policy goals, even if 

there still exist some disagreements over the means to those goals.114 

In the end, NATO must decide what kind of relationship it can and should have with Russia, 

keeping the long term in view. NATO should be a constructive partner and be able to 

understand the complexities of the situation the Kremlin leadership is facing. Alliance 

leaders should give a clear and consistent message of support and engagement to Russia, and 

should stand firm on those issues that involve its core interests and principles.115 Above all, 

NATO must convince Russia that it honestly has Russia’s best interests at heart, and that 

Moscow faces no threat from the Alliance. 

VII. Conclusion 

NATO-Russia relations are a permanent fixture of European security. 

— NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, 2004 

In considering the future of NATO-Russia relations, there are reasons to be hopeful. There 

have been many accomplishments, and the road ahead, while filled with certain challenges, 

still looks passable. However, both sides will have to continue their current course of 

cooperation and keep their focus on the will to work productively together. When the 

inevitable challenges and disagreements arise, both sides must remain committed to work

through them, just as in any successful marriage. The most successful cooperation will 

undoubtedly arise from a framework of stability, confidence, predictability and transparency 

in the NATO-Russia relationship. Such a relationship can lead to even more shared 

responsibility for joint decision-making and consensus-building, as well as continuing to 

encourage a practical agenda for Euro-Atlantic security.116 

Geopolitics will continue to play a significant role. As mentioned previously, Russia 

straddles two continents—Europe and Asia. As the double-headed eagle on the Russian 

 

114 The Twain Shall Meet, 5. 115 Eugene B. Rumer, Prepared Statement on “Developments in U.S.-Russia Relations”: Hearings before the House 

Subcommittee on Europe and Emerging Threats, 109th Cong., 1st sess., 09 March 2005, 4. 116 For a more detailed analysis, see Rogov, “The Window of Opportunity in Russian-Western Relations.” 
36 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

crest continues to watch over both directions of the empire, NATO’s challenge will be to 

ensure that the western view from the Kremlin looks much closer and reassuring than it has 

in the past, and to ensure that Russia’s leaders know without doubt that they are a vital, 

integral part of the European security structure. 

What the future holds for Russian democratic reforms and closer integration into the West 

remains clouded. Some of the initial steps toward real progress and openness Russia showed 

over the past 15 years seem to be regressing recently under various reforms President Putin 

has implemented. Although the final destination of Russia’s current path remains unknown, 

it is certain that, regardless of where it leads, NATO and Russian leaders will have their 

commitment to the relationship tested from time to time. The future of the NATO-Russia 

relationship will hang predominantly on their will to make it work. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 37 

Bibliography 

Adamishin, Anatoly, President of the Russian Association for Euro-Atlantic Cooperation.

Address. Atlantic Treaty Association 50th General Assembly Convention, Rome, Italy, 1 

December 2004. 

“Air Policing Over The Baltics.” NATO Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) 

News, 31 March 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 18 November 2004. Available from 

<http://www.nato.int/shape/news/2004/03/i040331.htm>. 

“The Alliance’s Strategic Concept.” Approved by the Heads of State and Government 

participating in the meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Washington, D.C., on 23 

and 24 April 1999. Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, 1999. 

Baluyevsky, Yuri. “General Baluyevsky: Russia Does Not Fear NATO Expansion.” On-Line 

Pravda, 27 May 2002, n.p. On-line. Internet, 27 May 2002. Available from 

<http://english.pravda.ru/politics/2002/05/27/29320.html>. 

Bennett, Christopher. “Building Effective Partnerships.” NATO Review - Istanbul Summit 

Special, June 2004. 

Briefing. NATO Military Liaison Mission to Moscow. Subject: NATO-Russia Interoperability 

Events, 26 October 2004. 

Burns, R. Nicholas. “NATO and the Transatlantic Relation.” United States Mission to NATO, 8 

November 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 18 November 2004. Available from 

<http://nato.usmission.gov/ambassador/2004/2004Nov08_Burns_Berlin.htm>. 

Burns, R. Nicholas. “The NATO-Russia Council: A Vital Partnership in the War on Terror.” 

Remarks at Spaso House, Moscow, Russia. United States Mission to NATO, 4 November 

2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 18 November 2004. Available from

<http://nato.usmission.gov/ambassador/2004/2004Nov04_Burns_Moscow.htm>. 

Burns, R. Nicholas. “Pre-Ministerial Briefing With Journalists.” United States Mission to 

NATO, 06 December 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 06 December 2004. Available from 

<http://nato.usmission.gov/ambassador/2004/2004Dec06_Burns_Brussels.htm>. 

Bush, George. “President Discusses American and European Alliance in Belgium.” United 

States Mission to NATO, 21 February 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 21 February 2005. 

Available from <http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/02/20050221. 

html>. 

“Bush, Putin Address Concerns About Russian Democracy.” United States Mission to NATO, 

24 February 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 24 February 2005. Available from 

<http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=235C74C6-32D7-48B7-8667-

3AC52F69161C>. 

Catto, Henry E., Jr. Ambassadors At Sea: The High and Low Adventures of a Diplomat. Austin, 

TX: University of Texas Press, 1998. 

“Chairman’s Statement of the meeting of the NATO-Russia Council at the level of Foreign 

Ministers, Istanbul 28 June 2004.” NATO Istanbul Summit Reader’s Guide, 2004. 

Clark, Wesley K., et al. Permanent Alliance? NATO’s Prague Summit and Beyond. Washington,

D.C.: The Atlantic Council of the United States, April 2001. 

“The Euro-Atlantic Partnership.” NATO Issues, 31 March 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 07 

September 2004. Available from <http://www.nato.int/issues/eap/index.html>. 
38 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

“Expanding Operations, Improving Capabilities, Enhancing Cooperation.” NATO After 

Istanbul, 14 July 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 07 September 2004. Available from 

<http://www.nato.int/docu/nato_after_istanbul/nato_after_instanbul_en.pdf>.

Fritch, Paul. “NATO’s Strategic Partnerships: Building Hope On Experience.” NATO Review, 

Autumn 2003, n.p. On-line. Internet, 16 November 2004. Available from 

<http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2003/issue3/english/art3.html>. 

“Further Developing NATO-Ukraine Relations.” NATO Istanbul Summit Reader’s Guide, 2004. 

“Growing NATO-Russian Cooperation.” NATO Istanbul Summit Reader’s Guide, 2004. 

van Heuven, Martin H.A. NATO in 2020. Washington, D.C.: Atlantic Council of the United 

States, August 1999. 

de Hoop Scheffer, Jaap. “NATO and Russia Enhance Military Cooperation.” NATO Update, 7-

8 April 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 16 April 2004. Available from 

<http://www.nato.int/docu/update/2004/04-april/e0407c.htm>. 

de Hoop Scheffer, Jaap. “NATO, Russia Enhance Military Cooperation.” United States Mission 

to NATO, 14 April 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 15 April 2005. Available from 

<http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=70E14E9A-4D76-4469-8344-

278F2E8D0042>. 

de Hoop Scheffer, Jaap. “Opening Remarks.” NATO Speeches— NATO Summit, 22 February 

2005, , n.p. On-line. Internet, 22 February 2005. Available from 

<http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/2005/s050222a.htm>. 

de Hoop Scheffer, Jaap. “Opening Statement at the press conference following the meeting 

of the NATO-Ukraine Council at the level of heads of State and Government.” NATO

Speeches— NATO Summit, 22 February 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 22 February 2005. 

Available from <http://www.int/docu/speech/2005/s050222f.htm>. 

de Hoop Scheffer, Jaap, Secretary-General, NATO. Address. Atlantic Treaty Association 50th

General Assembly Convention, Rome, Italy, 1 December 2004. 

Jones, General James L., Supreme Allied Commander Europe, NATO. Address. Atlantic 

Treaty Association 50th General Assembly Convention, Rome, Italy, 1 December 2004. 

Kaplan, Lawrence S. “NATO’s First Fifty Years.” NATO Review: 50th Anniversary 

Commemorative Edition, 1999. 

Kelin, Andrei. “Attitude to NATO Expansion: Calmly Negative.” International Affairs: A 

Russian Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy and International Relations 50, no. 1 (2004): 17-25. 

Kuchma, Leonid. “Message from Leonid Kuchma, President of Ukraine.” NATO Review: 

50th Anniversary Commemorative Edition, 1999. 

Kuznetsova, Ekaterina. “NATO: New Anti-Terrorist Organization?” International Affairs: A 

Russian Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy and International Relations 50, no. 3 (2004): 22-26. 

MacKenzie, David, and Michael W. Curran. A History of Russia and the Soviet Union: Revised 

Edition. Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press, 1982. 

McDermott, Roger. “Baluyevsky: New Chief Of The Russian General Staff.” The Jamestown 

Foundation Eurasia Daily Monitor, Volume 1, Issue 56, 21 July 2004, n.p. On-line. 

Internet, 21 July 2004. Available from <http://www.jamestown.org/ 

publications_details.php?volume_id=401&issue_id=3022&article_id=2368275>.

McDermott, Roger. “General Baluyevsky Building Trust With NATO.” The Jamestown 

Foundation Eurasia Daily Monitor, Volume 1, Issue 128, 16 November 2004, n.p. On-line. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 39 

Internet, 16 November 2004. Available from <http://www.jamestown.org/ 

publications_details.php?volume_id=401&issue_id=3142&article_id=2368858>. 

Moreno, Maurizio, Italian Permanent Representative to the North Atlantic Council. 

Address. Atlantic Treaty Association 50th General Assembly Convention, Rome, Italy, 1 

December 2004. 

Mroziewicz, Robert. “Enlargement and the Capabilities Gap.” In Transforming NATO Forces:

European Perspectives. Edited by C. Richard Nelson and Jason S. Purcell. Washington, 

D.C.: The Atlantic Council of the United States, January 2003. 

National Intelligence Council. Mapping the Global Future: Report of the National Intelligence 

Council’s 2020 Project, Based on Consultations with Nongovernmental Experts Around the World. 

Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, December 2004. 

“NATO Envoy to Visit Georgia.” Online Magazine – Civil Georgia, 01 February 2005, n.p. Online. Internet, 01 February 2005. Available from <http://www.una.org.ge/

publicat.html>. 

“NATO in the 21st Century.” Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, 2004. 

“NATO Lauded as ‘Centerpiece’ of U.S. Efforts in Europe.” United States Mission to NATO, 21 

February 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 21 February 2005. Available from 

<http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=7A10F6CE-5894-431E-9372-

B38896E62FEA>. 

“NATO-Russia Council.” NATO Issues, 30 August 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 07 September 

2004. Available from <http://www.nato.int/issues/nrc/index.html>. 

NATO-Russia: Forging Deeper Relations. Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, 

2004. 

“NATO-Russia Relations.” NATO Issues, 30 August 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 07 

September 2004. Available from <http://www.nato.int/issues/nato-russia/index. 

html>. 

“NATO-Russia Relations: A New Quality. Declaration by Heads of State and Government 

of NATO Member States and the Russian Federation.” NATO-Russia Council: Rome

Summit 2002. Brussels, Belgium: NATO Office of Information and Press, 2002. 

“NATO, Russia Review Cooperative Activities.” United States Mission to NATO, 28 June 2004, 

n.p. On-line. Internet, 28 June 2004. Available from <http://nato.

usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=783FB225-A31D-4CB4-9EA4-01277CB9DE25>. 

NATO Transformed. Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, June 2004. 

“NATO’s Open Door,” NATO Istanbul Summit Reader’s Guide, 2004. 

NATO-Ukraine: A Distinctive Partnership. Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy 

Division, 2004. 

“New Relationships: Practical Cooperation and Dialogue.” The Prague Summit and NATO’s 

Transformation: A Reader’s Guide. Brussels, Belgium: NATO Public Diplomacy Division, 

2003. 

Powell, Colin. “Powell Sees Bright Future For NATO.” United States Mission to NATO, 09 

December 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 09 December 2004. Available from

<http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/39635.htm>. 

Powell, Colin. “Russia Need Not Worry Over NATO Enlargement, Powell Says.” United 

States Mission to NATO, 04 April 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 13 September 2004. 
40 THE FUTURE OF NATO-RUSSIA RELATIONS

Available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=86EB170C-9938-4898-

B7C5-4D5A0E98289A.>. 

Putin, Vladimir. “Address.” NATO-Russia Council: Rome Summit 2002. Brussels, Belgium: 

NATO Office of Information and Press, 2002. 

Putin, Vladimir. “Putin Determined To Argue With Bush During Russia-USA Summit In 

Bratislava.” On-Line Pravda, 24 Feb 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 24 Feb 2005. 

Available from <http://english.pravda.ru/main/18/88/354/15010_summit.html>. 

Rice, Condoleezza. “Remarks at The North Atlantic Treaty Organization Headquarters.” 

U.S. Department of State, 09 February 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 09 February 2005. 

Available from <http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2005/42047.htm>. 

Rice, Condoleezza. “U.S., Europe Looking Beyond Past Disagreements, Rice Says.” United 

States Mission to NATO, 10 February 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 10 February 2005. 

Available from <http://nbato.usmission.gov/Article.asp? ID=C3C71785-2D58-4F74-

952D-AFF87A086846>. 

Robertson, George Lord. “Introduction.” NATO-Russia Council: Rome Summit 2002. Brussels, 

Belgium: NATO Office of Information and Press, 2002. 

Rogov, Sergey. “The Window of Opportunity in Russian-Western Relations.” The Twain 

Shall Meet: The Prospects for Russia-West Relations. Washington, D.C: Atlantic Council of 

the United States, September 2002. 

Rubanov, Vladimir. “On the cooperation with NATO in Defense Industry.” International 

Affairs: A Russian Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy and International Relations 50, no. 6 

(2004): 68-78. 

Rumer, Eugene B. Prepared Statement on “Developments in U.S.-Russia Relations”: Hearings before 

the House Subcommittee on Europe and Emerging Threats. 109th Cong., 1st sess., 09 March 

2005. 

“Russia to Support NATO’s Anti-Terror Effort in Mediterranean.” United States Mission to 

NATO, 10 December 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 10 December 2004. Available from 

<http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=6F07739A-AE27-47D8-AB7E3A6D604FB7B8>. 

Stanhope, Admiral Sir Mark, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Transformation (DSACT), 

NATO. Address. Atlantic Treaty Association 50th General Assembly Convention, 

Rome, Italy, 1 December 2004. 

“Statement Issued by the Heads of State and Government participating in a meeting of the 

North Atlantic Council in Brussels.” NATO On-Line Library: NATO Press Release, 22 

February 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 22 February 2005. Available from 

<http://www.nato.int/docu/pr/2005/p05-022e.htm>. 

Torkunov, Anatolii. “Russia and the West: Common Security Interests.” International 

Affairs: A Russian Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy and International Relations 50, no. 4 

(2004): 1-6. 

Totskiy, Konstantin V. “Interview—General Totskiy: Russian Ambassador to NATO.” 

NATO Review, Autumn 2003, n.p. On-line. Internet, 16 November 2004. Available 

from <http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2003/issue3/english/art3.html>. 

Troitski, Mikhail. The Transatlantic Union 1991-2004: Transformation of the U.S.-European 

Partnership in the Post-Bipolar World (in Russian). Moscow, Russia: Institute for the U.S. 

and Canadian Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, 2004. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 41 

The Twain Shall Meet: The Prospects for Russia-West Relations. Washington, D.C: Atlantic 

Council of the United States, September 2002. 

Valášek, Tomáš. “The Meaning of Enlargement.” NATO Review - Istanbul Summit Special, June 

2004. 

Vershbow, Alexander. “The United States and Russia: The Next Four Years.” Remarks at 

the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton 

University. In “Vershbow Sees ‘Strong, Positive’ U.S. Relationship with Russia.” 

United States Mission to NATO, 17 November 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 18 

November 2004. Available from <http://nato.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=786EAE 

89-D432-4795-93EA-E0F33FA782C9>. 

“Vote in Parliament Raises Stakes in Row With Moscow.” Washington Post Metro Express, 11 

March 2005. 

Wallander, Celeste A. Testimony on “Developments in U.S.-Russian Relations”: Hearings 

before the House Subcommittee on Europe and Emerging Threats. 109th Cong., 1st

sess., 09 March 2005. 

Welberts, Rolf. “Explaining NATO In Russia.” NATO Review, Autumn 2003, n.p. On-line. 

Internet, 16 November 2004. Available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/review/ 

2003/issue3/english/art3.html>. 

Weldon, Curt, Congressman. Testimony on “Developments in U.S.-Russian Relations”: 

Hearings before the House Subcommittee on Europe and Emerging Threats, 109th

Cong., 1st sess., 09 March 2005. 

Yuryev, General-Colonel Yevgeniy. “Kant Air Base: The First Year Has Passed.” Moscow

Krasnaya Zvezda in Russian, 22 October 2004, n.p. On-line. Internet, 22 October 2004. 

Available from <http://www.redstar.ru/2004/10/22_10/index.shtml>. 

Yushchenko, Viktor. “Opening Statement at the Meeting of the NATO-Ukraine Council at 

the level of Heads of State and Government.” NATO Speeches— NATO Summit, 22 

February 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 22 February 2005. Available from 

<http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/2005/s050222e.htm>. 

Yushchenko, Viktor. “Opening Statement at the Press Conference following the Meeting of 

the NATO-Ukraine Council at the level of Heads of State and Government.” NATO

Speeches— NATO Summit, 22 February 2005, n.p. On-line. Internet, 22 February 2005. 

Available from <http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/2005/s050222g. htm>.