Brief

Policy

March 2014

THE U.S. 

COMMISSION ON 

INTERNATIONAL 

RELIGIOUS 

FREEDOM

was created by the 

International 

Religious Freedom Act 

of 1998 to monitor the 

status of freedom of 

thought, conscience, 

and religion or belief 

abroad, as defined in 

the Universal 

Declaration of Human 

Rights and related 

international 

instruments, and to 

give independent policy 

recommendations to 

the President, 

Secretary of State, 

and Congress. 

732 N. Capitol St. N.W. ,

Suite A714

Washington, D.C. 20401

Phone: (202) 786-0613

Communications@uscirf.gov

www.uscirf.gov

March 2014

Prisoners of Belief 

Individuals Jailed under 

Blasphemy Laws

Many countries around the world have laws that punish expression 

deemed blasphemous, defamatory of religion, or contemptuous or insulting to religion or religious symbols, figures, or feelings. In addition, some 

states have added new blasphemy-type laws to their criminal codes or 

constitutions. The application of these laws has resulted in the jailing of 

individuals for merely expressing a different religious belief or under false 

accusations. 

Blasphemy is defined as the act of express contempt or a lack of reverence 

for God or sacred things. Blasphemy laws inappropriately position governments as arbiters of truth or religious rightness, as they empower officials to enforce particular religious views against individuals, minorities, 

and dissenters. In practice, they have proven to be ripe for abuse and easily manipulated with false accusations. Though often justified as needed to 

promote religious harmony, these laws in fact have the opposite effect. 

They encourage extremists to enforce their notions of truth on others, often through force, thereby exacerbating religious intolerance, discrimination, and violence. In contexts where an authoritarian government supports an established religious creed, blasphemy accusations are frequently 

used to silence critics or democratic rivals under the guise of enforcing 

religious piety.
 March 2014

Brief

Policy

U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom

Blasphemy Laws Violate International Standards 

Blasphemy laws are incompatible with international human rights standards, as they protect 

beliefs over individuals, and they often result in violations of the freedoms of religion and 

expression, especially when persons are jailed. Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil 

and Political Rights (ICCPR) protects the individual right to freedom of thought, conscience and 

religion, including the right to manifest this belief through various acts, such as worship, 

observance, practice and teaching. Limitations on this right are narrow, and are only permitted 

as necessary to protect “public safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental rights and 

freedoms of others.” Article 19 of the ICCPR protects the individual right to freedom of 

expression, which may only be limited to protect the rights or reputations of others, national 

security, public order, or public health or morals. And in terms of the protection of morals, the 

UN Human Rights Committee has observed that limitations on this ground “must be based on 

principles not deriving exclusively from a single [social, philosophical, or religious] tradition.”1 

International law experts have repeatedly deemed blasphemy-type laws incompatible with 

human rights commitments. For example, the UN Human Rights Committee has stated that 

“[p]rohibitions of displays of lack of respect for a religion or other belief system, including 

blasphemy laws, are incompatible with the [ICCPR].”

2

 In addition, an international group of 

experts convened by the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights recently 

recommended that “[s]tates that have blasphemy laws should repeal the[m] as such laws have a 

stifling impact on the enjoyment of freedom of religion or belief and healthy dialogue and debate 

about religion.”3

 Furthermore, these laws run counter to consensus UN resolutions recognizing 

that religious intolerance is best fought through positive measures, such as education, outreach, 

and counter-speech, and that criminalization is only appropriate for incitement to imminent 

violence.4

 

 

1 Human Rights Committee, “General comment no. 22, Article 18: Freedom of religion or belief,” UN 

Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, para. 8 (1993). 

2 Human Rights Committee, “General comment no. 34, Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and 

expression,” UN Doc. CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 48 (2011). 

3

“Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that 

constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, Conclusions and recommendations 

emanating from the four regional expert workshops organised by OHCHR in 2011, and adopted by 

experts in Rabat, Morocco on 5 October 2012,” available at 

http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/SeminarRabat/Rabat_draft_outcome.pdf.

4 Human Rights Council, “Resolution 16/18: Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping and 

stigmatization of, and discrimination, incitement to violence, and violence against, persons based on 

religion or belief,” UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/16/18 (2011); General Assembly, “Resolution 66/167: 

Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping, stigmatization, discrimination, incitement to violence 

and violence against persons, based on religion or belief,” UN Doc. A/RES/66/167 (2011); Human 

Rights Council, “Resolution 19/25 : Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping and stigmatization 

of, and discrimination, incitement to violence, and violence against, persons based on religion or 

belief,” UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/19/25 (2012); General Assembly, “Resolution 67/178: Combating 

intolerance, negative stereotyping, stigmatization, discrimination, incitement to violence and violence 

against persons, based on religion or belief,” UN Doc. A/RES/67/178 (2012). 

2
 March 2014

Brief

Policy

U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom

Increasing Use and Application 

Specific cases of blasphemy, religious defamation or insult regularly arise around the world, as 

an increasing number of countries enforce these types of laws. The most egregious example is 

Pakistan, where blasphemy charges are common and numerous individuals are in prison, with a 

high number sentenced to death or life terms. In both Egypt and Pakistan, their blasphemy laws 

have been used more against Muslims, although they have a disproportionate impact on their 

small Christian minorities. However, blasphemy laws exist in a variety of contexts, not always 

leading to jail sentences. For instance, countries as diverse as India, Ireland, Kuwait, Poland, and 

the Philippines all have blasphemy-like laws, though they are less frequently invoked. And new 

legislation is moving forward: Tunisia’s new constitution had a blasphemy provision added at 

the 11th hour and Russia recently enacted a blasphemy law. The Kurdistan region of Iraq also 

has considered laws of this type. While the “defamation of religions” resolution at the United 

Nations, which sought to establish what would be in effect a global blasphemy law, has not been 

offered in recent years, the Arab League is reportedly developing a blasphemy law that could be 

applied regionally.

Specific country examples include: 

 Pakistan’s blasphemy law is used at a level incomparable to other countries. USCIRF 

has received reports of 14 individuals currently on death row on blasphemy convictions 

and 19 serving life sentences (see below). Countless other Pakistanis have been arrested 

for the “crime” and await sentencing. While the death penalty for blasphemy has never 

been carried out, individuals accused of blasphemy have been murdered in associated 

vigilante violence. Despite the law’s rampant abuse and lack of procedural safeguards, 

Pakistan’s Federal Shariat Court recently ruled that the death penalty should be the only 

penalty for blasphemy. 

 In Bangladesh, the government arrested three self-professed atheists in early April 2013

for “offending religious sensitivities,” after they blogged about Bangladesh’s 1971 War 

Crimes Tribunals. They remain jailed pending trial. The opposition party Jamaat-eIslami reportedly gave the government a list naming 84 other individuals they want to see 

investigated for blasphemy.

 Egypt has seen a significant increase in the use of blasphemy-type laws, both during and 

after the Morsi era. The Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights (EIPR) found a total of 36 

blasphemy cases involving 63 people occurring from January 2011 to December 2012. 

Their report documented a roughly 60/40 split in the religious affiliation of blasphemy 

cases taken to court, with 59% of cases being filed against Sunni Muslims and 41 percent 

against Christians. However, Christians only comprise 10 percent of Egypt’s population. 

A particularly high profile case in 2013 involved a Christian teacher from Luxor 

convicted of insulting Islam. She is appealing the conviction and fine equaling 

approximately $14,000. USCIRF is aware of four individuals sentenced to jail in Egypt 

(see below). 

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 March 2014

Brief

Policy

U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom

 In Greece, Philippos Loizos was arrested and charged in September 2012 with 

blasphemy for creating a Facebook page criticizing and mocking a deceased Greek 

Orthodox priest. The blasphemy charge was later dropped, but replaced with a charge of 

insulting religion. Under the Greek penal code, blasphemy or insulting religion is subject 

to imprisonment for up to two years. In January 2014, he was convicted and given a 10-

month sentence. He is free while his case is on appeal. 

 In Indonesia, since 2003 more than 120 individuals have been detained under blasphemy 

provisions in the criminal code. However, these generally have not led to prosecutions 

and jail time, and observers consider the detentions a tactic of intimidation. Two 

individuals are currently known to be serving jail sentences (see below). 

 Iran’s blasphemy prohibitions are derived from the Twelver Jafaari school of Shi’a 

Islam. Blasphemers are charged under a range of offenses, such as “spreading corruption 

on earth,” insulting religious sanctities, insulting Islam, criticizing the Islamic regime, or 

deviating from Islamic standards. The government targets religious minorities with such 

charges, particularly Bahai’s, Christians, and Sunni and Sufi Muslims, as well as Shi’a 

Muslim dissidents and journalists. 

 In Kazakhstan, atheist writer Aleksandr Kharlamov is under investigation by a 

government sponsored “experts committee” for his “views of the Christian religion.” 

While currently free, he was subjected to five months of detention and one month of 

forcible psychiatric examination. 

 Malaysian provincial police acting on the recommendation of the Ministry of Islamic 

Affairs detained Maznah Mohd Yusof. The Ministry requested the action because it 

found a video Ms. Yusof posted on YouTube was “insulting to Islam.” She has been

released on bail, pending an investigation. 

 In Saudi Arabia, despite the country having no formal criminal code, the government 

uses charges of blasphemy to target those seeking to debate the role of religion in relation 

to the state, as well as promoters of political and human rights reforms. For instance, 

Saudi blogger Hamza Kashgari was held on blasphemy charges from February 2012 to 

October 2013 for comments he posted on Twitter. One individual is currently known to 

be serving a jail sentence (see below). 

 Sudan’s criminal code prohibits blasphemy and those found guilty could be sentenced to 

one year imprisonment, up to 40 lashes, or a fine. Over the past few years, blasphemy 

accusations have been used to intimidate those opposing the government or expressing 

disfavored religious views. 

 In Turkey, Fazil Say, a classical and jazz pianist, was charged in 2012 with “publicly 

insulting religious values that are adopted by a part of the [Turkish] nation” in Twitter 

messages. He was found guilty and given a 10-month suspended jail sentence in 2013. 

4
 March 2014

Brief

Policy

U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom

Jailed for Belief 

The following individuals reportedly have been sentenced for the “crime” of blasphemy and are 

serving prison terms. The list, based on information collected by USCIRF, is not comprehensive, 

but provides a human face to the application of these laws. USCIRF will update the list, as 

needed. 

Egypt 

Amr Abdalla Five-year sentence 

Bishoy Kameel Six-year sentence 

Ayman Yousef Mansour Three-year sentence 

Karam Saber Five-year sentence 

Indonesia 

Andreas Guntur Four-year sentence 

Antonius Richmond Bawengan Five-year sentence 

Pakistan 

Muhammad Asghar Sentenced to death 

Hazrat Ali Shah Sentenced to death 

Soofi Mohammad Ishaq Sentenced to death 

Abdul Sattar Sentenced to death 

Rafiq Sentenced to death 

Malik Muhammad Ashraf Sentenced to death 

Malik Ashraf Sentenced to death 

Ms. Aasia Noreen Bibi Sentenced to death 

Muhammad Shafeeq Latif Sentenced to death 

Liaqat Sentenced to death 

Muhammad Shafiq Sentenced to death 

Abdul Hameed Sentenced to death 

Anwar Kenneth Sentenced to death 

Wajihul Hassan aka Murshid Masih Sentenced to death 

Sajjad Masih Sentenced to life in prison 

Manzarul Haq Shah Jahan Sentenced to life in prison 

Muhammad Mushtaq alias Masta Sentenced to life in prison 

Imran Ghafoor Sentenced to life in prison 

Muhammad Ishaq Sentenced to life in prison 

Muhammad Safdar Sentenced to life in prison 

Muhammad Shafi Sentenced to life in prison 

Muhammad Aslam (son) Sentenced to life in prison 

Imran Masih Sentenced to life in prison 

Abdul Kareem Sentenced to life in prison 

Inayat Rasool Sentenced to life in prison 

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 March 2014

Brief

Policy

U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom

Asif Sentenced to life in prison 

Arif Mahdi Sentenced to life in prison 

Imran Sentenced to life in prison 

Shamas ud Din Sentenced to life in prison 

Maqsood Ahmad Sentenced to life in prison 

Muhammad Shahzad Sentenced to life in prison 

Muhammad Yousaf Sentenced to life in prison 

Rehmat Ali Sentenced to life in prison 

Saudi Arabia 

Raif Badawi Five-year sentence

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