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Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

Assessment of Biomass 

Resources in Afghanistan 

Anelia Milbrandt and Ralph Overend

Technical Report

NREL/TP-6A20-49358

January 2011
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Efficiency & Renewable Energy, operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC.

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Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

Assessment of Biomass 

Resources in Afghanistan 

Anelia Milbrandt and Ralph Overend

Prepared under Task No. WF3N.7001

Technical Report

NREL/TP-6A20-49358

January 2011
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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the United States Agency for International Development 

(USAID) for providing the financial support for this study and especially S. Padmanaban, the 

director of South Asia Regional Initiative for Energy (SARI/Energy), for managing this project. 

We also thank Richard Bain and Shannon Cowlin from the National Renewable Energy 

Laboratory and Richard Nelson from Kansas State University for their review and 

recommendations. And, finally, we thank the various Afghan organizations, cited throughout the 

document, for creating and providing the data used in this study. 
iv

Table of Contents 

Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... iii

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... iv

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. v

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... v

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... vi

Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Specialized Terms ................................................................... vii

Units of Measure ....................................................................................................................... vii

Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1

The Geography and Climate of Afghanistan ........................................................................... 1

The Afghan Energy Situation .................................................................................................. 3

Agricultural Resources ................................................................................................................ 5

Overview of Agricultural Sector ............................................................................................. 5

Crop Residues .......................................................................................................................... 6

Animal Waste ........................................................................................................................ 12

Forest Resources ....................................................................................................................... 22

Urban Waste .............................................................................................................................. 25

Potential Biomass Resources .................................................................................................... 28

Energy Crops Potential .......................................................................................................... 30

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 33

References ................................................................................................................................. 35

Appendix ................................................................................................................................... 39
v 

List of Figures

Figure 1. Terrain and elevation map of Afghanistan ...................................................................... 2

Figure 2. Afghanistan’s primary energy supply, 2002 ................................................................... 4

Figure 3. Land cover ....................................................................................................................... 6

Figure 4. Irrigated and rainfed arable lands .................................................................................... 7

Figure 5. Cereal production (1998-2009) ....................................................................................... 8

Figure 6. Opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan, 1994-2009 ..................................................... 9

Figure 7. Opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan by province, 2009 ........................................ 10

Figure 8. Crop residues by province ............................................................................................. 12

Figure 9. Dung piles in Karbasha Qalat, Ghor Province .............................................................. 13

Figure 10. Fixed dome biogas plant design .................................................................................. 15

Figure 11. Biogas potential from animal manure ......................................................................... 16

Figure 12. Districts suitable for installing domestic biogas digesters using cattle manure .......... 18

Figure 13. Biogas plant in Kyanjin Gompa, Langtang Valley, Nepal .......................................... 20

Figure 14. Main benefits of an average biogas plant in Nepal ..................................................... 21

Figure 15. Woodland change in Takhar and Kunduz Provinces, 1977 – 2002 ............................ 23

Figure 16. Woodland change in Badghis Province, 1977 – 2002 ................................................. 23

Figure 17. Woodland change in Nuristan, Kunar, and Nangarhar Province, 1977 - 2002 ........... 24

Figure 18. Municipal solid waste generation in major urban areas .............................................. 26

Figure 19. NDVI variation between the years 2003, 2005, 2007, and 2009 ................................ 29

Figure 20. Cattle density ............................................................................................................... 41

Figure 21. Goat density ................................................................................................................. 42

Figure 22. Sheep density ............................................................................................................... 43

Figure 23. Poultry density ............................................................................................................. 44

Figure 24. Average monthly rainfall by season ............................................................................ 45

List of Tables

Table 1. Climatic Types of Afghanistan ......................................................................................... 3

Table 2. Usage of Domestic Fuels for Cooking, Space, and Water Heating, 2002 ........................ 4

Table 3. Crop Residues ................................................................................................................. 11

Table 4. Domestic Biogas Plant Size and Daily Feedstock Requirements ................................... 14

Table 5. Annual Biogas Potential from Animal Manure in Afghanistan and its Equivalents ...... 16

Table 6. Livestock Owned per Family in 2002-2003 ................................................................... 17

Table 7. Number of Households that Could be Served by Biogas Digesters Using Cattle Manure

....................................................................................................................................................... 19

Table 8. Municipal Solid Waste Generation and Electricity Potential in Major Urban Areas ..... 27

Table 9. Oilseed Planting and Harvest Dates in Afghanistan ....................................................... 31

Table 10. Orchard, Vineyard, and Processing Residues ............................................................... 39

Table 11. Crop Residues from Cereal Production by Province .................................................... 40
vi 

Executive Summary

Afghanistan is facing many challenges on its path of reconstruction and development. Among all 

its pressing needs, the country would benefit from the development and implementation of an

energy strategy. In addition to conventional energy sources, the Afghan government is 

considering alternative options such as energy derived from renewable resources (wind, solar, 

biomass, geothermal). Biomass energy is derived from a variety of sources – plant-based 

material and residues – and can be used in various conversion processes to yield power, heat, 

steam, and fuel.

This study provides policymakers and industry developers with information on the biomass 

resource potential in Afghanistan for power/heat generation and transportation fuels production. 

To achieve this goal, the study estimates the current biomass resources and evaluates the

potential resources that could be used for energy purposes.

This study identified biogas generation from animal manure and waste-to-energy (WTE) from 

urban discards as the most promising sustainable biomass technologies that use existing 

resources in Afghanistan. The biogas technology is more applicable to rural regions and it 

provides many benefits to households including reductions in indoor air pollution, reductions in 

firewood use and collection time (especially for women), and increases in crop production by 

using the spent slurry as a fertilizer. WTE is best suited for urban areas and it provides two 

important benefits: environmentally safe waste management and disposal, as well as the 

generation of clean electric power. Crop residues in Afghanistan are already in use as animal 

feed, cooking fuel, for farm applications, and as construction material. Forest resources are 

limited; yet, they represent a significant component of the solid biomass fuels used for cooking 

and space heating. Therefore, these conventional biomass resources cannot support electricity 

generation applications in the country. The solid fuel situation in Afghanistan needs attention for 

many reasons: indoor use is associated with major health problems and, at this stage of natural 

resource depletion in the country, the continued collection of firewood and shrubs exacerbates 

the risk of desertification. As with any case of fuelwood scarcity, the remedies include a series of

activities such as reducing energy use by improving efficiency of building and cooking/heating 

equipment, as well as reforestation and aforestation initiatives. These activities mitigate air 

pollution and conserves plant resources. 

Climate and terrain are major limitations on the potential biomass resources in Afghanistan. 

Climate prediction models indicate that drought will become the normal season by 2030 and that 

large parts of the agricultural land are likely to become marginal without investments in water 

management and irrigation by 2060. Annual oilseed production for both food and fuel 

applications could be undertaken to offset cooking oil imports and provide local biofuels. In 

addition, common oilseed plants could be grown in similar areas that have been successful with 

opium poppy, which would provide alternative crops to farmers in those regions.

The Afghan reality is that both food and energy security are poor. Sustainable biomass 

technologies such as biogas and WTE could find a place in the country’s energy mix by 

providing clean fuel to rural and urban communities without endangering food supply. These 

technologies also could provide many other environmental and socioeconomic benefits, such as 

safe waste disposal, reduced GHG emissions, improved households’ lifestyle and job creation. 
vii 

Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Specialized Terms

Abi – irrigated land

AIMS – Afghanistan Information Management Services

CO2 – carbon dioxide 

CSO – Central Statistics Organization

FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization 

GDP – Gross Domestic Product

GHG – greenhouse gas 

GIS – Geographic Information Systems 

Kareze - a historic Persian system of underground water collection

Kuchi – pastoralists, who practice transhumance between high altitude pasture in the summer and 

the low lands in the winter

Lalmi – rainfed lands 

LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas 

MSW – municipal solid waste

NGO – Non-governmental organization 

UNEP – United Nations Environmental Programme

WTE – waste-to-energy 

Units of Measure

Btu – British Thermal Unit 

dam3 – cubic decameter (= 1,000 m3 = 1 ML)

dm – decimeter (= 10 centimeters) 

gal – U.S. gallon 

GJ – Gigajoule (109

 J) 

ha – hectare 

HHV – High heating value 

Jerib (Afghan) – 2,000 m2 or 0.2 hectare 

kcal - kilocalorie (= 4,184 joules) 

km – kilometer

km2 – square kilometer

kt (ktonne) - kilotonne (= 1,000 metric ton) 

kWh – kilowatt-hour 

L – liter 

m – meter

m

2

 – square meter

m3 – cubic meter

MCM – million cubic meter, also hm3 (cubic hectometer)

MJ – Megajoule 

ML – Megaliter (=1,000,000 L) 

mm - millimeters

Mt – million tonnes

PJ – Petajoule (1015 J)

TJ – Terajoule (1012 J)

tonne (t) – metric ton
1 

Introduction

Afghanistan is facing many challenges on its path of reconstruction and development. Among all 

its pressing needs, the country would benefit from the development and implementation of an 

energy strategy. In addition to conventional energy sources, the Afghan government is 

considering alternative options, such as energy derived from renewable resources (wind, solar, 

biomass, geothermal). Biomass energy is obtained from a variety of sources – plant-based 

material and residues – and can be used in various conversion processes to yield power, heat, 

steam, and fuel. Biomass energy resources include agricultural crops and residues (including 

animal waste); forestry products and residues; dedicated energy crops; residues and byproducts 

from food, animal feed, fiber, wood, and materials processing plants; and post-consumer residues 

and wastes, such as municipal solid wastes, wastewater, and landfill gases. 

This study provides policymakers and industry developers with information on the biomass 

resource potential in Afghanistan for power/heat generation and transportation fuels production. 

To achieve this goal, the authors assessed the biomass resources available in the country and 

evaluated potential resources that could support the development of bioenergy projects. To 

accomplish these objectives, agricultural, environmental, and socioeconomic data were analyzed 

statistically and graphically using geographic information systems (GIS). A GIS is a computerbased information system used to create, manipulate, and analyze geographic information. The 

results are presented in a tabular and geospatial format (maps) at a national, sub-national, and 

site-specific level.

The authors estimated the biomass resources based on assumptions and factors that relate 

agricultural and demographic statistics to the amount of residue and waste generated. A detailed 

description of the methodology is provided throughout the document. Although these numbers 

are conservative and somewhat arbitrary, users can adjust assumptions and conversion factors for 

further evaluation of the biomass resource availability. 

The authors recommend detailed on-site analysis before developing any facilities. This analysis, 

however, is useful in refining the prospecting process of site identification. 

 

The Geography and Climate of Afghanistan

Agricultural and forest resource productivity depends on adequate sun, rainfall, and nutrient 

conditions. Depending on the climate and crop harvesting schedule, there can be seasonal 

constraints on this type of resource availability and significant annual variability in resource 

yields at a local level. Adverse environmental conditions (e.g., drought and floods) can have 

significant negative impacts on resource availability from year to year. 

As illustrated in Figure 1, the country is predominately mountainous. Although it is described as 

having mainly a dry continental climate, the variance in terrain and elevation results in different

climatic types. Areas such as northeastern and central Afghanistan, which are more than 2,400 

meters (m) above sea level, have long winters (more than six months). At an altitude of 1,300 – 

2,400 m above sea level, the climate is temperate or almost temperate, four seasons are clearly 

marked, and annual precipitation is up to 400 millimeters (mm). The zone at an altitude between 

900 and 1,300 m is characterized by hot summers and annual precipitation below 200 mm. In 
2 

areas below 900 m, the annual precipitation is less than 100 mm and the climate is dry and hot. 

Some small portions in the country’s east adjacent to the Indus valley are affected by 

southeastern monsoons and climate is subtropical. Afghanistan’s climatic types are shown in 

Table 1. 

The terrain of Afghanistan is very diverse, going from the deserts of the Kandahar region, 

through the western-southwestern lowlands, to the Turkestan plains in the North, running into 

the lower central mountains, to the high mountains in the Northeast. The snow-capped peaks of 

the Hindu Kush are a central feature not just of the topography, but also of the water supply – a 

major part of which is snow melt in the spring and summer. 

Figure 1. Terrain and elevation map of Afghanistan
3 

Table 1. Climatic Types of Afghanistan

 Source: Thieme 2006

The Afghan Energy Situation

Energy production and supply in Afghanistan is very unstable due to the country’s damaged and 

fragmented power generation and distribution infrastructure, as well as the high dependency on 

imported petroleum products. Several domestic agencies, such as the Ministry of Energy and 

Water; the Ministry of Mines; the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development; the 

Ministry of Commerce and Industries; and the Ministries of Urban Development, Finance, and 

Economy are involved in rebuilding the country’s energy sector. Additionally, donor agencies 

such as the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Asian 

Development Bank (ADB), as well as and several nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are 

supporting the rehabilitation and development efforts. 

Although Afghanistan is using domestic oil and natural gas, the potential reserves in the north 

remain untapped due to the country’s long period of political instability. Afghanistan also uses 

indigenous coal, most of which is in the north between Herat and Badashkan provinces. 

However, as shown in Figure 2, these sources of energy comprise a small portion of the 

country’s energy portfolio compared to the two largest suppliers – solid biomass and petroleum 

products. Biomass resources are domestic, while petroleum products such as diesel, gasoline, and 

jet fuel are imported from neighboring countries (mainly Pakistan and Uzbekistan, with limited 

volumes from Turkmenistan and Iran). Electricity, which is also imported from neighboring 

countries, provides the smallest portion of the country’s energy mix. As of September 2009, 

about 15% of households in urban centers had access to electric power, but only 6% of rural 

households had access to electricity (SIGAR 2010). 
4 

 Source: ADB 2006; figure illustrates percentage of total energy supply

Figure 2. Afghanistan’s primary energy supply, 2002

At a household level, the use of solid biomass resources – firewood, charcoal, animal dung, and 

crop residues – is very high, about 90% of total (Table 2); firewood provides 65% of the 

domestic fuel. Anecdotal evidence and historical sources show that rural population is almost 

totally dependent on biomass fuels for cooking and heating, while lighting is provided by 

kerosene. In urban areas, there is a push to use liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to offset fuelwood 

consumption and its resulting air pollution. 

Table 2. Usage of Domestic Fuels for Cooking, Space, and Water Heating, 2002

 Source: ADB 2006; LPG - liquefied petroleum gas 

The high altitude and severe winter conditions for much of the population result in a very high 

per capita consumption of fuelwood and charcoal, which increases to more than 10 t/yr for 

households in some circumstances. Aid workers have witnessed acute firewood shortages in and 

around Kabul, and there is a general concern that the ordinary households in rural areas often 

lack sufficient fuel for cooking. Outside of the cities, biomass solid fuels will most likely remain 

the fuel of choice until other options are made available. However, wealthier families often have 

fossil fuel options as part of their energy portfolio. If the solid biomass is calculated on the basis 

of dry fuelwood equivalence (i.e., 18 GJ/t) it corresponds to 5.95 million tonnes (Mt). The actual 
5 

tonnage is larger than this, because field residues such as wheat straw, dung, and shrubs have a 

lower heating value. For comparison, the amount of biomass used to fuel Afghanistan is almost 

150% of the tonnage of wheat harvested in 2007. 

The solid fuel situation needs attention for many reasons. The use of solid fuel is associated with 

major health problems; and, at this stage of natural resource depletion in Afghanistan, the 

continued collection of firewood and shrubs, as well as the use of dried dung, exacerbates the 

risk of desertification. One recent example is the destruction of pistachio forests in Badghis 

province for fuel wood (IWPR 2010). This analysis shows that the use of dung as a solid fuel 

could be replaced by anaerobic digestion with a concomitant improvement in efficiency, and the 

conservation of nutrient values. However, the provision of fuelwood is a major concern. 

A threefold approach can be applied to resolve the fuelwood scarcity issues. First and foremost, 

Afghanistan needs to reduce energy demand while still providing the same service for cooking 

and space heating. NGOs’ efforts have identified that insulation of buildings in northern or highaltitude areas would positively impact fuelwood consumption directly, while improved 

cookstoves, including ovens, will also help reduce consumption (Nienhuys 2009). There is also a 

need for increased fuelwood supplies, which could be ensured by planting trees and shrubs. 

Agricultural Resources

Overview of Agricultural Sector

The agricultural sector of Afghanistan is the most important component of the country’s 

economic development – it accounts for more than half of the gross domestic product (GDP), 

with more than 80% of the population engaged in farming or herding, or both (UNEP 2009). 

Tragically, several decades of war, lack of governance, and drought have depressed the 

agricultural activities in Afghanistan and contributed to the degradation of natural resources. 

Agricultural productivity is hampered by water shortages (due to poor irrigation systems and 

lack of rain water), lack of credit, little mechanization, insufficient outreach of agricultural and 

veterinary extension services, and poor accessibility of markets and communities (ICON Institute 

2009). 

Because of the mountainous terrain and dry climate, agricultural development in Afghanistan is 

very challenging. Of the total land area (652,225 km2

), only about 12% is arable (of which 6% is 

actually cultivated), permanent pasture covers 47%, forest land is 2%, and the remaining 39% is 

barren land/mountains (Figure 3). The amount of agricultural land under cultivation and pasture 

has dropped in the past two or three decades either through abandonment (due to lack of water 

availability and damage to irrigation systems), degradation (due to soil erosion, salinization, and 

reduced soil fertility), or urban expansion (NEPA-UNEP 2009). 
6 

Figure 3. Land cover

There are two basic farming patterns in Afghanistan: 1) a mixed crop and livestock system; and 

2) the Kuchi pastoral system, which is based on a nomadic existence, named after the Kuchi 

communities who migrate seasonally and transfer grazing animals to different pastures (UNEP 

2003). Land-holding size and type vary between and within provinces. In general, farmland size 

in Afghanistan is small, about 7 Jerib (1.4 ha) for irrigated land and about 14 Jerib (2.8 ha) for 

rainfed land. Land ownership and tenure is communal grassland, urban land tenures, or arable 

land – however, land ownership is not well understood. The cadastral records are mostly 

incomplete and out of date. Nevertheless, each farmer knows the boundaries of his farm, so 

private land rights are clearly established at the micro and local levels.

Crop Residues

Most crop production in Afghanistan is concentrated in pockets of irrigable land (in the north 

and along rivers), along with some rainfed areas in the northern foothills and plains (Figure 4). 

The irrigated areas are known as "Abi" and the dry-farmed areas are called "Lalmi” (USDA 

2002). Although estimates vary, it is thought that about 3.3 million ha (about 5% of the total land 

area) is irrigated and regularly planted, while 4.5 million hectare (ha) (about 7%) is rainfed and is 

planted opportunistically, depending on precipitation (SEI 2009). In areas at high elevation 

(above 2,000 meters),only one crop is grown per year, due to the short growing season; whereas 
7 

at lower elevation, two crops a year are grown depending on water availability. As shown in 

Figure 4, most of the rainfed crops are produced on sloping terrain, which has led to severe soil 

erosion over the years. The United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), in a post-conflict 

environmental assessment, points out that “increasing rural population pressure on available land 

over the last two to three generations has led to more traditional grazing land being cultivated for 

rainfed wheat crops, even on very steep slopes and in the highest mountains. Yields have proved 

to be uncertain and crop failures common. The environmental degradation resulting from the 

destruction of the original ground cover and consequent erosion is widespread and very serious” 

(UNEP 2003). 

Figure 4. Irrigated and rainfed arable lands 

Wheat is the staple crop, accounting for about 80% of total cereal consumption in Afghanistan. 

The crop is cultivated on both irrigated and rainfed lands, but the yield on irrigated lands is 

almost three times higher than that on rainfed lands: 2.95 t/ha compared to 1.18 t/ha in years with 

good rainfall (MAIL 2009b). Winter wheat is the primary crop, while spring wheat is sown in the 

colder regions. Other grains include rice, maize, and barley. In general, barley is cultivated on 

rainfed lands for grain (at high altitude) and as green fodder (at lower altitude). The irrigated Abi 

areas, in addition to wheat, also support the production of rice and maize. Because agricultural 

production in Afghanistan is very dependent on water from melting snow and rainfall, crop 
8 

harvests vary dramatically each year depending on the weather. Figure 5 illustrates the changes 

in cereal production over a 12-year period. Good cereal production was experienced during 

2003, 2005, and 2007 mainly due to favorable weather; however, during 2000-2002 and 2004, 

drought contributed to the low crop output. It must be noted, however, that even in good years, 

food supply is insufficient and Afghanistan relies on aid from foreign entities. 

 Source: MAIL 2009b 

Figure 5. Cereal production (1998-2009) 

Pulses and fodder are also grown as part of farmers’ crop rotations. Pulses include chickpea and 

lentil; some fodder plants are annual clover and perennial alfalfa. A wide variety of vegetables 

and fruits including potatoes, onions, tomatoes, okra, cauliflower, melons, watermelons, apricots, 

peaches, pomegranates, apples, and grapes are produced for domestic consumption, local 

markets, and export. Sugar beet and sugar cane are also cultivated where appropriate. 

Afghanistan has also long been noted for its production of nuts, including almond, walnut, and 

pistachio. Dried fruits and nuts make up a large portion of the Afghan export - these high-value 

food products are in great demand in international markets, but they are nowhere near the levels 

of the 1980s when Afghan dried fruits accounted for almost 60% of the world market (CSO 

2008-09). 

Oilseed crops are also produced – mainly cotton, mustard, some sesame seeds, and flax 

(linseeds). Cotton is grown in some northern provinces (Baghlan and Kunduz) and Nangarhar. 
9 

Cotton cultivation has been declining during the past 5-6 years, but efforts by foreign aid 

agencies, such as USAID and the World Bank, aim to improve this trend. They are providing 

technical and financial assistance to cotton growers to increase cotton production and yield, as 

well as upgrade the capacity for ginning cotton and producing cottonseed oil. 

According to the International Monetary Fund, however, the “informal” agricultural sector – 

devoted to opium production – earns about 40-50% of GDP; although, as an illegal activity, it 

does not register in official economic calculations (UNEP 2009). The United Nations Office on 

Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has been monitoring the opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan 

since 1994 (Figure 6). The “dip” in poppies cultivation during 2001 was largely due to a strictly 

enforced ban imposed by the Taliban government. However, with the departure of the Taliban, 

followed by a period of instability, the cultivation increased again in 2002 and continued to 

increase until 2007 when it reached record levels, and the country became practically the world’s 

exclusive supplier – about 93% of the global market (UNODC 2007). Poppy cultivation, which 

provides many Afghan farmers with significantly greater income than other crops, drives the 

rural economy. The gross income from opium per hectare is US$ 3,562 vs. US$ 1,101 from 

wheat (UNODC 2009). 

Source: UNODC 2009

Figure 6. Opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan, 1994-2009

Since 2007, Afghanistan officials and aid agencies have led a massive program to destroy 

poppies and offer help to farmers to grow alternative crops, such as wheat or cotton. As a result, 

the cultivation of poppies was reduced by about 35% - from 193,000 ha in 2007 to 123,000 ha in 

2009 - although drought in 2008 also contributed to the lower level of production. Another 

achievement of the program is that 20 of the 34 provinces were “poppy free” in 2009 compared 

to13 in 2007. Current cultivation is concentrated in seven provinces of the South and West: 

Hilmand, Kandahar, Uruzgan, Daykundi, Zabul, Farah, and Badghis (Figure 7). According to the 

UNODC Survey in 2009, these are the most insecure provinces in the country, which further 

substantiates the link between insecurity and opium cultivation observed since 2007. 
10 

Source: UNODC 2009

Figure 7. Opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan by province, 2009

After crops are harvested and processed, various residues and byproducts remain on the field, 

such as straw, husks, stalks, and leaves. Based on crop production statistics and use of 

appropriate crop-to-residue ratios, this study estimates that about 6.8 Mt of crop residues were

produced in Afghanistan during 2008-09 (Table 3). The energy content of agricultural residues

varies between 10-17 GJ/t due to moisture content. Therefore, the corresponding energy content 

of the crop residues in the country is between 68 petajoules (PJ) and 115 PJ, equivalent to 64 and 

110 trillion British thermal units (Btu), respectively. The analysis includes field crops (cereal 

crops, potatoes, sugar cane, sugar beet, and cotton) and not the additional residues that are 

available from growing other crops such as vegetables. Pruning of orchards and grapevines 

provides residues as well, but because of lack of data on the trees/vines’ condition, spacing, and 

pruning practices, it is difficult to estimate the quantity of material that is collected annually, so it 

was not included in this analysis. However, given the area planted to orchards1

 and vineyards in 

2008-09 (about 105,000 ha) and applying some general assumptions, it is estimated that about 

285,000 tonnes (t) of biomass may have been generated from pruning during the year, which 

represents about 5.7 PJ of energy.2

 

1 The orchards include apples, peaches, apricots, plums, figs, pomegranate, almonds, walnuts, and olives. 

Additionally, processing residues such as almond and walnut 

shells, as well as olive pits, can be used to produce charcoal through pyrolysis of biomass, which 

could be used for cooking and as a soil amendment. Processing residues provide an additional 

2 Assuming an HHV of 20 GJ/t (dry basis) for orchard, vineyard, and processing residues. 
11 

338 TJ of energy. The analysis methodology and results for orchards, vineyards, and processing 

residues are presented in the Appendix. 

Table 3. Crop Residues

Production in 2008-09 from CSO’s Afghanistan Statistical Yearbook 2008-09; Crop to Residue 

Ratios adopted from Singh and Gu 2010

The leading provinces for residue production from cereal crops3

 include Balkh, Helmand, Heart, 

Kunduz, and Nangarhar (Figure 8). To generate the map on Figure 8, data on crop residues from 

cereal production was allocated to the cropland in each province. The goal is to illustrate the 

spatial distribution of these resources at the province level. The tabular results of this analysis are 

presented in the Appendix. 

 

3 No data on other crops by province was available at the time of this study.
12 

Figure 8. Crop residues by province

Unlike other regions in the world, where field crops are produced commercially and generate 

large concentrations of residues, much of Afghanistan’s production is run by households for selfconsumption or local markets – about 80% of the country’s population is subsistence farmers

living in small villages. The lack of large-scale crop production, and their dispersion, increases 

collection and transportation costs, which would restrain the use of these residues for centralized 

electricity generation or transportation fuels production (such as cellulosic ethanol). Regardless 

of this constraint, however, the crop residues in Afghanistan are not available for this type of 

application. These resources are already used as animal feed, on farm applications, and as 

construction material. Moreover, crop residues are a significant component of the solid biomass 

fuels used for cooking. Due to demands made by other sectors (animal feed, in particular), 

however, these resources can’t contribute to their full potential estimated above. Furthermore, 

improved cookstoves would be required to use the estimated potential more efficiently. 

Animal Waste

Animal husbandry is a major feature of the Afghan agriculture – about 79% of rural households 

and 94% of Kuchi population own some kind of livestock (IOCN Institute 2009). Animals kept 

by farmers include cattle, ox, horses, donkeys, camels, goats, sheep, and poultry (mainly 
13 

chickens, some ducks and turkey). For most Afghan farmers, the animals are the only source of 

power for cultivation and transport, often shared among them in these activities. In addition to 

providing families’ subsistence requirements for meat, dairy products, and eggs, the animals also 

provide manure used as an energy source, organic fertilizer, and building material. 

In Afghanistan, as in other developing countries, animal manure is one of the main energy 

sources along with crop residues and wood. In some parts of the country, it is the only source of 

energy for rural households. The manure is dried in the sun, collected into big stacks, and used 

for cooking and heating (Figure 9). However, direct burning of animal manure is not the most 

efficient use of this material. Instead, it could be used to produce biogas, which is a better fuel 

than animal dung cakes as described below. Biogas is generated by the anaerobic digestion 

(decomposition without oxygen) of organic matter, such as animal manure, human excreta, and 

crop residues. The composition of biogas varies depending on the feedstock, but typical 

composition includes methane (50% to 70%), carbon dioxide (30% to 50%), and traces of gases 

such as hydrogen and nitrogen. Biogas is a better fuel than animal dung cakes, because burning 

these cakes in open fires and stoves indoors results in exposure to air pollutants associated with 

the development of respiratory infections, lung disease, and cancer; in contrast, biogas is a much 

cleaner, odorless, and smokeless fuel. The calorific value of animal dung cakes is much lower 

than that of biogas – 8.8 MJ/m3 vs. 19-20 MJ/m3

. Biogas can be used not only for cooking and 

heating, but also for lighting and refrigeration. Additionally, animal dung cakes leave residue 

after burning - biogas leaves no residue. The process of biogas production creates a valuable 

byproduct, the spent slurry, which is a highly nutrient organic fertilizer. 

Source: Michael Yon 2010

Figure 9. Dung piles in Karbasha Qalat, Ghor Province
14 

There are four levels of biogas application: domestic, community (village), intensive animal 

feedlots, and industrial. In developing countries, the main use of biogas has been domestic with 

some community-level applications. The “Renewables 2010 Global Status Report” states that 

more than 30 million households get cooking, heating, and lighting from family-scale digesters

(REN21 2010). Most of them are in China (some 25 million biogas systems) and India (about 4 

million). Nepal is third in domestic biogas installations with close to 200,000 digesters, and 

Vietnam is fourth with more than 150,000 systems. In comparison, there are about 75 family-size 

biogas plants in Afghanistan (AEIC 2010). 

Domestic biogas plants vary in size, depending on the household’s needs and quantity of 

feedstock – mainly animal manure; however, it could be supplemented by other organic material 

such as kitchen waste, crop residues, and night soil (human excreta). Water availability is also 

important because the collected manure must be mixed with water in the biodigester (typically at 

a ratio of 1:1). In general, the smallest size biogas plant (1 m3 capacity) requires about 25 kg of 

manure per day (supplied by about two-three cows) and 25 liters of water respectively, which

can meet the cooking and lighting needs4 of a three- to four-member family (Table 4). The 

largest family-size plant (6 m3 capacity) can cover the needs of a relatively large joint family of 

18-24 members. There are many designs of biogas digesters for household use, including the 

floating drum and the heat-sealed plastic or rubber bag (balloon) type. However, the fixed-dome 

design is perhaps the most applied given its relatively low construction and maintenance cost, 

reliability, simplicity, durability, and long lifetime. Also, the plant is constructed underground, 

protecting it from physical damage and saving space (Figure 10). 

Table 4. Domestic Biogas Plant Size and Daily Feedstock Requirements

* Cooking and lighting requirements. Source: INFORSE 2008 

 

4 Biogas generation is low in cold weather, thus it is not a sufficient fuel for space heating during winter months. 

Additional resources would be required to meet the households’ demand for space heating. 
15 

 Source: Baron, G. 2007

Figure 10. Fixed dome biogas plant design

Theoretically, Afghanistan has the potential to produce about 1,408 million cubic meters (MCM)

of biogas annually, based on the number of livestock in the country as of 2008-09 (Table 5). This 

volume is equivalent to about 32 trillion Btu.

5

 If only one quarter of this potential is developed, it 

could fulfill almost half of Afghanistan’s current energy consumption of 18 trillion Btu (EIA 

2010), or five times the charcoal consumption of 103,000 tonnes (UN 2009), or the entire 

fuelwood consumption of 1 Mt6 (UN 2009). Figure 11 illustrates the distribution of biogas 

potential from the major animal types in Afghanistan: cattle, sheep, goat, and poultry. Locations 

in the east, north, and some central areas have the highest potential for biogas generation from 

animal manure. Because of this, the existing 75 family-size biogas plants in the country are 

constructed in Laghman, Nangarhar, and Herat provinces (AEIC 2010). The distribution of 

biogas potential from different animal types in Afghanistan is illustrated in the Appendix. 

 

5 Assuming that the biogas is composed of 65% methane and it yields 650 Btu per cubic foot. 6 UN reports that fuelwood consumption by households in Afghanistan was 1,531,000 m3 in 2007. Assuming that 1 

tonne of wood = 1.4 m3

, this volume is equal to about 1Mt. 
16 

Table 5. Annual Biogas Potential from Animal Manure in Afghanistan and its Equivalents 

* Source: CSO 2008-09; MCM - million cubic meter; ML - Megaliter; kt - Kilotonne; GWh - Gigawatt-hour.

** Cattle/horse/camel: 3.6 ton/unit/year; sheep/goat: 0.7 ton/unit/year; poultry: 0.022 ton/unit/year; donkey 2.9 

ton/unit/year (adopted from Tatlidil et al. 2009). 

*** To convert animal manure to biogas, the coefficients of 33 m3

/year/ton for cattle/horse/camel, 58 m3/year/ton for 

sheep/goat, 78 m3

/year/ton for poultry, and 26 m3/year/ton for donkey were used as conversion coefficients (adopted 

from Tatlidil et al. 2009). 

The following coefficients were used for calculation of biogas equivalents (adopted from Tatlidil et al. 2009) - gas oil: 

0.62 L, charcoal: 1.46 kg, wood: 3.47 kg, butane: 0.43 kg, dry cow manure: 12.3 kg, electricity: 4.7 kWh, diesel fuel: 

0.66 L, fuel: 0.75 L, and propane: 0.25 m3. 

 Livestock data from FAO-ERGO 2007 with a spatial resolution of 3 arc minutes (roughly 5 km)

Figure 11. Biogas potential from animal manure 

Technically, however, cattle manure is perhaps the most promising biogas feedstock in 

Afghanistan (as in India, Nepal, Pakistan, and other countries) given the large amount of material 
17 

that cattle can provide compared to other, smaller livestock. An Afghanistan household has, on 

average, between six-eight members, thus a biogas plant with capacity of 2 m3 per day can meet 

the energy needs of this size family (Table 4). It would require about 50 kg of manure per day, 

which could be supplied by four-six cows. It would require the same number of horses, or about 

eight-nine camels (assuming an average of 6 kg of manure per day), or about 50 sheep/goats 

(assuming an average of 1 kg of manure per day), or about 277 chickens (assuming an average of 

0.18 kg of manure per day) to meet this demand (NIIR Board 2004). As shown in Table 6, most 

Afghan families don’t own that many animals (except perhaps families in Nuristan keeping large 

herds of goats), so it would be difficult to meet the daily requirements of a biogas plant. There 

are, however, families in the provinces of Khost, Kunar, and Nuristan that own more than four 

cattle and would have enough biogas feedstock supply on a daily basis. 

Table 6. Livestock Owned per Family in 2002-2003

 Source: FAO 2008
18 

The study estimates that about 896,000 domestic biogas plants could be installed in Afghanistan 

using cattle manure. There are about 3.4 million households in the country (IOCN Institute 

2009), so there is the potential to supply about 26% of the country’s households with efficient 

and clean fuel to meet their energy needs. The analysis considers small-scale farmers that keep at 

least two-three cows as good candidates for installing household biogas units. Districts where 

households own more than two-three cattle were identified using data from the “Afghanistan 

National Livestock Census 2002-03” (FAO 2008), and the number of households in each of 

those districts was obtained from the “Agriculture Prospects Report” (MAIL 2009b). The results 

of this analysis are illustrated in Figure 12, and a summary by province is presented in Table 7. 

As shown in Table 7, there are several provinces (Khost, Kunar, Nurestan; Badakhshan, 

Laghman, and Uruzgan are relatively close) that have the potential to install biogas digesters at 

every household. It should be noted that the number of domestic digesters that could be installed 

in each district could be slightly higher or lower given that the Census captures data from 2002-

03, and the livestock ownership is likely to have changed since then. Also, there may be 

additional households in other districts that own at least two-three cows, which qualify for 

installing biogas digesters, but are not captured in the Livestock Census. This analysis, however, 

should give a general idea of the potential for domestic biogas installations in Afghanistan and 

support decision-making processes. 

Figure 12. Districts suitable for installing domestic biogas digesters using cattle manure
19 

Table 7. Number of Households that Could be Served by Biogas Digesters Using Cattle Manure

 

The analysis illustrates that Afghanistan has the potential to increase the number of biogas plants 

installed in the country (currently 75) and further develop its biogas sector. There are, however, 

some technical and economic challenges that need to be addressed when considering a large 

biogas program. One technical challenge is water availability. Afghanistan has an arid to semiarid climate, so water resources are scarce, particularly during drought periods. “A series of 

recent droughts and increasing air temperatures have reduced the size of glaciers in Afghanistan, 

posing additional long-term problems due to climate change. In the past 50 years, larger glaciers 

in the Pamir and the Hindu Kush Mountains have already shrunk by 30%, while some smaller 

ones have vanished altogether. More than 2.5 million people in Afghanistan are already affected 

by drought or are vulnerable to the impacts of recurrent drought and water shortages. The 

number may increase further due to global warming and further aridization.” (NEPA-UNEP 

2009). The Afghan Ministry of Water and Energy stated recently that the excessive use of 

groundwater for a variety of purposes has significantly depleted water tables and aquifers 

throughout Afghanistan and if the trend is not reversed, soon the country will face a severe 

shortage of drinking water (Afghanistan Online 2008). The biogas industry in the country could 

tackle the critical situation of water resources by using wastewater or low-quality water 

unsuitable for consumption. Data on these resources is not available; therefore the authors 
20 

recommend future research to focus on a comprehensive assessment of the water needs and its 

availability for the biogas technology in Afghanistan. 

Another technical challenge, which can be overcome to some extent, is related to cold climates. 

Cold temperatures have a negative impact on the fermentation process, which affects the plant’s 

performance. The fixed-dome digester is used in temperate and cold climates because it is built 

underground. The existing digesters in Afghanistan are this type and are intended to cope with 

the wide temperature variations not only from season to season, but also from day to night. 

Variations in temperature during the day may range from freezing conditions at dawn to the 

upper 30°s C at noon (AWS 2010). The barrier of cold weather can be overcome to some extent 

by heaping compost on top of the digester to heat and insulate it. Farmers at high altitude in 

neighboring Nepal are using this technique under similar conditions to those in high-altitude 

Afghanistan. There are several pilot plants in Langtang, such as this one in Kyanjin Gompa, the 

highest settlement in Langtang Valley at 3,850m (Figure 13). 

 Source: Nepali Times 2010

Figure 13. Biogas plant in Kyanjin Gompa, Langtang Valley, Nepal

A major economic challenge is the cost of biogas plants. No data on the cost of digesters in 

Afghanistan was available at the time of this study, but the investment costs of similar type 

(fixed dome) in Nepal vary between 400 US$ and 800 US$, depending on plant size, location of 

construction, and geographic region (SNV 2010). This is a significant amount for the Afghan 

population (particularly in rural areas) considering that the income per capita is a mere 486 US$

per year (IMF 2010). The current biogas program in Afghanistan uses a differed payment 

strategy, where the owners of biogas units pay the cost over a period of 8-12 months (AEIC 

2010). However, no financial support appears to be provided under the program. In comparison, 

Nepal has several financing options for domestic biogas plants: investment subsidies, credit 

facilities, and carbon credits. “The Government, banks, and donors are all contributing to the 

fund for providing investment subsidies on biogas plants. On average, the subsidy rate (a set 

amount) is 25%-35% of the total investment costs. Because many of the potential households 
21 

may not be able to raise the required investment for the installation of a biogas plant, suitable 

credit facilities are crucial. About 31% of the total biogas plants installed are credit financed 

through one of the 200 microfinance institutions or other Nepalese banks. Under the Biogas 

Support Program (BSP), two small-scale carbon-accounting project bundles had been registered, 

representing nearly 20,000 biogas plants. The carbon revenues amounted to US$ 30 annually per 

biogas plant. In 2005 the applied methodologies were withdrawn, so currently new opportunities 

in the carbon market are investigated.” (SNV 2010). The authors recommend further economic 

analysis, tailored to the Afghan situation, which would be able to look at the associated costs of 

this technology in more detail. 

Nepal's biogas program is an internationally acclaimed success story and can serve as an 

example for a similar effort in Afghanistan. The BSP in Nepal has addressed these and other 

technical and economic challenges associated with biogas production. Therefore, Nepal’s

experience and recommendations would be invaluable to policymakers and industry developers 

in Afghanistan. The biogas plants installed through the BSP in Nepal provide many benefits, as 

shown in Figure 14. 

 Source: GFA Envest 2009

Figure 14. Main benefits of an average biogas plant in Nepal
22 

Forest Resources

Forests are an important natural resource in Afghanistan. They contribute to agricultural 

productivity – stabilize the soil, prevent erosion, enhance the land's capacity to store water, and 

moderate air and soil temperatures. A number of products and byproducts – including timber, 

charcoal, firewood, nuts, and medicinal plants – are directly obtained from trees. Also, forests 

provide habitat for a variety of birds and mammals, including some endangered species. 

Forest resources in Afghanistan are in critical condition. An assessment by the Food and 

Agriculture Organization (FAO) in the late 1970s estimated that deciduous and evergreen forests 

covered 5% of the country’s land area, including 1 million hectare (Mha) of oak and 2 Mha of 

pine and cedar growing mostly in the eastern part of the country (UNEP 2003). Open woodland 

dominated by pistachios, almonds, and junipers occupied a third of the land area. Today, 

however, most of the original forests have disappeared and woodland areas cover about 2% of 

total land. It is estimated that if deforestation continues at its present rate, all forest land will 

disappear in three decades (NEPA-UNEP 2009). The rate of deforestation is evident from 

satellite images taken at different times for comparison (Figures 15-17). The maps, developed by 

the United Nations Operational Satellite Applications Programme (UNOSAT), illustrate the rate 

of forest depletion in Afghanistan. In the northern provinces of Takhar and Kunduz, forest lands 

disappeared completely from 1977 – 2002. Very few forested areas remain in Badghis. The 

provinces of Nuristan, Kunar, and Nangarhar are experiencing severe deforestation, as well as 

the provinces of Paktya, Khost, and Paktika. There are many factors contributing to forest 

depletion in Afghanistan. These include overgrazing, which prevents forest regeneration and 

increases vulnerability; heavy use of forest resources for firewood and as a construction material; 

and war conflicts associated with massive destruction of trees and forest fires. Illegal logging, 

particularly for export to neighboring countries, is another factor driving the decline and 

degradation of forests in the country. A report by the National Environmental Protection Agency 

of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (NEPA) and UNEP indicates that during 1992–2002 

(including the Taliban’s use of the forest trade as a source of revenue), massive logging and 

smuggling significantly contributed to forest reduction in the eastern provinces of Afghanistan – 

50–200 timber truckloads a day or 150,000–500,000 m3

 of wood annually. Local communities 

have lost control over the resources on which they depend for their survival, and forest resources 

are now largely used for immediate profit by organized crime syndicates and traders (NEPAUNEP 2009). Additionally, poor forest management, lack of incentives for reforestation, lack of 

community involvement and awareness, and agricultural and urban encroachments on forest land 

also contributed to the severe decline of forest cover in Afghanistan (UNEP 2009). 
23 

Figure 15. Woodland change in Takhar and Kunduz Provinces, 1977 – 2002

Figure 16. Woodland change in Badghis Province, 1977 – 2002
24 

Figure 17. Woodland change in Nuristan, Kunar, and Nangarhar Province, 1977 - 2002

Because of the critical stage of forest resources in Afghanistan, the analysis shows that they 

should not be considered a viable energy source unless sustainable management practices are 

implemented and followed to allow for their recovery and regeneration. Given the nature of 

Afghanistan’s agriculture, the solution to increased forest resources will not be plantations. A 

more likely scenario includes developments similar to the adjacent country of Turkmenistan, 

where the Blaustein Institutes of Desert Research (BIDR) is studying the growth of Black saxaul 

(Haloxylon aphyllum), a shrub species growing in specially designed water catchments alongside 

rangeland or Lalmi, which can be used as an animal feed and fuelwood (BIDR 2010). 

Now, and most likely in the near future, Afghanistan doesn’t have the quantity of forest 

resources to support electricity generation at a large scale in a sustainable manner. Also, the 

country will need to implement more efficient technologies for using forest and other biomass 

resources. The stoves used for cooking and heating are often very primitive and have poor 

combustion efficiency; and some households use open fires, which results in excessive and 

unsustainable biomass use. 
25 

Urban Waste 

The concentration of population and activities in urban areas is responsible for the generation of 

waste. This waste, often referred to as municipal solid waste (MSW), is generated by households 

and the commercial and industrial sectors. The waste material includes plastics, paper, textiles, 

glass, metal, wood, food, and other organic wastes. MSW, particularly the biogenic portion, is a 

resource that can be converted to electricity, heat, and gaseous and liquid fuels through thermochemical (combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification), and biochemical (anaerobic digestion and 

fermentation) conversion processes.

The use of waste as an energy source provides two important benefits: environmentally safe 

waste management and disposal, as well as the generation of clean electric power. Waste-toenergy (WTE) combustion reduces the volume of trash by about 90%, resulting in a 90% 

decrease in the amount of land required for garbage disposal. Ash remaining from the 

combustion process (usually less than 25% of the input on a weight basis) is typically buried in a 

landfill with ferrous and other metals removed before that. By using biogas emitted from landfill 

sites, also called “landfill gas”, about 60-90% of the methane can be captured, depending on 

system design and effectiveness. Because all landfills generate methane, it is logical to use the 

gas for energy generation rather than emitting this highly potent greenhouse gas to the 

atmosphere. 

UNEP reports that Afghanistan has no proper sanitary landfills, and is currently relying on 

unmanaged dumpsites for waste storage (UNEP 2003). These dumpsites are often situated in 

proximity to major communities, which poses threat to humans’ health and water resources. “For 

example, the siting of Kandahar’s Mian Koo dumpsite in a dry river valley on the side of a 

mountain above the city is completely inappropriate. Heavy rains will almost certainly send 

hundreds, if not thousands of tonnes of waste back into the city via the river system. A similar 

situation exists at Herat’s Qamar Qalla landfill where waste is spread over a large gravel area in 

a dried-out riverbed in a mountain valley above the city. The first period of sustained rainfall 

could wash the dump’s contents back down into Herat. In Kabul, the Kampani dumpsite is 

located upstream and extremely close to a drinking water well field that may soon be expanded 

in order to meet the city’s growing demand for water. The potential for cross-contamination of 

the water supply is significant. Mazar-e-Sharif, by contrast, could provide a model for the rest of 

Afghanistan: located within a reasonable distance from the town centre, a recycling/transfer 

station could be located nearby, and a shallow-depth landfill constructed on site. At the same 

time, it is distant enough from the town as not to present a problem to the urban community.” 

(UNEP 2003). 

There are increasing efforts to better manage landfills, regulate waste collection, and remove the 

existing dumps. Donor agencies such as the World Bank, UN-Habitat, USAID, and NGOs are 

assisting the Municipality of Kabul in the development of better management practices and 

construction of landfills. For example, the World Bank led an environmental assessment 

conducted by Gauff Engineers, of the Frankfurt and ICON-Institute Cologne, to identify suitable 

locations for new landfills outside Kabul. The team identified six promising sites and one is 

moving forward with the construction design. This will be the first engineered sanitary landfill in 
26 

the region and will serve as a model for many municipalities in Afghanistan (Forouhar, Peterson 

2007). 

This study evaluates the MSW resources in Afghanistan to illustrate its electricity generation 

potential. WTE and landfill gas-to-energy (LGE) facilities tend to be built at the landfills of large 

urban centers to ensure steady supply, although small-scale projects could be developed in rural 

areas. Therefore, the study estimates the WTE potential in major populated places in Afghanistan

(those with more than 30,000 people). To estimate the MSW generated in these places, the 

analysis uses 2010 population numbers (World Gazetteer 2010) and a waste generation rate of 

0.4 kg/person/day adopted from Glawe et. al. 2006. Although this generation rate is for Kabul, it 

was used for all urban areas given the lack of data for other locations. The results of this analysis 

are illustrated in Figure 18. Naturally, the cities with large population such as Kabul, Kandahar, 

Herat, Mazari Sharif, and Jalalabad are also centers with a large concentration of waste. 

Figure 18. Municipal solid waste generation in major urban areas

Most of the MSW material is combustible at high-temperature incineration. This includes paper, 

food and field waste, plastic, rubber, and wood. However, materials such as glass, metals, 

ceramics, and clay are noncombustible. The amount of MSW generated annually in 

Afghanistan’s major urban areas is estimated at about 600,000 tonnes (Table 8). Several studies 
27 

point out that more than 50% of the waste in Kabul contains inert material (soil, gravel, stone, 

and dust), so it is noncombustible; there is some medical and industrial waste that is 

noncombustible as well. Therefore, about 40% of the waste generated in the city could actually 

be used for electricity generation. Because of the lack of data for other locations, this percentage 

was used for all urban areas. A typical WTE plant generates about 550 kWh per tonne of waste 

combusted. Modern WTE plants have efficiencies for power generation of 20%-25%, and new 

designs based on thermo-chemical conversion such as gasification could exceed 30%. The 

electrical energy from the combustible portion of the MSW in Afghanistan’s major urban areas, 

using thermo-chemical conversion, is estimated at 134 GWh per year. 

The authors recognize that the waste generation, composition, and collection rate vary by city, so 

one number doesn’t fit all population centers. However, given the lack of data for all locations, 

this is the most suitable approach to illustrate the WTE potential in Afghanistan. The urban areas 

in the country are experiencing major population growth and a development boom, so the waste 

generation is expected to grow – and with that, so does the WTE potential. 

Table 8. Municipal Solid Waste Generation and Electricity Potential in Major Urban Areas

Population numbers are for 2010 derived from World Gazetteer; Waste generation rate of 0.4 kg/person/day; 

Thermo-chemical pathway considers combustion technology generating 550 kWh/tonne of waste. 

An alternative treatment of the organic waste fraction is landfill-based anaerobic digestion. The 

volume of gas produced depends on several factors: the amount, type, and age of waste; moisture 

content; temperature; pH; and site conditions. Without a particular site in mind, it is difficult to 
28 

estimate the energy potential of MSW through bio-chemical conversion in Afghanistan. Also, it 

is difficult to put a timeframe on landfill gas recovery. As opposed to bio-digesters where waste 

feedstock is converted to biogas in controlled, optimized conditions, anaerobic decomposition in 

a landfill is uncontrolled and very slow. It may take several years before the level of production 

is sufficient to fuel an electricity generator; however, an advanced technology exists to accelerate 

the digestion process within a few months. Based on earlier observations regarding waste 

composition, it appears that Kabul, and perhaps other cities, don’t have much organic waste

going to landfills. In general, organic waste is higher in rural areas. Therefore, combustion or 

other thermo-chemical conversion pathways would be more suitable for energy recovery from 

waste in the country’s urban areas. 

Potential Biomass Resources 

Predicting a plant’s productivity is normally done using models that link soil information, solar 

energy input (mathematically predictable), temperature, and available moisture with the plant 

growth characteristics. For Afghanistan, the annual variation in precipitation for the same 

month of the year results in incorrect productivity predictions for rainfed lands. For irrigated 

lands, where moisture is not so limited, it is possible to forecast plant yields; these also can be 

generated from the historical record for specific plants and cultivars in any case. 

Crop cultivation without irrigation on dry lands (Lalmi) relies entirely on the rainfall that 

regularly occurs in the winter and early spring. The average seasonal precipitation maps in the 

Appendix illustrate the winter and spring cycle. Accordingly, most crops on these lands are 

planted in the October–November period at least where low winter temperatures would not kill 

the early growth. However, the annual variation in precipitation is literally from 25–200% of the 

average, with drought at one extreme and flooding at the other. An indication of this variance is 

the wide difference in rainfed wheat crop production during 2002–2009 reported by the Ministry 

of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL). The average production was about 1.0 Mt with 

a standard deviation of 0.56 Mt; however, the range was from 0.22 Mt to 1.68 Mt (MAIL 

2009b). 

Another indicator of the annual variation in precipitation is the satellite-derived vegetation data 

for Afghanistan. There is a strong relationship between precipitation and biomass production – in 

non-irrigated areas, increased rainfall leads to more plant development. Some experts believe 

that vegetation data provides a better representation of rainfall patterns than point data 

representing ground stations. Figure 19 illustrates the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 

(NDVI) for different years in which the third week of April is compared with the seven-year 

average. It clearly demonstrates the annual variation in vegetation development, thus 

precipitation patterns, and the difficulty in predicting crop-production levels. 
29 

Source: MAIL 2009a

Figure 19. NDVI variation between the years 2003, 2005, 2007, and 2009

Most arable lands in Afghanistan are irrigated to some degree. Agriculture accounts for more 

than 95% of water consumption, primarily from rivers and streams. This is followed by kareze (a 

historic Persian system of underground water collection), springs, deep-well pump, and other 

systems. Water availability in Afghanistan is dependent on both rainfall and snow melt in the 

Hindu Kush, which supplies more than 80% of Afghanistan’s water resources. Unfortunately, 

drought and warming air temperatures in recent years have reduced the water flow of rivers and 

the size of the glaciers in Afghanistan. Ground water is being drawn at a rate greater than 

replenishment.

 

Irrigation is clearly the key to reasonably stable production of any crop in Afghanistan. The 

purely rainfed production is so varied each year that it would make it very difficult to produce 

any crop in the drought years. With climate change, the future of both rainfed and irrigated crop 

production in the country is very daunting especially because of predictions that drought will 

become the normal season by 2030; in recent history, it was a temporary or cyclical event (SEI 

2009). Increased rainfall with increasing temperatures will not offset further loss of snow in the 

mountains and the more rapid spring melt. A sequence of untimely rainfall and increased 

evapotranspiration will affect the spring season more than any other. The key message from 

climate projections for Afghanistan by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) is: “The 

vulnerability of the agricultural sector to increased temperatures and changes in rainfall 
30 

patterns/snow melt is high. Increased soil evaporation, reduced river flow from earlier snow 

melt, and less frequent rain during peak cultivation seasons will all impact upon agricultural 

productivity and crop choice availability. Crop failure levels due to water shortages and the 

amount of potentially productive land left uncultivated will likely increase. More water intensive 

staple crops will become less attractive to farmers, with a likely increase in the attractiveness of 

those that are more drought hardy, including opium poppy. By 2060, large parts of the 

agricultural economy are likely to have become marginal without significant investment in water 

management and irrigation.” 

Energy Crops Potential

Ethanol and biodiesel are the liquid biofuels most widely used in transport vehicles today. 

Ethanol (C2H5OH, ethyl alcohol) is produced by the fermentation of carbohydrate materials. 

Today, ethanol is made from starches and sugars, which are primarily grown as food or as animal 

feed. Ethanol is used for production of alcoholic beverages; for industrial purposes (as a solvent, 

disinfectant, or chemical feedstock); and, in recent years, as a blending agent with gasoline to 

increase octane and reduce carbon monoxide and other smog-causing emissions. Biodiesel is a 

liquid fuel made from vegetable oils and animal fats through a chemical process 

(transesterification) that reacts the feedstock with alcohol (usually methanol) to produce 

chemical compounds known as fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Biodiesel is the name given to 

these esters when they meet specifications such as the American Society for Testing and 

Materials (ASTM) D6751 for use as transportation fuel. Biodiesel is used in blends with 

petroleum diesel or in its pure form.

There is poor food security in Afghanistan, which is a situation that doesn’t favor biofuels 

production. In 1980, the subsistence agricultural economy with a population of less than 20 

million people was generally able to provide adequate nutrition through the additional income 

from export of high-value livestock, vegetables, fruits, and nuts. The current population of 

almost 30 million people combined with the recent trends in drought, floods, and the destruction 

of infrastructure contributed to the food security deterioration. In 2010, about one-third of the 

population is dependent on the World Food Program for subsistence (WFP 2010). 

Discussions of new crops in Afghanistan often occur in the context of the counter-narcotics 

program. It is evident that for a new crop to be considered, the extent of adoption will depend on 

the land-holding pattern, availability of water, crop requirements, and the overall economic 

competitiveness of the new crop. 

Assuming that the issues of land-holding patterns and water availability are the same as the 

opium crop the poppy (Papaver somniferum L.), which has been widely grown in Afghanistan, it 

is worth examining the growth characteristics and crop requirements. According to the 

Handbook of Energy Crops (Duke 1983), the poppy “thrives in rich, well-manured soil, in hot to 

warm regions. Deep, warm, moderately moist, medium heavy soils, well cultivated, and limed 

meet the requirements for poppy growing. Soils with pH neutral or slightly alkaline preferable. 

Ranging from Cool Temperate Wet Steppe to Wet through Subtropical Dry to Moist Forest Life 

Zones, poppy is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 to 17.3 dm (mean of 34 cases = 

16.0), annual temperature of 5.6 to 23.5°C (mean of 34 cases = 10.9), and pH of 4.9 to 8.2 (mean 

of 25 cases = 6.5). It does poorly in the humid tropics.” This indicates that common oilseed 
31 

plants – canola, soybean, sunflower and safflower – could be grown in similar areas that have 

been successful with opium poppy, based on the soil moisture and temperature requirements as 

described by Purdue (Duke 1983) for these crops. 

Mustard (Brassica juncea) has been grown in Afghanistan for a long time; in fact, its geographic 

origin is presumed to be Eastern Afghanistan and the Himalayan region. Its widespread 

distribution in Afghanistan and the periods of planting reflect the availability of water as shown 

in Table 9. 

Table 9. Oilseed Planting and Harvest Dates in Afghanistan

 Source: ICARDA 2002 

Other than in the nonirrigated East and Southeast, where planting has to be on Lalmi before the 

winter rains, the remaining areas of growth for mustard are mainly irrigated. These are usually 

second crops with plantings in the spring-summer after the winter wheat crop. Typically, the 

mustard relatives in the Brassicaceae family, e.g., canola (Brassica napus) and camelina 

(Camelina sativa) will grow in the same places and under the same conditions as mustard. 

Because mustard is a widely known crop in Afghanistan, then it is likely that canola and 

camelina will do well on irrigated lands (planted in the spring-summer after the winter wheat 

harvest). 

New oilseed crops as well as new varieties of these crops that some farmers are already growing

are being evaluated in Afghanistan by MAIL, different donor agencies, and NGOs. During 2002-

2006, in an effort to introduce alternative crops to poppy, USAID provided farmers in four 

provinces (Helmand, Kandahar, Zabul, and Uruzgan) with improved cotton seed variety, better 

farm technology, and more efficient processing of cotton gin (USAID 2010). The International 

Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) reported research on soybean, new 

varieties of sesame and flax, canola, and safflower (ICARDA 2005). The United States 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) is supporting the soybean and sesame seed cultivation. 

Researchers identified soybean varieties that are suitable for northern Afghanistan, with some 

varieties yielding as much as 2.5 t/ha if planted following a wheat crop. Canola is considered 

well-suited for northern Afghanistan as well, if sown in the fall. The research states that it could 
32 

grow well even in dry areas if sown in the late winter and early spring. Safflower is another 

oilseed crop considered in Afghanistan. It is drought-resistant and well-adapted to dryland 

cropping – and early results indicate that safflower can be grown successfully when planted as an 

early spring crop (ICARDA 2005). Another oilseed crop from the mustard family, pennycress 

(Thlaspi arvense), also could have great potential in Afghanistan. While crops such as canola, 

soybean, and safflower are used in food applications, camelina and pennycress are usually not 

and they grow well on marginal lands and require minimal water, fertilizer, and pesticide. 

The challenge with displacing poppy cultivation is the value proposition. Oilseed commodity 

prices (e.g., canola and soybean) are still only two-three times that of wheat, and yields in 

Afghanistan are likely to be lower than world averages even on irrigated land, which further 

reduces the farmers’ margin. An analysis of the price of wheat in Afghanistan (Favre 2005) 

shows that from 1996,–2005 the local Afghanistan prices tracked the international commodity 

prices of U.S. No. 2 soft red winter wheat, except at times when there are significant local 

shortages, such as during the Taliban period. Because of the land-locked nature of Afghanistan, 

it may seem more surprising that for some periods, the local price has been the same as the

international commodity price and does not reflect local transportation costs. Therefore, it would 

appear that oilseed cultivation maybe sensitive to the international commodity price as well. 

One recent analysis (Arden and Fox 2010) breaks out of the international price constraint by 

presuming that the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) would be a customer for the 

biodiesel produced in Afghanistan to offset importing their fuel. It also presumes that the ISAF 

would pay the fully burdened cost of fuel (FBCF) for diesel oil replacement in military use. The 

FBCF is listed as 400 US$/gal or almost 120,000 US$/t. Diesel oil in the U.S. retail markets in 

2010 has a price of 2.10 US$/gal or only 630 US$/t. At the time of this writing, vegetable oils

were selling on the market for about 750–850 US$/t with oilseed prices at less than half, 

depending on their oil content. So, in this specific case, there is a major financial incentive. The 

selected crop is safflower, and the initial area of planting proposed is 61,500 ha (located near a 

large U.S. or ISAF base in Kandahar province, because the southern provinces of Kandahar and 

Helmand account for 73% of Afghanistan’s poppy cultivation), approximately 50% of the area 

planted with poppy in 2009. The production would be about 50 kt in a 90 million US$ 

investment in a biodiesel transesterification plant with capacity of 60 dam3

 (15 million gallons) 

per year. 

While the use of nonedible oils, e.g., camelina and pennycress, would obviate competition with 

food markets, the farmers have a different perspective. To reduce risk, the choice of food-quality 

oil crops such as safflower, sunflower, canola, and soybean would provide additional market 

opportunities. The byproduct meal also would have value as an animal feed, without restrictions 

due to toxicity (some nonedible species, such as Jatropha curcas, have toxic varieties). 

The vegetable oils could be used directly in slow diesel engines as straight vegetable oil (SVO);

however, the low winter temperatures would make this difficult to achieve. Therefore, it might 

be better to transesterify the vegetable oils and gain greater compatibility with the diesel system 

– either for transportation or for stationary applications. 
33 

Conclusions

This study estimated the biomass resources available in Afghanistan and evaluated potential 

resources that could be used for energy purposes. The analysis also presented information on the 

Afghanistan ecosystem, which is under both direct threats from people and indirect effects of 

climate change, as well as the consequences of an infrastructure that has been damaged from 

almost four decades of war. Remote sensing data demonstrate the pressure of people on the 

almost extinct forests of Afghanistan and the extraordinary variation in water availability for 

rainfed agriculture, while irrigation itself is starting to exceed the available water resources. Our 

major findings are as follows: 

1. This study identified biogas generation from animal manure and waste-to-energy from 

urban discards as the most promising sustainable biomass technologies using existing 

resources in Afghanistan. Biogas technology is more applicable to rural regions and 

WTE is best suited for urban areas. 

a. Biogas technology provides many benefits to households including reductions 

in indoor air pollution, reductions in firewood use and collection time 

(especially for women), and increases in crop production by using the spent 

slurry as a fertilizer. 

b. Cost of biogas systems could be an issue. Effective public-private partnerships 

are critical to the success of biogas technology deployment in Afghanistan. For 

example, Nepal’s Biogas Support Program combines the participation of the 

private sector, microfinance organizations, community groups, and 

nongovernmental organizations, which has resulted in a steady increase of

biogas systems during the past decade.

c. Waste management in Afghanistan’s large populated places is one of the 

country’s most serious environmental problems. Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, 

Mazari Sharif, and Jalalabad are centers with large concentrations of waste that 

could be used as an energy source. The WTE technology provides two 

important benefits: environmentally safe waste management and disposal, as 

well as the generation of clean electric power. 

2. Crop residues are already in use as animal feed, for farm applications, and construction 

material. They represent a significant component of the solid biomass fuels used for 

cooking and, therefore, are not available for electricity generation or transportation 

fuels production (such as cellulosic ethanol). Moreover, crop production in Afghanistan 

is run by households for self-consumption or local markets, so it can’t generate large 

concentrations of residues to support power generation at scale.

3. Forest resources are limited and the country doesn’t have sufficient quantity to support 

electricity generation at a large scale in a sustainable manner. The fuelwood issues 

require a threefold approach to deal with the scarcity situation. It will be important to 

reduce the energy demand while still providing the same service for cooking and space 

heating. NGOs’ efforts have identified that insulation of buildings in northern or highaltitude areas would positively impact fuelwood consumption directly; while improved 

cookstoves, including ovens, would also help reduce consumption (Nienhuys 2009). 

There is also a need for increased fuelwood supplies, which could be ensured by 

planting trees and shrubs. Reforestation would provide not only fuel, but also restore 

local livelihoods and manage erosion. In dry areas, the “trees” are likely to be shrubs 
34 

adapted to arid areas and would require new approaches to irrigation, such as 

rainwater-capture techniques. 

4. Climate and terrain are major limitations on the potential biomass resources in 

Afghanistan – large areas of arable land are not available for energy cropping. With 

climate change, the future of both rainfed and irrigated crop production in the country 

is very daunting based on predictions that drought will become the normal season by 

2030 (compared with the recent history of it being a temporary or cyclical event). It’s 

also evident that large parts of the agricultural land are likely to become marginal 

without significant investment in water management and irrigation by 2060. 

5. Annual oilseed production for both food and fuel applications could be undertaken to 

offset cooking oil imports and provide local biofuels. Common oilseed plants (canola, 

soybean, sunflower, and safflower) could be grown in similar areas that have been 

successful with opium poppy – this would also provide alternative crops for farmers in 

those regions. Also, two other oilseed crops from the mustard family (camelina and 

pennycress) could have great potential in Afghanistan. These crops are nonedible; grow 

well on marginal lands; and require minimal water, fertilizer, and pesticides. 

6. High value-added crops can generate high returns to the farmer. However, the current 

illegal poppy crop, while demonstrating this, is hard to substitute with legal crops. The 

traditional value of energy relative to food makes energy an improbable replacement 

for the opium economy. 
35 

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39 

Appendix

Table 10. Orchard, Vineyard, and Processing Residues 

 Area data from CSO 2008-09; CRR – crop to residue ratio – from CEC 2008; BDT - bone dry ton (short ton); 

 DMT - dry metric ton 
40 

Table 11. Crop Residues from Cereal Production by Province

Production in 2008-09 from CSO’s Afghanistan Statistical Yearbook 2008-09
41 

Figure 20. Cattle density
42 

Figure 21. Goat density
43 

Figure 22. Sheep density
44 

Figure 23. Poultry density
45 

Figure 24. Average monthly rainfall by season
F1147-E(10/2008) 

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Assessment of Biomass Resources in Afghanistan

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Afghanistan is facing many challenges on its path of reconstruction and development. Among all its pressing needs, 

the country would benefit from the development and implementation of an energy strategy. In addition to 

conventional energy sources, the Afghan government is considering alternative options such as energy derived from 

renewable resources (wind, solar, biomass, geothermal). Biomass energy is derived from a variety of sources --

plant-based material and residues -- and can be used in various conversion processes to yield power, heat, steam, 

and fuel. This study provides policymakers and industry developers with information on the biomass resource 

potential in Afghanistan for power/heat generation and transportation fuels production. To achieve this goal, the study 

estimates the current biomass resources and evaluates the potential resources that could be used for energy 

purposes.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Afghanistan; biomass; biomass resources; biogas; Afghanistan climate; Afghanistan geography; Afghan energy; 

domestic fuels; agricultural resources; crop residues; irrigated lands; opium poppy; animal waste; domestic biogas; 

feedstock; forest resources; urban waste; woodland; potential biomass resources; energy crops

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