GENERAL ANALYSIS OF WATER RECYCLE AT PULP AND PAPER MILLS 

Barry Malmberg, National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc. (NCASI) 

West Coast Regional Center, Corvallis, Oregon, USA 

1.0 PURPOSE AND APPROACH 

This study was undertaken to quantify the extent of water recycling within the United States pulp and 

paper industry. The industry has a long history of reducing water use, and progress has been achieved 

through extensive water recycling in combination with use of less water-intensive process equipment as 

well as water conservation practices. Since 1959 there has been a 69% reduction in the average volume 

of treated effluent discharges at pulp and paper mills within the United States (NCASI 1983, 2009a; 

Miner and Unwin 1991). The first TAPPI1

 monograph published in 1942 dealt exclusively with various 

aspects of water use and reuse within pulp and paper mills (Fleming et al. 1942). 

Water reuse is a more difficult metric to quantify than effluent discharge because reuse deals with internal 

flows for which industry-wide statistics are not available and because the same volume of water may be 

used and reused for several different purposes within a mill before final discharge. To provide some idea 

of the extent of water recycling within the industry, this analysis compares water use at pulp and paper 

mills under current operating practices to use at hypothetical mills operating with no water recycle but 

producing the same product. Pulp and paper mills have always been designed with a certain degree of 

water recycling, so the hypothetical completely open mill cases have been developed for purely 

comparative purposes. A century ago, Van Winkle (1914) reported that paper mills required 

400,000 gallons of water per ton of product; thus, water systems in mills constructed a century ago may 

have approached the completely open water design. In addition to comparing current mill water use to 

hypothetical completely open mill cases, hypothetical modern mill cases designed for minimum use of 

water and employing best commercially available technology were developed and compared to the 

hypothetical open cases. This was done to provide some context for the state of water recycling under 

current operating practices compared to a hypothetical best case scenario. It should be stressed that the 

water use intensities for the hypothetical modern mill cases were drawn from engineering studies and do 

not represent water use at actual, operating mills. There are many mill-specific factors (e.g., production 

of colored grades or multiple grades, multiple pulping lines, product basis weight, operational 

disturbances) that inhibit most mills from approaching or achieving the hypothetical modern water use 

intensities applied herein, so the hypothetical modern mill cases should be used for general comparisons 

only. 

2.0 SUMMARY 

US mills save over 53.9 billion cubic meters (m3

) of water annually by using current water recycling 

practices compared to water usage at completely open mills. To put this number in perspective, it would 

require 3.3 million US football field-sized swimming pools 10 feet deep to equal 53.9 billion m3

. If all 

US pulp and paper production was derived from modern mills equipped with best commercially available 

technology for water reduction, 2.6 billion m3

 (or about 5%) of additional process water savings would be 

realized on an annual basis relative to a completely open mill water system. This small difference in 

water savings between the hypothetical open and current mill water use scenarios and the hypothetical 

open and hypothetical modern water use scenarios indicates a high degree of water recycling under 

current mill operations. Table 1 shows summary water use and reuse statistics by broad pulping category. 

Actual water use intensities were taken from NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 960, Water Profile of the 

United Sates Forest Products Industry (NCASI 2009a), and are valid for 2006. Production from 403 

                                                           

1

 Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry 

1
mills, essentially 100% of the total US pulp and paper production in 2006, is represented in Table 1. 

Calculations for water use at modern and open hypothetical mills are detailed herein. 

Table 1. Water Use and Reuse in US Pulp and Paper Mills

Water Use (m3

/admt) Recycle Ratio 

Water Savings compared 

to Open (billion m3) 

Category 

Number 

of Mills 

Actual 

2006a

Modern 

Hypotheticalb

Open 

Hypothetical

Open/ 

Actual 

Open/Modern 

Hypothetical 

Actual 

2006 

Modern 

Hypothetical

Bleached 

chemical 

77 82.9 53.1 972 12 18 33.8 34.9 

Unbleached 

chemical 

38 44.1 17.6 511 12 29 12.1 12.8 

Semi-chemical 10 32.5 32.5 87.5 2.7 2.7 0.22 0.22 

Mechanical 20 59.2 15.8 209 3.5 13 0.75 0.97 

Recycle - 

deinked 

35 57.5 21.0 814 14 39 3.89 4.08 

Recycle – 

non-deinked 

110 7.29 2.08 187 26 90 2.23 2.30 

Non-integrated 

paper 

113 58.0 10.0 187 3 19 0.94 1.29 

Totals 403 53.9 56.5 

a) Values are category production weighted means 

b) Values are for hypothetical mills designed for minimum use of water and employing best commercially available technology 

Water savings compared to the hypothetical open scenario in Table 1 are calculated by taking the 

category difference in water use intensities between the hypothetical open case and either the actual 2006 

or modern hypothetical case and multiplying by 2006 pulp and paper category production amounts found 

in NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 960 (NCASI 2009a). 

3.0 CHEMICAL AND SEMI-CHEMICAL CATEGORIES 

Table 2 compares water use at a modern bleached kraft mill to that at a hypothetical bleached kraft mill 

with a completely open water system. The results are displayed graphically in Figure 1, and details on 

how the values were derived are provided in Sections 3.1 through 3.6. The modern mill uses 

approximately 5.5% of the water used in the open case, or a savings of nearly 920 m3

 per air-dried metric 

ton (admt) of product produced. Most water savings originate in water recycle and reuse within the 

bleach plant. Process water (i.e., water used directly within the process to manufacture and clean pulp 

product) and non-contact cooling water (i.e., water used for cooling duty that does not come into direct 

contact with process water) are considered in the analysis. 

Water use for a hypothetical modern bleached kraft mill is assumed to be 53.1 m3

/admt (Table 2). Water 

use for a hypothetical modern unbleached kraft mill is assumed to be 17.6 m3

/admt, the sum for the 

modern case in Table 2 minus the bleach plant water use contribution. For the completely open cases 

972 m3

 water/admt is used for bleached kraft mills and 511 m3 water/admt is used for unbleached kraft 

mills. Water use differences between the modern hypothetical and open hypothetical cases for bleached 

chemical dissolving and sulfite mills are assumed to be the same as for modern and open hypothetical 

kraft mill cases. Water use of 32.5 m3

/admt at modern semi-chemical mills is taken from average water 

use at semi-chemical pulp mills operating within the United States in 2006 (NCASI 2009a). Water use of 

264 m3

/admt at open semi-chemical mills is taken from reported historical usage at these types of 

facilities (Haynes 1966). 

2
Table 2. Comparison of Water Use by Department for Hypothetical Modern 

and Open Bleached and Unbleached Kraft Mills 

Hypothetical 

Open Case 

Hypothetical 

Modern Case 

Department (m3/admt) (m3/admt) 

Bleach plant 450 35 

Paper machine or pulp dryer 187 10 

Screening 173 0 

Cooling 109 5.5 

Brownstock and/or oxygen delignification 50 0 

Fresh water in causticizing 2.7 2.7 

Bleached kraft sum 972 53.1 

Unbleached kraft sum 511 17.6 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

Fully Open 2006 US

Water Usage (m3/admt)

Causticizing  and

Brownstock Washing

Cooling

Screening

Pulp dryer

Bleach plant

Average

US bleached

kraft mill

Figure 1. Comparison of a Fully Open Bleached Kraft Mill and a Modern Kraft Mill 

3.1 Chemical Pulp Bleaching 

Most water in bleached chemical pulp mills is used in the bleach plant for washing the pulp between 

bleach stages (Histed, McCubbin, and Gleadow 1996). For older kraft pulp mills (1960s designs) bleach 

plant effluent can represent around 70% of total effluent, and for newer mills (1980s designs) bleach plant 

3
effluent can represent around 40% of total effluent (Carter and Gleadow 2001). Wash water used in the 

bleach plant is reduced by recirculating it (termed filtrate) in some countercurrent fashion. Table 3 shows 

water savings from various filtrate recycling approaches for a five stage bleaching sequence. Problems 

associated with corrosion or scale buildup are the primary deterrents to implementing direct 

countercurrent washing, and this configuration is not currently used within North America (Lindgren, 

Berlin, and Brelid 2002). 

Table 3. Water Use for Various Filtrate Recycle Configurations in a Typical Five Stage Bleach Plant 

Effluent Discharge (m3

/admt of pulp) 

Filtrate System Theoretical Actual 

Open 450 450 

Internal circulation within stages 55 55 

Jump-stage countercurrent 23-25 30-40 

Split flow countercurrent 23-25 30-40 

Split flow jump stage countercurrent 11-15 12-25 

Direct countercurrent 13-15 15-25 

[SOURCE: Histed, McCubbin, and Gleadow 1996] 

Water use of 450 m3/admt of pulp is used for the completely open case. The jump stage countercurrent 

configuration is considered to be the modern case, and 35 m3

/admt (the average of 30 and 40 m3/admt) is 

used when comparing water use within modern bleach plants to the completely open configuration. 

3.2 Brownstock Washing and Post-Oxygen Washing 

Water is used in the brownstock washing area to clean pulp and collect organic material and spent 

chemicals for energy and chemical recovery. Historically, fresh water was used on all brownstock 

washers, and use of over 50 m3

/admt unbleached pulp was not uncommon (Twitchell and Edwards 1974). 

Changes such as countercurrent recycling of water in brownstock washing, oxygen delignification, and 

use of post-oxygen presses with high consistency pulp discharge have reduced fresh water usage within 

the brownstock and oxygen delignification areas to around 4 m3

/admt unbleached pulp (Twitchell and 

Edwards 1974; Edwards et al. 1976). Steam condensates from the digester and evaporator areas, when 

properly treated, can replace fresh water in the brownstock washing area for pulp washing, eliminating 

fresh water use within the brownstock and oxygen delignification areas entirely (Sebbas 1988). 

For the modern hypothetical case all process water used in the brownstock/oxygen delignification area is 

assumed to be from stripped evaporator condensates; that is, fresh water use is zero. For the open case 

50 m3

 water/admt is used. 

3.3 Screening 

Screening removes knots, shives, dirt, and other contaminants from good pulp fibers to produce a more 

homogenous pulp stream suitable for paper or board production. Modern brownstock screening is 

accomplished with pressurized screens and has completely closed liquid circuits (Gullichsen and 

Fogelholm 1999). Screening and cleaning is most effective when carried out at low consistencies, and 

screening operations have traditionally been performed at consistencies varying from 0.5 to 1.5% solids. 

Fiber suspensions are diluted with circulating liquid, screened, and then thickened back to medium 

consistency (10 to 15%). Because of the low consistency dilution, large amounts of water are used at 

each screening step (between 63 and 210 m3

/admt, depending upon screening consistency and thickener 

consistency) (Edde and Sebbas-Bergstrom 1974). Between 1940 and 1972 brownstock screening was 

usually carried out in two steps, coarse screening before brownstock washing for knot removal and fine 

4
screening after brownstock washing to remove shives, fines, and other small contaminants (Boughner and 

Braid 1988). 

Pressurized screens and a completely closed liquid circuit are assumed for the modern hypothetical case; 

that is, freshwater use is zero. For the open case 173 m3

/admt is used, assuming a two step screening 

system for knot removal and fine screening with both screening systems operating at a consistency of 

1.0% with subsequent thickening to 12.5%. 

3.4 Causticizing 

Process water is necessary within the causticizing department (part of kraft chemical recovery) to dilute 

molten smelt from the recovery furnace to a target green liquor strength (typically measured as total 

titratable alkali, TTA). A higher TTA target requires less dilution water. Dilution and wash water from 

lime mud washing (collectively known as weak wash) and wash water from the dregs washing operation 

is typically the source of dilution water. Average wood pulping (or white) liquor properties for North 

American mills in 1976 were: TTA of 116 ±6 g/L as Na2O, active alkali (AA) of 66 ±6 s/L as Na2O, 

sulfidity of 21 ±5% (on a TTA basis), and a causticizing conversion2

 of 81 ±4%, where ± is one standard 

deviation from the mean (Kojo and Pöyry 1985). At these white liquor properties, approximately 

2.7 m3

 water/admt of pulp is required for process water dilution within the causticizing department. 

There has been a trend toward using higher concentration white liquors due to increased energy savings in 

the causticizing, pulping, and evaporation areas, and this trend will reduce the amount of process dilution 

water needed within the causticizing department (Kojo 1979). Stripped condensates can also be used in 

the causticizing area for lime mud washing and dilution or as scrubbers, but this practice is not typical in 

North America or Europe because of total reduced sulfur (TRS) emissions limits (Sebbas 1988). 

For both the hypothetical modern and hypothetical open cases 2.7 m3

 water/admt is used. 

3.5 Papermaking and Pulp Drying 

Water requirements in the paper machine area are large, with water discharges ranging from 6 to 43% of 

the hydraulic load to wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) at integrated mills and practically 100% of 

the hydraulic load to WWTPs in non-integrated mills (Mahmood and Elliott 2007). Paper machines with 

open whitewater systems and centrifugal and vacuum pump seals supplied with fresh water can use over 

100 m3

/metric ton of finished product (English and Lindstrom 2001). Figure 2 shows that if 100% fresh 

water is used for paper machine or pulp dryer headbox dilution process water discharge will be even 

larger than 100 m3

/metric ton of finished product, in the range of 178 m3/admt (174 m3/admt for headbox 

dilution plus 4.2 m3

/admt excess water from press thickening). Modern paper machines use between 

5 and 26 m3

 water/metric ton of finished product, and the difference relative to an open system is through 

increased recycling and reuse of whitewater in the paper mill. Replacing fresh shower water with 

recycled whitewater is a well established means of water reduction within the paper machine area 

(Francis and Wearing 1998; McGowan 2006). 

Water use in liquid ring vacuum pump seal water applications is large, ranging from 4.5 to 14 m3

/admt of 

production (ETSU 1993). Several proven vacuum pump recirculation strategies reduce the fresh water 

needed in vacuum pump seal water systems: (1) cascading seal water from high vacuum pumps to low 

vacuum pumps (45 to 50% savings in water use compared to an open system); (2) temperature controlled 

recirculation (up to 65% savings compared to an open system during winter months); (3) indirect heat 

exchange (60 to 95% savings compared to an open system); and (4) recirculating seal water through a 

cooling tower (over 90% savings compared to an open system comprised of ~1% fresh water makeup for 

evaporative losses and a recirculation purge to prevent accumulation of contaminants) (Chandra 1997; 

English and Lindstrom 2001). 

                                                           

2

 Causticizing conversion: C = (NaOH)/(Na2CO3 + NaOH) all measured as equivalent Na2O 

5
Pulp furnish from

high density storage

Consistency: 14%

Water: 5.5 m3/admt

High

Density

Storage Mixing

and

Machine

Chests

Silo

Paper Machine Wet End

Seal pit

and

White

water tank

Headbox

Consistency: 0.5%

Water: 179 m3/admt

Mat leaving press

Consistency: 40%

Water: 1.3 m3/admt

Excess white water

Water: 29.2 m3/admt

Headbox dilution

Water: 174 m3/admt

Paper machine showers

Water: 25 m3/admt

Figure 2. Water Flows within an “Open” Paper Machine Wet End 

For the modern hypothetical case 10 m3

 water/admt is used, including process and cooling waters, and is 

representative of a paper machine with a high degree of whitewater recycle and an efficient fiber recovery 

system (Martin-Löf et al. 1973; NCASI 2009b). For the open case 187 m3

 water/admt is used 

(178 m3

/admt for process water plus 9.25 m3/admt for cooling water). The analysis assumes that these 

same amounts of water are used in the modern and open cases for market pulp mills; that is, 10 m3

/admt 

for the modern case and 187 m3

/admt for the completely open case. 

3.6 Cooling 

Major cooling circuits within chemical pulp mills and their general temperature and volumetric flow 

characteristics were reviewed by NCASI (2008). The two largest cooling circuits are associated with the 

evaporator surface condenser and, for mills with a condensing steam turbine, the turbine dump condenser 

(Carter and Gleadow 2001). Table 4 shows the major cooling circuits at chemical pulp mills and their 

associated specific volumetric flow rates. 

Table 4. Major Cooling Circuits at Chemical Pulp Mills 

Cooling Tower Circuit Flow (m3

/admt)

Evaporator surface condenser 50-75 

Turbine condenser 21-50 

Vacuum pump seal water 4.5-14 

Chlorine dioxide plant 7-15 

In modern mills the cooling waters listed in Table 4 are typically reused by removing heat via direct 

contact cooling towers or indirect heat exchange, or by reusing heated cooling waters for process 

purposes. Cooling water flows associated with vacuum pump seal waters are considered in the 

papermaking and pulp drying section, so results herein only consider evaporator surface condensers, 

turbine condensers, and chlorine dioxide plants. By taking the average of entries where ranges are 

presented and not including the contribution of vacuum pulp seal water, the total flow from Table 4 is 

109 m3

/admt. For the modern bleached kraft hypothetical case a value of 5.5 m3/admt assumes that all 

flows (109 m3

/admt) are recirculated through direct contact cooling towers and that the only effluent flow 

is a 5% bleed to control accumulation of contaminants and for evaporative loss makeup within the cooling 

6
circuit. For the hypothetical open bleached case a value of 109 m3

/admt is used, assuming all cooling 

water flows are once through. For the modern unbleached hypothetical case a value of 4.9 m3

/admt is 

used (5% of the evaporator surface condenser and turbine condenser flows in Table 4). For the 

hypothetical open unbleached case where a chlorine dioxide plant is not present a value of 98 m3

/admt is 

used, assuming all cooling water flows are once through. 

4.0 RECYCLE CATEGORIES 

The primary water requirement within recycle pulp mills is for ink separation and cleaning of secondary 

fiber. The two principle methods of ink removal are ink washing and dissolved air flotation. Water 

discharges for various types of ink washers are given in Table 5 (English 2001). 

Table 5. Water Use for Ink Washers 

Washer Type Reject Flow (m3

/admt)

Gravity decker 75 

Sidehill washer 68 

Vario-split washer 65 

Double-nip thickener 36 

Inclined screw extractor 23 

Screw press 16 

Washer-only deinking plants with three to five washing stages in series are typically required to meet ink 

removal targets (Horacek and Kronlund 1980). A completely open three stage washing system using 

sidehill screens would use over 340 m3

 water/admt (Bliss, Guillermo, and Seifert 1994). 

The large use of water and loss of energy and alkali in washer reject streams led to adaptation and 

development of dissolved air flotation for ink removal in the 1960s and to water recycle and reuse 

strategies using countercurrent washing and clarification. Most new deinking mills in North America use 

a combination of flotation and washing, and many older mills have added flotation units. Depending 

upon the final product, bleaching may be required to achieve necessary optical properties in finished pulp 

(Ackermann 2000). Deink bleach plants typically have one to three bleaching stages with inter-stage 

washing, but five stage bleach plants may be necessary to achieve a final product with high brightness 

(Singh 1987; Dessureault et al. 1994). Modern bleaching systems have high consistency wash presses 

and high consistency bleach towers that minimize water use, while older configurations may have low 

consistency washers and low consistency bleach towers. Historically, a deink plant producing fine paper 

or tissue and toweling may have required three bleaching stages to achieve brightness targets (Kleinau 

1958). An open three stage bleach plant with low consistency vacuum washers would require 

approximately 350 m3

 water/admt for inter-stage washing. A deink plant producing newsprint may 

require only one bleaching stage with open bleaching process water discharge of 87 m3

/admt arising from 

dewatering of screening accepts from ~1% consistency to 30% consistency prior to entering the bleach 

retention tower. 

Cooling water is used in recycle pulp mills for pump seal water, gearboxes, lubrication, and hydraulic oil 

recirculation units. Cooling water flows are not expected to be large in recycle mills or substantially 

different between the hypothetical open and hypothetical modern mill cases. 

A modern, tightly closed flotation deinking plant without an ink washing step may have an effluent 

volume as low as 11 m3

/admt (English 2001), but flows between 23 and 32 m3/admt are more typical 

(NCASI 1994). For the modern case 21 m3

 water/admt is used (11 m3/admt for deink plant plus 

10 m3

/admt for paper making), which includes water used in screening, cleaning, and flotation. For the 

open case deink mill producing fine paper or tissue and toweling 877 m3

 water/admt is used (340 m3/admt 

7
for pulping plus 350 m3

/admt for bleaching plus 187 m3/admt for papermaking), which assumes an open 

three stage washing system, no dissolved air floatation, and an open three stage bleach plant with low 

consistency vacuum washers. For the open case deink mill producing deinked newsprint 

614 m3

 water/admt is used (340 m3/admt for pulping plus 87 m3/admt for bleaching plus 187 m3/admt for 

papermaking), which assumes an open three stage washing system, no dissolved air floatation, and a 

single stage of bleaching with dewatering discharge. Modern non-deink plants producing packaging 

paper and board grades operate at or near zero process effluent discharge (NCASI 1997, 1999). For the 

modern non-deink plant case 2.1 m3

/admt process effluent discharge is used. For the open non-deink 

plant case 187 m3

/admt for papermaking is used. 

5.0 MECHANICAL CATEGORY 

Most water use related to the manufacture of mechanical pulp grades originates with the paper machine 

(Reside 2001). Table 6 illustrates differences in minimum and design effluent flows among the various 

types of mechanical pulp mills. In general, more water is needed in mechanical pulp mills with chemical 

pretreatment because of increased washing requirements. 

Table 6. Minimum Effluent Flows for Mechanical Pulp Mills with Activated Sludge Treatment 

Pulp Mill Effluent (m3

/admt) 

Process Design Minimum 

Stone groundwood 3.1 1.8 

Refiner mechanical 3.9 2.3 

Thermomechanical 6.5 3.8 

Bleached chemi-thermomechanical 17.2 10.0 

Cooling water is necessary within mechanical pulp mills to cool refiner motor windings, refiner and 

motor lube oil, and hydraulic drives and for miscellaneous purposes such as air conditioning. A typical 

cooling water flow with a completely open cooling water system may be around 15.0 m3

/admt (Reside 

2001). A fully closed cooling water system would discharge around 3.2 m3

/admt because some of the 

cooling water from oil service cooling may become contaminated with oil and cannot be recirculated 

without further processing (Reside 2001). 

For the modern hypothetical mechanical mill case a total water intake of 15.8 m3

/admt is used, which 

includes all water used to produce lightweight-coated (LWC) printing paper using thermo-mechanical 

pulp produced onsite (Edelmann et al. 2000). For the open case a value of 209 m3

/admt is used 

(6.5 m3

/admt for pulping assuming a thermomechanical pulp mill from Table 6, 187 m3/admt for 

papermaking, and 15 m3

/admt for cooling purposes). 

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