Department of Veterans Affairs 

Office of Inspector General 

Office of Healthcare Inspections 

Report No. 14-00895-163 

Healthcare Inspection - VA Patterns 

of Dispensing 

Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring 

Patients on Opioid Therapy 

May 14, 2014 

Washington, DC 20420 
 

 

To Report Suspected Wrongdoing in VA Programs and Operations: 

Telephone: 1-800-488-8244 

E-Mail: vaoighotline@va.gov 

Web site: www.va.gov/oig 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Glossary
 

CPG VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for Management 

of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain 

DoD Department of Defense 

FDA Food and Drug Administration 

FY fiscal year 

g grams 

mg milligrams 

OEF/OIF Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi 

Freedom 

PTSD post-traumatic stress disorder 

SUD substance use disorder 

UDT urine drug test 

VAMC VA Medical Center, which includes all medical 

centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics 

that are under the same facility (Director) 

administrative leadership 

VHA Veterans Health Administration 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Table of Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary ................................................................................................... i
 

Selected Recommendations from the VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for 

Psychosocial Treatment for Pain, Pain Clinic Service, and Medication 

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
 

Purpose .................................................................................................................. 1
 

Background ............................................................................................................. 1
 

Pain and Opioid Use.......................................................................................... 1
 

Adverse Effects of Opioid Therapy .................................................................... 2
 

Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain (CPG) .............................. 3
 

Medication Reconciliation .................................................................................. 3
 

Benzodiazepines ............................................................................................... 4
 

Acetaminophen.................................................................................................. 4
 

Scope and Methodology ......................................................................................... 5
 

Study Population ............................................................................................... 5
 

Chronic Users and Non-Chronic Users of Opioids ....................................... 6
 

Data and Study Variables .................................................................................. 6
 

Prevalence of Patients Dispensed Take-Home Opioids in FY 2012 ............ 7
 

Baseline Characteristics ............................................................................... 7
 

Dispensing Patterns ..................................................................................... 9
 

Screening and Monitoring Patients on Take-Home Opioids ......................... 10
 

Prevalence of Serious Adverse Effects ........................................................ 13
 

Management/Pharmacy Reconciliation .................................................... 14
 

Statistical Analyses ................................................................................................. 15
 

Results and Conclusions .......................................................................................... 16
 

1. Prevalence of VA Patients Dispensed Take-Home Opioids ................................ 16
 

2. Baseline Characteristics of VA Take-Home Opioid Patients ............................... 17
 

3. VA Dispensing Patterns of Take-Home Opioids ................................................. 20
 

4. VA Patterns of Screening and Monitoring Opioid Patients ..................................	 23
 

New Patients on Take-Home Opioids ............................................................. 23
 

Existing Patients on Take-Home Opioids........................................................ 26
 

Active (Not in Remission) Substance Use Patients ........................................ 31
 

5. VA Patterns of Providing Psychosocial Treatment for Pain, Pain Clinic 

Service, and Medication Management/Pharmacy Reconciliation for 

Take-Home Opioid Patients ............................................................................ 34
 

6. Prevalence of Serious Adverse Effects Among Take-Home Opioid Patients ...... 36
 

Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 37
 

Recommendations .................................................................................................. 43
 

Appendixes 

A. Additional Exhibits............................................................................................ 44
 

B1. Codes for Identifying Hospice and Palliative Care ........................................... 48
 

B2. VA Intermediate Product Numbers for Identifying Urine Drug Tests by Test 

Substance Type .......................................................................................... 49
 

C. Under Secretary for Health Comments ............................................................ 50
 

D. OIG Contact and Staff Acknowledgments ........................................................ 58
 

E. Report Distribution ........................................................................................... 59
 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Executive Summary 

Introduction 

As requested by the United States Senate Committee on Veterans’ Affairs, the VA 

Office of Inspector General conducted a study to assess the provision of VA outpatient 

(take-home) opioids and monitoring of patients on opioid therapy (hereinafter referred to 

as opioid patients). Specifically, we described both the prevalence of VA patients who 

filled any take-home opioid prescriptions at VA in fiscal year (FY) 2012 and their 

baseline characteristics; evaluated VA dispensing patterns of take-home opioids, 

including concurrent (filled) benzodiazepines, filled dose of acetaminophen, and early 

refills of opioids; and assessed the extent to which VA screens and monitors opioid 

patients in alignment with measures adapted from selected recommendations in the 

VA/Department of Defense Clinical Practice Guideline for Management of Opioid 

Therapy for Chronic Pain (hereinafter referred to as the Clinical Practice Guideline). We 

also defined VA patterns of providing psychosocial treatment for pain, Pain Clinic 

service, and medication management/pharmacy reconciliation for take-home opioid 

patients and determined the prevalence of six selected serious clinical adverse effects 

among VA take-home opioid patients that may be reasonably expected to be related to 

opioid therapy. 

We integrated and analyzed the VA administrative files, as well as the Death Master 

Files of the Social Security Administration, for the population of nearly half a 

million VA patients who filled at least 1 oral or transdermal opioid prescription from VA 

for self-administration at home in FY 2012. We followed retrospectively the 

442,544 patients in the population—who did not receive any hospice or palliative care 

during the FY or within 1 year prior to their first take-home opioid prescription—for their 

experience with the provision of VA opioid therapy. 

Results and Conclusions 

We found that 7.7 percent of VA patients were on take-home opioids in FY 2012. The 

VA Medical Center (VAMC)1

 prevalence ranged from 0.26 percent to 21.8 percent. 

A majority (92.5 percent) of the opioid patients were male, which mirrored the gender 

composition of VA patients. The average and the median patient age at their first opioid 

prescription in FY 2012 was 59.4 and 61, respectively. Approximately 1 in every 

16 patients had served in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. 

Approximately 87 percent of the opioid patients were diagnosed with primary pain site2 

of non-cancer origin that could result in pain serious enough to warrant an opioid 

medication. Six out of 10 patients had been diagnosed with mental health issues, one 

third with mood disorders, 1 of 5 with post-traumatic stress disorder, and 1 of 7 with 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) 

administrative leadership. 

2

 Seal, K. H., Y. Shi, et al. (2012). “Association of mental health disorders with prescription opioids and high-risk 

opioid use in US veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan.” JAMA 307(9): 940–947. 

VA Office of Inspector General i 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

substance use. Nearly 94 percent of the study population had been diagnosed with 

either pain or mental health issues and 58.4 percent with both. 

About one third of the opioid patients were on take-home opioids for more than 90 days 

(chronic users) in FY 2012. Approximately half of the study population were new 

patients in the sense that they were initiated on take-home opioid therapy during 

FY 2012 after not having been on take-home opioids for at least more than 1 year. 

Seven out of 10 of the non-chronic users were new patients in contrast to 1 in 5 of the 

chronic users. Nearly 41 percent of the study population had been dispensed with 

1 prescription. This 41 percent was composed entirely of the 61.4 percent of 

non-chronic users because none of the opioids were allowed to be prescribed for more 

than 90 days in 1 prescription. Patients with 6 or more prescriptions were mainly 

chronic users, which amounted to 69.3 percent of that group. 

Almost all (98.4 percent) patients received their prescriptions from a single VAMC, and 

three quarters of the patient population had all their (filled) prescriptions issued from a 

single prescriber. Most (95.0 percent) of the patients were dispensed with a single type 

of opioid. More than 6 percent of patients received at least 1 long-acting opioid product, 

with the percentage of chronic users being 4 times that of non-chronic users. Opioid 

dosages with a morphine equivalent of at least 200 milligrams (mg)/day were dispensed 

to 1.2 percent of the study population. We found that refills of opioids at least 7 days 

early occurred in 23.0 percent of the population, with refills of at least 11 days early in 

14.0 percent of the population. 

The concurrent use of benzodiazepines and opioids can be dangerous because opioids 

and benzodiazepines can depress the central nervous system and thereby affect heart 

rhythm, slow respiration, and even lead to death. We found that take-home 

benzodiazepines were dispensed to 7.4 percent of the study population, with the 

percentage of chronic opioid users being 1.6 times that of non-chronic users. We 

determined that 71 percent of the opioid patients who received take-home 

benzodiazepines were dispensed benzodiazepines concurrently with opioids. The 

percentage of chronic opioid users with concurrent benzodiazepines was 92.6, and the 

percentage of non-chronic users was 53.6. 

Acetaminophen poisoning is a leading cause of liver toxicity. The Clinical Practice 

Guideline specifically recommends not exceeding the maximum recommended daily 

dose of acetaminophen. We determined that take-home acetaminophens were given to 

92.3 percent of the study patients and that 2.0 percent of them were given an average 

daily dose of 4 g/day or more. We found that 45.5 percent of chronic users were given 

at least 1 day dosage of 4 grams or more of acetaminophen and that 43.5 percent were 

given at least 1 day dosage of 4 grams or more concurrently with opioids, which was 

more than double that (19.4 percent and 13.3 percent, respectively) of non-chronic 

users. 

The Clinical Practice Guideline calls for a urine drug test (UDT) prior to initiating opioid 

therapy and a follow-up contact at least every 2–4 weeks after any change in 

medication regimen. We determined that 6.4 percent of the new patients—who were 

VA Office of Inspector General ii 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

initiated take-home opioids in FY 2012 after not having been on take-home opioids for 

at least more than 1 year—received both a UDT prior to and a follow-up within 30 days. 

We observed broad variation among 140 VAMCs’ practice on this measure, ranging 

from 1.1 percent to 32.2 percent, with the middle 50 percent of the VAMCs from 

3.9 percent to 10.2 percent. This very low VA rate of screening and monitoring new 

patients almost exclusively resulted from the very low rate of a UDT. We found that 

7.6 percent of the new patients had a UDT within 30 days prior to initiating therapy. 

Even for the high-risk group of patients who were diagnosed with substance use 

disorder (SUD) within 1 year prior to the initiation of opioid therapy, a UDT was 

performed for 1 out of 5 patients. 

The Clinical Practice Guideline requires routine and random UDTs to confirm the 

appropriate use of opioids by patients and a follow-up contact at least once every 

1–6 months for the duration of opioid therapy. We determined that 37.0 percent of the 

existing opioid patients—who were on take-home opioids at least from 

FY 2011—received both an annual UDT and a follow-up contact within 6 months of 

each filled opioid prescription, varying extensively from 4.2 percent to 91.0 percent 

among VAMCs. The low VA rate of monitoring opioid patients resulted mainly from the 

low rate of an annual UDT. We found that VA conducted an annual UDT for 

37.9 percent of the existing opioid patients. We observed wide variation of VAMCs’ 

practice of conducting an annual UDT, ranging from 4.4 percent to 87.6 percent. Even 

for the chronic opioid users, the annual UDT rate was 40.9 percent. 

We found that 13.1 percent of the study population was diagnosed with active 

substance use. The Clinical Practice Guideline specifies that chronic (for more than 

1 month) opioid therapy is absolutely contraindicated in patients with active (not in 

remission) SUDs who are not in treatment. It recommends that active substance use 

patients receive SUD treatment concurrently with urine drug testing as an adjunctive 

tool at regular intervals. For the active substance use patients who had at least 90 days 

available for follow-up in FY 2012, we determined that 10.5 percent received both a 

treatment for substance use and a UDT within 90 days of each filled opioid prescription. 

The percentages of VAMCs varied from 0.00 to 44.8. Even for the subpopulation of 

19,724 active substance use patients who were on opioids for more than 90 days in 

FY 2012, we determined that only 18.8 percent of them received both an SUD treatment 

in the FY and a UDT for each 90 days on opioids, with VAMC percentages ranging from 

0.00 to 82.7. 

Psychotherapy, including cognitive behavioral therapy, is recommended to reduce pain 

and improve function in chronic pain patients. We found that 45.2 percent of the opioid 

patients received at least 1 psychosocial treatment for pain and that 35.1 percent of 

these patients received this treatment after their first filled opioid prescription in 

FY 2012. The VAMC percentages for providing psychosocial treatments for pain 

ranged from 26.9 to 93.7 in FY 2012. 

Treatment of chronic pain requires care to recover or maintain physical, social, and 

occupational function and may include Pain Clinic service. We determined that 

8.7 percent of the opioid patients received care from a Pain Clinic. Three quarters of 

VA Office of Inspector General iii 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

the VAMCs provided Pain Clinic service to 15.0 percent or less of their opioid patients in 

the FY, although 1 VAMC provided this rehabilitation service to 73.5 percent of its 

patients. 

Opioid patients frequently have complex co-morbid conditions, making them more likely 

to be given multiple medications that can interact dangerously with opioid medications. 

A review of medications by a pharmacist or other health care professional can prevent 

harmful interactions between these medications. We found that 38.8 percent of the 

opioid patients received medication management or pharmacy reconciliation during the 

FY, with the percentages varying from 6.4 to 86.5 across the 140 VAMCs. 

Increasing use of opioids has been associated with increasing rates of opioid-related 

serious adverse effects. We determined percentages of opioid patients with evidence of 

a serious adverse effect that may be reasonably expected to be related to opioid 

therapy for the following six serious adverse effects: (1) opioid overdose, (2) sedative 

overdose, (3) drug delirium, (4) drug detoxification, (5) acetaminophen overdose, and 

(6) possible and confirmed suicide attempts. We found that less than 1 percent of the 

population experienced each of these adverse effects during the FY, except for the 

adverse effect of possible and confirmed suicide attempts that was evident in 

2.0 percent of the opioid patients. 

Recommendations 

1. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that the practice of 

prescribing acetaminophen is in compliance with acceptable standards. 

2. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that VA’s practice 

of routine and random urine drug tests prior to initiating and during take-home opioid 

therapy to confirm the appropriate use of opioids is in alignment with acceptable 

standards. 

3. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that follow-up 

evaluations of patients on take-home opioids are performed timely. 

4. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that opioid patients 

with active (not in remission) substance use receive treatment for substance use 

concurrently with urine drug tests. 

5. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that VA’s practice 

of prescribing and dispensing benzodiazepines concurrently with opioids is in alignment 

with acceptable standards. 

6. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that medication 

reconciliation is performed to prevent adverse drug interactions. 

VA Office of Inspector General iv 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Comments 

The Under Secretary for Health agreed with the findings and recommendations and 

provided acceptable improvement plans. (See Appendix C, pages 50–57, for the full 

text of the comments.) We will follow up on the planned actions until they are 

completed. 

JOHN D. DAIGH, JR., M.D. 

Assistant Inspector General for 

Healthcare Inspections 

VA Office of Inspector General v 
 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Introduction 

Purpose 

As requested by the United States (U.S.) Senate Committee on Veterans’ Affairs, the 

VA Office of Inspector General (OIG) conducted a study to assess the provision of VA 

outpatient (take-home) opioids and monitoring of patients on opioid therapy (hereinafter 

referred to as opioid patients). The study objectives were to: 

• Describe both the prevalence of VA patients who filled any take-home opioid 

prescriptions at VA in fiscal year (FY) 2012 and their baseline characteristics. 

• Evaluate VA dispensing patterns of take-home opioids, including concurrent (filled) 

benzodiazepines, filled dose of acetaminophen, and early refills of opioids. 

• Assess the extent to which VA screens and monitors opioid patients in alignment 

with measures adapted from selected recommendations in the VA/Department of 

Defense (DoD) Clinical Practice Guideline for Management of Opioid Therapy for 

Chronic Pain (CPG). 

• Define VA patterns of providing psychosocial treatment for pain, Pain Clinic 

service, and medication management/pharmacy reconciliation for take-home 

opioid patients. 

• Determine the prevalence of six selected serious clinical adverse effects among 

VA take-home opioid patients that may be reasonably expected to be related to 

opioid therapy. 

Background 

Pain and Opioid Use. The Institute of Medicine reported that pain affects 100 million 

adults in the U.S. at a cost of up to $635 billion each year in medical treatment and lost 

productivity.3

 The report concluded that to reduce the impact of pain and the resultant 

suffering required cultural transformation on how pain is perceived and judged by 

people with pain and health care providers who care for them. 

More than 50 percent of all veterans enrolled and receiving care at VHA are affected by 

chronic pain, which is a much higher rate than in the general adult population.4 

Veterans who suffer from chronic pain also experience much higher rates of other 

co-morbidities (post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, traumatic brain 

injury) and socioeconomic dynamics (disability, joblessness) that may contribute to the 

challenges of pain management when treated with opioids. 

3

 Committee on Advancing Pain Research, Care, and Education; Institute of Medicine (2011). Relieving Pain in 

America: A Blueprint for Transforming Prevention, Care, Education, and Research, The National Academies Press. 4

 Statement of Dr. Robert L. Jesse, M.D., Principal Deputy Under Secretary for Health, Veterans Health 

Administration, Before the Subcommittee on Health, U.S. House of Representatives, October 10, 2013. 

VA Office of Inspector General 1 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

In 1998, the VHA National Pain Management Strategy was initiated, which established 

pain management as a national priority. The overall objective of the strategy is to 

develop a comprehensive, integrated system-wide approach to pain management that 

reduces pain and suffering and improves quality of life for veterans experiencing acute 

and chronic pain. In 2009, VHA issued a directive5

 for the improvement of pain 

management consistent with the VHA National Pain Management Strategy. 

In 2003, VA and DoD published the first Clinical Practice Guideline for Management of 

Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain (CPG) to improve pain management, quality of life, and 

quality of care for veterans. The CPG was revised in 2010 to update the evidence base 

of the original CPG.6

 Additionally, the scope was widened to include patients with 

cancer who have chronic pain because of cancer or the treatment they are receiving. 

Opioid therapy is intended for patients who suffer from moderate to severe chronic pain 

and who have been previously assessed and treated with non-opioid or 

non-pharmacological therapy with no response or with limited success or response and 

who may benefit from opioid therapy for pain control. Opioids are powerful medications 

that can help manage pain when prescribed for the right condition and when used 

properly. However, if prescribed inappropriately or if used improperly, they can cause 

serious harm, including overdose and death. Patient adherence with the proper use of 

opioids is crucial in the delivery of appropriate opioid therapy. Patient assessments, 

follow-up evaluations, and urine drug tests (UDTs) are recommended monitoring tools 

for safe and effective use of opioids. 

Adverse Effects of Opioid Therapy. While opioids are useful for managing chronic 

pain, adverse effects are potential limitations to their use.7 Therefore, providers need to 

weigh the risks against the benefits of opioid use either alone or in combination with 

other medications that could cause adverse effects, such as benzodiazepines, and 

against expected effects such as constipation. For opioid patients taking 

acetaminophen products, providers must be aware of the maximum recommended daily 

dose of acetaminophen. 

Even a single large dose of opioids can cause severe respiratory depression or death. 

Long-term use or abuse of opioids can lead to physical dependence, a normal 

adaptation to chronic exposure, and addiction. In cases of long-term use or abuse, 

withdrawal symptoms may occur if opioids are too rapidly reduced or stopped without 

tapering. These symptoms can include restlessness, muscle and bone pain, insomnia, 

diarrhea, vomiting, and involuntary leg movements. 

In general, extreme caution must be used when prescribing opioids with other 

substances that depress the central nervous system (CNS), such as benzodiazepines, 

5

 VHA Directive 2009-053, Pain Management, October 28, 2009.
 6 http://vaww1.va.gov/PAINMANAGEMENT/docs/CPG_opioidtherapy_fulltext.pdf. Last accessed 

December 19, 2013. 

7

 Swegle, J. M. and C. Logemann (2006). “Management of common opioid-induced adverse effects.” 

Am Fam Physician 74(8): 1347–1354. 

VA Office of Inspector General 2 
 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

because in combination, there is an increased risk of life-threatening respiratory 

depression.8 

Selected Recommendations from the VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for 

Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain (CPG).9 The CPG provides 

education and guidance on chronic (more than 1 month) opioid therapy to providers. 

However, some CPG recommendations are applicable to all patients on opioid therapy, 

regardless of the length of time. Specifically, the CPG provides the following 

recommendations for urine drug tests (UDTs), follow-up evaluations, and bowel 

regimen: 

• UDTs. The CPG recommends routine and random UDTs prior to initiation of and 

during opioid therapy (p. 59). The frequency of UDTs should be increased based 

on risk level for aberrant drug-related behaviors and following each dose increase 

(pp. 51 and 60). The risk of opioid misuse in patients on opioid therapy is reported 

to be as high as 30 percent (p. 59), and patients with a history of substance use 

disorder (SUD) are at higher risk of developing problematic drug use, addiction, or 

relapse. UDTs can identify patients using illicit substances and can assist in the 

diagnosis of SUD. They can also help identify patient adherence to opioid therapy 

and drug diversion. 

• Follow-up evaluations. The CPG recommends scheduled follow-up visits at least 

every 2–4 weeks after any change in medication regimen and at least once every 

1–6 months for the duration of opioid therapy (p. 82). Patients are to be assessed 

for effectiveness of opioid therapy, adverse effects, and adherence to therapy 

(p. 82). Pertinent laboratory studies are to be performed as necessary. Patients 

with certain medical conditions require more frequent follow-up visits. These 

include patients with significant respiratory depression, asthma, chronic obstructive 

pulmonary disease, obstructive sleep apnea, paralytic ileus, anxiety disorder, 

personality disorder, increased risk of suicide, and SUD history. 

• Bowel regimen. The CPG recommends routine initiation of a bowel regimen that 

includes both a stimulant and a stool softener at the commencement of opioid 

therapy and patient assessment for opioid related adverse effects at every office 

and follow-up visit (p. 70). 

Medication Reconciliation. Medication reconciliation ensures the maintenance of 

accurate, safe, effective, and above all, patient centered medication information.10 One 

of the Joint Commission’s national patient safety goals is medication safety by 

maintaining and communicating accurate patient medication information.11 

8

 Jones, J. D., S. Mogali, et al. (2012). “Polydrug abuse: a review of opioid and benzodiazepine combination use.” 

Drug Alcohol Depend 125(1–2): 8–18.
 9 http://vaww1.va.gov/PAINMANAGEMENT/docs/CPG_opioidtherapy_fulltext.pdf. Last accessed 

December 19, 2013. 

10 VHA Directive 2011-012, Medication Reconciliation, March 9, 2011.
 11 The Joint Commission Sentinel Event Alert, Issue 35, January 25, 2006. 

VA Office of Inspector General 3 
 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

VHA requires that medication reconciliation be performed across the continuum of care, 

including outpatient encounters, to prevent adverse drug interactions. VHA also 

requires that patients be educated about their medications prior to or at the time of 

dispensing according to the patient’s individualized drug regimen.12 Clinicians are 

required to discuss necessary drug information, potential drug interactions, and 

necessary laboratory tests for monitoring medication therapy outcomes and to evaluate 

the medication order to ensure appropriate dosing, taking into account the renal and 

liver function of the patient. Prior to initiating opioid therapy, the CPG recommends that 

providers carefully evaluate potential drug interactions (such as methadone with 

benzodiazepines and fentanyl with alcohol and other CNS depressants) (p. 25). 

Benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines are a type of psychoactive (mind-altering) 

medication known as tranquilizers that are most often prescribed to treat anxiety, acute 

stress reactions, panic attacks, seizures, and sleep disorders. They are one of the most 

widely prescribed medications in the U.S., particularly among elderly patients. Familiar 

names include Valium® and Xanax®. Benzodiazepines act on the CNS to slow its 

function and promote relaxation, thereby reducing muscle tension and other physical 

symptoms of anxiety. Benzodiazepines may cause respiratory depression in 

susceptible patients. Therefore, they generally should not be used with opioids 

because the combination increases the risk of life-threatening respiratory depression. 

Benzodiazepines have the potential for abuse. They can be chronically abused, or 

intentionally or accidentally taken in overdose. While death and serious illness rarely 

result from benzodiazepine abuse alone, the concurrent use of benzodiazepines and 

opioids can be dangerous because both depress the CNS.13 Benzodiazepines have 

been strongly associated with death from opioid overdose.14 

Acetaminophen. Acetaminophen (for example Tylenol®) is a type of medication used 

to relieve pain and reduce fever. It is among the most commonly used drugs in the U.S. 

In addition to its availability as an over-the-counter product, acetaminophen is used in 

many prescription products in combination with other drugs, usually opioids, such as 

codeine (Tylenol with Codeine®), hydrocodone (Vicodin®), and oxycodone 

(Percocet®). The labels of acetaminophen-containing drug products may not spell out 

the whole word or may have an abbreviation such as APAP. 

Acetaminophen poisoning is a leading cause of liver toxicity.15 In a consumer update 

posted to its website, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)16 pointed out that 

12 VHA Handbook 1108.05, Outpatient Pharmacy Services, May 30, 2006. 13 Jones, J. D., S. Mogali, et al. (2012). “Polydrug abuse: a review of opioid and benzodiazepine combination use.” 

Drug Alcohol Depend 125(1–2): 8–18.
 14 Toblin, R. L., L. J. Paulozzi, et al. (2010). “Mental illness and psychotropic drug use among prescription drug
 

overdose deaths: a medical examiner chart review.” J Clin Psychiatry 71(4): 491–496. 15 Larson, A. M., J. Polson, et al. (2005). “Acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure: results of a United States 

multicenter, prospective study.” Hepatology 42(6): 1364–1372. 16 http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/UCM239891.pdf. Last accessed 

November 27, 2013.
 

VA Office of Inspector General 4 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

“Overdoses from prescription products containing acetaminophen account for nearly 

half of all cases of acetaminophen-related liver failure in the U.S., many of which result 

in liver transplant or death.” Aimed at reducing acetaminophen risks, on 

January 13, 2011, the FDA announced its requirement for a boxed warning on all 

prescription acetaminophen products that highlights the potential risk for severe liver 

injury. Boxed warnings are the FDA’s strongest warnings for prescription drug products 

and are used for calling attention to serious or life-threatening risks. 

Most current guidance requires that patients consume no more than 4 grams (g) of 

acetaminophen per day. However, the FDA recommends less than 4 grams per day17 

because of concerns about acetaminophen’s widespread availability and because 

patients are often not aware of and may not inform their providers about other 

acetaminophen use. 

Scope and Methodology 

The study population contains all VA patients who filled at least 1 oral or transdermal 

opioid prescription from VA for self-administration at home in FY 2012 and who did not 

receive any hospice or palliative care during the FY or within 1 year prior to their first 

take-home opioid prescription. In addition to following the patients retrospectively 

through the end of the FY, we also looked back to evaluate whether they filled any 

opioid prescriptions for take-home use and whether they experienced certain medical 

conditions during FY 2011. Our study period minimizes background shifts in opioid 

provision in VA because the VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for Management of 

Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain was updated in May 2010. The study population 

encompasses some Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom 

(OEF/OIF) era veterans as well as veterans from other service eras (non-OEF/OIF), 

such as Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. As a result, the outcomes that we 

observed in this population may be different from those of OEF/OIF veterans only.18 

To address the study objectives, we reviewed pertinent policies, regulations, and 

procedures on opioid therapy. We also conducted a literature review on opioid use for 

pain management. We met and discussed opioid therapy guideline adherence with VA 

subject matter experts. Additionally, we researched VA administrative databases. 

Study Population. We included all VA patients who filled any oral or transdermal 

take-home opioid prescriptions from a VA outpatient pharmacy or consolidated mail 

outpatient pharmacy in FY 2012 and who did not receive any hospice or palliative care 

in the FY or within 1 year prior to their first filled prescription. 

We identified the study population using the VA Decision Support System (DSS) 

National Data Extract (NDE) Pharmacy SAS Datasets, which contain all VA filled 

inpatient and outpatient prescription records. We first identified opioid products using 

17 http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm239821.htm. Last accessed January 17, 2014. 18 Seal, K. H., Y. Shi, et al. (2012). “Association of mental health disorders with prescription opioids and high-risk 

opioid use in US veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan.” JAMA 307(9): 940–947. 

VA Office of Inspector General 5 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

the following 10 types of opioids in VA’s National Drug File:19 (1) codeine, (2) fentanyl, 

(3) hydrocodone, (4) hydromorphone, (5) meperidine, (6) methadone, (7) morphine, 

(8) oxycodone, (9) oxymorphone, and (10) tapentadol. We created the opioid list for our 

study by including the 1,736 opioid products in the 10 selected opioid types that were 

categorized as U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) schedule II or III controlled 

substances in the National Drug File. All the opioids selected for this study are oral 

medications only except for fentanyl, which also comes in transdermal form. 

We then searched the VA Pharmacy SAS data file to identify VA patients for the study 

by including all those patients who filled at least 1 prescription of the opioids on our list 

in FY 2012 for take-home use. We then linked all these patients with VA administrative 

inpatient and outpatient (including fee basis care) treatment (SAS medical data) files to 

identify and then exclude those patients who received hospice or palliative care 

(Appendix B1) anytime in FY 2012 or within 1 year of their first take-home opioid 

prescription. 

Chronic Users and Non-Chronic Users of Opioids. We classified the study population 

into two subpopulations, chronic users and non-chronic users of opioids, based on the 

number of days they were on opioids. We defined patients as chronic users of 

opioids if they were on opioids for more than 90 days in FY 2012 and as non-chronic 

users if they were on opioids 90 days or less. Rather than a simple sum of the number 

of supply days from all filled prescriptions, we counted overlapping supply days from 

different prescriptions once only for the number of days on opioids. For example, if a 

patient filled 1 prescription that supplied opioids from March 3, 2012, through 

March 10, 2012, then filled another prescription that supplied opioids from 

March 8, 2012, through March 14, 2012, we counted the number of days on opioids as 

12 instead of 15 after taking into account the overlapping supply days from 

March 8, 2012, to March 10, 2012. Exhibit X1 in Appendix A shows our calculation of 

days on opioids for a patient with 5 filled prescriptions. 

Data and Study Variables. After we identified the study population, we then linked the 

population to FY 2011 and FY 2012 VA administrative SAS medical data files to find 

information on VA clinical visits and associated clinical diagnoses, the VA Laboratory 

SAS data files to obtain detailed urine drug test records, and the FY 2011 VA Pharmacy 

SAS data file to check for any filled opioid prescriptions for take-home use during that 

FY. 

To determine patients’ vital status as of the end of FY 2012, we also used the Death 

Master Files of the Social Security Administration, vital status data from the VA Mini 

Vital Status, the Beneficiary Identification Records Locator Subsystem (BIRLS), the 

National Cemetery System (NCS), and the Patient Treatment File (PTF). We 

considered that a patient died in FY 2012 if: 

• the death date was within the FY, and 

19 The National Drug File lists drugs approved by the FDA and is created and maintained by VA with specific 

information, including national drug code, strength, dosage form, unit of measure, and manufacturer. 

VA Office of Inspector General 6 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

• after the death date, we did not find any filled take-home prescription records for 

both opioid and benzodiazepine in FY 2012 and did not find any outpatient 

encounters in FY 2012 and FY 2013 (as of April 19, 2013) VA SAS outpatient 

treatment files. 

Prevalence of Patients Dispensed Take-Home Opioids in FY 2012. We defined the 

prevalence as the percent of patients who filled any take-home opioids at VA during 

FY 2012. For prevalence by VA Medical Center (VAMC), if a patient received opioid 

prescriptions from different VAMCs, this patient was counted in each of the VAMC’s 

prevalence. However, a patient’s multiple prescriptions from one VAMC were counted 

exactly once for that VAMC’s prevalence. 

Baseline Characteristics. We defined a medical condition as a baseline condition if it 

was diagnosed within 1 year prior to (or at the time of) the patient’s first filled opioid 

prescription in FY 2012. We considered a patient to have a mental health diagnosis if 

the patient was diagnosed with any specific codes within the category of Mental 

Disorders (290–319) of the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, 

Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM). The category of Mental Disorders of ICD-9-CM 

corresponds to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth 

Edition, Revised (DSM-IV-R). Except for the category of psychological pain, we used 

Hoge’s definitions20 to create the following specific categories of mental health 

diagnosis based on the following ICD-9-CM diagnostic codes: 

• Adjustment disorders: 309.0, 309.24, 309.28, 309.3, 309.4, 309.9. 

• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): 309.81. 

• Anxiety disorders excluding PTSD: 300.00, 300.01, 300.02, 300.21, 300.22, 

300.23, 300.29, 300.3, 308.3. 

• Mood disorders: 296.0, 296.2–296.7, 296.80, 296.89, 296.90, 300.4, 301.13, 311. 

• Major depression: 296.2, 296.3. 

• Personality disorders: 301.0, 301.2, 301.4, 301.50, 301.6, 301.7, 301.81–301.84, 

301.89, 301.9. 

• Psychotic disorders: 295.1–295.4, 295.6, 295.7, 295.9, 297.1, 297.3, 298.8, 298.9. 

• Substance use: 291, 292 (except 292.2), 303–305 (except 305.1 and 305.8). 

• Alcohol-related disorders: 291, 303, 305.0. 

• Drug-related disorders: 292 (except 292.2), 304, 305.2–305.7, 305.9. 

20 Hoge, C. W., S. E. Lesikar, et al. (2002). “Mental disorders among U.S. military personnel in the 1990s: 

association with high levels of health care utilization and early military attrition.” Am J Psychiatry 159(9): 

1576–1583. 

VA Office of Inspector General 7 
 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

• Psychological pain: 307.80 and 307.89. 

We used Seal’s definitions21 to determine whether a patient was diagnosed with any 

primary pain. These primary pain site diagnoses included ICD-9-CM non-cancer 

diagnostic codes that could result in pain serious enough to warrant an opioid 

medication: 

• Arthritis: 710 (except 710.5), 711, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719.70, 

719.75–719.79, 720.0, V13.4. 

• Back pain: 720–724 (except 720.0, 723.4, 723.8), 756.1. 

• Fractures: 733.1, 733.93–733.98, 800–829, 905.0–905.5, V13.51, V13.52, 

V54.0–V54.2, V66.4, V67.4. 

• Generalized pain: 780.96. 

• Headaches: 307.81, 339, 346 (except 346.6), 784.0. 

• Musculoskeletal pain: 725, 726 (except 726.70, 726.73, 726.79, 726.91), 728.11, 

728.12, 728.81, 728.83, 728.86, 728.89, 728.9, 729 (except 729.2, 729.3, 729.6, 

729.81, 729.82), 781.99, 830–848, 905.6, 905.7, V43.6, V43.7, V48.3, V49.6, 

V49.7. 

• Neuropathy: 053.13, 072.72, 337.0, 337.1, 353–357, 377.33, 377.34, 377.41. 

• Other pain: 730, 733.0, 780.96. 

• Reproductive pain: 614, 615, 616.11, 616.2–616.9, 617, 625.1–625.3, 625.5, 

625.7, 625.8 626.3, 626.5. 

• Visceral pain: 550 (except 550.9), 551.0–551.2, 552.0–552.2, 560.81, 562.01, 

562.03, 562.11, 562.13, 567.2, 567.8, 569.5, 574, 575.0, 575.1, 577.0, 577.1, 592, 

594, 596, 788.0, 789.0, 789.6. 

• Wound injury: 860–887 (except 873.63), 890–897, 900–904, 905.8, 905.9, 906, 

907.2, 908.0–908.4, 925–929, 940–949, 952. 

We determined that a patient was diagnosed with pain of the nervous system and sense 

organs if we found 1 of the following ICD-9-CM diagnostic codes in the category of pain 

of the nervous system and sense organs: 

• Acute pain: 338.1. 

• Chronic pain: 338.2. 

21 Seal, K. H., Y. Shi, et al. (2012). “Association of mental health disorders with prescription opioids and high-risk 

opioid use in US veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan.” JAMA 307(9): 940–947. 

VA Office of Inspector General 8 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

• Neoplasm-related pain: 338.3. 

• Chronic pain syndrome: 338.4. 

We deemed a patient was diagnosed with pain if he or she had a diagnosis of primary 

pain site and/or pain of the nervous system and sense organs. 

Dispensing Patterns. The CPG (p. 18) recommends more careful monitoring of opioid 

patients treated with benzodiazepines as co-administration of these products may result 

in adverse drug interactions. Benzodiazepines have been strongly associated with 

death from opioid overdose22 and with an increased risk of death due to methadone 

toxicity.23 We determined whether the patients were receiving benzodiazepines 

concurrently with opioids. We defined a patient as having received concurrent 

benzodiazepine and opioid prescriptions in FY 2012 if the patient had at least 1 filled 

take-home opioid prescription with supply days that overlapped with the supply days of 

at least 1 filled take-home benzodiazepine prescription. For the study, we included the 

2,112 benzodiazepine products from the National Drug File within the following 

14 types of benzodiazepines: (1) alprazolam, (2) chlordiazepoxide, (3) clorazepate, 

(4) diazepam, (5) estazolam, (6) flurazepam, (7) halazepam, (8) lorazepam, 

(9) midazolam, (10) oxazepam, (11) prazepam, (12) quazepam, (13) temazepam, and 

(14) triazolam. For each patient in the study population, we searched the FY 2012 VA 

Pharmacy SAS data file to look for any filled benzodiazepine prescription records based 

on our list. 

The CPG specifically recommends (p. 52) that “When using combination products, do 

not exceed maximum recommended daily doses of acetaminophen, aspirin, or 

ibuprofen.” We evaluated whether the patients were receiving acetaminophen for use 

at home within recommended doses. We first generated a list of drug products 

(including opioids) containing acetaminophen through a string searching the National 

Drug File for “ACETAMINOPHEN,” “APAP,” and “ACE.” Next, we removed any drugs 

with the string “ACETONE” or “ACETY.” The list included 9,502 drug products 

containing acetaminophen. Then, from the VA Pharmacy SAS data file, we found all 

records of take-home acetaminophen prescriptions, if any, filled in FY 2012 for each 

patient in the study. We calculated daily doses based on days on acetaminophen, 

which takes into account the overlapping supply days from different acetaminophen 

prescriptions in a similar way as we did for days on opioids. 

We calculated morphine equivalent dose for each filled opioid prescription using the 

formula (Quantity * Strength * Potency factor) to standardize opioid doses across 

different types of opioids.24 The daily morphine equivalent was calculated as the sum of 

22 Toblin, R. L., L. J. Paulozzi, et al. (2010). “Mental illness and psychotropic drug use among prescription drug
 

overdose deaths: a medical examiner chart review.” J Clin Psychiatry 71(4): 491–496. 23 Caplehorn, J. R. and O. H. Drummer (2002). “Fatal methadone toxicity: signs and circumstances, and the role of
 

benzodiazepines.” Aust N Z J Public Health 26(4): 358–362; discussion 362–353. 24 Korff, M. V., K. Saunders, et al. (2008). “De facto long-term opioid therapy for noncancer pain.”
 

Clin J Pain 24(6): 521–527. 

VA Office of Inspector General 9 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

the morphine equivalents for each filled opioid prescription in FY 2012 divided by the 

number of days on opioids during the FY. 

We defined early refill of opioid prescriptions as the same opioid medication 

(standardized based on generic name, route of administration, and dosage form) that 

was dispensed before the end of any prior prescriptions. As an example, we would not 

consider CODEINE 60MG/ACETAMINOPHEN 300MG CAP as an early refill if the 

previous prescription was CODEINE 60MG/ACETAMINOPHEN 300MG TAB, because 

of the different dosage forms—the former is a capsule while the latter is a tablet. 

Researchers have used early refill of more than 7 days as a proxy of high-risk opioid 

behavior.25 Exhibit X2 in Appendix A compares concurrent use and early refills. 

All opioids cause slowing of intestinal motility; thus, constipation is an anticipated 

negative outcome of opioid therapy. The CPG strongly recommends initiating a bowel 

regimen for all patients who are prescribed an opioid to prevent and treat constipation 

(pp. 37 and 67). We considered that a bowel regimen was provided to a patient if we 

found in the FY 2012 VA Pharmacy SAS data file at least 1 filled laxative prescription for 

that patient from any of these VA drug classes:26 GA201, GA202, GA203, GA204, 

GA205, GA209, and RS300. 

Screening and Monitoring Patients on Take-Home Opioids. The CPG specifies 

screening and monitoring opioid patients by urine drug tests (UDTs) and patient 

follow-up contacts. It strongly recommends use of UDTs to assess illicit drug use and 

adherence to prescribed medications. A UDT should be obtained prior to opioid 

initiation and randomly at follow-up visits to confirm the appropriate use of opioids 

(CPG, p. 37). We searched UDT records in the VA Laboratory SAS data files for each 

patient in the study population to determine whether a patient received any UDTs. A 

urine sample may be used to test for one substance or multiple substances. We 

categorized a UDT by test substance into one or all of the following three specific types 

(Appendix B2): 

(1) Heroin or morphine 

(2) Non-morphine opioid compounds 

(3) Non-opioid abusable substances 

The CPG specifies (p. 82) that patients should have follow-up contact with their provider 

at least every 2–4 weeks after any change in medication regimen and at least once 

every 1–6 months for the duration of opioid therapy. We searched VA administrative 

files for each patient in the study population to determine whether a patient received any 

25 Seal, K. H., Y. Shi, et al. (2012). “Association of mental health disorders with prescription opioids and high-risk 

opioid use in US veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan.” JAMA 307(9): 940–947. 26 VHA National Center for Patient Safety and Office of Mental Health Operations. “Opioid Therapy Guideline 

Adherence Report.” 

https://securereports3.vssc.med.va.gov/Reports/Pages/Report.aspx?ItemPath=%2fMentalHealth%2fMHOpioid%2f
 

OpioidMatrixReport. Last accessed December 30, 2013. 

VA Office of Inspector General 10 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

clinical encounters. For follow-up contact, we counted either in-person (inpatient care, 

extended care, or outpatient visits) or telephone encounter. We did not count any 

in-person visits to the emergency room or any encounters for reasons that were unlikely 

related to follow-up for opioids, such as for compensation and pension, dental, organ 

donation, or research. 

To take into account specific CPG recommendations for initiation and duration of opioid 

therapy, we assessed the extent to which VA screened and monitored opioid patients in 

alignment with CPG recommendations separately by new and existing patients on 

take-home opioids. We considered a patient as a new patient for FY 2012 if he or she 

was initiated on take-home opioids in FY 2012 and did not fill any take-home opioid 

prescriptions at VA in FY 2011 (that is, at least 1 year without any take-home opioids 

prior to initiation in FY 2012). We designated a patient as an existing patient if he or 

she had filled at least 1 take-home opioid prescription at VA in FY 2011. 

For new patients who were initiated on take-home opioids in FY 2012, we determined 

whether they had received both a: 

(1) UDT within 30 days prior to opioid initiation in FY 2012 and 

(2) follow-up contact within 30 days of initiation. 

All new patients were included in the UDT (1) analysis. We excluded new patients from 

the follow-up contact (2) analysis if they died within 30 days of opioid initiation or if they 

filled their initial prescriptions after September 1, 2012, as they would not have had at 

least 30 days of available follow-up in the FY. 

For all new opioid patients who had at least 30 days of available follow-up in the FY, we 

performed the analyses (both (1) and (2)) for all these patients together and also 

analyzed separately by whether they were diagnosed with baseline substance use. 

For existing patients, we determined whether they had received both: 

(1) an annual UDT and 

(2) a follow-up contact within 6 months of each filled opioid prescription in FY 2012 

that had at least 6 months available for follow-up contact. 

All existing patients were included in the UDT (1) analysis. We counted patients as 

having an annual UDT if we found a UDT record in the FY 2012 VA Laboratory SAS 

data file. For patients who died in FY 2012 and for whom we did not find a UDT in the 

FY, we also checked for a UDT by looking back in FY 2011 for a period that was 

sufficient to satisfy the 1-year timeframe from the date of death. For example, for a 

patient who died on August 31, 2012, and for whom we did not locate a UDT in 

FY 2012, we looked back to the period of September 1–September 30, 2011, for a UDT 

to make up for the missing month of September in order to satisfy the 1-year timeframe 

(that is, September 1, 2011–August 31, 2012, specifically for this patient). 

VA Office of Inspector General 11 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

We excluded existing patients from the follow-up contact (2) analysis if they did not 

have any filled prescriptions that were at least 6 months prior to the end of the follow-up 

period (September 30, 2012, or the patient’s date of death if the patient died in 

FY 2012). 

For all existing opioid patients who had at least 1 filled prescription that was at least 

6 months prior to the end of the follow-up period in the FY, we performed the analyses 

(both (1) and (2)) for all these patients together and also analyzed separately by chronic 

users, as well as by UDT test substance type. 

For informational purposes, for existing patients who had received an annual UDT, we 

further investigated whether any of their UDTs were conducted while they were on 

opioids. If any UDT was conducted within 7 days of the end of the supply days of any 

filled opioids, we considered that the UDT was conducted while they were on opioids. 

We used 7 days to take into account the presence of opioids in the urine for up to 

7 days without any opioid in-take.27 

The CPG specifies that chronic (for more than 1 month, p. 3) opioid therapy is 

absolutely contraindicated in patients with active (not in remission) substance use 

disorders (SUDs) who are not in treatment (p. 25) and should be initiated with caution in 

patients receiving treatment for SUDs (p. 24). Active, regular monitoring of illicit 

substance use and adherence to the prescribed opioid regimen is strongly 

recommended for all patients (p. 56) but is crucial in this high-risk subpopulation. 

We designated a patient as with active SUD if we found any of the following ICD-9-CM 

diagnostic codes for the patient in FY 2012: 291, 292, 303.00–303.02, 303.90–303.92, 

304.00–304.02, 304.10–304.12, 304.20–304.22, 304.30–304.32, 304.40–304.42, 

304.50–304.52, 304.60–304.62, 304.70–304.72, 304.80–304.82, 304.90–304.92, 

305.00–305.02, 305.20–305.22, 305.30–305.32, 305.40–305.42, 305.50–305.52, 

305.60–305.62, 305.70–305.72, 305.80–305.82, 305.90–305.92. 

We considered that an active substance use patient had received treatment for 

substance use if we found any of the following VA codes for the patient in FY 2012: 

• Treating specialty codes: 25–27, 37, 39, 85, 88, 1K, 1L, 1M. 

• Clinic stop codes: 513, 514, 519, 523, 534, 539, 545, 547, 548, 560. 

For all patients with active SUD in FY 2012, we determined whether they had received 

both: 

(1) treatment for SUD and 

(2A) a UDT within 90 days of each filled opioid prescription. 

27 http://www.paineducation.vcu.edu/documents/UDTimmunoassay.pdf. Last accessed December 23, 2013. 

VA Office of Inspector General 12 
 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

For UDT analysis (2A) we excluded active substance use patients who did not have any 

filled opioid prescriptions that were at least 90 days prior to the end of the follow-up 

period (September 30, 2012, or the patient’s date of death if the patient died in 

FY 2012). 

For the subpopulation of active substance use patients who were on opioids for more 

than 90 days in FY 2012, we further determined whether they had received both: 

(1) treatment for SUD and 

(2B) a UDT for every 90 days on opioids. 

Prevalence of Serious Adverse Effects. Increasing use of opioids has been associated 

with increasing rates of opioid-related serious adverse effects.28–35 We determined 

percentages of opioid patients with evidence of a serious adverse effect that may be 

reasonably expected to be related to opioid therapy.36 

We classified a patient with opioid overdose if the patient was diagnosed with an opioid 

or heroin overdose (ICD-9-CM codes: E850.1, E850.2, E935.1, E935.2, E980.0, 965.0, 

E850.0, and E935.0) or had filled any naloxone prescriptions with the following VA 

Internal Entry Numbers (IENs): 02802–02805, 03792, 16015, and 16016.37 

We considered that a patient experienced sedative overdose if the patient was 

diagnosed with any of these ICD-9-CM codes:37 E851, E852, E853.0–E853.2, E853.8, 

E853.9, E937.0, E937.8, E938.0, E939.1, E939.2, E939.4, E939.5, E980.1–E980.3, 

967.0, 967.8, 968.0, and 969.1–969.5. 

We deemed a patient with an acetaminophen overdose if the patient was 

diagnosed with any of these ICD-9-CM codes: E850.4, E935.4, and 965.4 or had filled 

any acetylcysteine prescriptions with the following IENs: 06109–06112, 

14944–14955, 17196, 17544, 17876, 18774, and 19801. 

28 http://www.cdc.gov/about/grand-rounds/archives/2011/pdfs/PHGRRx17feb2011.pdf. Last accessed 

January 27, 2014.

29 Kuehn, B. M. (2010). “Alarming nonfatal overdose rates found for opioids, sedatives, and tranquilizers.” 

JAMA 303(20): 2020–2021. 30 http://oas.samhsa.gov/2k11/DAWN018/DAWN018_HTML.pdf. Last accessed January 27, 2014. 31 Clegg, A. and J. B. Young (2011). “Which medications to avoid in people at risk of delirium: a systematic
 

review.” Age Ageing 40(1): 23–29. 32 http://www.uspharmacist.com/content/d/web_exclusive/c/40386/. Last accessed January 27, 2014. 33 http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6226a3.htm. Last accessed January 27, 2014. 34 VHA Handbook 1160.04, VHA Programs for Veterans With Substance Use Disorders (SUD), March 7, 2012. 35 http://www.healthquality.va.gov/sud/sud_full_601f.pdf. Last accessed January 29, 2014. 36 http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0220_drug_overdose_deaths.html. Last accessed January 9, 2014. 37 VHA National Center for Patient Safety and Office of Mental Health Operations. “Opioid Therapy Guideline 

Adherence Report.” 

https://securereports3.vssc.med.va.gov/Reports/Pages/Report.aspx?ItemPath=%2fMentalHealth%2fMHOpioid%2f
 

OpioidMatrixReport. Last accessed December 30, 2013. 

VA Office of Inspector General 13 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

We designated a patient as having been involved with possible and confirmed suicide 

attempts if the patient was diagnosed with any of these ICD-9-CM codes:37 E950–E959, 

E980.6, E980.8, E981–E984, E988, and V62.84. 

We defined a patient as having experienced drug delirium if the patient was diagnosed 

with any of these ICD-9-CM codes:37 292.1, 292.2, 292.8, and 292.9. 

We identified a patient as having received drug detoxification if we found ICD-9-CM 

procedure codes 94.65 or 94.66 for the patient.37 

Psychosocial Treatment for Pain, Pain Clinic Service, and Medication 

Management/Pharmacy Reconciliation. We determined whether our population of 

opioid patients received psychosocial treatment for pain or Pain Clinic service or had 

prescription management encounters anytime in FY 2012 or after the patient’s first 

opioid prescription. 

Psychotherapy, including cognitive behavioral therapy, is recommended to reduce pain 

and improve function in chronic pain patients.38 We designated a patient as having 

received psychosocial treatment for pain if we found any of the following procedure 

codes39 for the patient, which would indicate mental health treatment, behavioral 

medicine or behavioral health treatment, psychotherapy, and stress management: 

• Current Procedural Terminology (CPT)40 codes: 90801, 90802, 90804–90829, 

90845–90857, 96150–96155, 97532, 98960–98962, 99401–99404, 99411, 99412, 

99510, 4306F. 

• ICD-9-CM procedure codes: 94.31, 94.33, 94.37, 94.38, 94.44, 94.49. 

• Healthcare Common Procedure Coding System (HCPCS)41 codes: H0002, H0004, 

H0017–H0019, H0023–H0025, H0030, H0031, H0032, H0035, H0046, H2001, 

H2012, H2014, H2017–H2020, H2027, G0177, S9454, T2048. 

Thus, our data did not take into account patients who were offered psychosocial 

treatment for pain but declined. 

Treatment of chronic pain requires care to recover or maintain physical, social, and 

occupational function and may include Pain Clinic service. We identified a patient as 

38 Roditi, D. and M. E. Robinson (2011). “The role of psychological interventions in the management of patients 

with chronic pain.” Psychol Res Behav Manag 4: 41–49. 

39 VHA National Center for Patient Safety and Office of Mental Health Operations. “Opioid Therapy Guideline 

Adherence Report.” 

https://securereports3.vssc.med.va.gov/Reports/Pages/Report.aspx?ItemPath=%2fMentalHealth%2fMHOpioid%2f
 

OpioidMatrixReport. Last accessed December 30, 2013. 40 CPT is a code set that is used to report medical procedures and services. 41 HCPCS codes are billing codes used by Medicare and are numbers assigned to every task and service a medical 

practitioner may provide to a Medicare patient. 

VA Office of Inspector General 14 
 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

receiving care from a Pain Clinic if we found any encounters for the patient with the VA 

Clinic Stop Code of 420. 

Opioid patients frequently have complex co-morbid conditions, making them more likely 

to be given multiple medications that can interact dangerously with opioid medications. 

A review of medications by a pharmacist or other health care professional can prevent 

harmful interactions between these medications. We classified a patient as 

receiving medication management/pharmacy reconciliation if we found any39 of these 

CPT codes for the patient: 99605, 99606, 99607, 90862, and 1160F or the Clinic Stop 

Codes 160 or 176. Our data did not take into account medication reconciliation 

performed by primary care providers during clinic visits if it was not recorded as a CPT 

code. 

Exhibit X3 in Appendix A summarizes data files used in our analysis. 

Statistical Analyses 

We performed descriptive data analyses for VA as a whole and separately for each 

VAMC. We summarized variations among VAMC data results using the 5-number 

summaries: minimum, 25th percentile, median, 75th percentile, and maximum. 

For this study, we used VAMC to refer to medical centers and CBOCs that were under 

the same VA facility (Director) administrative leadership. Based on the VA Site 

Tracking (VAST) file, we designated each medical center and each CBOC to 1 of the 

141 VAMCs using its station number. As of December 31, 2012, VHA consisted of 

141 VAMCs that included 151 medical centers and 827 CBOCs.42 

Some patients received take-home opioid prescriptions from more than 1 VAMC during 

FY 2012. For opioid prevalence calculations by VAMC, these patients were counted for 

each VAMC where they received any filled opioid prescriptions. To perform data 

analyses other than opioid prevalence by VAMC, we designated a patient to the VAMC 

that issued the most (filled) take-home opioid prescriptions to the patient in FY 2012. If 

more than one VAMC met this criterion, we assigned the patient to the VAMC (among 

those VAMCs tied for most filled prescriptions) that issued the last (filled) opioid 

prescription in the FY. 

We performed data analyses using SAS statistical software (SAS Institute, Inc., 

Cary, NC), version 9.3 (TS1M2). 

The study was performed in accordance with Quality Standards for Inspection and 

Evaluation published by the Council of the Inspectors General on Integrity and 

Efficiency. 

42 http://www.va.gov/vetdata/docs/Quickfacts/Homepage_slideshow_03_31_13.pdf. Last accessed 

December 30, 2013. 

VA Office of Inspector General 15 
 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Results and Conclusions 

VA dispensed take-home opioids to 453,616 patients during FY 2012 for a total of close 

to 1.72 million filled opioid prescriptions (Exhibit 1). We excluded from our analyses a 

total of 11,072 patients and 38,045 prescriptions (including the 111 duplicate 

prescription records). This accounted for 2.4 percent of the entire FY 2012 patients 

dispensed with take-home opioids. We excluded the 330 patients who were classified 

as DoD patients. Most (97 percent) of the excluded patients were those who had 

received hospice or palliative care in FY 2012 or within 1 year prior to their first 

take-home opioid prescription in FY 2012. Thus, our study population consists of 

442,544 (non-hospice/palliative care) patients who collectively received approximately 

1.68 million take-home opioid prescriptions in FY 2012. These patients received care 

from at least 1 of the 140 VAMCs since Manila VAMC did not have any eligible patients 

for the study. 

Exhibit 1. Exclusions of VA Patients Dispensed with Take-Home Opioids 

in FY 2012 

Patients Prescriptions 

453,616 1,718,006 

11,072 38,045 

0 111 

330 752 

10,742 37,182 

All patients with take-home opioids 

Exclusions (total) 

Duplicate prescription records 

Patients of Department of Defense 

Patients with hospice or palliative care1 

Study population 442,544 1,679,961 1 One year prior to first opioid prescription or in FY 2012. 

1. Prevalence of VA Patients Dispensed Take-Home Opioids 

The 442,544 opioid patients accounted for 7.7 percent of all VA (non-hospice/palliative 

care) patients who had at least 1 outpatient encounter at VA in FY 2012. 

Exhibit 2 indicates that the prevalence of patients dispensed with take-home opioids by 

individual VAMCs ranged from 0.26 percent to 21.8 percent, with the middle 50 percent 

of the VAMCs dispensing opioids to 3.6–10.1 percent of their outpatients. 

VA Office of Inspector General 16 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 2. VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Prevalence of Patients Dispensed with 

Take-Home Opioids in FY 2012 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

2. Baseline Characteristics of VA Take-Home Opioid Patients 

Exhibit 3 shows the baseline (at the first take-home opioid prescription in FY 2012) 

characteristics of the study population combined and separately by whether days on 

take-home opioids in FY 2012 were 90 or less (non-chronic users) or more than 

90 (chronic users). About one third (33.9 percent) of the patients were chronic users. 

A majority (92.5 percent) of the patients were male, which mirrored the gender 

composition of VA patients. The average and the median patient age at their first opioid 

prescription in FY 2012 were 59.4 and 61, respectively (see Exhibit 4 for more details 

on age distributions). 

VA Office of Inspector General 17 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 3. Baseline Characteristics of VA Take-Home Opioid Patients in FY 2012 

All patients with 

take-home 

opioids 

442,544 

# % 

90 days or less 

on opioids 

(non-chronic users) 

292,693 66.1%

# % 

More than 90 days 

on opioids 

(chronic users) 

149,851 33.9% 

# % 

Male 

Age at first opioid prescription in FY 2012 

409,324 92.5 269,322 92.0 140,002 93.4 

Mean (standard deviation) 59.4 (0.02) 59.4 (0.03) 59.4 (0.03) 

Median 61.0 61.0 60.0 

OEF/OIF at first opioid prescription in FY 2012 27,752 6.3 21,263 7.3 6,489 4.3 

Pain diagnosis within 1 year prior to first opioid prescription 388,745 87.8 253,010 86.4 135,735 90.6 

Primary pain site (of non-cancer origin) 386,082 87.2 251,565 85.9 134,517 89.8 

Pain of the nervous system and sense organs 46,541 10.5 26,622 9.1 19,919 13.3 

Mental health diagnosis within 1 year prior to first opioid prescription 284,161 64.2 181,298 61.9 102,863 68.6 

PTSD 88,521 20.0 57,189 19.5 31,332 20.9 

Substance use 

Pain or mental health diagnoses within 1 year prior to first opioid 

65,446 14.8 42,852 14.6 22,594 15.1 

prescription 

Pain and mental health diagnoses within 1 year prior to first opioid 

414,462 93.7 271,538 92.8 142,924 95.4 

prescription 258,444 58.4 162,770 55.6 95,674 63.8 

Pain and PTSD 81,888 18.5 52,389 17.9 29,499 19.7 

Pain and substance use 

Primary pain site and mental health diagnoses within 1 year prior to 

60,384 13.6 39,025 13.3 21,359 14.3 

first opioid prescription 256,692 58.0 161,848 55.3 94,844 63.3 

Primary pain site and PTSD 81,384 18.4 52,142 17.8 29,242 19.5 

Primary pain site and substance use 

Pain of the nervous system and sense organs and mental health 

60,003 13.6 38,825 13.3 21,178 14.1 

diagnoses within 1 year prior to first opioid prescription 36,789 8.3 20,737 7.1 16,052 10.7 

Pain of the nervous system and sense organs and PTSD 13,261 3.0 7,633 2.6 5,628 3.8 

Pain of the nervous system and sense organs and substance use 11,313 2.6 6,566 2.2 4,747 3.2 

Died in FY 2012 7,426 1.7 5,616 1.9 1,810 1.2 

Exhibit 4. Age (At First Opioid Prescription) Distribution of VA Take-Home Opioid 

Patients in FY 2012 

Approximately 1 in every 16 patients (6.3 percent) had served in OEF/OIF. Nearly 

88 percent of the patients were diagnosed with pain within 1 year prior to or on their first 

day dispensed with take-home opioids in FY 2012. We observed that 87 percent of the 

opioid patients were diagnosed with primary pain site of non-cancer origin that could 

result in pain serious enough to warrant an opioid medication. Nearly all (9.9 out of 

10.5 percent) patients diagnosed with pain of the nervous system and sense organs 

were also diagnosed with primary pain site. As expected, both primary pain site and 

VA Office of Inspector General 18 
 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

pain of the nervous system and sense organs were more prevalent among chronic 

users. 

Exhibit 5 gives detailed information on pain diagnoses for the study population. It 

shows that a higher percentage of chronic users was diagnosed with chronic pain 

(8.0 percent versus 5.7 percent) and chronic pain syndrome (5.8 percent versus 

3.2 percent)—a complex syndrome that involves multiple factors. 

Exhibit 5. Percent of Patients Diagnosed with Pain within 1 Year Prior to First 

Take-Home Opioid Prescription in FY 2012 

All patients with 

take-home opioids 

442,544

90 days or less on opioids 

(non-chronic users) 

292,693

More than 90 days on 

opioids (chronic users) 

149,851 

Pain 87.8 86.4 90.6 

Primary pain site 87.2 85.9 89.8 

Back pain 54.6 50.8 62.0 

Arthritis 52.9 52.2 54.3 

Musculoskeletal pain 27.5 27.8 27.0 

Neuropathy 13.8 13.3 14.8 

Visceral pain 13.1 13.9 11.4 

Headaches 9.9 10.0 9.9 

Fractures 5.7 6.1 4.9 

Wound injury 4.0 4.0 3.9 

Other pain 2.9 2.8 3.0 

Reproductive pain 0.39 0.46 0.25 

Generalized pain 0.38 0.36 0.40 

Pain of the nervous system 

and sense organs 10.5 9.1 13.3 

Chronic pain 6.5 5.7 8.0 

Chronic pain syndrome 4.1 3.2 5.8 

Acute pain 0.83 0.90 0.68 

Neoplasm-related pain 0.13 0.14 0.11 

Exhibit 6 gives detailed information on mental health diagnoses. It indicates that more 

than half (64.2 percent) of the opioid patients had been diagnosed with mental health 

issues at the first take-home opioid prescription. Approximately one third (35 percent) 

of the patients had been diagnosed with mood disorders, 1 of 5 with PTSD, and 1 of 

7 (14.8 percent) with substance use. We observed that higher percentages of chronic 

users were consistently diagnosed with each category of the mental health issues 

except for alcohol-related disorders, which was 10.0 percent for chronic users but 

10.7 percent for their counterparts of non-chronic users. While almost 15 percent of the 

entire study population had been diagnosed with substance use, 4 percent43 of the 

population had been diagnosed with both alcohol and drug related disorders. 

43 This was calculated by adding alcohol-related disorders (10.4 percent) plus drug-related disorders (8.4 percent) 

and subtracting substance use (14.8 percent). 

VA Office of Inspector General 19 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 6. Percent of Patients Diagnosed with Mental Health Issues within 1 Year 

Prior to First Take-Home Opioid Prescription in FY 2012 

All patients with 

take-home opioids 

442,544 

90 days or less on opioids 

(non-chronic users) 

292,693 

More than 90 days on 

opioids (chronic users) 

149,851 

Mental health 64.2 61.9 68.6 

Adjustment disorders 5.0 4.9 5.1 

Anxiety disorders excluding PTSD 14.0 13.2 15.6 

PTSD 20.0 19.5 20.9 

Mood disorders 35.0 33.3 38.5 

Excluding major depression 29.9 28.4 32.6 

Major depression 11.3 10.8 12.2 

Personality disorders 1.9 1.9 2.0 

Psychotic disorders 3.1 3.1 3.2 

Psychological pain 1.1 0.87 1.6 

Substance use 14.8 14.6 15.1 

Alcohol-related disorders 10.4 10.7 10.0 

Drug-related disorders 8.4 8.2 8.8 

Nearly 94 percent of the study population had been diagnosed with pain or mental 

health issues and 58.4 percent of patients with both (Exhibit 3). The percentages of 

patients being diagnosed with both pain and mental health issues were 8 points higher 

for chronic users than their counterparts of non-chronic users. 

3. VA Dispensing Patterns of Take-Home Opioids 

Approximately half (52.2 percent) of the study population were new patients in the 

sense that they were initiated on take-home opioid therapy in FY 2012 after not being 

on take-home opioids for at least more than 1 year (Exhibit 7). Seven out of 

10 (69.1 percent) non-chronic users were new patients in contrast to 1 in 

5 (19.1 percent) of their counterparts of chronic users. Nearly 41 percent of the patients 

had been dispensed with 1 prescription, which was composed entirely of the 

61.4 percent of non-chronic users because none of the opioids were allowed to be 

prescribed for more than 90 days in 1 prescription. Patients with 6 or more 

prescriptions were mainly chronic users, which amounted to 69.3 percent of that group. 

Almost all (98.4 percent) patients received their prescriptions from a single VAMC, and 

three quarters of the patient population had all their (filled) prescriptions issued from a 

single prescriber. 

VA Office of Inspector General 20 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 7. VA Dispensing Patterns of Take-Home Opioids in FY 2012 

All patients with 90 days or less on opioids More than 90 days on 

take-home opioids (non-chronic users) opioids (chronic users) 

442,544 292,693 66.1% 149,851 33.9% 

# % # % # % 

No take-home opioids in FY 2011 (new patients) 230,975 52.2 202,282 69.1 28,693 19.1 

Only one opioid prescription per patient 179,677 40.6 179,677 61.4 0 0.00 

Six or more opioid prescriptions per patient 105,145 23.8 1,289 0.44 103,856 69.3 

Only one type of opioids 420,632 95.0 284,253 97.1 136,379 91.0 

All opioid prescriptions from same VAMC1 435,327 98.4 290,029 99.1 145,298 97.0 

All opioid prescriptions from same prescriber 332,856 75.2 252,050 86.1 80,806 53.9 

Morphine equivalent 200 mg/day or more 5,155 1.2 1,278 0.44 3,877 2.6 

Long-acting opioid products 27,920 6.3 9,186 3.1 18,734 12.5 

Early refills2 (of opioids at least 7 days early) 101,805 23.0 19,829 6.8 81,976 54.7 

7–10 days early 39,742 9.0 8,019 2.7 31,723 21.2 

11–14 days early 24,815 5.6 4,725 1.6 20,090 13.4 

More than 14 days early 37,248 8.4 7,085 2.4 30,163 20.1 

3–5 early refills 16,750 3.8 196 0.07 16,554 11.0 

More than 5 early refills 1,488 0.34 8 0.00 1,480 1.0 

Early refills2 (of opioids at least 11 days early) 62,063 14.0 11,810 4.0 50,253 33.5 

3–5 early refills 4,255 1.0 73 0.02 4,182 2.8 

More than 5 early refills 215 0.05 6 0.00 209 0.14 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 2 Prescription of same opioid medication (generic name, route of administration, and dosage form) that was dispensed prior to finishing previous 

supply of the opioid. 

Most (95.0 percent) of the patients were dispensed with a single type of opioid. More 

than 6 percent of the patients received at least 1 long-acting opioid product, with the 

percentage of chronic users being 4 times that of non-chronic users. Opioid dosages 

with a morphine equivalent at least 200 mg/day were dispensed to 1.2 percent of the 

study population, which accounted for 2.6 percent of chronic users and 0.44 percent of 

non-chronic users. 

Refills of opioids at least 7 days early occurred in 23.0 percent of the population, with 

refills of at least 11 days early in 14.0 percent of the population. As expected, early 

refills occurred (at least 8 times) more likely and more frequently among chronic users 

than non-chronic users. 

Exhibit 8 indicates that take-home benzodiazepines were dispensed to 7.4 percent of 

the study population, with the percentage of chronic opioid users being 1.6 times that of 

non-chronic users. We determined that 71 percent of the opioid patients who received 

take-home benzodiazepines were dispensed benzodiazepines concurrently with 

opioids. The percentage of chronic opioid users with concurrent benzodiazepines was 

92.6, and the percentage of non-chronic users was 53.6. 

VA Office of Inspector General 21 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 8. VA Pattern of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids with Concurrent
 

Benzodiazepines and Acetaminophen in FY 2012

All patients with 

take-home opioids 

442,544

# % 

90 days or less on opioids 

(non-chronic users) 

292,693 66.1% 

# % 

More than 90 days on 

opioids (chronic users) 

149,851 33.9% 

# % 

Take-home benzodiazepine prescription 32,833 7.4 

Concurrent benzodiazepine and opioid prescriptions1

 23,314 71.0 

Take-home acetaminophen prescription 408,347 92.3 

Average daily dose at least 4 grams2 8,028 2.0 

At least 1 day dose 4 grams or more2 113,275 27.7 

At least 1 day dose 4 grams or more while on opioids2 93,598 22.9 

Average daily dose exceeding 4 grams 2

 6,724 1.6 

At least 1 day dose exceeding 4 grams 2

 70,498 17.3 

At least 1 day exceeding 4 grams while on opioids2

 55,929 13.7 

18,198 6.2 

9,763 53.6 

278,273 95.1 

4,271 1.5 

54,063 19.4 

37,042 13.3 

3,116 1.1 

34,076 12.2 

21,809 7.8 

14,635 9.8 

13,551 92.6 

130,074 86.8 

3,757 2.9 

59,212 45.5 

56,556 43.5 

3,608 2.8 

36,422 28.0 

34,120 26.2 1 Percentages based on patients with take-home benzodiazepine prescriptions. 2 Percentages based on patients with take-home acetaminophen prescriptions. 

Acetaminophen was given to 92.3 percent of the study patients. We found that 

2.0 percent of them were given an average daily dose of 4 g/day or more. We observed 

that the percentage points of chronic users given either at least 1 day of 

4 grams or more of acetaminophen or at least 1 day of 4 grams or more concurrently 

with opioids were more than double those of non-chronic users. 

In terms of dose exceeding 4 grams (dosages exclude exactly 4 grams) per day, we 

determined that 1.6 percent of the study patients were given an average daily dose that 

exceeded 4 grams. Percentages were reduced over 10 points from 27.7 percent and 

22.9 percent to 17.3 percent and 13.7 percent for at least 1 day that exceeded 4 grams 

and at least 1 day that exceeded 4 grams concurrently with opioids, respectively. 

The Clinical Practice Guideline recommends a bowel regimen for all opioid patients 

(pp. 37 and 67) to manage opioid-related constipation. Exhibit 9 reveals that 

27.9 percent of the patients were dispensed with a laxative in FY 2012 and that 

23.5 percent of the patients were given a laxative on or after the date of their first opioid 

prescription. The practice of dispensing a laxative to opioid patients varied among 

140 VAMCs from 17.6 percent to 61.6 percent for the entire FY 2012 and from 

12.7 percent to 56.0 percent at or after patients’ first opioid prescription. 

Exhibit 9. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1

) Percentages Dispensing a 

Laxative to Take-Home Opioid Patients in FY 2012 

Minimum 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA average 

Prescribed a laxative any time in FY 2012 

Prescribed a laxative on or after the date of first 

opioid dispensing in FY 2012 

17.6 

12.7 

24.3 30.0 35.5 

20.1 25.2 29.0 

61.6 

56.0 

27.9 

23.5 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

VA Office of Inspector General 22 
 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

4. VA Patterns of Screening and Monitoring Opioid Patients 

New Patients on Take-Home Opioids. The Clinical Practice Guideline calls for a urine 

drug test (UDT) prior to initiating opioid therapy (p. 37) and a follow-up visit at least 

every 2–4 weeks after any change in medication regimen (p. 82). We determined that 

only 6.4 percent of the new patients (that is, patients who were not given any take-home 

opioids in FY 2011, which is at least 1 year before initiating their take-home opioid 

therapy) received both a UDT prior to and a follow-up within 30 days of initiating opioid 

therapy in FY 2012 (Exhibit 10). 

Exhibit 10. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1

) Percentages Conducting a 

Urine Drug Test Prior to and/or a Follow-Up within 30 Days of Initial Opioid 

Prescription, New Patients on Take-Home Opioids in FY 2012 

Number of 

VA eligible 

patients 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

Minimum 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA 

average 

Conducted both a urine drug test prior to 

and a follow-up within 30 days of 

initiating opioid therapy 209,843 

Conducted a urine drug test within 

30 days prior to initiating opioid therapy 230,975 

 Patients with substance use disorder2 33,564 

 Patients without substance use disorder 197,411 

Received a follow-up within 30 days of 

initiating opioid therapy 209,843 

Received a follow-up in-person visit 

within 30 days of initiating opioid therapy 209,843 

1.1 3.9 6.1 10.2 32.2 

1.6 4.6 7.3 11.9 32.2 

4.4 13.7 19.3 26.3 57.1 

0.00 2.9 5.0 8.5 28.6 

60.4 71.1 75.6 80.8 94.9 

53.7 68.0 72.7 77.5 94.9 

6.4 

7.6 

20.2 

5.4 

74.0 

71.2 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 2 Diagnosed within 1 year of opioid initiation. 

The very low (6.4 percent) rate of screening and monitoring patients at opioid initiation 

almost exclusively resulted from the very low rate of a UDT. We found that within 

30 days of initiating opioid therapy, nearly three quarters of the patients received a 

follow-up, including 2.8 percent of the patients who received a follow-up call encounter 

alone (without any in-person visits). However, VA conducted a UDT for only 7.6 percent 

of new opioid patients within 30 days prior to initiating the therapy. Even for the 

high-risk group of patients who were diagnosed with baseline substance use disorder 

(SUD), a UDT was performed for only one out of five of them. A UDT was conducted 

for 1 out of 20 patients without SUD. 

Exhibit 11a shows UDT test rates for new patients prior to initial prescription by days on 

opioids. The rates increased from 6.8 percent for those who were on non-chronic opioid 

therapy (30 days or less) to 9.1 percent for those who were on chronic opioid therapy 

(more than 30 days) to 11.1 percent for chronic users (more than 90 days). 

For UDTs conducted within 60 or 90 days of initiating opioid therapy, rates increased to 

10.3 percent and 12.5 percent (Exhibit 11b), respectively. 

VA Office of Inspector General 23 
 

 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 11a. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting 

a Urine Drug Test on Patient within 30 Days Prior to Initial Prescription in 

FY 2012, New Take-Home Opioid Patients, by Days on Opioids 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

Minimum 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA average 

30 days or less on opioids 

More than 30 days on opioids 

More than 90 days on opioids 

0.88 4.3 6.2 9.5 36.6 

1.0 5.4 9.3 15.0 36.8 

0.00 6.5 11.6 19.0 100.0 

6.8 

9.1 

11.1 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Exhibit 11b. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting a 

Urine Drug Test within 60 or 90 Days Prior to Initial Opioid Prescription, 

New Patients on Take-Home Opioids in FY 2012 

Number of 

VA eligible 

patients 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

Minimum 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA 

average 

Conducted a urine drug test within 60 days 

prior to initiating opioid therapy 230,975 

 Patients with substance use disorder2 33,564 

 Patients without substance use disorder 197,411 

Conducted a urine drug test within 90 days 

prior to initiating opioid therapy 230,975 

 Patients with substance use disorder2 33,564 

 Patients without substance use disorder 197,411 

2.1 6.7 9.9 15.8 38.3 

5.8 19.4 25.8 34.0 63.6 

0.00 4.2 6.8 11.2 33.6 

2.6 8.3 12.1 18.3 45.5 

9.1 23.7 30.7 40.3 71.4 

0.00 5.5 8.0 13.8 44.7 

10.3 

26.7 

7.5 

12.5 

31.8 

9.2 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 2 Diagnosed within 1 year of opioid initiation. 

We observed broad variation among 140 VAMCs’ practice on this measure, ranging 

from 1.1 percent to 32.2 percent, with the middle 50 percent of the VAMCs from 

3.9 percent to 10.2 percent (Exhibits 10 and 12). See Exhibits 13–16 for more details. 

Exhibit 12. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting a 

Urine Drug Test Prior to and a Follow-Up within 30 Days of Initial Prescription in 

FY 2012, New Patients on Take-Home Opioids 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

VA Office of Inspector General 24 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 13. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting a 

Follow-Up within 30 Days of Initiating Take-Home Opioid Therapy in FY 2012, 

New Patients on Take-Home Opioids 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Exhibit 14. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting a 

Urine Drug Test within 30 Days Prior to Initiating Take-Home Opioid Therapy in 

FY 2012, New Patients on Take-Home Opioids 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

VA Office of Inspector General 25 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 15. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting a 

Urine Drug Test on Patient within 30 Days Prior to Initiating Take-Home Opioid 

Therapy in FY 2012, New Take-Home Opioid Patients with a 

Substance Use Disorder 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Exhibit 16. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting a 

Urine Drug Test on Patient within 30 Days Prior to Initial Prescription in FY 2012, 

New Take-Home Opioid Patients without a Substance Use Disorder 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Existing Patients on Take-Home Opioids. The Clinical Practice Guideline recommends 

a UDT randomly at follow-up visits to confirm the appropriate use of opioids (p. 37) and 

a follow-up visit at least once every 1–6 months for the duration of therapy (p. 82). We 

VA Office of Inspector General 26 
 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

determined that only 37.0 percent of the existing opioid patients received both an 

annual UDT and a follow-up within 6 months of each filled opioid prescription, varying 

extensively from 4.2 percent to 91.0 percent among VAMCs (Exhibits 17 and 18). 

Exhibit 17. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1

) Percentages Conducting a 

Follow-Up within 6 Months of Each Opioid Prescription in FY 2012 and an Annual 

Urine Drug Test, Existing Patients on Take-Home Opioids (175,403 Patients), 

by Test Substance Type 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

Minimum 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA average 

Follow-up within 6-months and any annual urine drug test 

Follow-up within 6-months and test for morphine or heroin 

Follow-up within 6-months and test for non-morphine opioid 

compound

Follow-up within 6-months and test for other non-opioid 

abusable substance 

4.2 24.9 37.6 50.3 91.0 

0.85 20.3 32.8 47.8 86.8 

0.51 8.8 21.7 39.4 84.1 

4.2 24.7 36.6 50.2 90.8 

37.0 

33.2 

20.7 

36.8 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Exhibit 18. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting a 

Follow-Up within 6 Months of Each Opioid Prescription in FY 2012 and an Annual 

Urine Drug Test, Existing Patients on Take-Home Opioids 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

The low rate of monitoring opioid patients using both an annual UDT and 

6-month follow-up resulted mainly from the low rate of annual UDT (Exhibit 19). We 

observed that 93.2 percent (including 1.6 percent of the patients who had only follow-up 

calls) of existing patients had a follow-up within 6 months of each filled opioid 

prescription, ranging from 83.8 percent to 100.0 percent among 140 VAMCs. 

Exhibit 19 gives the distribution of VAMC rates on conducting a follow-up within 

6 months of each filled opioid prescription in FY 2012. 

VA Office of Inspector General 27 
 

 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 19. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting a 

Follow-Up within 6 Months of Each Opioid Prescription in FY 2012, 

Existing Patients on Take-Home Opioids 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

In contrast, we found that VA conducted an annual UDT for only 37.9 percent of existing 

opioid patients (Exhibits 20 and 21), which accounted for 40.9 percent of the chronic 

opioid users and 33.7 percent of the non-chronic users. We observed wide variation of 

VAMCs practice on an annual UDT, ranging from 4.4 percent to 87.6 percent. 

Exhibit 20. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1

) Percentages Conducting an 

Annual Urine Drug Test, FY 2012 Existing Patients on Take-Home Opioids, 

by Test Substance Type and Days on Opioids 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

Minimum 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA 

average 

All patients (211,569) 

Any urine drug tests 4.4 25.7 39.5 51.7 87.6 37.9 

Test for morphine or heroin 0.95 21.2 33.4 48.0 87.1 33.8 

Test for non-morphine opioid compound 0.45 8.2 22.4 40.1 82.8 21.1 

Test for other non-opioid abusable substance 4.4 25.3 38.4 51.3 87.6 37.7 

Patients on opioids more than 90 days (121,158) 

Any urine drug tests 3.4 27.0 41.1 57.9 93.1 40.9 

Test for morphine or heroin 0.80 22.5 36.7 55.7 92.0 37.0 

Test for non-morphine opioid compound 0.00 9.2 23.3 43.8 90.3 23.9 

Test for other non-opioid abusable substance 2.5 27.0 40.6 57.0 93.1 40.7 

Patients on opioids 90 days or less (90,411) 

Any urine drug tests 3.6 23.7 34.1 44.7 81.9 33.7 

Test for morphine or heroin 0.75 18.3 30.7 42.6 81.9 29.5 

Test for non-morphine opioid compound 0.35 6.5 20.5 35.4 78.6 17.4 

Test for other non-opioid abusable substance 3.6 23.6 33.9 44.2 81.9 33.6 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

VA Office of Inspector General 28 
 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 21. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting 

an Annual Urine Drug Test, FY 2012 Existing Patients on Take-Home Opioids 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Although most annual UDTs included all three test substance types, the test for 

non-morphine opioid compound was least performed when compared with the test for 

morphine or heroin and the test for other non-opioid abusable substance. We found 

that approximately 60 percent of the UDTs were conducted while patients were on 

opioids, regardless of test substance type (Exhibit 22). Exhibits 21 and 23–25 give 

more details on VAMC patterns of conducting an annual UDT. 

Exhibit 22. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting an 

Annual Urine Drug Test, FY 2012 Existing Take-Home Opioid Patients Who 

Received an Annual Urine Drug Test While on Opioids, by Test Substance Type 

Number of 

VA eligible 

patients Minimum 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA 

average 

Any urine drug tests 80,095 19.2 51.5 59.0 68.4 88.9 59.6 

Test for morphine or heroin 71,480 4.5 47.4 58.2 67.6 88.6 60.1 

Test for non-morphine opioid compound 44,612 10.0 47.0 57.4 70.2 90.4 61.7 

Test for other non-opioid abusable substance 79,739 18.9 51.7 59.0 67.9 88.8 59.5 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

VA Office of Inspector General 29 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 23. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting 

an Annual Urine Drug Test, FY 2012 Existing Take-Home Opioid Patients Who 

Were on Opioids More than 90 Days 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Exhibit 24. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting 

an Annual Urine Drug Test, FY 2012 Existing Take-Home Opioid Patients Who 

Were on Opioids 90 Days or Less 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

VA Office of Inspector General 30 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 25. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting 

an Annual Urine Drug Test, FY 2012 Existing Take-Home Opioid Patients Who 

Received an Annual Urine Drug Test While on Opioids 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Active (Not in Remission) Substance Use Patients. The Clinical Practice Guideline 

recommends that active (not in remission) substance use patients receive SUD 

treatment concurrently with urine drug testing as an adjunctive tool at regular intervals 

(p. 90). Among the study population, 13.1 percent were diagnosed with active 

substance use (Exhibit 26). For the active substance use patients who filled 1 or more 

take-home opioid prescriptions at least 90 days prior to the end of follow-up, we 

determined that only 10.5 percent received both treatment for substance use and a UDT 

within 90 days of each filled opioid prescription (Exhibit 27). The percentages of 

VAMCs treating active substance use patients and performing at least 1 UDT within 

90 days of each filled opioid prescription varied from 0.00 to 44.8. 

VA Office of Inspector General 31 
 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 26. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages of Take-Home 

Opioid Patients Who Were Diagnosed with Active Substance Use in FY 2012 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

The low rate for treating substance use and conducting UDTs regularly for active 

substance use patients resulted from both low rates of treatment and UDT. We found 

that 31.2 percent of the active substance use patients received an SUD treatment in 

FY 2012, with treatment percentages ranging from 8.3 to 59.5 among 140 VAMCs 

(Exhibits 27 and 28); 19.2 percent of the patients received at least 1 UDT within 90 days 

of every (filled) prescription of take-home opioids (Exhibits 27 and 29), with the test 

percentages varying from 2.2 to 52.3 among VAMCs. 

Exhibit 27. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Treating 

Patients for Substance Use and Conducting at Least 1 Urine Drug Test within 

90 Days of Each Filled Opioid Prescription in FY 2012, 

Active Substance Use Patients 

Number of 

VA eligible 

patients Minimum 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA 

average 

Treating active substance use patients 

and conducting a urine drug test within 

90 days of each filled opioid prescription 47,736 0.00 6.2 9.6 13.7 44.8 10.5 

Treating active substance use patients 57,966 8.3 24.9 30.5 37.0 59.5 31.2 

Conducting a urine drug test within 

90 days of each filled opioid prescription 47,736 2.2 13.2 18.0 24.1 52.3 19.2 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

VA Office of Inspector General 32 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 28. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Treating 

Patients for Substance Use in FY 2012, Active Substance Use Patients 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Exhibit 29. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting at 

Least 1 Urine Drug Test within 90 Days of Each Filled Opioid Prescription in 

FY 2012, Active Substance Use Patients 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Even for the subpopulation of 19,724 active substance use patients who were on 

opioids for more than 90 days in FY 2012, we determined that only 18.8 percent of them 

received both substance use treatment and regular 90-day UDTs, and the percentages 

of VAMCs both treating active substance use and performing at least 1 UDT for every 

90 days of opioids varied from 0.00 to 82.7 (Exhibit 30). In particular, 55.2 percent of 

this subpopulation of active substance use patients received at least 1 UDT per 90 days 

VA Office of Inspector General 33 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

of take-home opioids (Exhibits 30 and 31), with the VAMCs’ test percentages varying 

from 13.3 to 100.0. The percent of this subpopulation receiving an SUD treatment was 

26.5, with treatment percentages ranging from 5.4 to 85.3 among 140 VAMCs 

(Exhibit 30). 

Exhibit 30. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1

) Percentages Treating 

Patients for Substance Use and Conducting at Least 1 Urine Drug Test for Every 

90 Days on Opioids in FY 2012, Active Substance Use Patients Who Were on 

Take-Home Opioids More than 90 Days in FY 2012 (19,724 Patients) 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

Minimum 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA average 

Treating active substance use patients and 

conducting a urine drug test for every 90 days 

on opioids 

Treating active substance use patients 

Conducting a urine drug test for every 90 days 

on opioids 

0.00 12.5 17.7 22.8 82.7 

5.4 18.4 25.5 31.1 85.3 

13.3 42.6 57.1 69.4 100.0 

18.8 

26.5 

55.2 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Exhibit 31. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Conducting a 

Urine Drug Test for Every 90 Days on Opioids, Active Substance Use Patients 

Who Were on Take-Home Opioids More than 90 Days in FY 2012 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

5. VA Patterns of Providing Psychosocial Treatment for Pain, Pain 

Clinic Service, and Medication Management/Pharmacy Reconciliation 

for Take-Home Opioid Patients 

Exhibit 32 gives summaries, and Exhibits 33–35 show the distributions of VAMCs 

providing psychosocial treatment for pain, Pain Clinic service, and medication 

management/pharmacy reconciliation for the study population. In FY 2012, 

45.2 percent of the opioid patients received at least 1 psychosocial treatment for pain, 

VA Office of Inspector General 34 
 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

and 35.1 percent received this treatment after their first opioid prescription. Although up 

to 93.7 percent of the patients were provided psychosocial treatments for pain by 

VAMCs, three quarters of the VAMCs gave this treatment to 26.9–52.1 percent of their 

patients in FY 2012. 

Exhibit 32. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1

) Percentages Providing 

Psychosocial Treatment for Pain, Pain Clinic Service, and Medication 

Management/Pharmacy Reconciliation for Take-Home Opioid Patients in FY 2012 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

Minimum 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA average 

Anytime in FY 2012 

Psychosocial treatment for pain 

Pain Clinic 

Medication management/pharmacy reconciliation 

After first opioid prescription in FY 2012 

Psychosocial treatment for pain 

Pain Clinic 

Medication management/pharmacy reconciliation 

26.9 41.2 45.6 52.1 93.7 

0.34 4.7 9.4 15.0 73.5 

6.4 30.8 40.7 54.7 86.5 

12.1 30.7 35.8 41.4 79.8 

0.24 3.6 7.3 11.7 62.2 

5.2 21.6 29.4 40.8 75.0 

45.2 

8.7 

38.8 

35.1 

6.8 

29.2 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Three quarters of the VAMCs provided Pain Clinic service to 15.0 percent or less of 

their opioid patients in the FY, although 1 VAMC provided this service to 73.5 percent of 

its patients. Across the VAMCs, 8.7 percent of the patients received the service. 

Nearly 40 (38.8) percent of the patients received medication management or pharmacy 

reconciliation during the FY, with the percentages varying from 6.4 to 86.5 across the 

VAMCs. The middle half of the VAMCs provided the service to 30.8–54.7 percent of 

their patients. 

Exhibit 33. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Providing 

Psychosocial Treatment for Pain for Take-Home Opioid Patients in FY 2012 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

VA Office of Inspector General 35 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit 34. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Providing 

Pain Clinic Service for Take-Home Opioid Patients in FY 2012 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Exhibit 35. Distribution of VA Medical Center (VAMC1) Percentages Providing 

Medication Management/Pharmacy Reconciliation for Take-Home Opioid Patients 

in FY 2012 

1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

6. Prevalence of Serious Adverse Effects Among Take-Home Opioid 

Patients 

Exhibit 36 shows the prevalence of serious adverse effects among the opioid patients 

that may be reasonably expected as a negative consequence of opioid therapy. Less 

VA Office of Inspector General 36 
 

 

 

 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

than 1 percent of the population experienced each of these adverse effects anytime 

during the FY except for the adverse effect of possible and confirmed suicide attempts, 

which was evident for 2.0 percent of the opioid patients. 

Exhibit 36. Variations of VA Medical Center (VAMC1

) Percentages of Serious 

Adverse Effects in Patients Dispensed with Take-Home Opioids in FY 2012 

Variations in VAMC percentages 

Minimum 

25th 

percentile Median 

75th 

percentile Maximum 

VA average 

Anytime in FY 2012 

Any of the following adverse effects 1.0 2.5 3.4 4.2 9.6 3.3 

Opioid overdose 0.00 0.23 0.40 0.72 4.0 0.49 

Sedative overdose 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.16 0.72 0.10 

Drug delirium 0.00 0.45 0.70 0.96 3.8 0.85 

Drug detoxification 0.00 0.04 0.12 0.26 2.2 0.16 

Acetaminophen overdose 0.00 0.10 0.24 0.46 2.6 0.30 

Possible and confirmed suicide attempts 0.40 1.5 2.0 2.6 5.9 2.0 

After first opioid prescription 

Any of the following adverse effects 0.63 1.5 2.2 2.9 7.4 2.2 

Opioid overdose 0.00 0.17 0.29 0.50 2.5 0.33 

Sedative overdose 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.11 0.72 0.07 

Drug delirium 0.00 0.23 0.43 0.67 2.5 0.55 

Drug detoxification 0.00 0.02 0.08 0.18 1.1 0.11 

Acetaminophen overdose 0.00 0.04 0.14 0.27 2.2 0.19 

Possible and confirmed suicide attempts 0.11 0.85 1.3 1.8 4.4 1.3 1

 Includes all medical centers and Community-Based Outpatient Clinics that are under the same facility (Director) administrative leadership. 

Conclusions 

We integrated and analyzed the VA administrative files, as well as the Death 

Master Files of the Social Security Administration, for the population of nearly half a 

million VA patients who filled at least 1 oral or transdermal opioid prescription from VA 

for self-administration at home in FY 2012. We followed retrospectively the 

442,544 patients in the population—who did not receive any hospice or palliative care 

during the FY or within 1 year prior to their first take-home opioid prescription—for their 

experience with the provision of VA opioid therapy. This population encompassed 

some OEF/OIF era veterans, as well as veterans from other non-OEF/OIF service eras, 

such as Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. As a result, the outcomes that we 

observed in this population may be different from those of OEF/OIF veterans only.44 

In this large-scale, population-based study of take-home opioid patients who did not 

receive any hospice or palliative care during FY 2012 or within 1 year prior to their first 

filled take-home opioid prescription in the FY, we found that 7.7 percent of VA patients 

were on take-home opioids in FY 2012. The VAMC prevalence ranged from 

0.26 percent to 21.8 percent. Because the decision to prescribe take-home opioids 

should reflect individual patients’ clinical needs, higher VAMC prevalence alone does 

not necessarily indicate overprescribing by the VAMC. 

Approximately 87 percent of the opioid patients were diagnosed with primary pain site of 

non-cancer origin that could result in pain serious enough to warrant an opioid 

44 Seal, K. H., Y. Shi, et al. (2012). “Association of mental health disorders with prescription opioids and high-risk 

opioid use in US veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan.” JAMA 307(9): 940–947. 

VA Office of Inspector General 37 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

medication. Nearly all (9.9 out of 10.5 percent) patients diagnosed with pain of the 

nervous system and sense organs were also diagnosed with primary pain site. Six out 

of 10 patients had been diagnosed with mental health issues, one third with mood 

disorders, 1 of 5 with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and 1 of 7 with substance 

use. Nearly 94 percent of the study population had been diagnosed with either pain or 

mental health issues and 58.4 percent with both. We defined pain as either primary 

pain site of non-cancer origin that could result in pain serious enough to warrant an 

opioid medication or pain of the nervous system and sense organs, which might not 

contain every pain diagnosis. 

Approximately half of the study population were new patients in the sense that they 

were initiated on take-home opioid therapy during FY 2012 after not having been on 

take-home opioids for at least more than 1 year. Seven out of 10 of the non-chronic 

(90 days or less on take-home opioids in FY 2012) users were new patients in contrast 

to 1 in 5 of the chronic users (more than 90 days on take-home opioids in FY 2012). 

Nearly 41 percent of the study population had been dispensed with 1 prescription, which 

was composed entirely of the 61.4 percent of non-chronic users because none of the 

opioids were allowed to be prescribed for more than 90 days in 1 prescription. Patients 

with 6 or more prescriptions were mainly chronic users, which amounted to 69.3 percent 

of that group. Thus, defining long-term opioid therapy as 6 filled prescriptions45 would 

include approximately only 70 percent of the chronic users and very few non-chronic 

users. 

Opioid dosages with a morphine equivalent of at least 200 mg/day were dispensed to 

1.2 percent of the study population, which accounted for 2.6 percent of chronic users 

and 0.44 percent of non-chronic users. Because the goal of pain management is to 

decrease pain to a level that allows the patient to continue routine activities, and there is 

no maximum dose of opioids, the right dose of opioids is the dose that controls pain so 

that the patient is functional. An opioid dosage of at least 200 mg/day morphine 

equivalent alone is not an indicative of inappropriate prescribing. 

We defined early refill of opioid prescriptions as the same opioid medication 

(standardized based on generic name, route of administration, and dosage form) that 

was dispensed before the end of any prior prescriptions. Researchers have used early 

refill of more than 7 days as a proxy of high-risk opioid behavior.46 We found that refills 

of opioids at least 7 days early occurred in 23.0 percent of the population, with refills of 

at least 11 days early occurring in 14.0 percent of the population. As expected, early 

refills were (at least 8 times) more likely and occurred more frequently among chronic 

users than non-chronic users. 

The concurrent use of benzodiazepines and opioids can be dangerous because opioids 

and benzodiazepines can depress the central nervous system and thereby affect heart 

rhythm, slow respiration, and even lead to death. Benzodiazepines have been strongly 

45 Krebs, E. E., D. C. Ramsey, et al. (2011). “Primary care monitoring of long-term opioid therapy among veterans
 

with chronic pain.” Pain Med 12(5): 740–746. 46 Seal, K. H., Y. Shi, et al. (2012). “Association of mental health disorders with prescription opioids and high-risk 

opioid use in US veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan.” JAMA 307(9): 940–947. 

VA Office of Inspector General 38 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

associated with death from opioid overdose47 and with an increased risk of death due to 

methadone toxicity.48 We found that take-home benzodiazepines were dispensed to 

7.4 percent of the study population, with the percentage of chronic opioid users being 

1.6 times that of the non-chronic users. We determined that 71 percent of the opioid 

patients who received take-home benzodiazepines were dispensed benzodiazepines 

concurrently with opioids. The percentage of chronic opioid users with concurrent 

benzodiazepines was 92.6, and the percentage of non-chronic users was 53.6. 

Acetaminophen poisoning is a leading cause of liver toxicity,49 and “Overdoses from 

prescription products containing acetaminophen account for nearly half of all cases of 

acetaminophen-related liver failure in the U.S., many of which result in liver transplant or 

death.”50 We determined that take-home acetaminophens were given to 92.3 percent of 

the study patients and that 2.0 percent of them were given an average daily dose of 

4 g/day or more. We found that 45.5 percent of chronic users were given at least 1 day 

dosage of 4 grams or more of acetaminophen and that 43.5 percent were given at least 

1 day dosage of 4 grams or more concurrently with opioids, which were more than 

double those (19.4 percent and 13.3 percent, respectively) of non-chronic users. 

The Clinical Practice Guideline recommends a bowel regimen for all opioid patients to 

manage opioid-related constipation. We found that 27.9 percent of the patients were 

dispensed with a laxative in FY 2012 and that 23.5 percent of the patients were given a 

laxative on or after the date of their first opioid prescription. The practice of dispensing 

a laxative to opioid patients varied among 140 VAMCs, from 17.6 percent to 

61.6 percent for the entire FY 2012 and from 12.7 percent to 56.0 percent at or after 

patients’ first opioid prescription. 

Patients sometimes do not take opioids as prescribed or use non-prescribed opioids. A 

urine drug test (UDT) is useful for assessing adherence to therapy and detecting illicit 

drug use. The Clinical Practice Guideline calls for a UDT prior to initiating opioid 

therapy and a follow-up contact at least every 2–4 weeks after any change in 

medication regimen. We measured whether new opioid patients—who were initiated 

take-home opioids in FY 2012 after not having been on take-home opioids for at least 

more than 1 year—received both a UDT prior to and a follow-up within 30 days of 

initiating their opioid therapy in FY 2012. We determined that only 6.4 percent of the 

new patients received both a UDT prior to and a follow-up within 30 days. We observed 

broad variation among 140 VAMCs’ practice on this measure, ranging from 1.1 percent 

to 32.2 percent, with the middle 50 percent of the VAMCs from 3.9 percent to 

10.2 percent. 

47 Toblin, R. L., L. J. Paulozzi, et al. (2010). “Mental illness and psychotropic drug use among prescription drug
 

overdose deaths: a medical examiner chart review.” J Clin Psychiatry 71(4): 491–496. 48 Caplehorn, J. R. and O. H. Drummer (2002). “Fatal methadone toxicity: signs and circumstances, and the role of
 

benzodiazepines.” Aust N Z J Public Health 26(4): 358–362; discussion 362–353. 

49 Larson, A. M., J. Polson, et al. (2005). “Acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure: results of a United States 

multicenter, prospective study.” Hepatology 42(6): 1364–1372. 50 http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/UCM239891.pdf. Last accessed 

November 27, 2013.
 

VA Office of Inspector General 39 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

This very low (6.4 percent) VA rate of screening and monitoring patients almost 

exclusively resulted from the very low rate of a UDT. Although nearly three quarters of 

the patients received a follow-up contact within 30 days of initiating opioid therapy, only 

7.6 percent of the patients had a UDT within 30 days prior to initiating therapy. Even for 

the high-risk group of patients who were diagnosed with substance use disorder (SUD) 

within 1 year prior to the initiation of opioid therapy, a UDT was performed for only 1 out 

of 5. 

The Clinical Practice Guideline requires routine and random UDTs to confirm the 

appropriate use of opioids by patients and a follow-up contact at least once every 

1–6 months for the duration of opioid therapy. We measured whether existing opioid 

patients—who were on take-home opioids at least from FY 2011—received both an 

annual UDT and a follow-up contact within 6 months of each filled opioid prescription. 

We determined that only 37.0 percent of the existing opioid patients received both an 

annual UDT and a follow-up contact within 6 months of each filled opioid prescription, 

varying extensively from 4.2 percent to 91.0 percent among VAMCs. 

The low (37.0 percent) VA rate of monitoring opioid patients using both an annual UDT 

and a 6-month follow-up contact resulted mainly from the low rate of an annual UDT. 

We found that 93.2 percent of the existing patients had at least 1 follow-up contact 

within 6 months of each filled opioid prescription. In contrast, VA conducted an annual 

UDT for only 37.9 percent of the existing opioid patients. We observed wide variation of 

VAMCs’ practice of conducting an annual UDT, ranging from 4.4 percent to 

87.6 percent. Even for the chronic (more than 90 days on take-home opioids in 

FY 2012) opioid users, the annual UDT rate was only 40.9 percent, which was about 

7 percentage points higher than the rate for the non-chronic (90 days or less on 

take-home opioids in FY 2012) users (33.7 percent). 

We found that 13.1 percent of the study population was diagnosed with active 

substance use. The Clinical Practice Guideline specifies that chronic (for more than 

1 month) opioid therapy is absolutely contraindicated in patients with active (not in 

remission) SUDs who are not in treatment. It recommends that active substance use 

patients receive SUD treatment concurrently with urine drug testing as an adjunctive 

tool at regular intervals. For the active substance use patients who had at least 90 days 

available for follow-up in FY 2012, we measured whether they received both a treatment 

for substance use and a UDT within 90 days of each filled opioid prescription. We 

determined that only 10.5 percent received both a treatment for substance use and a 

UDT within 90 days of each filled opioid prescription. The percentages of VAMCs 

varied from 0.00 to 44.8. 

The low (10.5 percent) VA rate for treating substance use and conducting regular UDTs 

for active substance use patients resulted from both low rates of treatment and UDTs. 

We found that 31.2 percent of the active substance use patients received an SUD 

treatment in FY 2012, ranging from 8.3 percent to 59.5 percent among 140 VAMCs. 

We determined that 19.2 percent of the patients received at least 1 UDT within 90 days 

of each filled prescription of take-home opioids, with the UDT percentages varying from 

2.2 to 52.3 among VAMCs. Even for the subpopulation of 19,724 active substance use 

VA Office of Inspector General 40 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

patients who were on opioids for more than 90 days in FY 2012, we determined that 

only 18.8 percent of them received both an SUD treatment in the FY and a UDT for 

each 90 days on opioids, with VAMC percentages ranging from 0.00 to 82.7. 

Psychotherapy, including cognitive behavioral therapy, is recommended to reduce pain 

and improve function in chronic pain patients. We found that 45.2 percent of the opioid 

patients received at least 1 psychosocial treatment for pain and that 35.1 percent of 

these patients received this treatment after their first filled opioid prescription in 

FY 2012. The VAMC percentages for providing psychosocial treatments for pain 

ranged from 26.9 to 93.7 in FY 2012. If patients were offered psychosocial treatment 

for pain but declined, our data did not capture this. 

Treatment of chronic pain involves a stepped care approach oriented toward recovering 

or maintaining physical, social, and occupational function. This approach requires 

increasing levels of expertise dependent upon the complexity of the pain concerns of 

the individual veteran. In the most complex cases, such care will involve a broad array 

of specialty rehabilitation, pain medicine, surgical, and complementary and alternative 

medicine services. Referral to a Pain Clinic may be another approach to care. We 

determined that 8.7 percent of the VA patients who had been prescribed opioids 

received care from a VA Pain Clinic in FY 2012. Three quarters of the VAMCs provided 

Pain Clinic service to 15.0 percent or less of their opioid patients in the FY, although 

1 VAMC provided this specialty Pain Clinic service to 73.5 percent of its patients. Our 

data did not capture all information about the broad array of specialty pain management 

services, including consultative input from a Pain Clinic, if they were not coded as Pain 

Clinic service. 

Opioid patients frequently have complex co-morbid conditions, making them more likely 

to be given multiple medications that can interact dangerously with opioid medications. 

A review of medications by a pharmacist or other health care professional can prevent 

harmful interactions between these medications. We found that 38.8 percent of the 

opioid patients received medication management or pharmacy reconciliation during the 

FY, with the percentages varying from 6.4 to 86.5 across the 140 VAMCs. The middle 

half of the VAMCs provided the service to 30.8–54.7 percent of their opioid patients. 

Increasing use of opioids has been associated with increasing rates of opioid-related 

serious adverse effects. We determined percentages of opioid patients with evidence of 

a serious adverse effect that may be reasonably expected to be related to opioid 

therapy for the following six serious adverse effects: (1) opioid overdose, (2) sedative 

overdose, (3) drug delirium, (4) drug detoxification, (5) acetaminophen overdose, and 

(6) possible and confirmed suicide attempts. We found that less than 1 percent of the 

population experienced each of these adverse effects during the FY, except for the 

adverse effect of possible and confirmed suicide attempts that was evident in 

2.0 percent of the opioid patients. 

We defined days on opioids (or acetaminophen or benzodiazepines) by counting 

overlapping supply days from different prescriptions once only rather than just taking a 

simple sum of the number of supply days from all filled prescriptions as in the 

VA Office of Inspector General 41 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

literature.51,52 Although the computation is much more complex, our definition of days 

on opioids better reflects the physical days a patient should be on opioids through 

taking into account both partially and totally overlapping prescriptions. Totally 

overlapping prescriptions may result from either intentional combination use of different 

types of opioids (for example, morphine and hydrocodone) or unintentional combination 

use of the same type of opioids to attain dosages that are not readily available by 

manufacturers (for example, to reach a daily dose of 85 mg methadone, a patient may 

be given both a filled prescription of 3 tablets of METHADONE HCL 5MG TAB and a 

filled prescription of 7 tablets of METHADONE HCL 10MG TAB simultaneously). 

Because days on opioids are less than or equal to the simple sum of the supply days, 

our calculated daily doses using days on opioids (as the denominator) are greater than 

or equal to those calculated based on just a simple sum of the supply days. Similarly, 

our numbers of chronic users (more than 90 days on opioids) are less than or equal to 

those calculated based on just a simple sum of the supply days. 

We counted a clinical encounter as a follow-up contact for opioid therapy whether or not 

patients were assessed for effectiveness of opioid therapy, adverse effects, and 

adherence to therapy. These encounters were either in-person (inpatient care, 

extended care, or outpatient visit) or by telephone. They did not include any in-person 

visits to the emergency room or any encounters for reasons that were unlikely related to 

follow-up for opioids, such as for compensation and pension, dental, organ donation, or 

research. 

We assessed VA FY 2012 patterns of dispensing take-home opioids and monitoring 

patients who were treated with take-home opioids. This cross-sectional evaluation 

provided us with a snapshot of VA FY 2012 practice for the population of all 

non-hospice/palliative care patients who had at least 1 take-home opioid fill in the FY, 

regardless of the difference in time when they were initiated on and ended take-home 

opioid therapy. Because of the nature of cross-sectional data, our definition of chronic 

users of opioids (more than 90 days) is relevant only to the given time period. For 

example, the non-chronic (90 days or less) users in FY 2012 would really be chronic 

users if they were initiated on opioid therapy during the 4th quarter of FY 2012 (that is, 

new patients in FY 2012) and continued the therapy through FY 2013. This would also 

apply to the non-chronic users in FY 2012 if they were initiated on and continued with 

therapy through FY 2011 (that is, existing patients in FY 2012) but ended prior to the 

2nd quarter of FY 2012. Similarly, chronic users in FY 2012 would not be chronic users 

in FY 2013 if they were on take-home opioids for 90 days or less in FY 2013. (See 

Exhibit X4 in Appendix A for examples.) Our results by chronic and non-chronic users 

should be viewed within the context of this limitation that is common to cross-sectional 

studies. For this reason, this study included all patients, whether on chronic (more than 

1 month as defined by the CPG, p. 3) or non-chronic take-home opioid therapy. 

51 Seal, K. H., Y. Shi, et al. (2012). “Association of mental health disorders with prescription opioids and high-risk 

opioid use in US veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan.” JAMA 307(9): 940–947. 52 Edlund, M. J., B. C. Martin, et al. (2010). “Risks for opioid abuse and dependence among recipients of chronic 

opioid therapy: results from the TROUP study.” Drug Alcohol Depend 112(1-2): 90–98. 

VA Office of Inspector General 42 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Recommendations 

1. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that the practice of 

prescribing acetaminophen is in compliance with acceptable standards. 

2. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that VA’s practice 

of routine and random urine drug tests prior to initiating and during take-home opioid 

therapy to confirm the appropriate use of opioids is in alignment with acceptable 

standards. 

3. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that follow-up 

evaluations of patients on take-home opioids are performed timely. 

4. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that opioid patients 

with active (not in remission) substance use receive treatment for substance use 

concurrently with urine drug tests. 

5. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that VA’s practice 

of prescribing and dispensing benzodiazepines concurrently with opioids is in alignment 

with acceptable standards. 

6. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that medication 

reconciliation is performed to prevent adverse drug interactions. 

VA Office of Inspector General 43 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Appendix A 

Appendix A. Additional Exhibits 

Exhibit X1. Calculation of Days on (Opioid) Prescriptions 

VA Office of Inspector General 44 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit X2. Concurrent Use and Early Refills 

VA Office of Inspector General 45 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit X3. Data Files Used in OIG Statistical Analysis 

VA Office of Inspector General 46 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Exhibit X4. Chronic (> 90 days) Users in Cross-Sectional Study 

VA Office of Inspector General 47 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Appendix B1 

Codes for Identifying Hospice and Palliative Care 

ICD-9-CM diagnostic code: V66.7. 

Treating specialty codes: 96, 1F. 

CPT/HCPS codes: G9054, G0182, G0337, Q5001–Q5010, S0255, S0271, S9126, 

T2042, T2043, T2045, T2046.
 

Clinic stop codes: 351, 353. 

VA Office of Inspector General 48 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Appendix B2 

VA Intermediate Product Numbers for Identifying 

Urine Drug Tests 

by Test Substance Type 

Tests for heroin or morphine: 00467, 00537, 00753, 00754, 00755, 49338, 49339, 

82227–82229, 82231, 83304, 83455, and 83510. 

Tests for non-morphine opioid compounds: 00608, 00664, 00710, 00711, 00721, 

00727, 00734, 00759, 00780, 00784, 00786, 00788, 00808, 00864, 49340, 49355, 

57854, 73744, 81952, 81996, 82166, 82230, 82232–82236, 82448, 82449, 82458, 

82972, 83005, 83162, 83261, 83402, 83439, 83462, 83506, 83508, 83509, 83511, 

83727, 83859, 83862, 84383, 84398, 91141, 91210, and 91211. 

Tests for non-opioid abusable substances: 00466, 00470, 00499, 00523, 00525, 

00562, 00575, 00580, 00584, 00596–00601, 00606, 00607, 00611–00614, 00660, 

00661, 00663, 00675, 00684–00688, 00700, 00724, 00729, 00730, 00732, 00735, 

00737, 00738, 00742, 00745, 00769, 00779, 00785, 00790, 00803, 00811, 00821, 

00832, 00846, 00856–00863, 45095, 45110, 49337, 49350, 49353, 53008, 54720, 

56922, 62505, 63308, 65398, 66031, 69135, 81882, 81997, 82019, 82031, 82092– 

82094, 82225, 82441, 82451–82456, 82997, 83000–83003, 83009–83011, 83022, 

83027, 83028, 83160, 83246, 83252, 83262, 83281, 83588, 83638, 83704, 83713, 

83730, 83773, 83796, 83798, 83889, 83927, 83931, 83945, 83967, 84064, 84075, 

84098, 84099, 84100, 84101, 84112, 84172, 84173, 84175, 84336, 84388, 85161, 

91156, and 91157. 

VA Office of Inspector General 49 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Appendix C 

Under Secretary for Health Comments 

Department of 

Veterans Affairs Memorandum 

Date: April 22, 2014 

From: Under Secretary for Health (10) 

Subject: OIG Draft Report, VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home 

Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

(Project No. 2014-00895-HI-0378) (VAIQ 7462279) 

To: Assistant Inspector General for Healthcare Inspections (54) 

1. I have reviewed the draft report and concur with the report’s 

recommendations. Attached is the Veterans Health Administration’s 

corrective action plan for recommendations 1–6. 

2. OIG’s report provides important baseline data for understanding how 

VHA practitioners were prescribing opioids 2 years ago. Since that 

time, VHA has initiated several new modalities for improving pain care, 

including: pain schools, tele-pain schools, smartphone type 

applications and web based modules for patient and family education, 

case based audio conferences, Nation-wide community of practice 

calls, self-management strategies, and complementary and integrative 

medicine modalities. 

3. Compared to October 2012, as of November 2013: 

 39,088 fewer Veterans received an opioid prescription from VA; 

 80,294 more Veterans who had been prescribed opioids underwent 

urine drug screens; and 

 9,609 fewer Veterans were receiving prescriptions for both 

benzodiazepines and opioids. 

VA expects these trends to continue as it promotes the safe and 

effective pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic stepped care model of 

pain management. 

VA Office of Inspector General 50 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

4. This year VHA issued the Opioid Safety Initiative (OSI) requirements to 

all Veterans Integrated Service Networks (VISN). The purpose of the 

initiative is to ensure pain management is addressed thoughtfully, 

compassionately, and safely. The nine goals of OSI are: 

Goal 1 Educate prescribers of opioid medication regarding effective 

use of urine drug screening; 

Goal 2 Increase the use of urine drug screening; 

Goal 3 Facilitate the use of state prescription databases; 

Goal 4 Establish safe and effective tapering programs for the 

combination of benzodiazepines and opioids; 

Goal 5 Develop tools to identify higher risk patients; 

Goal 6 Improve prescribing practices around long-acting opioid 

formulations; 

Goal 7 Review treatment plans for patients on high doses of 

opioids; 

Goal 8 Offer Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) 

modalities for chronic pain at all facilities; and 

Goal 9 Develop new models of mental health and primary care 

collaboration to manage prescribing of opioids and 

benzodiazepines in patients with chronic pain. 

5. Through promulgation of new regulations, VHA providers can now 

access the state Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs (PDMP). 

These programs, with appropriate health privacy protections, provide 

VHA prescribers with access to information on prescribing and 

dispensing of controlled substances that Veterans obtain from outside 

the VA health care system. Participation in PDMPs helps VHA 

providers identify potentially vulnerable at-risk individuals and offers 

them greater opportunities to talk with patients about whether opioids 

are effective in managing their pain. 

6. As of January 2014, VHA has 10 sites with Commission on 

Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities (CARF); 11 more sites are 

actively preparing or applying for CARF status. These Centers have 

the capacity for providing advanced pain medicine diagnostics, surgical 

and interventional procedures, and intensive, integrated chronic pain 

rehabilitation for Veterans with complex, co-morbid, or treatment 

refractory conditions. In 2009, there were only two CARF sites in VHA. 

7. I am confident that the work VHA is doing coupled with the important 

information in OIG’s report will result in more accessible, safe, and 

effective pain care that will be responsive to the needs of Veterans and 

will enhance the quality of their lives. 

VA Office of Inspector General 51 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

8. Thank you for the opportunity to review the draft report. If you have 

any questions, please contact Karen Rasmussen, M.D., Director, 

Management Review Service (10AR) at (202) 461-6643 or by email at 

VHA10ARMRS2@va.gov. 

Attachment 

VA Office of Inspector General 52 
 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Under Secretary for Health’s Comments 

to Office of Inspector General’s Report 

OIG Draft Report, Healthcare Inspection: VA Patterns of Dispensing 

Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Date of Draft Report: April 6, 2014 

Recommendations/ Status Completion Date 

Actions 

OIG Recommendations 

1. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that the 

practice of prescribing acetaminophen is in compliance with acceptable 

standards. 

VHA Comments 

Concur 

The Office of Inspector General (OIG) review found that some patients 

who were prescribed acetaminophen could have exceeded the maximum 

recommended dosage of 4 grams per day. The Veterans Health 

Administration (VHA) agrees that safe prescribing of all medications, 

including acetaminophen, is an essential aspect of patient safety. 

The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) has taken steps to enhance 

prescribing and prescription fulfillment processes to prevent the types of 

situations described by OIG and to meet OIG’s intent to ensure safe 

prescribing of acetaminophen. VA developed a software system called 

Medication Order Check Healthcare Application (MOCHA) that notifies a 

prescriber when the single maximum dose ordered of any drug, including 

acetaminophen, exceeds the Food and Drug Administration 

recommended standards. MOCHA alerts prescribers when more than one 

medication containing acetaminophen is ordered to prevent cumulative 

excessive doses. VA’s Office of Information and Technology (OI&T) 

started deploying MOCHA maximum dosage checks to VA medical 

centers in March 2014, and expects the system to be fully deployed by 

end of fiscal year (FY) 2014. 

VA Office of Inspector General 53 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

VHA is concerned that OIG didn’t consider the instructions for use on the 

prescription label, which is one of the critical elements of safe prescribing. 

Additionally, the report may have overestimated the number of patients 

whose prescriptions could have exceeded the maximum recommended 

dose because the study methodology of tracking dispensing does not take 

into account the delivery lag time required to mail prescriptions to patients. 

Prescription dispensing is purposely overlapped so the patient does not 

run out of medications while waiting for the next refill in the mail. Once 

VA’s consolidated mail outpatient pharmacy (CMOP) fills a prescription, it 

enters the mail stream for delivery, which on average takes 2.5 days to 

reach the patient; CMOP dispenses approximately 80 percent of all VA 

prescriptions. 

To address this recommendation, VHA will: 

	 Work with VA’s OI&T to complete full implementation of MOCHA 

maximum dosing checks to all medical centers by the end of FY 2014. 

	 Pharmacy Benefits Management (PBM) Services office will educate 

providers about the vulnerabilities associated with patients exceeding 

the maximum recommended acetaminophen dosage using newsletters 

or other communications. 

To complete this action, VHA will provide documentation of: 

1) Certification that VA’s OIT has deployed MOCHA across the entire 

VHA health care system; and 

2) PBM communications to providers about exceeding maximum 

recommended dose of acetaminophen. 

In process September 30, 2014 

2. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that VA’s 

practice of routine and random urine drug tests prior to initiating and 

during take-home opioid therapy to confirm the appropriate use of opioids 

is in alignment with acceptable standards. 

VHA Comments 

Concur 

Although VHA’s current acceptable standard of practice does not initiate 

Urine Drug Tests (UDTs) for the short term use of opioid analgesics for 

acute pain when there is no intent for long-term (greater than 90 days) 

opioid prescribing, VHA concurs with the recommendation to initiate UDTs 

in chronic opioid therapy for chronic pain. 

VA Office of Inspector General 54 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

The National Program Director for Pain (Specialty Care Services) will work 

with other offices to advise the lead office, the Assistant Deputy Under 

Secretary for Health (ADUSH) for Clinical Operations, to develop and 

disseminate interim guidance to the field. Veterans Integrated Service 

Networks (VISN) and facilities will monitor adherence to the guidance 

through the routine review of data from the Opioid Safety Initiative (OSI) 

Dashboard, and will provide feedback on outliers where needed. 

To complete this action, VHA will provide documentation of: 

1) The Deputy Under Secretary for Health for Operations and 

Management issuance of interim guidance to the field on the practice 

of routine and random UDTs prior to initiating and during take-home 

long-term opioid therapy; 

2) One quarter of data demonstrating monitoring of interim guidance on 

UDTs from the OSI dashboard and feedback on adherence to outliers 

through the Opioid Safety Initiative; and 

3) Two examples of corrective action plans. 

In process February 28, 2015 

3. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that 

follow-up evaluations of patients on take-home opioids are performed 

timely. 

VHA Comments 

Concur 

The Pain Management Program Office will coordinate with Primary Care 

Services to develop clinical guidance recommendations for dissemination 

to field. The clinical guidance recommendations for facilities will help to 

ensure timely follow-up evaluations of patients prescribed take-home 

opioid analgesics, depending on the Veteran’s specific clinical status such 

as pain severity, clinical complexity (e.g., medical and psychiatric 

co-morbidities), and risk. 

The Pain Management Program Office will coordinate with Primary Care 

Services to disseminate the clinical recommendations through VHA 

Primary Care Services and Patient Aligned Care Team (PACT) 

educational programs, the VHA Pain Management Program’s VISN and 

facility points of contact, and the VHA’s pain web site. 

To complete this action, VHA will provide documentation of: 

1) Clinical guidance recommendations regarding timely follow-up of 

patients on take-home opioids, and 

VA Office of Inspector General 55 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

2) Dissemination of the recommendations through VHA Primary Care 

Services, PACT Education Programs, VHA Pain Management 

Programs, VISN and facility points of contacts, and VHA’s pain web 

site. 

In process December 31, 2014 

4. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that 

opioid patients with active (not in remission) substance use receive 

treatment for substance use concurrently with urine drug tests. 

VHA Comments 

Concur 

The Pain Management Program Office, Pharmacy Benefits Management 

Office, and Mental Health Office will work with the Office of the ADUSH for 

Clinical Operations to develop the capability to monitor whether patients 

using opioid analgesics for chronic pain, who also are diagnosed with 

substance use disorder (not in remission), are provided appropriate UDTs 

and also provided access to appropriate addiction/mental health specialty 

care. 

To complete this action, VHA will provide documentation of guidance to 

the field on UDTs for patients prescribed opioids for chronic pain also with 

substance abuse disorder not in remission, by December 2014. 

In process February 28, 2015 

5. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that VA’s 

practice of prescribing and dispensing benzodiazepines concurrently with 

opioids is in alignment with acceptable standards. 

VHA Comments 

Concur 

VHA will use the OSI Project Dashboard to identify patient’s co-prescribed 

benzodiazepines and opioids, and will provide clinically appropriate and 

safe tapering programs when clinically indicated. In coordination with OSI, 

VHA will develop a plan to provide guidance that supports safe and 

effective tapering when clinically indicated. 

To complete this action, VHA will provide documentation of: 

1) Regular monitoring of co-prescribing; 

2) Use of specialty support to providers; 

3) Reduced new starts on co-prescribed opioids and benzodiazepines; 

and 

VA Office of Inspector General 56 
 

 

VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

4) Over-all reduction of co-prescribed opioids and benzodiazepines. 

In process December 31, 2014 

6. We recommended that the Under Secretary for Health ensure that 

medication reconciliation is performed to prevent adverse drug 

interactions. 

VHA Comments 

Concur 

Medication reconciliation has been an evolving aspect of VA clinical care 

that is now standardized in accordance with the Medication Reconciliation 

Directive (VHA Directive 2011-012). The Essential Medication Information 

Standards Directive (VHA Directive 1164, currently in concurrence) will 

provide further direction by outlining essential patient medication 

information for management, communication, and review. The process of 

medication reconciliation is being monitored via a Medication 

Reconciliation External Peer Review Program as a quality indicator for VA 

care. Internally, Medication Reconciliation is measured by facilities often 

with tracer methodologies. A VA Medication Reconciliation/Patient 

Medication Information Overarching Strategy is under development for 

submission to VHA leadership. 

To complete this action, VHA will provide documentation of: 

1) Publication of the Essential Medication Information Directive 

(VHA 1164, currently in concurrence); and 

2) Leadership’s briefing regarding the VA Medication 

Reconciliation/Patient Medication Information Overarching Strategy 

recommendations. 

In process February 28, 2015 

Veterans Health Administration 

April 2014 

VA Office of Inspector General 57 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Appendix D 

OIG Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 

Contact For more information about this report, please contact the OIG at 

(202) 461-4720. 

Contributors Limin X. Clegg, Ph.D., Director 

Daisy Arugay-Rittenberg, MT 

Elizabeth Bullock 

Nathan McClafferty, MS 

Ronald R. Penny, BS 

Patrick Smith, M. Stat 

VA Office of Inspector General 58 
VA Patterns of Dispensing Take-Home Opioids and Monitoring Patients on Opioid Therapy 

Appendix E 

Report Distribution 

VA Distribution 

Office of the Secretary 

Veterans Health Administration 

Assistant Secretaries 

Office of General Counsel 

Non-VA Distribution 

Senate Committee on Veterans’ Affairs 

House Committee on Veterans’ Affairs 

Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and 

Related Agencies 

Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs 

House Appropriations Subcommittee on Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and 

Related Agencies 

House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform 

National Veterans Service Organizations 

Government Accountability Office 

Office of Management and Budget 

This report is available on our web site at www.va.gov/oig. 

VA Office of Inspector General 59