Index of "1996 Country Commercial Guides"
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U.S. Department of State 
Ecuador Country Commercial Guide 
Office of the Coordinator for Business Affairs 
 
 
 
                          COUNTRY COMMERCIAL GUIDE 
 
                                 ECUADOR 
 
                               1995-1996 
 
                        Prepared by the U.S. Embassy 
                            Quito, Ecuador 
 
 
               TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
Chapter 
 
I.    Executive Summary 
 
II.    Economic Trends and Outlook 
    A. Major Trends and Outlook 
    B. Principal Growth Sectors 
    C. Government Role in the Economy 
    D. Balance of Payments Situation 
    E. Infrastructure Situation 
 
III.     Political Environment 
    A. Relationship with the United States 
    B. Major Political Issues Affecting Business Climate 
    C. Ecuador's Political System 
 
IV.    Marketing U.S. Products and Services 
    A. Distribution and Sales Channels 
    B. Use of Agents and Distributors 
    C. Franchising 
    D. Direct Marketing 
    E. Joint Ventures and Licensing 
    F. Steps to Establishing an Office 
    G. Selling Factors and Techniques 
    H. Advertising and Trade Promotion 
    I. Product Pricing 
    J. Sales Service and Customer Support 
    K. Selling to the Government 
    L. Protecting Your Product from IPR Infringement 
    M. Need for a Local Attorney 
 
V.    Leading Sectors for U.S. Exports and Investment 
 
VI.    Trade Regulations and Standards 
    A. Trade Barriers 
    B. Customs Valuation 
    C. Import Licenses 
    D. Export Controls 
    E. Import/Export Documentation 
    F. Temporary Entry 
    G. Labeling and Marking Requirements 
    H. Prohibited Imports 
    I. Standards 
    J. Free Trade Zones 
    K. Warehouses 
    L. Special Import Provisions 
    M. Membership in Free Trade Arrangements 
 
VII.    Investment Climate 
 
    A1. Openness to Foreign Investment 
    A2. Conversion and Transfer Policies 
    A3. Expropriation and Compensation 
    A4. Dispute Settlement 
    A5. Performance Requirements and Incentives 
    A6. Right to Private Ownership and Establishment 
    A7. Protection of Property Rights 
    A8. Regulatory System:  Laws and Procedures 
    A9. Efficient Capital Markets and Portfolio Investments 
    A10. Political Violence 
    B.  Bilateral Investment Agreements 
    C.  OPIC and Other Investment Insurance Programs 
    D.  Labor 
    E.  Foreign Trade Zones and Free Ports 
    F.  Capital Outflow Policy 
    G.  Foreign Direct Investment Statistics 
    H.  Major Foreign Investors 
 
VIII.    Trade and Project Financing 
    A. Banking System 
    B. Foreign Exchange Controls Affecting Trade 
    C. Financing Availability 
    D. How to Finance Exports/Methods of Payment 
    E. Types of Available Export Financing and Insurance 
    F. Project Financing 
    G. Correspondents With U.S. Banks 
 
IX.    Business Travel 
    A. Business Customs 
    B. Travel Advisory and Visas 
    C. Holidays 
    D. Business Infrastructure 
 
X.    Appendices 
    A. Country Data 
    B. Domestic Economy 
    C. Trade 
    D. Investment 
    E. U.S. and Country Contacts 
    F. Market Research 
    G. Trade Event Schedule 
 
 
CHAPTER I:  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
 
This Country Commercial Guide (CCG) presents a comprehensive look at 
Ecuador's commercial environment through economic, political and market 
analyses. 
 
The Country Commercial Guides were established by recommendation of the 
Trade Promotion Coordinating Committee (TPCC), a multi-agency task force 
to consolidate various reporting documents prepared for the U.S. 
business community.  Country Commercial Guides are prepared annually at 
U.S. Embassies through the combined efforts of several U.S. government 
agencies. 
 
Ecuador's 12 million inhabitants with a per capita income over USD 1,500 
like American products and often prefer them to national and European 
brands, making the United States Ecuador's leading supplier.  In 1994, 
the U.S. exported nearly USD 1.2 billion worth of goods and services to 
Ecuador, or 25 percent of Ecuador's total imports.  Japan, Colombia, 
Brazil, and Germany together supplied 35 percent of the Ecuadorian 
import market. 
 
Ecuador's GDP grew by 4 percent in 1994, but growth will slow in 1995 
due to the economic impact of the border conflict with Peru.   
Petroleum, agricultural, and seafood production, primarily for export 
markets, contribute a quarter of Ecuador's GDP.  The largely state-
operated petroleum sector remains extremely important, accounting for 
approximately one third of both export earnings and public sector 
revenue.  Petroleum legislation reforms in 1993 have opened 
opportunities for U.S. firms to participate in major projects in the oil 
sector, including expanded participation in oil development and the 
petroleum pipeline expansion project.  Ecuador, the world's largest 
exporter of bananas and a major producer of shrimp, is diversifying its 
agricultural exports.  Changes in the agricultural industry have created 
opportunities in the areas of food processing and packaging.  Renewed 
interest in upgrading and building new power-generation plants has 
opened doors for U.S. energy-generation equipment and service providers.  
The manufacturing sector is growing by nearly 5 percent annually, as it 
becomes more export-oriented to take advantage of regional economic 
integration. 
 
The reformist economic policies of the administration of President Sixto 
Duran-Ballen have resulted in a reduction of inflation, a balanced 
budget, smaller public sector expenditures, improvements in tax and 
customs collection, the privatization of some public sector holdings, 
and further trade liberalization.  These policies are expected to be 
continued by the new administration which will be selected during the 
1996 presidential elections, providing a basis for Ecuador to enjoy 
sustainable economic growth.  The economic reforms and commercial bank 
debt settlement were partly financed by the 1994 stand-by arrangement 
with IMF which opened up the doors to World Bank and Interamerican 
Development Bank lending. 
 
Comprised of three distinct regions, tropical coastal lowlands, the 
mountainous sierra, and rain forest of the Oriente, as well as the  
Galapagos Islands, Ecuador offers unique marketing opportunities.  
Located in the Sierra region, the national capital, Quito, with a 
population of a million and a half, is the center for decision making on 
government procurement and policy, the oil industry, and trade with 
Colombia.  Guayaquil, Ecuador's largest city and major port, with a 
population of some two million, is the center for banking, agroexport, 
and manufacturing activity.  In order to be successful in the Ecuadorian 
market, U.S. firms must evaluate business opportunities in both of these 
two distinct cities. 
 
Many U.S. firms find that selling into the Ecuadorian market is 
profitable, with fewer competitors, a general preference for U.S. 
brands, and many niche markets.  Consumers are knowledgeable about U.S. 
products due to the U.S. television programs which are viewed by 
Ecuadorians daily on cable television.  As a major importer, with a 
limited, but growing, manufacturing base, Ecuador will continue to seek 
suppliers of consumer, agricultural and industrial products and 
services. The leading sectors which have the greatest potential for non-
agricultural U.S. goods and services are telecommunications, electric 
power generation, food processing and packaging equipment, and safety 
and security equipment.  Wheat, cotton, rice, corn, soybean meal, 
oilseeds, and processed foods are the leading prospects for the 
agricultural sector.  U.S. firms are encouraged to evaluate the 
potential of their products and services in Ecuador. 
 
Country Commercial Guides are available on the National Trade Data Bank 
on CD-ROM or through the Internet.  Please contact STAT-USA at 1-800-
STAT-USA for more information.  To locate Country Commercial Guides via 
the Internet, please use the following world wide web address:  
WWW.STAT-USA.GOV.  CCGS can also be ordered in hard copy or on diskette 
from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) at 1-800-553-
NTIS. 
 
CHAPTER II:  ECONOMIC TRENDS AND OUTLOOK 
 
A.  MAJOR TRENDS AND OUTLOOK 
 
Introduction and Summary 
 
Ecuador is a small country of less than 12 million inhabitants located 
on the equator in South America.  The economy generates a gross domestic 
product (GDP) of USD 17 billion and provides formal sector jobs for a 
million people.  With 271,000 square kilometers, Ecuador is the size of 
the state of Colorado and contains dramatic geographical and biological 
diversity.  The country consists of three distinct regions:  the 
tropical lowlands of the Pacific coast, the mountains and valleys of the 
Andean Sierra, and the Amazonian rain forest of the Oriente, plus the 
Galapagos Islands. 
 
Until the 1970's, Ecuador was an agrarian country dependent on commodity 
exports.  Boom periods were linked to high world prices for coastal 
products, such as cacao, bananas, and shrimp.  From 1972 onwards oil 
development in the Amazon basin fueled a decade of rapid growth, 
averaging 9 percent annually, that expanded public services, state 
enterprises, infrastructure, and import-substitution manufacturing.  
When oil prices fell, Ecuador failed to adjust by reducing inefficient 
state involvement in the economy.  Consequently the 1980's were a decade 
of stagnation under the burdens of debt, inflation, incomplete 
adjustment measures, and volatile international oil prices.  The 
economic challenge of the 1990's has been to restore sustainable growth 
through the implementation of comprehensive market-oriented structural 
reforms. 
 
Today, petroleum production and agricultural exports continue to form 
the pillars of the Ecuadorian economy.  The largely state-operated 
petroleum sector remains extremely important, accounting for about one 
third of both export earnings and public sector revenue.  Ecuador is the 
world's largest exporter of bananas and a major producer of shrimp, 
which together account for a third of the country's exports.  Ecuador's 
farmers also produce a variety of domestic consumption crops.  Industry 
is largely oriented to producing for the domestic market, but regional 
economic integration is creating more export opportunities for 
manufacturers.  The services sector provides some modern infrastructure 
and a significant tourism industry. 
 
Since 1992, President Sixto Duran-Ballen has implemented some 
macroeconomic and structural reforms to modernize the state and lay a 
basis for sustainable economic expansion.  Public finances have been put 
on a firmer foundation through budget, tax, customs, and fuel pricing 
reforms.  During 1994, Ecuador concluded agreements with the IMF and its 
foreign bank creditors that reopened the country to international 
capital flows.  Trade has been substantially liberalized since 1991 and 
Ecuador has concluded negotiations for joining the World Trade 
Organization. 
 
The austerity measures of the first half of the Duran-Ballen 
administration began to pay off with the realization of 4 percent GDP 
growth for 1994.  By the end of last year, business confidence in a 
broad-based economic expansion was high.  In spite of the prospect for a 
stand-still in oil sector growth pending the completion of a second 
pipeline and increasing European restrictions on Ecuadorian banana 
exports, recovery in domestic demand, growth in imports of capital goods 
and inputs, a strong recovery in construction, and expanding exports of 
manufactured goods indicated that the country was poised for growth of 
up to 5 percent in 1995. 
 
The outbreak of fighting with Peru in a remote disputed border region in 
late January 1995 set back Ecuador's economic prospects.  By raising 
interest rates, the government was able to avoid a currency crisis, but 
this policy imposed high short term costs to both the financial and real 
sectors of the economy.  The government has encountered political 
opposition to its efforts to balance the 1995 budget in the wake of 
increased military expenditures.  Imports of military items have 
worsened the outlook for a current account balance already under 
pressure by the resumption of debt service payments.  A definitive 
resolution of the border dispute is necessary to avoid a potentially 
expensive arms race or even the possible resumption of hostilities.  
Over the longer term, unless the border dispute is resolved, resulting 
uncertainties may have a negative affect on needed foreign investment.  
 
The Duran-Ballen administration renewed its structural reform and 
privatization efforts in 1994, but progress has been slow.  New laws on 
financial institutions and agrarian development improved the investment 
climate in those sectors, but reforms of the telecommunications and 
electricity sector still languish in Congress.  Although the future of 
the oil sector depends on construction of a second pipeline, there is 
political opposition to private participation in the project.  
Intellectual property reforms are pending with Congress, where the 
government parties do not enjoy a working majority and must negotiate 
with opposition parties to enact legislation. The public sector remains 
inefficient, and more privatization is needed in the telecommunications, 
electricity, and petroleum sectors.  It will probably remain for the 
next administration that takes power after the 1996 elections to achieve 
substantial additional progress towards economic modernization. 
 
Economic Growth 
 
The growth rate for real gross domestic product (GDP) increased to 4 
percent in 1994, following a year of slow growth (2 percent) in 1993 in 
the aftermath of the 1992 macroeconomic stabilization program and 
declining export prices.  The petroleum sector was once again the major 
contributor to GDP expansion, with real growth of 12 percent in 1994.  
After a decline in 1993, the agriculture and fishing sector expanded by 
1.6 percent in 1994, with some improvement in banana production and an 
outstanding year for coffee and domestic food crops balancing a decline 
in the fisheries sector.  Manufacturing grew by 4.7 percent in 1994, led 
by an expansion in vehicle assembly.  Construction mounted a strong 
recovery, registering 5.3 percent growth after several years of 
contraction.  The service sectors, led by the financial industry, grew 
by 2.2 percent, although government services fell by another 3.3 
percent. 
 
On the demand side, the continuing decline in government consumption 
accelerated to 3.8 percent in 1994.  Private consumption grew by 3.7 
percent, resulting in an overall consumption share of GDP to 77 percent.  
The growth rate for private gross fixed capital formation improved to 
5.4 percent, while public investment recovered, rising 5.4 percent in 
1994 after a 11.3 percent drop in 1993.  Overall, investment spending 
grew by 5.4 percent and continued to account for 20 percent of GDP.  
Foreign savings, through a wider current account deficit, financed 
nearly a quarter of investment in 1993 and 1994.   
 
Although the government had hoped for 4-5 percent growth in 1995, the 
economic impact of the border conflict with Peru will likely restrict 
1995 GDP growth to the 2.5-3.5 percent range.  Oil production cannot 
expand until pipeline capacity is increased, while the finance, tourism, 
and construction sectors were casualties of the conflict.  Uncertainty 
over border negotiations, the government's ability to manage the 
conflict's fiscal impact, prospects for continued market reforms, and 
the May 1996 presidential elections could limit Ecuador's ability to 
achieve robust growth in 1996. 
 
Inflation and Employment 
 
The Duran-Ballen administration set reducing inflation to single digits 
by 1996 as a top economic objective.  After jumping 60 percent in 1992, 
the rise in urban consumer prices eased to 31 percent in 1993 and 25 
percent in 1994, thanks to relative exchange rate stability and tight 
fiscal policy.  In the aftermath of the border conflict, the government 
revised its inflation target for 1995 from 17 percent to 21 percent.  As 
of mid-1995, annual inflation was running at 22 percent.  The CPI does 
not account for rises in high end real estate prices and company equity 
values, which have absorbed some of the influx of capital from abroad.   
 
Open urban unemployment fell to 7.1 percent by late 1994, but 2 out of 5 
urban workers still must rely on marginal jobs in the informal sector 
(unregulated enterprises employing less than 5 people).  Wages have been 
rising in terms of buying power since 1992, but have yet to fully regain 
the ground lost since 1986.   
 
Fiscal Policy 
 
In order to avoid unfinanceable budget deficits, the Ecuadorian 
government has had to squeeze public sector spending and periodically 
resort to revenue measures.  The 1992 budget law curtailed earmarking of 
revenue and gave the Finance Minister the power to impound appropriated 
funds.  The public payroll has been reduced by 37,000 employees over the 
last three years, although the savings has gone to salary increases.  In 
1994 total public sector spending fell to 24.4 percent of GDP (USD 4.04 
billion), down from nearly 28 percent of GDP in 1992.  Of that, 6.9 
percent of GDP went to capital projects, down 0.5 points from 1993.  
Central government spending on education, health and welfare fell 0.6 
points to 4.2 percent of GDP in 1994.  The open military budget of 1.8 
percent of GDP was supplemented by direct allocations of petroleum 
revenue and profits from military-owned companies.  
 
The consolidated public sector depends on crude oil exports and domestic 
petroleum product sales for 30 percent of its revenue.  Major increases 
in fuel prices in September 1992, January 1994, and October 1994 were 
key to maintaining the fiscal balance.  Since February 1994, most fuel 
prices have been adjusted monthly to reflect world prices and exchange 
rates, and to compensate for budget shortfalls in the event of falling 
export crude prices.  Taxes and customs duties generate income equal to 
7.4 percent of GDP.  Implementation of reforms in the 1993 Internal 
Revenue Law and 1994 Customs Law, including criminal penalties for tax 
evasion, should eventually increase revenue from non-petroleum sources.  
 
Although the 1994 economic program projected a fiscal deficit of 0.5 
percent of GDP, lower spending levels resulted in a surplus of 0.4 
percent of GDP for 1994.  In 1995, the government had planned to run 
another surplus, but the cost of the border conflict, publicly estimated 
at USD 360 million, plus slower economic growth, widened the fiscal gap.  
In June 1995, the government announced further budget cuts and the 
elimination of most remaining fuel subsidies in an effort to close the 
1995 fiscal gap.  Major increases in electricity and telephone rates may 
be necessary if Congress fails to raise sufficient revenue to limit the 
size of the deficit.  A small fiscal deficit on the order of 1 percent 
of GDP is likely in 1995.  
 
Monetary and Exchange Policy 
 
Since late 1992, the Central Bank has regulated the money supply and 
exchange markets through a weekly auction of its own bonds and secondary 
market interventions.  Controls on interest rates were lifted in 1992.  
The 1992 Monetary Regime Law inhibited inflationary deficit financing by 
restricting the Central Bank's ability to extend credit to the 
government and state enterprises. 
 
Given its tight fiscal policies, the government has tolerated higher 
monetary expansion triggered in part by capital inflows.  Nevertheless, 
M1 (currency and demand deposits) expansion in 1994 fell to 35.7 
percent, 14 percentage points below 1993 money growth.  M2 (M1 plus 
savings instruments) continued to boom, increasing 4 points to reach 58 
percent in 1994.  Government deposits in the Central Bank only increased 
by 34 percent in 1994.    
 
Domestic interest rates remain high in inflation-adjusted terms.  Bank 
90-day deposit rates reached a low point in April 1994, averaging 27 
percent, then climbed back to 41 percent by December.  Capital inflows 
attracted by high real interest rates have enabled the government to use 
a strong currency in its fight against inflation.  The value of the 
dollar in sucre terms increased by 11.6 percent in 1994, 13.8 points 
below the rise in local consumer prices.  The Central Bank has managed 
the float through occasional interventions in the market to prevent 
large fluctuations in either direction that would fuel inflation or hurt 
export competitiveness.  The policy became explicit in December 1994 
when the Central Bank announced monthly exchange targets for 1995 based 
on an annual devaluation of 12 percent against the U.S. dollar.    
 
The government economic authorities responded to the outbreak of border 
fighting with Peru in late January 1995 by sharply increasing overnight 
interest rates to stop runs on sucre bank deposits and from the sucre to 
the dollar.  Although the policy provoked short-term hardship in both 
the financial and real sectors of the economy, the government was able 
to preserve its foreign reserves, while maintaining its exchange rate 
band with only a 3 percent adjustment.  By June 1995, interest rates had 
returned to pre-conflict levels, with 90-day deposits averaging 35 
percent, 10-15 points above expected inflation.  The Central Bank 
projects a sucre/dollar exchange rate of 2640-2740 at the end of 1995.   
 
Relations with International Financial Institutions 
 
After failing to close an agreement with the International Monetary Fund 
(IMF) in mid-1993, the government carried out a second round of economic 
adjustment measures in early 1994 and concluded a two year USD 184 
million stand-by arrangement with the IMF in March 1994.  The IMF 
agreement opened the door for  World Bank and Interamerican Development 
Bank (IDB) program lending to finance economic reforms.  Multilateral 
financing contributed to covering the up front costs of the commercial 
debt settlement that was finalized in February 1995.  In spite of the 
economic shock of the border conflict, the Ecuadorian government is 
committed to fulfilling a modified version of its macroeconomic program 
through mid-1996.  
 
B.  PRINCIPAL GROWTH SECTORS 
 
Petroleum and Mining 
 
Under the constitution, all subsurface resources are property of the 
state.  Petroleum is the basis for Ecuador's external economy, with 
average daily production of 378,395 barrels per day in 1994 accounting 
for 10.2 percent of GDP, 35.1 percent of export earnings, and 30 of 
public sector revenues. Total crude production for 1994 was 138.1 
million barrels, up 10.1 percent since 1993. Exports of 86.4 million 
barrels of crude and 10.5 million barrels of refined products earned USD 
1,305 million, up only 4.1 percent over 1993. The price of Ecuadorian 
light crude improved from below USD 10 per barrel in late 1993 to an 
average of USD 13.68 in 1994 and stood at USD 15.68 in May 1995.  In 
1994 the government introduced a market-related pricing system for 
domestic fuel sales and opened up wholesale marketing to private sector 
competition. 
 
Ecuador currently produces 390,000 barrels per day of crude oil, mostly 
from fields in the Amazon basin operated by Petroecuador, the state oil 
company.  Of remaining proven reserves of 21 billion barrels, 3.5 
billion can be extracted using current methods and 11.8 billion could be 
extracted using advanced technology. Private service contractors have 
brought new fields on line and production is projected to increase 
further with the introduction of enhanced recovery and the development 
of blocks awarded in the seventh licensing round in 1994 under the new 
production sharing contract arrangement.  In June 1995, the government 
announced an eighth licensing round for nine blocks in the Amazonian 
Oriente.   Oil producers in the Oriente rely on the Trans-Ecuadorian Oil 
Pipeline, with a capacity of 325,000 barrels per day to move crude to 
the oil port at Esmeraldas.  Due to the capacity limits of the pipeline, 
the volume of crude evacuation by private contractors is being rationed 
and export volume will not increase in 1995.  To address this problem 
and move future increases in crude production, the government is in the 
process of awarding a USD 600 million build-operate-transfer concession 
to expand pipeline capacity to 450,000 barrels per day. In the future, 
sharing revenues with foreign investor, the lower quality of the heavy 
crude in the newer fields, and increased spending on environmental 
protection should leave proportionally less income for the state. 
 
Since Ecuador's oil concessions are largely located in the ecologically 
fragile Amazon rain forest, developments in the sector are of keen 
interest to the international environmental community.  The government 
incorporated environmental criteria and requirements into the Seventh 
Round licensing process.    
 
Ecuador has extensive, but underdeveloped, gold and other mining 
potential.  In 1994, gold production increased to some 10 metric tons 
valued at over USD 100 million, of which 90 percent was produced by the 
informal sector.  The value of recorded gold and silver exports 
increased 8.4 percent to USD 66.3 million in 1994, with the rest being 
sold on the black market.  The mining sector only grew by 1 percent in 
1994, accounting for 0.6 percent of GDP. 
 
Agriculture and Fishing 
 
Ecuador is largely an agricultural country blessed with an abundance of 
rich, well-watered land and a mild climate.  The peasant and commercial 
farmers of the Sierra raise grains, vegetables, and livestock for 
domestic consumption, while developing the agroexport potential of 
intensive cut flower and winter vegetable production.  The coastal 
lowlands produce bananas, shrimp, coffee, cocoa, rice, and some fruits 
for export.  The 1994 Agrarian Development Law has improved the security 
of rural property rights, a necessary condition for increased 
investment.  Agriculture contributed 10.8 percent of Ecuador's GDP in 
1994 and increased by 2.6 percent in real terms over 1993.  
 
Ecuador is the world's leading banana producer, exporting nearly 2.9 
million metric tons worth USD 650 million in 1994.  However, growers 
must absorb the impact of the black sigatoka fungus and the loss of 
income to holders of import licenses under the European Union's 
restrictive banana quota regime.  Although exports were even stronger in 
the first half of 1995, a new country quota system could reduce 
Ecuador's volume of banana sales to Europe this year.  A boom in world 
coffee prices resulted in a 240 percent increase in raw and processed 
coffee export earnings in 1994, generating USD 398 million.  Coffee 
revenue is expected to be lower in 1995.  Cut flower production in the 
rural Sierra continued to expand rapidly, with exports worth USD 55 
million.  An antidumping suit in the U.S. against Ecuadorian rose 
producers was dismissed in March 1995.  Other "non-traditional" crops 
have yet to become significant export earners.  Although much of the 
country suffered from drought in early 1995, exports of nearly USD 19 
million worth of rice and corn in 1994 signaled improved efficiency in 
the basic food production sector. 
  
The sea fishing and aquaculture sectors declined by another 3.3 percent 
in real terms during 1994 to constitute 2 percent of GDP. Shrimp 
farming, fresh tuna, and other fishing accounted for 16.5 percent of 
1994 exports and experienced a recovery in earnings.  High world prices, 
enabled shrimp farmers to generate USD 539 million in export earnings, 
up 14.5 percent over 1993, even though the premature death of many pond 
shrimp due to disease or pollution related to the "Taura Syndrome" 
resulted in a 4 percent decline in export volume.  The export value of 
fresh and frozen fish, including tuna, jumped 28 percent to USD 70 
million.  During the first quarter of 1995, both shrimp and tuna 
continued the upward trend in export values.  The fishing sector is 
likely to be hurt by the ending of diesel fuel subsidies in 1995.  
 
Manufacturing, Construction and Utilities 
 
Ecuador's industries have traditionally been divided among processors of 
primary exports (oil derivatives, cacao, coffee, fish) and producers for 
the domestic consumer market (food products, automobiles, textiles, 
pharmaceuticals).  Manufacturers have successfully adjusted to the 
dramatic reduction in import duties since 1991, the creation of a free 
trade area with Colombia and Venezuela, and some real appreciation of 
the currency.  For example, the import-sensitive textile industry 
declined from 1990 to 1992, but expanded by 4.7 percent in 1994 as 
exports increased by 31 percent.  The important food processing sector 
grew by 3 percent in 1994, thanks to big jumps in exports of processed 
coffee and canned tuna.  The machinery/transport sector increased its 
real output by 8.1 percent in 1994, with the continuing boom in 
automobile exports to Colombia, raising metal manufactures exports 
another 30.5 percent by value.  Production of wood and mineral products 
expanded by 4.6 and 9.0 percent respectively.  
 
As a whole, the non-oil manufacturing sector grew by 4.7 percent in 1994 
and accounted for 21 percent of GDP.  Manufactures made up 14.8 percent 
of exports in 1994 as earnings increasing by 25 percent to nearly USD 
550 million.  Although manufactured exports continued to grow in early 
1995, the industrial sector has suffered from the prohibitive interest 
rates, depression in domestic demand, and increased uncertainty 
resulting from the conflict with Peru, together with the impact on 
competitiveness of the ongoing real appreciation of the sucre.  
 
After four years of contraction, the 1994 economic recovery finally 
enabled construction activity to grow by 5.3 percent, in spite of 
continued budget constraints on public sector projects.  However, 
prospects for another good year for construction in 1995 were aborted by 
the border conflict.  The sector ground to a halt in February and March 
1995 due to the suspension of government payments and the complete lack 
of financing and was only beginning to recover as of mid-1995.  The 
public utility sector (electricity, gas, and water) grew by 3.1 percent 
in 1994.  
 
Services 
 
The private and public services sectors expanded by 2.2 percent in 1994 
to contribute 45 percent of GDP.  With its natural, scenic and cultural 
attractions, Ecuador earns an estimated USD 200 million annually in 
foreign exchange from tourism and the hotel and restaurant sector grew 
by 3.1 percent in 1994.  Foreign cancellations due to the border 
conflict may hurt the sector for the rest of 1995.  Commerce, the 
largest service sector, grew by 2.1 percent.  The communications sector 
again registered strong growth, expanding by 7.5 percent thanks to 
ongoing infrastructure projects.  Transportation increased by 3.2 
percent in spite of the introduction of market-based pricing of fuels.  
Financial services grew by 7.8 percent as the banking industry easily 
weathered the collapse of Banco de los Andes in mid-1994.  The liquidity 
crisis created by the border conflict in February cut financial 
institution profits by around USD 20 million, but did not result in any 
bank failures.  
 
C.  GOVERNMENT ROLE IN THE ECONOMY 
 
The Ecuadorian economy is largely owned and managed by the private 
sector, but the state has long played a significant economic role, 
including excessive bureaucratic regulation, unproductive subsidies, and 
state ownership of "strategic" economic assets.  Total public sector 
expenditure is below 30 percent of GDP.  About one third of the formal 
sector work force is employed by the central government.  In recent 
years, there have been tentative moves towards modernizing the state by 
reducing its role as a player in and controller of the economy, while 
strengthening its ability to effectively finance and deliver needed 
social services and enforce the economic rules of the game. 
 
Structural Reform and Privatization 
 
Ecuador has been slow to embrace the market-oriented economic reforms 
taking place elsewhere in Latin America.  Progress was made on trade 
liberalization and monetary policy reforms in the early 1990's.  The 
current administration successfully stabilized public finance, thanks to 
reforms to the budget, tax, customs, and fuel pricing systems.  However, 
the fundamental structural changes needed to improve the investment 
climate and long term growth have proven more difficult to achieve.  
 
Despite uneven relations with Congress, where the government is in the 
minority, there have been some legislative successes.  The 1993 
Hydrocarbons Law allowed more private participation in the oil  
industry.  The 1993 Capital Markets law provided a mechanism for 
privatizing shares in private companies held by state financial 
institutions and some state holdings in commercial enterprises have been 
sold.  During 1994, the president nullified hundreds of regulations 
interfering with the operation of the free market and appointed an 
activist team to rejuvenate the Modernization Council (CONAM).  The 1994 
Financial Institutions Law opened up the banking system, while the 
Agrarian Development Law liberalized the markets for land and 
agricultural products.  
 
In other areas, the government has been less successful.  The 1993 
Modernization of the State Law only allows private sector participation 
in "strategic" sectors on a concession basis and generally relegates 
privatization to a last resort. There have been no proposals to 
privatize the large complex of companies owned by the military.  
Legislation to allow the partial privatization of the telecommunications 
and electricity sectors has languished in Congress for the past year, 
although the telecommunications bill may be passed before August 1995.  
Proposals to allow private pension funds have met stiff opposition from 
the Social Security Institute.  The effort to overhaul the deteriorating 
educational system to enable Ecuadorians to compete in the global 
economy, is still in the discussion stage.  Further progress may have to 
await the next administration following the 1996 elections.  
 
Industrial Policies 
 
The corporate tax rate is 25 percent on net income, with a minimum tax 
based on 1 percent of gross assets.  The government is interested in 
negotiating a double taxation agreement with the United States.  The 
Ecuadorian government has largely abandoned earlier industrial promotion 
policies characterized by tax breaks, subsidized credit, and protection 
from foreign competition.   There are still some tax incentives for 
investment in fishing industry and the agrarian law creates incentives 
for agroindustry investment.  A temporary export subsidy for banana and 
shrimp producers was eliminated in June 1995. Free trade zones and 
"maquila" procedures allow companies to import goods duty-free for 
processing and re-export. 
 
D.  BALANCE OF PAYMENTS SITUATION 
 
Trade and the Current Account 
 
Ecuador's current account deficit in 1994 expanded to USD 797 million or 
4.8 percent of GDP, due to rising imports.  After stagnating in 1993, 
Ecuadorian exports in 1994 rose 21 percent to USD 3,717 million, led by 
agroexports to world markets and sales of manufactures within the 
region.  However, the economic recovery led imports to increase by 32 
percent on a balance of payments basis to USD 3,272 million.  The strong 
sucre helped consumer goods imports experience a second year of 50 
percent growth.  In contrast to the previous year, the 1994 import boom 
included industrial and agricultural inputs and capital goods as well.  
The import boom caused Ecuador's trade surplus to shrink to USD 445 
million.  Meanwhile, the services deficit shrank to USD 1,387 million 
due to increased services receipts. 
 
The United States is both the primary market for Ecuadorian exports and 
the key supplier of Ecuador's import needs.  According to Central Bank 
data, Americans purchased 41 percent of Ecuador's exports in 1994, worth 
USD 1,576 million, up 12 percent from 1993. (U.S. Department of Commerce 
data put 1993 Ecuadorian exports to the U.S. at USD 1,727 million.)  
Most Ecuadorian products enjoy duty-free access to the U.S. market under 
the Andean Trade Preferences Act (ATPA) or the Generalized System of 
Preferences (GSP).  Ecuador's main exports to U.S. include crude oil, 
shrimp, bananas, coffee, cocoa, fish, gold, and cut flowers.  According 
to Ecuadorian data, purchases from the U.S. grew by 12 percent to USD 
922 million on a CIF basis in 1994, but dropped to 25 percent of total 
CIF imports from 32 percent in 1993.  (According to U.S. data, in 1994 
Ecuador imported USD 1,196 million worth of U.S. goods on a FAS basis.)  
Major American sales to Ecuador included construction equipment and 
vehicle parts, paper products, computer equipment, plastics, heavy 
construction equipment, automobiles and trucks, pesticides and 
fertilizers, printing machinery, telecommunications equipment, pumps, 
processed foods, and refrigeration equipment. 
    
The diversification of Ecuador's markets was reflected in export growth 
of 41 percent to the European Union and 35 percent to Colombia and Peru 
in 1994.  Ecuador also became less dependent on U.S. suppliers, with 
Japan, Colombia, Brazil, and Germany increasing their combined share of 
the Ecuadorian market from 26 percent in 1993 to 35 percent in 1994.  
Ecuador has free trade agreements with Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile.  
In January 1995, Ecuador instituted a common external tariff system with 
Colombia and Venezuela.  Ecuador has concluded negotiations for entry 
into the World Trade Organization (WTO) and should complete its 
accession in 1995.  
 
In 1995 Ecuadorian exports are projected to increase by over 10 percent, 
due to higher petroleum prices and continued growth in manufactured 
exports to Colombia, even though crude export volume will stagnate until 
the oil pipeline is expanded and banana sales to Europe may be further 
restricted.  Balance of payments figures for the first quarter of 1995 
suggest that, due to the border conflict, Ecuador imported an additional 
USD 230 million in military items and lost access to the growing 
Peruvian market.  As a result, Ecuador suffered its first three month 
trade deficit since 1987, an ill omen for the rest of 1995.  
 
Capital Account and Foreign Reserves 
 
Ecuador's capital account surplus grew to USD 388 million in 1994. Since 
late 1992, Ecuadorian flight capital has been coming back home to take 
advantage of high interest rates.  Direct investment, now redefined to 
include investments by oil exploration and development contractors, grew 
13 percent to USD 571 million, while external lending to the Ecuadorian 
private sector (the principal form of flight capital repatriation) 
increased by 155 percent to USD 1,240 million.  The resumption of 
interest payments on the foreign debt during 1994 reduced the use of 
debt arrears to finance current account deficits; arrearages should 
disappear entirely in 1995.  A net inflow of capital amounting to USD 
1,255 million in 1994 contributed to a real appreciation of the sucre, 
making imports more competitive and putting Ecuadorian exporters in a 
squeeze between rising sucre costs and stagnant sucre earnings.  
 
During 1995, Ecuador will rely on inflows of new funds from multilateral 
development banks, but will probably suffer reduced capital inflows due 
to the border conflict and aftermath of the Mexico crisis.  Over the 
longer term, Ecuador will need to buy-down its debt stock and greatly 
increase foreign investment flows to maintain a healthy balance of 
payments situation. 
 
Ecuador's net foreign exchange reserves at the end of 1994 stood at USD 
1,712 million, enough to cover 4 months of imports and up from USD 1,254 
million the previous year. Although the reserves were drawn down in 
early 1995 to finance the debt settlement and pay for military imports, 
the reserve position had returned to USD 1.7 billion by the end of April 
and the government plans to increase reserves to USD 1.8 billion by the 
end of the year.  
 
External Debt 
 
Due to excessive borrowing during the oil boom of the 1970's, weak 
economic performance in the 1980's, and the accumulation of arrears 
since 1987, the total external public debt stock reached USD 13,758 
million or over 80 percent of annual GDP by the end of 1994. Of that, 
USD 3,317 million corresponded to interest arrears, not counting 
interest on past-due interest.  Scheduled debt service payments 
(principal and interest on both public and private debt) for 1994 
amounted to USD 3,172 million or 70 percent of the value of the 
country's goods and services, over a quarter of which was financed by 
running arrears.  
 
In February 1995 the Ecuadorian government and its commercial bank 
creditors completed a Brady-type restructuring of USD 4.45 billion in 
principal and USD 2.8 billion in past-due interest owed to foreign banks 
and secondary market investors in bank paper.  In the settlement, 
creditors exchanged 58 percent of debt principal for bonds carrying a 45 
percent discount, reducing the stock of principal to USD 3.3 billion.  
The remainder was exchanged for full value (par) bonds carrying fixed 
interest rates of up to 5 percent.  Creditors also received zero-coupon 
30-year U.S. Treasury Bonds to guarantee payment of principal.  
Multilateral lenders financed the purchase of the collateral bonds.  
Ecuador will pay past-due interest (PDI) in full, although the amount 
was recalculated at favorable rates, and interest payments on PDI will 
be partially capitalized for the first 6 years.  Annual service payments 
on the government's commercial debt will run about USD 277 million or 
1.7 percent of GDP through the year 2000, after which service costs will 
rise. 
 
Ecuador is largely current on official bilateral and multilateral debt 
of about USD 1.2 billion.  Under five previous agreements with the Paris 
Club (official bilateral creditors) Ecuador rescheduled debt 
obligations, contracted before 1983, that fell due through 1992.  In 
June 1994, the Paris Club agreed to a sixth rescheduling covering USD 
205 million in debt service payments falling due in 1994.  
 
E.  INFRASTRUCTURE SITUATION 
 
Transportation 
 
The two international airports in Quito and Guayaquil are serviced by 
several major carriers, including American and Continental and several 
U.S. air cargo companies.  Ecuador's Saeta and Tame airlines also 
provide connections within the country and abroad.  Increasing passenger 
and cargo congestion will require expansion of current airport 
facilities or possibly the construction of new airports within the next 
five years.  
 
The containerized port of Guayaquil handles most of the country's 
imports and exports.  The port is fully utilized, with ship turn arounds 
typically taking five days.  The main oil terminal is located at 
Esmeraldas on the north coast.  On the central coast, Manta handles much 
of Ecuador's cacao and coffee exports and is currently utilized under 
capacity.  Machala's Puerto Bolivar on the south coast is the major 
banana port.  Modernization of customs procedures and privatization of 
cargo services should help improve the efficiency of Ecuador's ports. 
 
Ecuador has an extensive system of all-weather roads linking all 
populated parts of the country.  While there are projects for expanding 
the road system in sparsely populated regions, maintenance and widening 
of existing roadways is of greater urgency.  Subsidized urban, 
intercity, and rural bus service is available throughout the country.  
Trucking companies move almost all of the in-country freight.  Goods 
must still be moved to national carriers when crossing the border with 
other members of the Andean Pact.  The railroad system has been largely 
inoperative for the past decade and will probably not be rehabilitated.  
 
Telecommunications and Electric Power 
 
Telecommunications services are provided by EMETEL, the state-owned 
telephone company.  Domestic and international direct dialing is 
available.  The government is attempting to end the practice of 
subsidizing domestic service with high international calling rates.  
Service continues to be rather poor and there are still only about 4 
telephones per 100 people.  Obtaining new telephone lines is expensive 
and time-consuming.  Two private concessions providing cellular 
telephone services began operating in 1994.  Long distance call-back 
services are widely used.  Legislation is pending to allow private 
companies to purchase a share of EMETEL and provide telephone services 
on a concession basis.  
 
Ecuador has an available electricity generating capacity of about 1700 
megawatts.  Hydroelectric power plants operated by the state-owned 
INECEL utility, including the 900 megawatt Paute project, account for 
over half of installed capacity and supply three quarters of the 
country's current needs.  Supplemental thermal power is often required 
during the dry season, particularly in drought years.  The government 
has reduced the practice of making electricity available at highly 
subsidized rates.  Several distribution companies owned jointly by 
INECEL and local municipalities transmit power to consumers.  One 
private firm, EMELEC, provides distribution and back-up generating 
services in Guayaquil.  Pending reform legislation would facilitate the 
construction of additional generation capacity by the private sector and 
distribution company shares may be privatized.  Although there are no 
plans to sell assets, private companies may be brought in to run 
existing generating plants.  
 
There is currently no market for natural gas in Ecuador, although that 
could change if gas fields in the Gulf of Guayaquil and the Oriente are 
developed.  Highly-subsidized liquified petroleum gas (LPG) is the most 
common cooking fuel.  
Water and Irrigation 
 
Ecuador's surface and subsurface water resources were nationalized by 
the Water Law of 1972.  Urban water supplies are provided by 
municipality-owned water utilities.  The central government heavily 
subsidizes water and sewer system development through the Ecuadorian 
Sanitary Works Institute (IEOS).  The Hydrological Resources Institute 
(INERHI) is responsible for water management and irrigation projects and 
must approve all transfers of water rights.  Several large scale highly-
subsidized flood control and irrigation schemes are run by regional 
bodies such as the CEDEGE in the Guayas basin, the CRM in Manabi, and 
the CREA and PREDESUR in the southern part of the country. 
 
CHAPTER III:  POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT 
 
A.  RELATIONSHIP WITH THE UNITED STATES 
 
Ecuador and the United States enjoy an excellent relationship based on 
shared democratic values and economic interests.  President Sixto Duran-
Ballen tops a lengthy list of Ecuadorian government and business leaders 
who have been educated in the U.S.  Since Ecuador led the way for Latin 
America's return to democracy in 1979, the U.S. has supported Ecuadorian 
efforts to strengthen the country's democratic institutions and improve 
governance.   
 
As one of the four guarantor nations of the Rio Protocol of 1942 between 
Ecuador and Peru, the United States is playing a mediating role in the 
border conflict between those two nations.  
 
Ecuador is a transit country for cocaine smuggling and money laundering 
by criminal organizations based in Colombia and Peru, but has so far 
avoided large-scale drug-related violence and corruption.  With 
assistance from the U.S., the Ecuadorian government participates in the 
international campaign against drug trafficking.  The U.S. has provided 
Ecuador with alternative trade opportunities under the Andean Trade 
Preferences Act.  
 
The U.S. is Ecuador's largest trading partner, providing the major 
market for its top exports and serving as the major foreign supplier of 
both consumer and capital goods.  American oil companies have been 
leading players in the development of Ecuador's petroleum industry.  
Ecuador's economic reforms are helping to further expand trade and 
investment ties and have received strong support from the United States.  
Increasing Ecuadorian concern for the environment and U.S. interest in 
preserving the country's tremendous biodiversity form an area for 
bilateral cooperation.  
 
B.  MAJOR POLITICAL ISSUES AFFECTING BUSINESS CLIMATE 
 
The border dispute with Peru and the government's continuing economic 
stabilization, economic modernization, and constitutional reform efforts 
are the major political issues affecting the Ecuadorian business 
climate.  A definitive resolution of the border dispute is necessary to 
avoid a potentially expensive arms race or even the possible resumption 
of hostilities.  
  
Economic reform should improve trade and investment opportunities in 
coming years.  However, such reform has come with political costs.  
Fiscal austerity temporarily slowed growth and increased unemployment, 
while price liberalization increased short-term inflation.  Many 
Ecuadorians do not understand why the country must repay its foreign 
creditors.  Import-substitution industries are seeking relief from the 
increasing foreign competition.  Public sector unions and some elements 
in the military oppose privatization of state companies.  Indigenous 
peasants fear free market agrarian policies may pose a threat to their 
economic and cultural survival.  The fact that 24 percent of votes cast 
in the May 1994 congressional elections were blank or spoiled suggests 
that some voters are dissatisfied with current political options. 
 
These concerns have prompted some members of Congress to oppose the 
modernization program by blocking needed constitutional reform and 
removing cabinet ministers from office.  Nevertheless, the general 
consensus among the elite on the need for economic modernization should 
guarantee that whoever wins the mid-1996 presidential election will 
continue on the reform path.  Over the longer run, only economic success 
can convince average Ecuadorians that their living standards will 
improve and prevent a shift back to state intervention in the economy 
that could result in some deterioration in the business climate.  
 
C.  ECUADOR'S POLITICAL SYSTEM 
 
Following two decades of political instability and reformist military 
rule, civilian government was reinstituted in Ecuador in 1979.  Since 
then the country has enjoyed four consecutive free elections and 
peaceful transfers of power.  A pattern has emerged in which 
administrations of the center-left alternate with those of the center-
right as the electorate searches for a way to make necessary economic 
changes at minimal social cost. Although Ecuador's political elite is 
divided along regional, ideological, and personal lines, a strong desire 
for consensus often leads to compromise that has resulted in an 
evolutionary, if frustrating, reform process.  Meanwhile, Ecuador's 
essential conservatism has provided a high degree of social stability, 
especially compared with neighboring Colombia and Peru. 
 
Elections for president and congress are scheduled for May 1996.  A run-
off election will be held if no presidential candidate wins a majority 
of the vote.  The next president will take office on August 10, 1996.  
The Ecuadorian constitution grants wide powers to an executive president 
who serves a four-year term with no immediate reelection.  The 
unicameral Congress is elected every two years by party list.  Although 
it has little control over the public sector budget, Congress can block 
the executive's legislative initiatives and has the power to remove 
cabinet ministers from office.  Party rivalries make it difficult to 
pass legislation, particularly in election years.  
 
A wide variety of independent agencies and state-owned companies receive 
limited oversight from either the government or Congress. The Ecuadorian 
armed forces are partly self-funded through a network of military-owned 
enterprises and a dedicated share of petroleum revenues.  The military 
respects civilian authority, but enjoys a degree of autonomy over its 
own affairs.  In remote areas of the country, the military often 
provides the only government presence.  The National Police is under the 
jurisdiction of the Ministry of Government.  The judiciary is 
independent but the legal system suffers from politicization and from 
inefficient and non-transparent procedures.  Provincial and municipal 
governments are locally elected, but are dependent on the central 
government for funding.  
 
The Social Christian Party (PSC) is the country's largest political 
grouping, having won 26 percent of the valid vote in the May 1994 mid-
term elections.  Former president and PSC stalwart Leon Febres Cordero 
is the popular mayor of Guayaquil, Ecuador's largest city, and the PSC 
controls several other local governments as well.  PSC leader Jaime 
Nebot placed second in the 1992 presidential election and is the front 
runner for 1996.  The party dominates the coast and has a strong 
national organization.  Ideologically, the PSC is a pro-business party 
with a strong populist streak.  Although the party supports economic 
liberalization, in many cases it also favors subsidies to business and 
broad-focus social programs.  Febres Cordero's 1984-1988 administration 
failed to follow through on promises of economic reform, but the Social 
Christians in Congress have generally supported modernization 
initiatives.   
 
President Sixto Duran-Ballen, an American-educated architect who 
previously served as Minister of Public Works and mayor of Quito, is 
devoted to development projects, but is restrained by his fiscal 
conservatism.  He was elected on a pledge to increase the efficiency and 
reduce the size of the Ecuadorian state.  Vice President Alberto Dahik's 
Conservative Party and supporters of Duran-Ballen took only 9 percent of 
the 1994 vote.  The Sierra-based Conservatives constitute Ecuador's 
oldest political party and espouse an economic agenda based on free 
market ideology, but are unlikely to offer a serious presidential 
candidate in 1996.  However, Ricardo Noboa, a former Social Christian 
congressman from Guayaquil who is running for president as an 
independent, is a strong supporter of private sector and anti-corruption 
initiatives.  
 
Democratic Left (ID) and Popular Democracy (DP) are Ecuador's Sierra-
based center-left parties.  Together they won 18.5 percent of the 1994 
vote.  During the 1988-1992 administration of Rodrigo Borja, the social 
democratic ID defended a broad economic role for the state, but failed 
to improve public services or state enterprise efficiency.  The ID has 
one of Ecuador's strongest national organizations, but has recently lost 
electoral ground.  Since the 1981-1984 presidency of Osvaldo Hurtado, 
the Christian Democratic DP has been moving toward the pragmatic center.  
Banker and former DP Quito mayor Rodrigo Paz is the most discussed 
possible center-left candidate for the presidency, but must increase his 
support on the coast in order to win.  Retired army general and former 
defense minister Jose Gallardo has announced his presidential candidacy 
and may seek center-left support.  
 
Populist leaders Abdala Bucaram, a former Guayaquil mayor, and Frank 
Vargas, a former air force general, are mounting presidential campaigns 
based on charismatic personalities, nationalistic slogans, attacks on 
the wealthy, and promises of state assistance to the poor.  Although 
Bucaram was a presidential contender in 1988, his Ecuadorian Roldosista 
Party (PRE) has suffered in recent years from scandals involving its 
poor administration of Guayaquil.  Still, the PRE received 17 percent of 
the 1994 vote.  Famous for leading a 1986 rebellion against the military 
high command, Frank Vargas now heads the left-populist Ecuadorian 
Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRE) and was the surprise winner of the 
1994 congressional election in the Quito area, gaining 6.5 percent of 
the vote nationally.  
 
The Popular Democratic Movement (MPD), a party with Maoist communist 
roots, is the leading force on the far left, having increased its vote 
to 9 percent in 1994.  In alliance with public sector unions such as the 
UNE teachers union and the Social Security Institute workers, MPD 
leaders, such as Juan Jose Castello and Jaime Hurtado, militantly oppose 
the government's modernization program, particularly privatization of 
state companies.  The MPD also supports demands for indigenous community 
autonomy by the CONAIE peasant movement led by Luis Macas.  The MPD has 
drifted away from a commitment to social revolution, but is still 
hostile to private business.  The old Socialist Party (PSE) and other 
left-wing parties only won 5 percent of the 1994 vote.  There are no 
active guerrilla organizations and, in the past, subversive groups 
enjoyed no popular support and posed little threat to the country's 
security. 
 
CHAPTER IV:  MARKETING U.S. PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 
 
A.  DISTRIBUTION AND SALES CHANNELS 
 
A local agent or representative is necessary in order to sell 
successfully in Ecuador and is legally required for sales to the 
government.  Ecuadorian buyers prefer to purchase directly from the 
manufacturer.  For sales of machinery and equipment, a key factor is the 
availability of parts and service from the local distributor or agent. 
 
Quito and Guayaquil are the major distribution centers for imported 
products.  Cuenca and Ambato are the third and fourth largest centers 
respectively.  The majority of distributors cover the whole country and 
use their own sales forces.  Many have branches and warehouses in the 
major cities.  
 
Options for distribution in Ecuador include:  
 
Distributors  
 
These are commonly medium- to large-sized firms representing foreign 
companies and importing large quantities of products for wholesale 
distribution.  Firms maintain large stocks and place orders for direct 
delivery to customers. 
 
Commissioned Agents  
 
These are usually specialized firms or individuals who take orders in 
Ecuador for foreign goods by means of a well-trained and experienced 
sales force.  The agents are paid a commission by the U.S. company 
filling these orders.  Occasionally, agents may import goods with their 
own funds for resale. 
 
Direct Importers  
 
Direct importers are generally large manufacturing companies and 
government agencies purchasing equipment or materials for their own use.  
Purchases are normally made directly from the manufacturer. 
 
B.  USE OF AGENTS AND DISTRIBUTORS 
 
The Principal Agent Relationship 
 
U.S. exporters should be aware that under Ecuadorian law, Ecuadorian 
agents and representatives enjoy considerable legal protection, as 
described below, which can make it very costly to terminate such a 
relationship.  Therefore, experts recommend that U.S. companies appoint 
a non-exclusive representative who is not covered by this legislation.  
 
The principal agent relationship is governed by Supreme Decree 1032-A, 
Official Register 245, of December 28, 1976, effective December 31, 
1976.  This law is entitled "Law on Protection for Representatives, 
Agents and Dealers of Foreign Corporations in Ecuador."  Foreign 
noncorporate or private individual principals are also subject to the 
provisions of Decree 1032-A.  Under this law, a principal may not 
unilaterally modify, terminate, or refuse to renew an agency or 
distributorship agreement, except for a judicially determined "just 
cause." 
 
A just cause under which a principal may validly terminate a 
representational agreement is limited to (1) a failure by the agent to 
discharge his/her legal or contractual obligations; (2) any act or 
omission by the agent that substantially and adversely affects the 
principal's interest in the promotion, marketing, or distribution of 
his/her merchandise or services; (3) the agent's insolvency or 
bankruptcy; and (4) termination of the business. 
 
A principal may be held liable to compensate the agent if the contract 
is unjustly terminated.  The amount of damages shall be assessed by a 
court in the jurisdiction of the agent's principal place of business 
according to (1) the value of items purchased and expenses incurred by 
the agent in setting up and operating the business; (2) value of the 
agent's unsalable inventories and stock; and (3) value of the business 
goodwill promoted by the agent, to be determined in consideration of the 
following:  (a)  duration of the relationship,  (b)  actual volume of 
sales by the agent vis-a-vis the principal's business,  (c)  amount of 
Ecuador's market share acquired by the agent's efforts, and (d)  any 
other equitable factor available to determine the actual amount of 
damages suffered by the agent because the agreement was unjustly 
terminated. 
 
All controversies between a principal and his/her agent ar decided by 
the local Ecuadorian courts having jurisdiction over the agent.  The 
Civil and Commercial Code apply for matters not covered by Supreme 
Decree 1032-A. 
 
Finding a Partner 
 
American firms have many options, including the use of the Commercial 
Section of the American Embassy through various of its services, local 
lawyers and consultants and banks. 
 
C.  FRANCHISING 
 
Franchising is not widely used in Ecuador.  In Ecuador, a franchise is 
governed by the Commercial Code as it is considered as a private 
negotiation between two or more private entities acting for the same 
purpose.  The Commercial Code basically indicates that the commissioned 
merchant or agent is obligated directly and personally for his/her own 
franchise as if the business were entirely theirs.  The principal and 
the agent are totally independent even with respect to legal action, 
except for the rights and obligations as indicated by their mutual 
commission contract and the Civil and Commercial Codes.  If the business 
was started under the name of the principal, the rights and obligations 
will be determined by the Civil Code.  The commissioned agent can accept 
or refuse these duties.  If he  refuses, he will remain obligated for 
any responsibility pertinent to the damages and prejudices.  The 
commissioned agent is prohibited from representing a similar, opposing 
negotiation, without the express consent of the interested parties.  The 
Commercial Code regulates payment of commission and its corresponding 
privileges, transfer and/or assignment of same, as well as all claims of 
the commissioned agents. 
 
D.  DIRECT MARKETING 
 
Direct marketing is used on a very limited basis, mainly on television 
where products are advertized for sale and telephone contact points are 
named in multiple countries in Latin America.  A local company stocks 
products and fills orders, which are often delivered to the home. 
 
E.  JOINT VENTURES AND LICENSING 
 
Joint Ventures  
 
Two or more parties may enter into a contract to carry out a particular 
business activity.  No obligation exists to record this contract in the 
Mercantile Register.  According to the provisions of the Companies Law, 
a joint venture may be considered as an association or a participation 
account. 
 
Under the Companies Law, a business entity may give others (associates) 
the right to participate in its business, but the rights are limited to 
obtaining information on the funds contributed, the profits made, or 
losses incurred.  Associates are not liable to third parties.  If the 
business enters bankruptcy, they are liable only for their share of the 
investment.  All other matters are regulated by the terms of the 
contract of association. 
 
In Ecuador this type of joint venture occurs primarily when foreign 
corporations are contracted as associates to carry out specific projects 
with government entities.  It is normal for foreign corporations 
entering into this type of agreement to set up branches. 
 
Licenses  
 
In Ecuador, licenses are governed by the Commercial Code, (refer to the 
Section IV.C. on Franchising). 
 
F.  STEPS TO ESTABLISHING AN OFFICE 
 
The procedure for establishing an office is usually entrusted to local 
lawyers and professional advisers.  Costs vary depending on the size of 
the company's capital share.  In general, setting up a branch is easier, 
although this should not be the overriding consideration in deciding 
which type of entity should be used.  Foreigners may own 100 percent of 
an Ecuadorian enterprise in most sectors. 
 
Accounting regulations are governed by the Superintendency of Companies.  
They vary in some respects from generally accepted accounting 
principles.  However, the "true and fair view" concept is applicable. 
 
Foreign investors starting up a business in Ecuador prefer corporations 
and branches.  Other forms are limited liability, partnerships, and 
mixed economy companies.  Corporations, branches and limited liability 
companies are registered with and controlled by the Superintendency of 
Banks and governed by the Companies Law.  All businesses must have a 
head office and legal representative domiciled in Ecuador. 
 
Corporations 
 
Corporations are the most flexible form of entity, allowing a mixture of 
foreign and local capital.  Private limited companies are useful as 
closed companies, but have disadvantages regarding the sale and transfer 
of capital, and are not usually advantageous to the foreign investor.  
The corporation offers the same major advantages to investors as the 
corporate form does in other countries, including (1) the limitation of 
shareholders' liability to the amount invested;  (2) shareholders are 
free to negotiate their stock without restrictions;  (3) corporations 
are represented by managers who may be discharged at any time;  and (4) 
continuity of the business as an on going concern is assured regardless 
of death or changes in management or ownership. 
 
Formation of a Corporation:  The formation of corporations and their 
operations are governed by the Companies Law.  Ecuador does not have 
different legal entities for private or governmental corporations.  The 
formation of mixed economy corporations with the government as a 
shareholder is allowed under the terms of the Companies Law. 
 
A corporation must be created with a contract, which must contain: 
 
  1)   Location and date of the contract. 
  2)   Statement of the shareholders' wish to form the company. 
  3)   Name and activity to be performed. 
  4)   Capital amount, both subscribed and paid-in, and the terms for 
the payment of capital subscribed, if payment is to be made in 
installments. 
  5)   Number of shares, type and par value. 
  6)   Subscribed and paid-in capital broken down by shareholder. 
  7)   Any capital contributions in kind and their appraisals. 
  8)   Management of the company, powers and limitations of the legal 
representative and duration in that position. 
  9)   Procedures for assignment of legal representatives. 
 10)   Procedures for assignment of the "comisario" (a legally-required 
auditor to report on accounting, management of the Company and legal 
compliance by the legal representatives) and attorneys and the terms of 
such positions. 
 11)   Procedures for calling shareholders' meetings. 
 12)   Rules for the distribution of profits. 
 13)   Conditions for the dissolution of the company. 
 
The documents that must accompany the contract or deed of incorporation 
are the company's by-laws (or articles of association), appraisals of 
in-kind contributions, deposit slips of the cash contributions and other 
documents that prove the payment of certain taxes. 
 
Corporations must have at least one stockholder.  Companies with 
governmental sector stockholders on non-profit organizations are allowed 
to have only two shareholders.  Stockholders may be individuals, 
corporations or partnerships.  Corporations's founders are not required 
to remain physically in Ecuador.  A third person, usually an attorney, 
may perform the incorporation process on their behalf. 
 
The corporation's name must contain reference to the kind of entity, 
such as "compa?ia anonima" or "C.A." or "S.A.".  The company's name must 
not be similar to that of an existing company.  To guaranty 
proprietorship of the name, it should be registered with the Commerce 
Division of the Ministry of Industry and Commerce (MICIP).  The 
company's operations are regulated by the by-laws and the Companies' 
Law, but may be revised by the company at any time. 
 
The estimated total formation costs depend on the type and the 
complexity of the business being formed, but may range from USD 1,000 to 
USD 5,000.  It takes approximately two months to form a company. 
 
Capital of a Corporation:  The capital must be included in the by-laws 
and its amount results from multiplying the shares by their par value.  
Capital may consist of (1) authorized capital, that is, as stated in the 
by-laws; (2) subscribed capital which the stockholders are required to 
pay in; or (3) paid-in capital. 
 
The minimum capital requirement for corporations is 5 million sucres and 
must be denominated in the national currency.  Unpaid, subscribed 
capital may be paid within two years from the date of incorporation.  
Contributions may also be made in goods, as long as they relate to the 
company's operations.  Such goods must be valued by expert appraisers 
and the appraisal will be part of the deed of incorporation. 
 
Companies must file an annual return with the Superintendency of 
Companies containing the financial statements and other relevant 
information, as well as the reports of the legal representative, the 
corporate comptroller and the external auditors.  Companies controlled 
by the Superintendency of Banks are obligated to publish their June and 
December financial statements in a local newspaper. 
 
Branches 
 
To establish a branch in Ecuador a foreign company must provide (1) 
proof that the company has been legally established in its country of 
origin; (2) proof that according to the laws of its country of origin, 
the company can establish branches and has the ability to negotiate 
abroad; (3) permanent legal representative in Ecuador; and (4) assigned 
capital of no less than 50 million sucres. 
 
The documentation should be presented to the Superintendency of 
Companies, along with a certification issued by the Ecuadorian Consul 
nearest the foreign company's head office certifying the establishment 
and legality of the company in its country of origin and that it is 
authorized to do business abroad.  A certified bank deposit of the 
capital paid must also be presented.  If the legal representative is a 
foreign citizen, he or she should obtain a resident visa.  Other 
procedures for establishing corporations apply when establishing a 
branch in Ecuador. 
 
Limited Liability Companies 
 
This type of corporate form closely resembles a limited partnership, and 
is suitable for that type of operation.  A limited liability company is 
characterized by (1) having 3 or more members, not to exceed 15; (2) the 
members have limited liability for the corporate obligations up to the 
amount of their individual contribution; (3) foreign corporations are 
excluded from membership; (4) the capital cannot be less than 2 million 
sucres and at least 50 percent of the capital must be paid in at the 
time of formation and the remainder within one year; and (5) a legal 
reserve must be set by transfer of 5 percent of annual profits until the 
reserve equals 20 percent of capital. 
 
Partnerships 
 
Partnerships may be organized in two different forms:  as a company with 
a collective name in which all of the partners are jointly and 
separately liable for all actions taken by any partner in the firm's 
name, and a silent partnership, which has general partners and limited 
partners.  Among other legal differences between these partnership 
forms, limited partners are liable, silent partners are not part of the 
firm's name and they do not participate in management. 
 
To form a partnership, the by-laws should state (1) the name, 
nationality and domicile of the partners; (2) the number of payments 
made and future payments; (3) the form of payments made and future 
payments; (3) the time period for which the company will function; (4) 
how the administration will be organized and fiscal control established, 
if any.  A draft copy of the by-laws must be presented to a judge who 
orders its publication in a newspaper in the company's country of 
origin.  Later the judge will order the registration of the by-laws in 
the Mercantile Registry and in the Property Registry if there are 
property taxes. 
 
Mixed Economy Company 
 
Another type of firm is the "mixed economy" company in which both 
private and public capital are used.  The public sector funds may come 
from the state, municipal, provincial governments and judicial 
representatives of both the public or parastatal sectors. 
 
The laws imposed on corporations are generally applied to this type of 
company.  When the public sector investment exceeds 50 percent of 
capital in the company, one of the directors of this sector acts as 
president.  The private shareholders may acquire a public sector 
investment and the company would continue to function as a corporation. 
 
G.  SELLING FACTORS AND TECHNIQUES 
 
The Ecuadorian market is relatively small and U.S. exporters should take 
this into consideration when setting sales targets for distributors and 
agents.  Most U.S. products do not require any changes to be readily 
acceptable.  Price competitiveness is a very important sales factor.  
U.S. firms selling high tech products must provide training and 
maintenance support to their distributors and agents.  Local 
distributors expect their foreign suppliers to underwrite sales 
promotion, support and training.  Sales materials should be in Spanish. 
 
H.  ADVERTISING AND TRADE PROMOTION 
 
Advertising 
 
The advertising market and the media in Ecuador are centered in Quito, 
Guayaquil and Cuenca.  The principal means of advertising in Ecuador is 
through newspapers, of which there are 5 with nationwide circulation.  
Major newspapers with their national circulation figures are as follows: 
 
Quito:     El Comercio, 70,000 and weekends 130,000 
         Ultimas Noticias, 35,000 
         HOY, 15,000 and weekends 20,000 
         La Hora, 25,000 
 
Guayaquil:    El Universo, 140,000 and weekends 220,000 
         Expreso, 20,000 and weekends 25,000 
         El Telegrafo, 35,000 and weekends 45,000 
         Extra, 150,000 and weekends 135,000 
         La Razon 15,000 
 
Cuenca:      El Mercurio, 12,000 
 
All of these include large amounts of advertising as well as economic 
and commercial news.  However, El Comercio and El Universo are favored 
by the business community. 
 
Television is the second most important advertising media.  There are 5 
Ecuadorian TV networks, 2 cable TV networks showing programs from the 
U.S. and Europe and a number of local stations in the larger cities.  
There are an estimated 1 million sets and 6.4 million viewers. 
 
A third advertising medium is radio.  There are approximately 375 radio 
stations, including medium wave, short wave and FM, broadcasting to 
approximately 8 million daily listeners.  There are an estimated 6.5 
million radio sets in Ecuador. 
 
Movie theaters are also an important means of advertising, especially 
for consumer goods.  Most theaters show 15 minutes of advertisements 
before each feature. 
 
Trade Promotion 
 
There is one trade exposition center in Quito and one in Guayaquil.  In 
Quito the Centro de Exposiciones Quito holds around 15 shows each year.  
In Guayaquil, the International Fair of Ecuador is organized by Ferias 
S.A. every two years.  For further information please contact: 
 
   Centro de Exposiciones Quito 
   Avs. Amazonas y Atahualpa, Quito, Ecuador 
   Tel:  593-2-454-428, 453-129; Fax:  593-2-449-846 
   Contact:  Hector Estrella, Manager 
 
   Ferias S.A. 
   P.O. Box 8951, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
   Tel:  593-4-290-682, 290-920, 290-011; Fax:  593-4-290-080 
   Contact:  Miguel Orellana, Manager 
 
The Commercial Service has offices in Quito and Guayaquil and provides a 
full range of trade promotion services for U.S. exporters.  Please 
contact:  Janice Corbett, Commercial Attache, U.S. Embassy Quito, Tel:  
593-2-562-890, Fax:  593-2-504-550 and Manfred Sheets, Commercial 
Officer, U.S. Consulate General, Guayaquil, Ecuador, Tel:  593-4-323-
570, Fax:  593-4-324-558 for details. 
 
I.  PRODUCT PRICING 
 
With the exception of pharmaceuticals, no imported products are subject 
to price controls.  As elsewhere, distributors establish prices based on 
market factors. 
 
J.  SALES SERVICE AND CUSTOMER SUPPORT 
 
Very few products are sold in Ecuador with warranties.  However, it is 
extremely important that U.S. companies exporting products to Ecuador 
which require maintenance and spare parts ensure that their Ecuadorian 
distributor provides both. 
 
K.  SELLING TO THE GOVERNMENT 
 
Government procurement of goods, equipment, and services is regulated by 
the Public Contracting Law 95 issued in August 1990.  However, the 
military is not required to use this law for its purchases.  Foreign 
bidders in both cases must be legally represented in Ecuador and 
associated with an Ecuadorian company in order to bid. 
 
Procurement by public invitation involves various steps.  The government 
agency usually inserts announcements in newspapers and trade journals 
inviting potential suppliers to present bids for specific types of 
equipment or services desired.  Bid documents containing detailed 
information must be purchased by the interested party.  The cost of 
these documents varies with the size of the project involved.  
Guarantees required on invitations for bids and calls for tenders are 
specified in the Public Contracting Law.  The bids must be filed in 
Spanish, using the format specified by the inviting agency, and be 
delivered to the contracting agency in person. 
 
Government procurement practices do not usually discriminate against 
U.S. or other foreign suppliers.  However, bidding for government 
contracts can be cumbersome and competitors from other countries do not 
operate under the restrictions of the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices 
Act.  The government's requirement for a bank-issued guarantee to ensure 
execution of the contract presents a problem for some bidders.  
Shipments to Ecuadorian government agencies no longer have to be made 
via Ecuadorian flag vessels or airlines. 
 
L.  PROTECTING YOUR PRODUCT FROM IPR INFRINGEMENT 
 
Ecuador offers some protection for intellectual property rights under 
Andean Pact legislation and is in the process of adhering to the 
intellectual property provisions of the World Trade Organization.  The 
Ecuadorian Congress is considering the ratification and implementation 
of legislation for a bilateral IPR agreement with the United States 
based on the IPR provisions of the North American Free Trade Agreement.  
For further information on IPR protection, see Chapter VIII.A7. 
 
M.  NEED FOR A LOCAL ATTORNEY 
 
A local attorney or a professional adviser is imperative when setting up 
a business in Ecuador or in collection matters and trade complaints.  
The Commercial Service office in Ecuador has lists of lawyers for Quito 
and Guayaquil. 
 
CHAPTER V:  LEADING SECTORS FOR U.S. EXPORTS AND INVESTMENT 
 
A.  BEST PROSPECTS FOR NON-AGRICULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES 
 
1.   Rank of Sector:   1 
   Name of Sector:     Telecommunications Equipment 
   ITA Industry Code:  TEL 
 
NARRATIVE:  The Ecuadorian market for telecommunications equipment is 
supplied almost entirely by imports.  In 1994 the telecommunications 
market totalled an estimated USD 92 million.  Imports were estimated at 
USD 83 million with U.S. imports accounting for 44 percent of the import 
market. 
 
The prospects for the entire industry will change dramatically once the 
telecommunications reform bill is approved by Congress and privatization 
of the state telephone company occurs.  U.S. telephone operators will 
have excellent opportunities to participate in the privatization 
process.  Major investments are expected in public telephony and rural 
telecommunications.  The market size is expected to grow substantially 
over the 1996-2000 period.  The U.S. is well positioned in the growing 
areas of cellular and cable TV equipment, satellite and value-added 
services including trunking, paging, data transmission, and personal 
communications.  The U.S. has also potential to increase market share in 
basic switching and transmission equipment.  U.S. equipment faces strong 
competition from Japanese and European counterparts who have 
traditionally dominated the telecommunications market in Ecuador.  
 
DATA TABLE (Millions of USD):           1994         1995       1996 
 
A.   Total Market Size                  92.0        110.4      139.0 
B.   Total Local Production              9.2         11.0       12.1 
C.   Total Exports                         0            0          0 
D.   Total Imports                      82.8         99.4      124.2 
E.   Imports from the U.S.              36.1         44.0       55.0 
 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
2.   Rank of Sector:     2 
   Name of Sector:     Electric Power 
   ITA Industry Code:  ELP 
 
NARRATIVE:  In order to meet the projected 5-6 percent annual increase 
in electricity demand, Ecuador should add as much as 540 MW in new 
hydroelectric generation, as well as 390 MW in thermal generation.  The 
potential import value for this equipment is estimated at as much as USD 
1.3 billion.  There will be an increased demand for hydro and thermal 
generation equipment, including gas and steam turbines and small diesel 
generation units for back-up systems due to shortages in electric power. 
 
Although major steps have been taken to restructure the sector, a new 
electrification reform law, which would turn to the private sector the 
generation and distribution activities, is still pending before the 
Ecuadorian Congress.  The government will maintain control over power 
transmission.  Once the law is approved, the market for large scale 
power generation projects will change from the state-owned 
electrification institute to private investor groups and power companies 
interested in expanding into the Ecuadorian market.  The new generation 
plants are generally expected to be provided on a build-operate-transfer 
concession basis.  The U.S. market share has been low in the past.  
German, Japanese, French and Italian suppliers have dominated the market 
both for hydro and thermal generation.  However, the outlook is 
substantially more attractive for U.S. firms as the government moves to 
private sector generation.  The U.S. is competitive in thermal 
generation whereas the European suppliers provide most switchgear. 
 
DATA TABLE (Millions of USD):           1994        1995        1996 
 
A.   Total Market Size                  45.1        54.0        64.8 
B.   Total Local Production              0.0         0.0         0.0 
C.   Total Exports                       0.0         0.0         0.0 
D.   Total Imports                      45.1       54.06         4.8 
E.   Imports from the U.S.              25.0        30.0        36.0 
 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
3.   Rank of Sector:           3 
   Name of Sector:     Security and Safety Equipment 
   ITA Industry Code:     SEC 
 
NARRATIVE:  It is estimated that there will be a 30 percent increase in 
imports of technologically-advanced security and safety equipment to 
Ecuador in 1995.  Residential land automotive alarms, anti-theft vehicle 
tracing devices, industrial security equipment for the oil industry and 
electronic surveillance equipment are considered best prospect products 
in this industry. 
 
Local production of safety clothes, gloves, shoes and safety boxes is 
very limited.  There have been reports of kidnapings throughout Ecuador.  
Since the local police is not adequately prepared to handle such cases, 
anti-kidnapping tracing devices will also be in demand.  Increasing auto 
theft will also lead to greater need for tracing devices. 
 
DATA TABLE (Millions of USD):           1994        1995        1996 
 
A.   Total Market Size                  13.1        16.8        21.6 
B.   Total Local Production              1.0         1.1         1.2 
C.   Total Exports                       0.0         0.0         0.0 
D.   Total Imports                      12.1        15.7        20.4 
E.   Imports from the U.S.               2.4         3.2         4.3 
 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
4.   Rank of Sector:          4 
   Name of Sector:          Food Processing and Packaging Equipment 
   ITA Industry Code:    FPP 
 
NARRATIVE:  An aggressive promotion of non-traditional agricultural 
products has created the need for an ongoing upgrade of the food 
processing and packaging equipment to meet the demand for quality and 
attractiveness of products offered both for export and domestic sales.  
All food processing and packaging equipment is imported.  U.S. products 
are well regarded.  Principal competitors are Germany and Italy.  Most 
promising subsectors are small processing plants for fruits and 
vegetables, meat, as well as packaging and labeling equipment. 
 
DATA TABLE (USD Millions):              1994        1995        1996 
 
A.   Total Market Size                 110.2       123.4       138.2 
B.   Total Local Production             44.1        49.4        55.3 
C.   Total Exports                     0.130       0.136       0.143 
D.   Total Imports                      66.0       73.92        82.8 
E.   Imports from the U.S.              15.2        16.7        18.4 
 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
B.  BEST PROSPECTS FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
1.   Rank: NA 
   Name of Sector: Wheat 
   PS&D Code: 0411000 
 
NARRATIVE:  Almost all of the wheat consumed in Ecuador is imported.  
This market, which was exclusively supplied by the U.S. during 1982-91, 
now is shared with Germany, France, Australia, Argentina, and Canada.  
The import outlook for U.S. wheat is somewhat improved for the current 
marketing year since the new Common External Tariff of the Andean Pact 
Region narrows the price gap between the U.S. wheat and the subsidized 
wheat from other countries.  The availability of the GSM-102 Credit 
Guarantee Program may create additional U.S. sales opportunities. 
 
DATA TABLE (Thousand Metric Tons):      1994        1995        1996 
 
A. Total Market Size                     395         400         405 
B. Total local production                 20          20          18 
C. Total Exports (legal and illegal)      90          90          90 
D. Total Imports                         512         488         455 
E. Total Imports from U.S.               162         184         160 
 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
2.   Rank: NA 
   Name of Sector: Cotton 
   PS&D Code: 2631000 
 
NARRATIVE:  As Ecuador's textile industry has focused in developing 
export markets, cotton imports have increased in the past two or three 
years.  This situation has been encouraged by the decreased local cotton 
production, and by the decreased cotton production in Colombia and Peru.  
There are good opportunities for cotton sales in the coming year due to 
reduced supplies from other exporters. 
 
DATA TABLE (Thousand Bales): 1/         1994        1995        1996 
      
A. Total Market Size                      78          80          82 
B. Total local production                 19          12          10 
C. Total Exports                           0           0           0 
D. Total Imports                          60          75          80 
E. Total Imports from U.S.                35          60          70 
 
1/ 480-pounds net weight bales. 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
3.   Rank: NA 
   Name of Sector: Milled Rice 
   PS&D Code: 0422110 
 
NARRATIVE:  Ecuador has been self sufficient in rice for the last seven 
years.  However, as a result of the regional liberalization of the 
economy, and the free market under the Andean Pact, a large part of the 
rice crop is being exported to Colombia, where rice is higher priced.  
The resulting shortfall in domestic supply, along with the unfavorable 
weather conditions in early 1995, will likely result in imports of 
150,000 tons during the next year.  This is one of the best prospects 
for U.S. agricultural sales. 
 
 
DATA TABLE (Thousand Metric Tons):      1994        1995        1996 
 
A. Total Market Size                     360         365         365 
B. Total local production                455         504         424 
C. Total Exports                         100         120         150 
D. Total Imports                           0           3         100 
E. Total Imports from U.S.                 0           0          50 
 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
4.   Rank: NA 
   Name of Sector: Yellow Corn 
   PS&D Code:  0440000 
 
NARRATIVE:  The domestic demand of yellow corn as an input for feed has 
increased consistently during the last decade along with the expansion 
of the poultry and shrimp industries.  Due to exports to Colombia, and 
the unfavorable weather conditions during the crop season, Ecuador will 
need to import about 150,000 ton between late 1995 and early 1996. 
 
DATA TABLE (Thousand Metric Tons):      1994        1995        1996 
 
A. Total Market Size                     390         410         415 
B. Total local production                520         480         520 
C. Total Exports                         100         160         170 
D. Total Imports                          35          50         100 
E. Total Imports from U.S.                10          50         100 
 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
5.   Rank: NA 
   Name of Sector: Soybean Meal 
   PS&D Code: 0813100 
   
NARRATIVE:  Domestic demand of soybean meal as a source of protein for 
the feed industry has increased during the last decade.  Although the 
import needs may not be as great as in past years due to an expected 
good crop, there are still opportunities for exports of U.S. soybean 
meal to Ecuador. 
 
DATA TABLE (Thousand Metric Tons):      1994        1995        1996 
 
A. Total Market Size                     103         120         123 
B. Total local production                 84         106         108 
C. Total Exports                           0           0           0 
D. Total Imports                          21          16          14 
E. Total Imports from U.S.                 0           0           9 
 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
6.   Rank: NA 
   Name of Sector: Oilseeds Soybean 
   PS&D Code: 2222000 
 
NARRATIVE: Ecuador's production and trade in of oilseeds and products 
has grown  dramatically since the government liberalized its foreign 
trade policy and eliminated price control for cooking oils.  The 
prospects for  this market depends on the prices of U.S. soybeans 
relative those of Argentina and Bolivian origin.  The vegetable cooking 
oil sector will continue importing soybeans to help compensate for the 
increase in demand for both blended cooking oil and premium soybean oil. 
 
DATA TABLE (Thousand Metric Tons):      1994        1995        1996 
 
A. Total Market Size                     116         145         149 
B. Total local production                110         130         135 
C. Total Exports                          10          13          13 
D. Total Imports                          12          25          25 
E. Total Imports from U.S.                 0           3           5 
 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
7.   Rank: NA 
   Name of Sector: Consumer-Ready Food Products 
   PS&D Code: NA 
 
NARRATIVE:  The opening of the Ecuadorian economy to foreign imports 
since 1990, has resulted a sharp increase in imports of consumer-ready 
food products.  Most (perhaps 90 percent) of these products are of U.S. 
origin.  Ecuador primarily imports U.S. fresh and processed fruit & 
vegetables, dairy products, snack foods, poultry, and red meats.  There 
are great possibilities for market expansion for breakfast cereals, 
fruit & vegetable juices, tree nuts, and wine and beer.  
 
DATA TABLE (Millions of USD)            1994        1995        1996 
 
A. Total Market Size 1/                 22.0        26.0         28.0 
B. Total local production                3.0         4.0          4.5 
C. Total Exports                         1.5         1.8          1.9 
D. Total Imports                        20.7        23.8         25.0 
E. Total Imports from U.S.              18.6        21.2         23.0 
 
1/ Consumption by medium to high level income. 
The above statistics are unofficial estimates. 
 
C.   SIGNIFICANT COMMERCIAL INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES 
 
Trans-Ecuadorian Oil Pipeline Expansion  
 
Petroecuador, the state petroleum corporation, has called for bids for 
the construction and operation of an expanded Trans-Ecuadorian petroleum 
pipeline.  This is the biggest project in Ecuador's history and is 
expected to cost between USD 500-600 million.  The new pipeline will run 
parallel to the existing pipeline for some 300 miles from Ecuador's 
Amazon basin over the Andes to the Pacific port of Esmeraldas.  The 
second pipeline will have a capacity of 125,000 barrels per day.  The 
winner to be announced in August 1995 will be awarded a concession 
contract in which it will have to finance, build, and operate the 
pipeline for a specific period of time.  The project is estimated to 
take 24-36 months to complete. 
     
Key Contact:  Petroecuador 
        Alpallana y 6 de Diciembre, Edif. El Rocio 
        Quito, Ecuador 
        Tel:  593-2-547-160; Fax:  593-2-567-275 
        Contact:  Dr. Federico Vintimilla, Executive President, or 
          Ing. Pedro Merizalde 
 
New Airports for Quito and Guayaquil 
 
The Ecuadorian Government, through CONAM, the National Modernization 
Council and the Civil Aviation Directorate, plan to construct two new 
airports, one for Quito and another for Guayaquil, under a concession 
regime with a foreign private consortia.  The consortia would finance, 
build and operate the airports for a fixed period of time.  The project 
is expected to cost USD 460 million.  An international call for bids is 
expected to be announced in late 1995. 
 
Key Contact:  CONAM - Consejo Nacional de Modernizacion 
        Av. Patria y Juan Leon Mera, Quito, Ecuador 
        Tel:  593-2-509-432; Fax:  593-2-509-437 
        Contact:  Dr. Patricio Pena, Executive Director, or 
                  Pablo de La Torre 
 
        DAC - Direccion de Aviacion Civil 
        Buenos Aires 149 y 10 de Agosto, Quito, Ecuador 
        Tel:  593-2-223-179; Fax:  593-2-563-995 
        Contact:  Gral. Hernan Quiroz, Director, or 
                  Ing. Jose Baquero, Airport Division 
 
La Libertad Refinery Expansion 
 
Petroecuador, the state petroleum company, through its subsidiary 
Petroindustrial, plans to expand the La Libertad refinery through a 15 
year build-operate-transfer concession.  The project is located on the 
Santa Elena Peninsula in Guayas Province.  The refinery capacity will be 
increased from 46,000 barrels per day (bpd) to 57,700 bpd.   The project 
is estimated at US 400 million.  The call for bids is expected to be 
issued in late 1995. 
 
Key Contact:  Petroindustrial 
        Alpallana y Whimper, Edf. Maria Victoria 
        Quito, Ecuador 
        Tel:  593-2-527-977; Fax:  593-2-500-689 
        Contact:  Ing. Benjamin Valle, Manager 
 
San Francisco Hydroelectric Project 
 
To increase the country's power capacity, INECEL, the state power 
company, plans to build a 254 MW hydroelectric project on a build-
operation-transfer concession.  San Francisco will interconnect with the 
existing 230 MW Agoyan hydroelectric plant located in Tungurahua 
Province.  Engineering and environmental studies have been completed.  
Estimated cost of the project is USD 222 million.  Bids are due October 
4, 1995. 
 
Key Contact:  INECEL - Instituto Ecuatoriano de Electrificacion 
        Av. 6 de Diciembre y Orellana 
        Quito, Ecuador 
        Tel:  593-2-221-123; Fax:  593-2-503-762 
        Contact:  Ing. Ivan Rodriguez, General Manager 
 
Telephone Privatization and Expansion Program 
 
Ecuador's telecommunications sector remains in the hands of the state 
telephone company, EMETEL.  The Ecuadorian Congress is expected to 
approve a telecommunications reform bill in 1995 which would allow for 
the sale of 35 percent of Emetel's shares to two prequalified 
international operators.  Recent demand estimates suggest the need to 
more than triple the current network of 609,000 lines to 2.2 million 
lines by year 2000 with an estimated investment of over USD 1 billion.  
 
Key Contact:  EMETEL - Empresa Nacional de Telecomunicaciones 
        Av. Colon y 6 de Diciembre, Quito, Ecuador 
        Tel:  593-2-568-588; Fax:  593-2-568-000 
        Contact:  Ing. Sergio Flores, Executive President 
 
        CONAM - Consejo Nacional de Modernizacion 
        Av. Patria y Juan Leon Mera, Quito, Ecuador 
        Tel:  593-2-509-433; Fax:  593-2-509-437 
        Contact:  Kurt Freund, President Telecommunications Commission, 
                  or Guillermo Sosa 
 
Natural Gas Recovery Project 
 
Petroecuador, the state petroleum corporation, through its subsidiary 
Petroindustrial, will call for bids for the recovery of natural gas from 
three groups of wells in eastern Ecuador.  Petroindustrial will contract 
the project on a build-operate-transfer basis for a 10-year term.  
Estimated cost is USD 40 million.  The prequalification tender will be 
issued in late 1995. 
 
Key Contact:  Petroindustrial 
        Alpallana y Whimper, Edf. Maria Victoria, Quito, Ecuador 
        Tel:  593-2-527-977; Fax:  593-2-500-689 
        Contact:  Ing. Benjamin Valle, Manager 
 
Agricultural Investment Opportunities 
 
Molinos El Condor plans to build a new wheat mill and grain storage 
facilities (silos) in Manta.  The wheat milling facilities will have a 
capacity of 120 metric tons per day, while the silos a storage capacity 
of 9,000 metric tons ( tree months of milling).  A local group of 
investors is reportedly seeking to import a new sugar mill to help meet 
local demand.  There will be opportunities for U.S. businesses to supply 
plant and equipment for these projects.  
 
 
CHAPTER VI:  TRADE REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS 
 
A.  TRADE BARRIERS  
 
Ecuador is relative open to U.S. exports and direct investment.  The 
old, highly protectionist tariff system, a product of the import-
substitution model adopted in the 1960's, was replaced in 1991 with a 
simplified structure that lowered most tariff duties and fees to 5 to 20 
percent of import value.  The Duran Ballen government has taken a number 
of important steps to further liberalize trade and investment policy.  
Importers and exporters are now able to purchase foreign exchange on the 
free market without restrictions.  In January 1993, restrictive import 
licensing for agricultural products, inputs and machinery were 
eliminated.  On the export side, levies on agricultural commodities were 
abandoned in December 1993 and official port charges were reduced by 25 
percent in January 1994.  
 
In spite of the dramatic liberalization in Ecuadorian trade policies, 
some residual non-tariff and customs procedure barriers exist that 
impact on U.S. exporters.  A 1976 law prevents U.S. and other foreign 
suppliers from terminating existing exclusive distributorship 
arrangements without paying compensation.  A sanitary registration is 
required on imported processed foods, cosmetics, as well as some other 
consumption goods, which have had the effect of blocking the entry of 
some imports from the U.S.  Agricultural commodities have been subjected 
to prior authorization requirements.  Imports of several categories of 
used goods are prohibited.  Ecuador has adopted the Andean Pact price 
band system for about 90 agricultural products, particularly poultry, 
wheat, corn, milk and rice which may affect U.S. sales.  Under the terms 
of Ecuador's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO), most non-
tariff barriers are to be phased out over the next few years.  
 
B.  CUSTOMS VALUATION 
 
Ecuadorian customs procedures can be difficult, but generally are not 
used to discriminate against U.S. products.  A new Customs Service Law 
was enacted in March 1994, together with a service privatization 
provision in the December 1993 tax reform law, should facilitate the 
creation of a modern, and less corrupt, customs system.  
 
Ecuador's tariff schedule is based on the Harmonized System of 
Nomenclature.  Consistent with the Andean Pact common external tariff, 
the current tariff range is 0-20 percent; the highest duty, 37 percent, 
is levied on automobile imports to protect the local assembly industry.  
Most consumer goods imports pay 20 percent, while intermediate goods are 
usually imported at the 10 or 15 percent rates.  Raw materials and 
capital goods generally pay 0 or 5 percent.  Ecuador has negotiated 
exceptions under the Andean common tariff that allow for lower duties 
for certain capital goods and industrial inputs.  The new agrarian law 
provides for duty-free import of agricultural inputs and equipment.  
 
In addition to import duties, all imports are also subject to a 1 
percent service fee and a 10 percent value added tax.  These charges are 
based on the CIF value of the merchandise. 
 
In the past, the requirement that government customs officials 
physically inspect all incoming merchandise to determining duties led to 
long processing delays and opportunities for corruption.  Since October 
1994, imports over USD 3,000 have been be appraised for value, quantity, 
quality and weight at the port of origin by one of three official 
international verification companies.  The Ecuadorian importer must 
request the inspection service from a verifier and pay 50 percent of the 
inspection fee of a minimum of USD 180 and a maximum of 1 percent of the 
FOB value of the goods.  The foreign supplier provides the verifier with 
commercial documentation, including bill of lading or airway bill, and 
commercial invoice.   Once the verification is made, the verifier issues 
an inspection certificate to the Ecuadorian importer and the importer 
pays the remaining 50 percent of the inspection fees. 
 
The following imports are exempt from verification: 
 
   Imports below USD 3,000 
   Works of art, arms and defense material 
   Newspapers, books, magazines and other printed material 
   Traveler's personal effects 
   Parcel post 
   Donations to the public sector 
   Imports by diplomatic missions 
   Imports by the public sector financed by international loans 
 
The three companies contracted by the Ecuadorian Government to conduct 
inspections are: 
 
   Bureau Veritas International (French) 
   Av. Republica e Irlanda, Edf. Torres Siglo XXI 
   or Hungria 324 y Mariana de Jesus, Quito, Ecuador 
   Tel:  593-2-244-278, 222-825, 252-872; Fax:  593-2-560-629 
   Contact:  Ing. Ernesto Recalde, General Manager 
 
   Societe Generale de Surveillance S.A. (SGS) (Swiss) 
   Av. Republica 888 y Suecia, Quito, Ecuador 
   Tel:  593-2-252-279, 252-296; Fax:  593-2-251-342, 467-938 
   Contact:  Peter Kolla, General Manager 
 
   Cotecna Inspection S.A. (Swiss) 
   Av. Naciones Unidas 1014 y Amazonas, 9 Floor, Quito, Ecuador 
   Tel:  593-2-462-366, 462-371, 469-606; Fax:  593-2-468-657, 468-658 
   Contact:  Roger Sleeman, General Manager 
 
Importers must register with the Central Bank of Ecuador and obtain 
import license numbers.  Import licenses are obtained from the Exchange 
Department of the Central Bank before incoming goods are shipped from 
the port of origin.  In most cases, the import permit serves as an 
accounting record rather than a prior authorization.  Even so, the 
process may take from three days to a week.  The license is granted for 
180 days and may be renewed for the same period of time if requested 
before the expiration of the first 180 days. 
 
D.   EXPORT CONTROLS 
 
The Government of Ecuador prohibits the export of artistic, cultural, 
archeological and historical products that are part of the national 
patrimony, as well as endangered species of wildlife and flora.  
Products pertaining to the national patrimony may be exported on a 
temporary basis for exhibition purposes when authorized by the National 
Patrimony Institute.  Endangered wildlife and flora species may be 
exported for scientific and educational purposes when authorized by the 
Ecuadorian Forestry and Wildlife Institute (INEFAN). 
 
Narcotics and psychotropic substances need authorization from the 
National Council of Narcotic Control (CONSEP) before they can be 
exported.  The export of radioactive minerals is subject to control by 
the 
Atomic Energy Commission. 
 
Certain basic consumption products and raw materials may be subject to 
export restrictions and quotas.  Such products may not be exported in 
amounts exceeding those authorized by the Central Bank.  Cocoa and 
subproducts are subject to minimum price indexes.  There is a minimum 
reference price that banana exporters must pay growers.  Such prices are 
set by the Ministries of Industry, Agriculture and Finance.  
 
E.  IMPORT/EXPORT DOCUMENTATION 
 
Importing into Ecuador requires an import license issued by the Central 
Bank.  The following documentation is required to obtain an import 
permit:  the commercial invoice, the import number assigned by the 
Central Bank, and the income tax registry number. 
 
Upon arrival of the merchandise, the importer presents the import 
license, the commercial invoice, the inspection certificate, the bill of 
lading and the self-liquidated customs declaration in the same customs 
office where the merchandise is located.  Customs verifies the validity 
of the declaration and authorizes payment of duties, which may be made 
in any private bank.  Upon payment, the merchandise may be withdrawn 
from customs.  This process takes two working days. 
 
Partial or incomplete shipments must be declared and a bond must be 
deposited to cover the unused foreign currency authorized by the import 
license.  The process in customs can be lengthy, though one week is 
normal.  The use of a specialized customs agent is highly recommended in 
order to expedite the process. 
 
U.S. companies should take into account that if the customs authorities 
find any documents out of order, rectifying the situation can be time-
consuming, resulting in delays.  Because prices on the invoice must be 
the same as those on the import license, U.S. exporters that have 
increased their prices after the granting of the import license may 
experience delays in obtaining letters of credit while the importer 
rectifies the documents with the Central Bank. 
 
Exports from Ecuador require an export license issued by the Central 
Bank.  The following documentation is required to obtain an export 
license:  the export number assigned by the Central Bank, the ID card 
and the income tax registry number.  The issuance of an export license 
takes five working days. 
To export, the Central Bank approves the export form (formulario unico 
de exportacion) which is next presented at Customs together with the 
commercial invoice and the certificate of origin for appraisal.  The 
exporter will then present the export form at the Central Bank to 
liquidate the dollar value of the merchandise. 
 
F.  TEMPORARY ENTRY 
 
Ecuador allows temporary entry of items under the "maquila" (in-bond 
processing) regime, for demonstration or fairs, for duty free zones and 
for special projects for up to 180 days.  In the case of special 
projects, the period of time may be extended by presenting an extension  
request to the Ministry of Finance every 6 months.  During this period, 
the obligation to pay taxes and duties is suspended, subject to the 
condition that the commodities be reexported.  Commodities may also be 
nationalized after paying the corresponding taxes and fees. 
 
For maquila operations the equipment needed for assembly operations can 
also be imported free of duties, although a bond has to be deposited.  
No import permits from the Central Bank is required.  Special labor 
regulations apply to companies operating under this system. 
 
Before shipment of the goods for temporary entry, a request specifying 
the arrival date, purpose, flight number, period of time to remain in 
Ecuador and departure date must be presented to the Customs Director .  
The pertaining authorization will then be sent to the requestor for 
presentation when the goods arrive. 
 
Although import duties are waived, a bank guarantee or insurance for 120 
percent of the import duties should be presented to Customs.  This bond 
will be returned once the merchandise is repatriated.   There is a 
customs control tax, which is paid based on the CIF value of the 
merchandise.  Once the merchandise enters the warehouse for re-
exportation, no storage fee is paid for up to 12 days.  
 
Transit 
 
Customs law requires an "in transit" declaration for the transit of 
foreign commodities through Ecuadorian territory.  This declaration must 
state the period required for the operation and that the person signing 
the declaration and the carrier are jointly responsible for the payment 
of duties, taxes, and guarantees on the commodities if they do not 
arrive in their entirety at destination.  The customs house receiving 
the incoming merchandise will verify the contents of this document. 
 
G.  LABELING AND MARKING REQUIREMENTS 
 
This area is changing very rapidly.  All requirements are stipulated by 
the Instituto Ecuatoriano de Normalizacion (INEN - National Standards 
Institute), Baquerizo Moreno 454 y 6 de Diciembre, Quito, Ecuador, Fax:  
593-2-567-815; Tel:  593-2-528-556; Contact:  Felipe Urresta, Director.  
Exporters can also contact their Ecuadorian importers to determine 
current regulations. 
 
H.  PROHIBITED IMPORTS 
 
Items which are currently not allowed to be imported include: 
 
   Used clothing 
   Used tires 
   Used shoes 
   Used vehicles over one year old 
   Used vehicles over 5 tons over five years old   
   Certain pesticides 
   Certain epoxides and esters 
   Reptile hides 
   Worked ivory and articles of ivory 
 
Prior authorization from several ministries is still required for a 
number of goods including: 
   
   Processed foods 
   Cosmetics 
   Ampoules, syringes 
   Certain agricultural commodities 
   Electric generating sets 
   Bodies for vehicles 
   Armored vehicles 
   TrailersBalloons and dirigibles 
   Helicopters, airplanes 
   Ships 
 
Under the terms of Ecuador's accession to the World Trade Organization, 
import bans and prior authorization requirements that constitute 
unreasonable barriers to trade are to be liberalized.  
 
I.  STANDARDS 
 
The standards requirements are changing along with labeling and marking 
requirements.  The Ecuadorian National Standards Institute (INEN) sets 
standards, while the "Izquieta Perez" National Hygiene Institute 
conducts tests on consumer products that are required to obtain a 
sanitary registration by the Ministry of Health.  Exporters are advised 
to contact INEN or their importers to determine correct regulations.  
 
J.  FREE TRADE ZONES 
 
A Free Trade Zone law was passed in 1991 that provides for (1) the 
import of raw materials and machinery free of duty and tax; the export 
of finished and semi-processed goods, raw materials without duty and 
tax; and tax exemption for all business transactions and contracts which 
take place in the zone. 
 
A free trade zone has been established in Esmeraldas Province, which can 
be contacted at: 
 
   Zona Franca de Esmeraldas 
   Av. Jaime Roldos Aguilera, Esmeraldas, Ecuador 
   Tel:  593-6-714-500 
 
K.  WAREHOUSES 
 
Customs and storage facilities are generally not adequate for the volume 
of cargo handled.  Customs warehouses are small, and it is not uncommon 
for cargo to be stored in open-air patios.  Security is generally not a 
major concern in Quito, but problems in this areas are common in 
Guayaquil.  It is recommended that merchandise be insured.  Independent 
bonded warehouses (almacenes generales de deposito) are available for 
storage of imports at an additional cost.  These warehouses generally 
provide good facilities and security. 
 
L.  SPECIAL IMPORT PROVISIONS 
 
Not applicable. 
 
 
M.  MEMBERSHIP IN FREE TRADE ARRANGEMENTS 
 
The Ecuadorian government has been pursuing trade liberalization 
agreements on both regional and global levels.  Ecuador is a member of 
the Andean Pact along with Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela and Peru and is 
a full participant in the Cartagena Accords of the Pact.  A common 
external tariff with Colombia and Venezuela went into effect on January 
1, 1995.  Ecuador also has bilateral free trade agreements with Chile, 
Colombia, and Venezuela.  The bilateral free trade agreement with 
Colombia that went into effect in October 1992 helped generate a 44 
percent increase in trade between the two countries in 1993.  The 
Ecuadorian government has also expressed an interest in joining a 
Mexico-Colombia-Venezuela or "G-3" trade accord.  On the global level, 
Ecuador applied to join the General Treaty on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 
in September 1992 and has finished negotiations with its major trade 
partners on the terms of accession to the GATT's successor body, the 
World Trade Organization (WTO). 
 
CHAPTER VII:  INVESTMENT CLIMATE 
 
A1.  OPENNESS TO FOREIGN INVESTMENT 
 
The Ecuadorian government welcomes foreign investment, and the trend in 
recent years has been toward substantial liberalization in investment 
regulations.  As a member of the Andean Pact, Ecuador's foreign 
investment policy is governed largely by Decisions 291 and 292 of 1991.  
Implementing regulations issued in January 1993 further liberalized the 
investment regime.  
 
Under the current regulations, foreign investors are accorded the same 
rights of entry as Ecuadorian private investors.  Foreign investment 
with up to 100 percent equity is allowed without previous authorization 
or screening in virtually all sectors of the Ecuadorian economy which 
are open to domestic private investment. Remittances of 100 percent of 
profits and capital are permitted. Foreign investors must register the 
level of their investments with the Central Bank for statistical 
purposes.  
 
No prior authorization is required for technology contracts including 
licensees or franchises.  There is no limit on the amount of royalties 
which may be remitted.  All technology contracts be registered with the 
Ministry of Industries. 
 
There is no discrimination against foreign investors at the time the 
investment is made. There are no longer limitations on foreign equity in 
the financial sector, no prior authorization requirements for foreign 
companies investing in public services, or discriminatory tax treatment 
for foreign investors.  Foreign investors may participate in government 
financed research programs.  Visa and residence requirements do not 
inhibit foreign investment.  
 
Although the 1993 Modernization of the State Law expanded the scope for 
private sector participation, foreign investors, and often domestic 
investors as well, still operate with limitations in certain sectors of 
the economy: 
 
   Petroleum:  All subsurface resources belong to the state. Foreign oil 
companies previously engaged in exploration and development activities 
under risk-service contracts with Petroecuador, the state oil company.  
Under the 1993 Hydrocarbons Law, future investments in the oil sector 
will be made using production-sharing contracts that give private 
investors the right to share in finds.  A second oil pipeline will be 
built under a build-operate-transfer arrangement with a private 
consortium.  Private companies, including foreign ones, can now 
participate in domestic fuel distribution, refining and transport 
activities. 
  
   Mining:  Under the 1991 Mining Law, the mining sector is fully open 
to foreign investment, with individual concession arrangements to be 
worked out with the Ministry of Energy and Mines.  The Mining Law 
prohibits foreign investors from obtaining mining rights in zones 
adjacent to international boundaries, without permission of the 
President and approval of the Armed Forces. 
 
   Fishing:  The fishing law restricts foreign investment in domestic 
fishing operations to 49 percent of equity, with exceptions permitted 
with appeal to the National Fishery Development Council.  
 
   Electricity:  Article 46 of the constitution reserves electric power 
generation for the state, with delegation of activities to the private 
sector on an exceptional basis.  The current Electrification Law allows 
INECEL, the state electric utility, to enter into service contracts with 
private sector entities to provide such services.  The largest 
electricity distribution company, which serves the city of Guayaquil, is 
in private hands, and the government is negotiating a long term power 
purchase agreement with a private supplier.  New electricity legislation 
pending before Congress would open up the sector to more private sector 
investment, including foreign, in power generation and distribution.  
 
   Telecommunications:  Article 46 of the constitution also reserves 
basic telecommunications for the state, but the Telecommunications Law 
notes that private companies can be authorized to establish or exploit 
telecommunications installations.  Two private groups with foreign 
participation were granted concessions in 1993 to develop cellular 
telephone systems, while satellite, trunking, and paging services are 
also in private hands.  Congress is considering a telecommunications 
bill to sell a minority stake in EMETEL, the state telephone company, to 
a private management group, whether domestic or foreign. 
 
   Media:  The 1995 Radio and Television Law limits foreign companies 
from owning more than 25 percent equity in broadcast stations and 
requires broadcast concession to be held by Ecuadorians. 
 
   Strategic Sectors:  Article 46 of the Ecuadorian constitution 
reserves for the public sector other "strategic enterprises" determined 
by individual law.  These are understood to include only national 
security industries, in which the military often acts as a joint venture 
partner with private industry.  
 
Several industrial development laws providing tax incentives to invest 
outside of Quito and Guayaquil expired at the end of 1994, and  the 
government does not intend to renew them.  The Agrarian Development Law 
provides a 50 percent income tax credit for investment in industrial 
transformation of agricultural products outside Quito and Guayaquil. 
 
A2.  CONVERSION AND TRANSFER POLICIES 
 
Foreign investors are free to remit 100 percent of net profits through 
the free exchange market without restriction.  They may also repatriate 
the proceeds of liquidation of their investment through the free 
exchange market.  Foreign investors can use the free exchange market to 
convert their inward investment flows.  There is no rationing of foreign 
exchange, as the exchange market operates through commercial banks at 
freely determined rates. 
 
There are no limitations on outflows of funds for profit remittances, 
debt service, capital gains, returns on intellectual property, or 
imported inputs.  
A3.  EXPROPRIATION AND COMPENSATION 
 
Expropriation is provided for in Ecuadorian law with appropriate 
compensation.  In infrequent cases of expropriations, the individual has 
the right to petition a judge to establish the appropriate price for 
expropriated holdings.  The Agrarian Development Law restricts the 
grounds for expropriation of agricultural land and makes land case 
subject to regular courts. The extent to which investors and lenders 
receive prompt, adequate and effective compensation is largely related 
to the particular judicial process underway.  However, the treatment is 
identical legally for both foreign and domestic investors.  Under 
Ecuador's bilateral investment treaty with the United States, 
expropriation can only be carried out for a public purpose, in a 
nondiscriminatory manner, and upon payment of prompt, adequate and 
effective compensation. 
 
A4.  DISPUTE SETTLEMENT 
 
A cumbersome legal system and complex land reform legislation can make 
it somewhat difficult to enforce property and concession rights in the 
agriculture and mining sectors.  A number of foreign and local investors 
have had agricultural land seized by squatter groups over the years.  In 
the past, squatter claims in the agriculture sector were often legally 
recognized by agrarian reform authorities, with only minimal, if any, 
compensation being paid.  The current agrarian law makes legalization of 
such seizures much more difficult and guarantees cash payment of the 
market value of expropriated property.  Some local and foreign mining 
companies have had their concessions occupied by informal miners, who 
have subsequently negotiated for a share of the respective concessions.  
In the petroleum sector, a major U.S. investor has had to engage in 
extensive tax, labor, and environmental disputes related to the closure 
of its operations in Ecuador.  Oil companies operating in Ecuador can 
have difficulties resolving contract issues with the state oil company.  
The new petroleum production sharing contract provides for binding 
international arbitration.  
 
There have been cases in which foreign company officials have been 
prevented by the courts from leaving Ecuador due to pending claims 
against the company.  Ecuadorians involved in business disputes can 
sometimes arrange for their opponents, including foreigners, to be 
jailed pending resolution of the dispute.  
 
Finally, a major U.S. investor in the electricity sector in Guayaquil 
had his investment "intervened" by the government for four years, an 
action which impeded the remittance of profits and which was not 
provided for in the terms of the company's valid concession contract.  
Although decisions of an arbitration panel, convened by the two parties, 
were not implemented, the issue was resolved in 1993 when the U.S. owner 
sold his shares to a group of non-U.S. investors.  To date, the new 
owners have been unable to negotiate a new contract with the government 
or lift the intervention. 
 
The new U.S.-Ecuadorian bilateral investment treaty provides for 
international arbitration of future disputes at the investor's option.  
Although Ecuador joined the International Center for the Settlement of 
Investment Disputes (ICSID), congressional ratification may be necessary 
to make that membership effective. 
 
A5.  PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS AND INCENTIVES 
 
There are no performance requirements associated with foreign investment 
in Ecuador.  Nor are there any requirements that investors localize 
equity ownership by transferring shares to Ecuadorians over time.  Under 
the 1993 investment regulations, any previous commitments under prior 
Andean Pact decisions to localize ownership are no longer binding. 
 
A6.  RIGHT TO PRIVATE OWNERSHIP AND ESTABLISHMENT 
 
All foreign and domestic private entities can own business enterprises 
and engage in almost all forms of business activity. Private entities 
can compete freely with the public sector in most areas.  While the 
constitution still provides for a monopoly for the public sector in the 
areas of telecommunications, electricity, and other "strategic" sectors, 
it also provides that such rights may be derogated to the private sector 
by subsequent legislation or executive decree.  Foreign and private 
firms enjoy equal access in bidding for purchase of state-owned firms or 
long-term concession contracts.  
 
A7.  PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS 
 
For the most part, Ecuadorian law provides adequate protection for 
property rights, but as noted above, it can be difficult to gain 
effective protection via the legal system due in part to problems of 
transparency.  
 
Ecuador offers protection for intellectual property rights (IPR) under 
Decisions 344, 345, and 351 under the Cartagena Accord of the Andean 
Pact.  Ecuador is also in the process of adhering to the intellectual 
property provisions ("TRIPS") of the World Trade Organization.  The 
Ecuadorian Congress is considering ratification and implementing 
legislation for a bilateral IPR agreement with the United States.  The 
agreement is based on the IPR provisions of the North American Free 
Trade Agreement and would obligate Ecuador to provide the full range of 
criminal and administrative relief to right holders.  Ecuador has 
ratified the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and 
Artistic Works and the Geneva Phonogram Convention, but not the Paris 
Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.  Ecuador has 
observer status in the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). 
 
Patents:  Decision 344 extends patent protection for 20 years from date 
of filing.  Patenting of pharmaceutical products is permitted except for 
those products on the World Health Organization's list of essential 
drugs.  Compulsory licensing and working requirements for patents have 
been made more limited.  In infringement cases, the burden of proof lies 
with the alleged infringer. Ecuador's implementing regulations to 
Decision 344 provided limited pipeline protection for previously 
unpatentable products.  
 
Other Protections:  Decision 344 provides protection for industrial 
designs, except for those related to clothing, for eight year terms.  It 
also extends protection to industrial secrets and denomination of 
origin.  Semiconductor chip layouts are not specifically protected, but 
it may be possible to register layouts under the Copyright Law or the 
industrial designs provision of Decision 344.  Decision 345 provides 
protection for development of new plant varieties and biotechnology 
products.  
 
Trademarks:  Trademark registration is permitted for renewable 10 year 
periods.  Registration may be cancelled if the mark is not used in the 
Andean region for a period of three years.  Decision 344 strengthens 
protection for well-known trademarks.  In the past such marks have on 
occasion have been registered by individuals other than their legitimate 
owners.  Trademarks can be subject to compulsory licensing and a 
trademark registration cannot be voluntarily surrendered without consent 
of licensees. 
 
Copyrights:  Decision 351 supplements the 1976 Copyright Law providing 
protection for printed and recorded works for the life of the author 
plus 50 years.  Computer programs are protected, albeit as a type of 
work distinct from literary works.  The Copyright Law has been changed 
to cover software and satellite signals.  
 
Registration and Enforcement:  Patent and trademark registrations are 
made with the National Directorate of Industrial Property (DNPI).  The 
Ministry of Education deals with copyright matters, while the 
Superintendent of Telecommunications has jurisdiction over satellite 
signals.  Efforts to improve the efficiency of the DNPI have led to a 
reduction in the backlog for registration of patents and trademarks.  In 
spite of a 1992 law increasing penalties for copyright infringement, 
pirating of recorded material and software programs is common.  The 
National Police and the Customs Service are responsible for carrying our 
IPR enforcement orders.  It can be difficult to get court orders 
enforced or to secure effective police action. 
 
A8.    REGULATORY SYSTEM:  LAWS AND PROCEDURES 
 
The regulatory system in Ecuador economy has not been specifically 
geared toward fostering competition.  There is a fair degree of 
industrial concentration and no anti-trust laws.  The Superintendent of 
Banks regulates financial and insurance institutions, the Superintendent 
of Telecommunications regulates broadcasters, while the Superintendent 
of Companies regulates all other firms and, via the National Securities 
Council, the stock markets.  
 
A9.  EFFICIENT CAPITAL MARKETS AND PORTFOLIO INVESTMENTS 
 
Ecuadorian capital markets are relatively underdeveloped.  Most large 
industrial groups are privately held, and are financed largely through 
debt.  Until recently, activity on the Guayaquil and Quito stock 
exchanges was largely limited to trading in short term commercial paper, 
bank obligations, and government debt, while most stock transactions 
were conducted in the over-the-counter market.  The 1993 Capital Markets 
Law set up a modern regulatory structure, opened stock market trading to 
banks and other firms, and encouraged the development of mutual funds.  
The new law, together with sales of government-owned shares in a few 
private companies and increasing interest in Ecuador on the part of 
emerging market investment funds, has stimulated the development of 
Ecuador's equity markets.  
 
Trading volume of equities increased by 91 percent in dollar terms 
during 1994 to reach USD 487 million.  Most of the stock trades, 
however, have involved shares in a handful of banks and companies, with 
one corporate restructuring trade in December 1994 accounting for 36 
percent of all equity trades for the year.  Trading volume of public and 
private sector debt instruments amounted to USD 309 million in 1994.  
Although the Ecuadorian markets were relatively unaffected by the 
Mexican financial crisis of late 1994, the border conflict with Peru 
resulted in a fall in share prices and a drop in trading volume.  
Additional sales of government holdings, public offerings by major 
Ecuadorian firms, and privatization of the Social Security Institute 
pension funds are needed to deepen the market.   
 
Bank credit is generally allocated on market terms, though there is some 
concentration of domestic credit toward the major economic groups.  
Foreign investors are able to borrow competitively on the local market, 
in either local currency or dollars.  The private sector has access 
primarily to short-term bank credit.  Financial legislation provides for 
the use of inflation-indexed "units of constant value" (UVC) as a means 
of facilitating medium-term credit in an inflationary economy.  Since 
1990, the government has phased out virtually all subsidized credits. 
 
International accounting firms audit the books of most major companies 
in Ecuador, including large state-owned entities, under standards 
established by the Superintendency of Companies. 
 
A10.  POLITICAL VIOLENCE 
 
Ecuador is a functioning democracy that is almost entirely free of the 
type of political violence that afflicts many of its neighbors.  
Students, labor unions, and indigenous groups regularly stage protests 
against government policies that can lead to confrontations with 
security forces.  The only active guerrilla organization, "Red Sun," 
surrendered to authorities in June 1994.  Kidnapings by criminals are 
becoming more of a problem.  Land disputes can sometimes lead to 
violence.  
 
B.  BILATERAL INVESTMENT AGREEMENTS 
 
Ecuador has bilateral investment protection agreements in place with 
Germany and Switzerland.  A bilateral investment treaty signed with the 
United States in 1993 guarantees national treatment, unrestricted 
remittances and transfers, prompt, adequate and effective compensation 
for expropriations, and international arbitration of disputes.  The 
Ecuadorian Congress ratified the treaty in September 1994 and 
implementation is pending an exchange of instruments of ratification.  
Similar agreements have been signed with the United Kingdom, China, 
Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and El Salvador.  The Ministry of Foreign 
Affairs has also completed negotiations for investment agreements with 
Spain and France.  Negotiations are underway or have been proposed with 
Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Panama,  
Costa Rica, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia, the Czech 
Republic, and Canada. 
 
 
C.  OPIC AND OTHER INVESTMENT INSURANCE PROGRAMS 
 
Ecuador has had an updated investment guarantee agreement with the 
Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) since 1986.  Ecuador has 
signed and ratified the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agreement 
(MIGA). 
 
D.  LABOR 
 
Ecuador's population will reach 11.5 million in 1995.  About half live 
in urban areas and only 1 million hold formal sector jobs, while 40 
percent of the urban population works in the informal sector.  A quarter 
of the total population are members of rural indigenous communities.  
The literacy rate in Spanish is 86 percent.  Workers with artisan skills 
are relatively abundant at low wages.  Minimum compensation levels are 
set by the Ministry of Labor according to job and industry and can be 
adjusted by Congress.  The minimum compensation package averaged USD 134 
per month during the first half of 1995. 
 
A weak public university system produces a surplus of semi-qualified 
graduates in the professions.  Trained financial professionals and 
engineers can be difficult to attract and tend to require additional 
training to reach international standards.  There have been relatively 
few high technology investments in Ecuador, though some foreign firms 
are conducting agricultural research here.  There is little post-
graduate education in Ecuador, and scientists are nearly all foreign-
trained.  Upper level Ecuadorian managers have frequently been educated 
abroad, most often in the United States.  Private sector professional 
salaries have been rising in dollar terms in recent years, while 
government employees have seen their pay substantially eroded by 
inflation.  
 
Cumbersome regulations of the Ministry of Labor apply equally to both 
foreign and domestic firms and tend to inhibit investment.  The labor 
code provides for a 40 hour work week, 15 calendar days of annual paid 
vacation, restrictions on child labor, general protections of worker 
health and safety, minimum wages and bonuses, maternity leaves and 
employer-provided benefits.  Companies must distribute at least 15 
percent of pre-tax profits to their employees.  Some employers rely on 
short-term contracts since job tenure rules make it difficult to lay-off 
permanent workers.  
 
Labor-management relations are generally adequate.  Most workers in the 
private and parastatal sectors enjoy the constitutional right to form 
trade unions and local law allows for unionization of any company with 
more than 30 employees.  Less than 10 percent of the urban workforce, 
mostly skilled workers in medium to large sized private or state 
industries, are officially organized.  Private employers are required to 
engage in collective bargaining with recognized unions.  The labor code 
provides for resolution of conflicts through a tripartite arbitration 
and conciliation board process.  The code also prohibits discrimination 
against unions and requires that employers provide space for union 
activities.  
 
Except for public servants and workers in some parastatals, workers by 
law have the right to strike.  Legally striking employees are entitled 
to full pay and benefits and may occupy the premises under police 
protection, although there are restrictions on solidarity strikes.  Most 
public sector employees are technically prevented from joining unions, 
but most are members of a labor organization and illegal strikes by 
public employees are tolerated.  Although trade union political 
influence has declined in recent years, the Unified Workers Front (FUT) 
and other labor groups occasionally attempt to stage national strikes to 
protest the modernization process and economic adjustment measures.  In 
1994 there were no strikes or serious labor problems in any U.S. 
subsidiary.  
 
E.  FOREIGN TRADE ZONES AND FREE PORTS 
 
Ecuador passed a foreign trade zone law in 1991, which exempts foreign 
investments in such zones from any current or future restrictions on 
capital repatriations.  A foreign trade zone has been legally 
constituted in Esmeraldas.  A maquila (in-bond processing) law has been 
in effect since 1990, but only a few firms in the textile and fish 
processing sectors make use of it.  
 
F.  CAPITAL OUTFLOW POLICY 
 
Ecuadorians are free to export capital through the free market, and 
there are substantial Ecuadorian financial holdings in the United States 
and offshore banking centers.  A number of Ecuadorian banks have 
investments in banks in the U.S. There are no incentives for outward 
investment, and no export credit arrangements. 
 
G.  FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT STATISTICS 
 
New foreign investment in Ecuador has been concentrated in the 
oil sector.   Oil exploration produced an increase in the flow of 
investment into Ecuador in the late 1980's and the development of oil 
finds over the past two years has increased foreign investment inflow 
from 1.5 percent of GDP in 1992 to 3.2 percent of GDP in 1994.  Direct 
foreign investment outside the oil sector have been increasing in recent 
years, but remain extremely modest.  Registered non-oil investment 
inflows only amounted to USD 98 million or 0.6 percent of GDP in 1994.  
Over half of registered investments came from "off-shore" locations such 
as Panama and the Bahamas and include movements of Ecuadorian-owned  
capital that would not normally be considered DFI.  The United States 
and Switzerland are major sources of capital.  In addition to the oil 
sector, U.S. and other foreign investors have focused on financial 
services, food processing, the chemical and pharmaceutical industries, 
and machinery and vehicle manufacturing.  Growth in foreign investment 
is necessary to finance future current account balance of payment 
deficits and is a key goal of the Ecuadorian government's modernization 
program.  Unfortunately, the recent conflict with Peru has probably 
setback investment growth in 1995. 
 
Table:  Annual Direct Foreign Investment Flows (Millions of USD) 
---------------------------------------------------------------- 
Sector/Country        1990     1991     1992     1993     1994 
---------------------------------------------------------------- 
Total Inflows 1/       126      160      178      469      531 
  Oil                   44       75       83      354        - 
  Non-oil               82       85       95      115        - 
  
Registered Inflows 2/ 60.3     54.9     48.0     91.1     98.3 
  Agriculture          4.6      2.5      5.3      8.0      4.1 
  Mining               1.9      0.1      0.6      0.5      0.3 
  Food Processing      9.4     14.8      8.2     15.9     19.8 
  Textiles             0.7      1.5      0.4      2.0      4.9 
  Wood Products        0.4      0.4      1.0      1.1      0.4 
  Paper Products       3.6      0.7      1.3      0.1      2.3 
  Chemical/Pharm.     14.4     10.9      8.9     16.9     18.7 
  Mineral Products     5.9      2.8      4.2     12.8      6.2 
  Metal Industry       1.2      0.3      0.7      2.4      1.6 
  Machinery            4.3      4.3      1.6      8.1      7.6 
  Electricity/Water    0.0      0.3      0.0      0.0      0.0 
  Construction         0.5      0.2      0.0      0.4      0.0 
  Commerce             3.2      6.2      5.0      7.3      3.7 
  Transport/Comm.      0.5      0.7      1.7      1.0      1.3 
  Financial Services   9.3      8.5      8.9     14.5     26.2 
  Social Services      0.1      0.8      0.1      0.0      0.7 
 
Registered Inflows 2/ 60.3     54.9     48.0     91.1     98.3 
  Off-Shore 3/        20.3     18.3     20.6     34.2     51.7 
  United States       13.3     10.4      9.1     10.3     20.4 
  Switzerland          4.4      5.6      3.2     19.7     11.8 
  Germany              3.7      3.1      1.5      5.0      1.4 
  Netherlands          1.2      3.4      2.0      4.3      2.6 
  Britain              4.7      7.1      2.6      2.4      2.2 
  Canada               1.6      1.3      1.5      1.1      1.4 
  Venezuela            2.0      1.3      3.4      2.0      0.0 
  Colombia             0.8      0.9      0.8      1.2      1.7 
--------------------------------------------------------------- 
Notes: 
  1/ Central Bank balance of payments estimates of investment flow. 
    There are no statistics available on investment stocks. 
  2/ Non-oil investments registered with the Central Bank.  Only 
     constitute 50-85 percent of total non-oil investment inflow. 
  3/ Includes Panama, Bahamas, Bermuda, Cayman Is., Virgin Is., 
     Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, Guernsey, and Liechtenstein. 
 
H.  MAJOR FOREIGN INVESTORS 
 
The largest foreign investors in Ecuador are petroleum companies engaged 
in exploration and production in the Amazon basin, including Maxus 
Energy Consortium, Occidental Energy Corporation, ARCO, and Oryx Energy 
from the U.S. and Elf Aquitaine from France.  There are also several 
U.S. oil services firms active in Ecuador.  AGIP (Italy) markets 
liquified petroleum gas (LPG).  Odin Mining (Australia), Newmont Gold 
Corp. (U.S.), Gold Fields (South Africa), and RTZ (U.K.) have 
investments in the mining sector.  Morton (U.S.) produces salt with a 
local partner. 
 
American firms active in the manufacturing sector include General 
Motors, which holds a minority interest in two automobile assembly 
plants, Owens-Illinois (glass containers), Phelps Dodge (copper and 
aluminum conductors), Philip Morris (cigarettes), Borden (chemicals), 
Texaco (lubricants and steel containers), Eveready Battery (batteries), 
and Fuller (paints).  General Tire (U.S./Germany) manufactures tires, 
Holderbank (Switzerland) produces cement, Akzo (Netherlands) makes 
fibers and textiles, and Eternit (Switzerland) fabricates construction 
materials. 
 
There are several American companies manufacturing pharmaceuticals in 
Ecuador, including Schering Plough, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck, Upjohn, 
American Cyanamid, McKesson, Whitehall, and Sterling Wynthrop.  U.S. 
firms Colgate Palmolive, Dial and Johnsonwax produce manufacture 
toiletries and cleaning products.  Grupo Santodomingo (Colombia) owns 
the major breweries.  Nestle (Switzerland) and Nabisco (U.S.) are 
leading food product manufacturers, while a number of other foreign 
firms have invested in processing facilities for non-traditional 
vegetables and fruits.  Continental Grain (U.S.) mills flour and, along 
with several other U.S. firms, is a major investor in shrimp farming.  
Standard Fruit/Dole (U.S.) is involved in banana marketing.  Mobil 
(U.S.), Texaco (U.S.) and Shell (U.K.) are investing in wholesale 
gasoline distribution.  Citibank (U.S.), Lloyd's Bank (U.K.), and 
Algemene Bank (Netherlands) have commercial banking operations in 
Ecuador. 
 
CHAPTER VIII:  TRADE AND PROJECT FINANCING 
 
A.  BANKING SYSTEM 
 
The state financial system consists of the Monetary Board which 
supervises government monetary, financial, and exchange policies; the 
autonomous Central Bank (BCE) which issues currency and manages interest 
and exchange rates; the Bank of the State (BEDE) which manages municipal 
and provincial project financing; the National Development Bank (BNF) 
which provides agricultural credit; the Ecuadorian Housing Bank (BEV); 
and the National Finance Corporation (CFN) which finances private sector 
development projects.  The Superintendency of Banks regulates private 
banking, financial and insurance firms.  The Superintendency of 
Companies regulates private corporations and implements decisions of the 
National Securities Council regarding capital markets.  
 
There are 35 private banks operating in Ecuador with combined assets of 
over USD 8.2 billion as of the end of 1994, a considerable number of the 
size of the economy.  The four largest banks by assets plus contingents 
are Filanbanco (USD 1,368 million), Banco del Pacifico (USD 1,159 
million), Banco de Pichincha (USD 781 million), and Banco Continental 
(USD 626 million).  There are also 74 financial companies (many of which 
are bank subsidiaries or are in the process of becoming banks) with 
assets of USD 1.3 billion, plus numerous savings cooperatives and 
foreign exchange brokers.  Most banks and finance companies are tied to 
family business groups which have been reluctant to give up control 
through mergers.  Large interest rate spreads (averaging 11 points for 
90-day terms during 1994) and cost-cutting have allowed banks to 
continue to be profitable.  
 
The 1994 Financial Institutions Law created a deregulated universal 
banking system.  Finance companies may engage in the same operations as 
banks, except for taking demand and savings deposits and making loans on 
current accounts, but may invest in non-financial enterprises.  Banks 
may engage in transactions in any currency.  The law also institutes 
full consolidated financial disclosure requirements and requires early 
intervention by an upgraded Superintendency of Banks in the event of 
solvency problems.  New banks are required to have a capital stock 
(technical equity) of about USD 6 million (existing banks must meet this 
requirement by 2002).  Banks must maintain a 9 percent ratio of 
technical equity to weighted assets plus contingents.  The reserve 
requirement has been unified at 10 percent for all deposits.  There is 
no deposit insurance, but small depositors become senior creditors in 
the event of liquidation.  
 
B.  FOREIGN EXCHANGE CONTROLS 
 
Foreign currency is readily available on the free market and there are 
no restrictions on the movement of foreign currencies into or out of 
Ecuador.  Ecuador enjoys a floating market in foreign exchange for all 
private sector transactions.  There are no fixed intervention rates, but 
the Central Bank has announced monthly exchange rate targets through the 
end of 1995 that should result in a devaluation for the year of about 17 
percent.  The former dual exchange system was abolished in 1992 and 
private sector exporters are no longer required to surrender foreign 
exchange to the Central Bank.  Public sector exchange transactions, such 
those resulting from exports by the state oil company, are still handled 
by the Central Bank, but the spread has been reduced approximately 2 
percent.  
 
C.  GENERAL FINANCING AVAILABILITY 
 
Financing is a key ingredient in selling to the government and to the 
private sector.  Local banks offer sucre financing, albeit at high 
nominal rates.  Dollar financing is also available locally.  Commercial 
banks serve as primary outlets for financing backed by government 
institutions.  In particular, the CFN offers long term financing via 
private banks for industrial and export development.  The Quito and 
Guayaquil stock markets have recently developed into forums through 
which capital can be raised by offering corporate paper and equity 
shares to the public.  
 
D.  HOW TO FINANCE EXPORTS/METHODS OF PAYMENT 
 
All private sector imports into Ecuador involve foreign exchange 
purchases on the free market.  Typical terms of sale are confirmed 
letters of credit.  Sixty percent of the letters of credit opened are at 
90 days sight; the rest are at sight. 
  
E.  TYPES  OF AVAILABLE EXPORT FINANCING AND INSURANCE 
 
In addition to normal trade financing available from U.S. and Ecuadorian 
private banks, the U.S. Export-Import Bank currently offers loan 
guarantees and direct long-term financing of U.S. exports to the 
Ecuadorian private sector and provides medium-term (5-7 years) financing 
for public sector purchases.  Trade financing is also available through 
the Andean Financial Corporation (CAF), albeit at rates higher than 
those offered by Exim Bank.  Exim Bank offers export insurance programs. 
 
F.  PROJECT FINANCING 
 
The World Bank and Interamerican Development Bank have recently moved 
forward with a number of multimillion dollar sectoral loans to Ecuador.  
The CAF and the CFN are potential sources for project financing.  Under 
a 1984 agreement, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) 
offers investment risk insurance and limited financing for projects with 
U.S. equity.  The World Bank's International Finance Corporation (IFC) 
is another source of development capital.  The U.S. Trade and 
Development Agency (TDA) can finance project studies.  The U.S. Agency 
for International Development (USAID) is not involved in project 
financing in Ecuador.  
 
G.  CORRESPONDENTS WITH U.S. BANKS 
 
Most Ecuadorian banks maintain correspondent relationships with U.S. 
banks.  Among the major Ecuadorian banks engaging in international 
business are Banco de Pacifico, Filanbanco, Banco del Progreso and Banco 
Continental based in Guayaquil and Quito-based Banco de Pichincha and 
Banco Popular.  In addition, Citibank, Lloyd's Bank, and Holland Union 
Bank (BHU) operate branch offices in Ecuador.  Several Ecuadorian banks, 
including Pacifico, Pichincha, and Popular, have subsidiaries or 
agencies in the U.S., while others, such as Filanbanco and Continental, 
share common Ecuadorian ownership with banks in located in the U.S.  
Some Ecuadorian banks have recently purchased shares in other banks in 
the Andean Region. 
 
CHAPTER IX:  BUSINESS TRAVEL 
 
A.  BUSINESS CUSTOMS 
 
Business customs in Ecuador are similar to those in other Latin American 
countries.  Ecuadorians are formal when engaged in business relations.  
Suits and ties are the norm.  Business meetings are conducted in offices 
or restaurants, the latter often used in order to get better acquainted 
with a potential working partner.  Meetings normally start somewhat 
after the appointed time.  Americans should be punctual.  Normal office 
hours are 9:00 to 1:00 p.m. and 3:00 to 6:00 p.m.  Small talk usually 
proceeds discussion of business. 
 
With regard to social courtesies, Ecuadorians are very polite and well 
mannered.  Superiors are treated in a friendly but respectful way, and 
the use of a title (such as doctor, economist or engineer) before the 
name is common.  Business is conducted in Spanish.  Efforts by Americans 
to speak Spanish are appreciated.  Interpreters are available for 
Americans who do not speak Spanish.  For invitations to Ecuadorian's 
homes, a gift such as flowers is appreciated. 
 
B.  TRAVEL ADVISORY AND VISAS 
 
Ecuador is a stable country and has a developing economy.  Facilities 
for tourism are adequate but vary in quality.   Terrorism is not a 
concern.  Widespread civil disorder is rare, but demonstrations are 
common and often degenerate into rock throwing, looting and other random 
violence.  The most frequent reports of crimes committed against 
tourists are robberies and assaults.  Thieves are often armed with guns 
or knives.  Tourists in the resort areas along the coast and in the 
cities of Quito and Guayaquil should be especially vigilant around 
tourist sites.  In Quito, tourists should take special care in the 
historic center of the city at the famous landmark known as El Panecillo 
and in the public parks.  In Guayaquil, tourist areas of particular 
concern are historic Las Penas neighborhood and the waterfront promenade 
known as El Malecon.  Medical care is available but varies in quality.  
Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for health 
services.  U.S. medical insurance is not always valid outside the United 
States.  For additional health information travelers can contact the 
Centers for Disease Control's international travelers' hotline (404) 
332-4559.  Hotel accommodations in the major cities for business 
visitors are excellent. 
 
Maritime safety standards on some tour vessels to the Galapagos Islands 
are deficient.  Travelers have found it useful to verify the credentials 
of tour vessels in advance.  U.S. citizens have been victims of legal 
harassment by business associates.  Under a provision of Ecuadorian law 
a business dispute that normally would be handled by civil litigation in 
the U.S. may be converted into a criminal proceeding.  This provision of 
law has been used to impose travel prohibitions against resident 
Americans and also has led to the arrest of U.S. business people. 
 
A passport and a return/onward ticket are required for a 90-day stay in 
Ecuador.  Travelers without a visa cannot extend this stay beyond 90 
days.  For current information concerning entry and customs requirements 
for Ecuador, travelers can contact the Ecuadorian Embassy at 2535 15th 
Street NW, Washington D.C. 20009, tel (202) 234-7200 or the Ecuadorian 
Consulates in Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, Miami, Chicago, New 
Orleans, Newark, New York and Houston. 
 
U.S. citizens are subject to the laws of the country in which they are 
traveling.  Penalties in Ecuador for possession, use and trafficking in 
illegal drugs are strict and offenders can expect prolonged pretrial 
detention without bail, lengthy jail sentences and fines. 
 
Americans can register and obtain updated information on travel and 
security within Ecuador at either the U.S. Embassy in Quito or the U.S. 
Consulate General in Guayaquil.  The Embassy in Quito is at the corner 
of Avenida 12 de Octubre and Avenida Patria (across from the Casa de la 
Cultura), telephone (593-2-)562-890/561-749.  The Consulate General in 
Guayaquil is at 9 de Octubre and Garcia Moreno (near the Hotel Oro 
Verde), telephone (593-4) 323-570/327-893.  The Consulate General in 
Guayaquil has jurisdiction over the Galapagos Islands. 
 
C.  HOLIDAYS 
 
Ecuador will celebrate the following holidays during 1995-1996: 
 
   National Independence Day     August 10 
   Independence of Guayaquil     October 9 (Guayaquil only) 
   All Souls Day                 November 2 
   Independence of Cuenca        November 3 
   Founding of Quito             December 6 (Quito only) 
   Christmas                     December 25 
   New Years Day                 January 1 
   Carnival                      February 19-20 
   Good Friday                   April 5 
   Labor Day                     May 1 
   Battle of Pichincha           May 24 
   Founding of Guayaquil         July 25 (Guayaquil only) 
 
D.  BUSINESS INFRASTRUCTURE 
 
There are frequent half hour flights between Quito and Guayaquil (travel 
by road between those cities requires 7-8 hours) and less frequent 
flights to other main cities.  Highways are almost all two lane and can 
be hazardous.  Driving at night is not recommended.  There is a high 
incidence of traffic accidents in Ecuador, frequently involving buses.  
Bus travel throughout Ecuador can be particularly dangerous, especially 
at night, because of the frequency of crime perpetrated against bus 
travelers.  The loss or theft of a U.S. passport should be reported 
immediately to the local police and to the U.S. Embassy or Consulate 
General.  Useful information on guarding valuables and protecting 
personal security while traveling abroad is provided in the Department 
of State pamphlet "A Safe Trip Abroad."  It is available from the 
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, 
Washington, D.C. 20402.  Also available from the same address is the 
Department of State publication, "Tips for Travelers to Central and 
South America". 
 
Spanish is the official language and the norm for both spoken and 
written business communications.  However, English is often spoken by 
the business elite.  Telephone service within the country is poor, but 
international connections are good, although expensive.  There are 
cellular telephone services now available in a large portion of the 
country.  Comfortable modern housing is readily available in Quito and 
Guayaquil.  Apartments and town houses are more commonly used by 
foreigners than free standing houses.  There are numerous health hazards 
in Ecuador, principally caused by contaminated water and food.  
Gastrointestinal problems are frequent.  Cholera is present in some 
parts of Ecuador.  Visitors who follow proper precautions about food and 
drink are not usually at risk.  Malaria and dengue fever are on the 
increase in the coastal area and in the Oriente region.  There have been 
cases of rabies in Guayaquil and cases of diphtheria in Quito.  All 
types of food are readily available, but proper preparation is 
essential.   There is a wide variety of excellent restaurants in the 
main cities. 
 
CHAPTER X:  APPENDICES 
 
APPENDIX  A:  Country Data 
 
  Population (1995 est.):          11.5 million 
  Population Growth:               2.2 percent 
  Religions:                       Roman Catholic, Protestant      
  Government:                      Constitutional Democracy 
  Languages:                       Spanish, Quichua      
  Work Week:                       Monday-Friday 
 
APPENDIX B: Domestic Economy 1/  
 
                               1993     1994 2/  1995 2/  1996 2/ 
  GDP 3/                     14,311   16,555   18,006   19,134 
  GDP Real Growth (%)           2.0      4.0      3.0      4.5 
  GDP Per Capita (US$) 3/     1,303    1,475    1,570    1,635 
  Gov. Spending/GDP (%) 4/     26.5     24.4     27.0     26.0 
  Public Deficit/GDP (%) 4/    (0.4)     0.4     (1.0)     0.0 
  Inflation (%) 5/             31.0     25.4     22.0     15.0 
  Unemployment (%) 6/           8.3      7.1      7.5      7.0 
  Foreign Reserves (year-end) 1,254    1,712    1,812    1,922 
  Ave. Exch. Rate (Sucres/USD) 1918     2197     2562     2866 
  Debt Service Ratio (%) 7/    57.3     69.3     80.0     60.0 
  Current Account/GDP (%)      (4.8)    (4.8)    (4.1)    (4.5) 
  U.S. Bilateral Assistance 8/ 18.0     16.6     12.7     22.9 
                             
 
APPENDIX C: Trade 9/ 
 
                               1993     1994 2/  1995 2/  1996 2/ 
  Merchandise Exports (FOB)   3,062    3,717    4,138    4,500 
    To U.S.                   1,410    1,576    1,755    1,860 
  Merchandise Imports (FOB)   2,474    3,272    3,672    4,090 
  Merchandise Imports (CIF)   2,562    3,642    3,940    4,390 
    From U.S.                   824      922    1,000    1,110 
  Manufactured Imports (CIF)  2,160    3,194    3,455    3,850 
    From U.S.                   707      841      910    1,010 
  Agricultural Imports (CIF)    128      141      180      200 
    From U.S.                    67       27       40       40 
  Balance of Payments:          472      458      100      110 
    Current Account            (682)    (797)    (737)    (860) 
      Trade Account (FOB)       588      445      466      410 
      Services Account       (1,400)  (1,387)  (1,335)  (1,400) 
      Transfers                 130      145      132      130 
    Capital Account              47      388      837      970 
    Debt Arrears              1,107      867        0        0 
 
APPENDIX D:  Investment 10/ 
 
                               1993     1994 2/  1995 2/  1996 2/ 
  Foreign Direct Investment     469      531      590      720 
  FDI Flow/GDP (%)              3.3      3.2      3.3      3.8 
 
Notes to Appendices A-D 
 
1/  Unless otherwise indicated, all data are from the Central Bank of 
Ecuador (BCE), converted to millions of U.S. dollars at the average 
annual free market exchange rate.  
 
2/  Data is provisional for 1994.  Data for 1995 and 1996 is projected 
by U.S. Embassy based on BCE and other public sources. 
 
3/  Due to real exchange rate fluctuations, GDP in dollar terms can be 
misleading.  
 
4/  Consolidated public sector expenditures and surplus or deficit 
(including quasi-fiscal Central Bank losses) as a percent of GDP. 
 
5/  December-to-December percentage change in the National Statistics 
and Census Institute (INEC) urban consumer price index. 
 
6/  Urban formal sector unemployment based on November National 
Employment Institute (INEM) surveys.  Measured urban formal sector 
underemployment averages 7 percent.  Urban informal sector employment 
stands at 41 percent. 
 
7/  Scheduled amortization and interest payments, including arrears, as 
percentage of total exports of goods and services.   
 
8/  U.S. economic and military assistance, including Peace Corps, 
obligated by fiscal year.  FY 1996 appropriation is likely to be below 
requested level.  
 
9/  BCE trade data varies from U.S. Department of Commerce data. Exports 
reported on FOB basis; imports on CIF basis.  Manufactured goods include 
HS Chapters 28-40, 42, 46, and 48-97 less 71.  Agricultural goods 
include HS Chapters 1-24, including processed foods.  Not included are 
minerals, wood, and hides/leather.  The Trade Account includes balance 
of payments adjustments to FOB imports. 
 
10/ Total direct foreign investment flows from BCE balance of payments 
statistics, revised to include oil sector investments.  See detailed 
table in Section VII-G for sector and country of origin data. 
 
APPENDIX E:  U.S. and Country Contacts 
 
COUNTRY GOVERNMENT AGENCIES AND CORPORATIONS 
 
Ministerio de Industrias, Comercio, Integracion y Pesca (MICIP) 
Av. Amazonas y Eloy Alfaro, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-527-988, Fax:  593-2-504-922 
(Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Integration and Fishing) 
 
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia (MAG) 
Av. Amazonas y Eloy Alfaro, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-554-122, 504-433; Fax:  593-2-564-531 
(Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock) 
 
Ministerio de Defensa Nacional 
Exposicion 208, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-510-975, 512-803; Fax:  593-2-580-431 
(Ministry of National Defense) 
 
Ministerio de Obras Publicas (MOP) 
Orellana y Juan Leon Mera, esquina, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-222-749, 222-750; Fax:  593-2-223-077, 223-076 
(Ministry of Public Works) 
 
Ministerio de Salud Publica 
Juan Larrea 444 entre Checa y Riofrio, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-521-411, 541-383; Fax:  593-2-569-786, 521-811 
(Ministry of Public Health) 
 
Consejo Nacional de Modernizacion del Estado (CONAM) 
Patria y Juan Leon Mera, Edif. CFN, 9no Piso, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-509-432; Fax:  593-2-509-437 
(National State Modernization Council) 
 
Banco Central del Ecuador (BCE) 
10 de Agosto y Briceno, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel: 593-2-583-061; Fax: 593-2-570-016 
(Central Bank of Ecuador) 
 
Superintendent de Companias 
Roca 660 y Av. Amazonas, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel: 593-2-549-573, 541-606; Fax: 593-2-566-685 
(Superintendent of Companies) 
 
Direccion General de Aviacion Civil (DAC) 
Buenos Aires 149 y 10 de Agosto, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-552-188; Fax:  593-2-563-995 
(General Directorate of Civil Aviation) 
 
Empresa Municipal de Agua Potable (EMAP) 
Av. Mariana de Jesus e Italia, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-501-225, 501-226, 501-227; Fax:  593-2-501-388 
(Municipal Potable Water Company) 
 
Instituto Ecuatoriano de Obras Sanitarias (IEOS) 
Toledo 684 y Lerida, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-544-400, 560-340; Fax:  593-2-560-338, 502-828 
(Ecuadorian Institute of Sanitary Works) 
 
Instituto Ecuatoriano de Seguridad Social (IESS) 
9 de Octubre y Jorge Washington esq., Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-568-046, 568-055; Fax:  593-2-568-058 
(Social Security Institute) 
 
Petroecuador 
Alpallana y Av. 6 de Diciembre, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-563-060, 560-525; Fax:  593-2-567-031 
(Ecuadorian Petroleum Company) 
 
Empresa Estatal de Telecomunicaciones (EMETEL) 
Av. 6 de Diciembre y Colon, Edf. Partenon, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-568-588; Fax:  593-2-568-000 
(Ecuadorian Telecommunications Institute) 
 
Instituto Ecuatoriano de Electrificacion (INECEL) 
Av. 6 de Diciembre 2427 y Orellana, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-221-083, 221-123; Fax:  593-2-503-762 
(Ecuadorian Electrification Institute) 
 
Subsecretaria de Aduanas 
Ministerio de Finanzas y Credito Publico 
Blvd. 9 de Octubre 200 y Pichincha, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-565-100, 561-637; Fax:  593-4-561-197 
(Customs Under Secretary) 
 
Autoridad Portuaria de Guayaquil 
Puerto Maritimo, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-480-459, 485-076, 480-360; Fax:  593-4-483-748 
(Port Authority of Guayaquil) 
 
Autoridad Portuaria de Puerto Bolivar 
Puerto Bolivar, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-7-923-840, 920-864; Fax:  593-7-920-864 
(Port Authority of Puerto Bolivar) 
 
Comision de Estudios para el Desarrollo de la Cuenca del 
  Rio Guayas (CEDEGE) 
Malecon 106 y Loja, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-300-384, 308-247, 308-531; Fax:  593-4-563-700 
(Study Commission of the Rio Guayas Basin) 
 
Centro de Reconversion Economica del Azuay, Canar y 
  Morona Santiago (CREA) 
Av. Mexico entre Unidad Nacional y las Americas 
P.O. Box 4933, Cuenca, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-7-817-500, 816-212; Fax:  593-7-817-134         
(Center for the Economic Development of Azuay, Canar y Morona Santiago) 
 
Centro de Rehabilitacion de Manabi (CRM) 
18 de Octubre y Sucre, Portoviejo, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-5-651-892, 651-979, 651-894 
(Center for the Development of Manabi) 
 
Key contact names are not provided as they are subject to constant 
change. 
 
COUNTRY BUSINESS CHAMBERS 
 
Quito 
 
Camara de Industriales de Pichincha 
Av. Republica y Amazonas, Edf. de las Camaras, Piso 11, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-452-500, 452-730; Fax:  593-2-448-118 
Executive President:  Ing. Gustavo Pinto 
Board President:  Roberto Pena Durini 
(Chamber of Industries of Pichincha) 
 
Camara de Comercio de Quito 
Av. Republica y Amazonas, Edf. de las Camaras, Pisos 5 y 6, Quito, 
Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-443-787, 435-844; Fax:  593-2-435-862 
President:  Andres Perez 
(Chamber of Commerce of Quito) 
 
Camara de Comercio Ecuatoriano-Americana 
Av. 6 de Diciembre y La Nina, Edf. Multicentro, Piso 4, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-507-450,  507-451,  507-459; Fax:  593-2-504-571 
President:  Ing. Hernan Burbano de Lara 
Executive Director:  Roque Mino 
(Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce) 
 
Camara de Pequenos Industriales de Pichincha 
Av. Amazonas y Atahualpa, Centro de Exposiciones, Piso 2, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-248-954, 451-621; Fax:  593-2-443-742 
President:  Ing. Manuel Nieto 
(Chamber of Small Industries of Pichincha) 
 
Camara de Mineria del Ecuador 
Av. Republica del Salvador 525, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-437-786; Fax:  593-2-462-939 
President:  Ing. Diego Benalcazar 
(Chamber of Mines of Ecuador) 
 
Camara de Agricultura de la I Zona 
Av. Amazonas 1429 y Colon, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-230-195; Fax:  593-2-561-348 
President:  Alberto Enriquez 
(Chamber of Agriculture) 
 
Camara de la Construccion 
Juan Pablo Sanz y Calle Inaquito, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-432-369, 432-370, 432-773; Fax:  593-2-431-686 
President:  Ing. Ernesto Martinez 
(Chamber of Construction) 
 
Guayaquil 
 
Camara de Industrias de Guayaquil 
Blvd. 9 de Octubre 910 y Rumichaca, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-562-705; Fax:  593-4-320-924 
President:  Ing. Alberto Maspons Guzman 
(Chamber of Industries of Guayas) 
 
Camara de Comercio de Guayaquil 
Av. Olmedo 414 y Boyaca, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-323-130; Fax:  593-4-323-478 
President:  Ing. Luis Trujillo Bustamante 
(Chamber of Commerce of Guayaquil) 
 
Camara Ecuatoriano-Americana de Comercio, Guayaquil 
Gral. Cordova 812 y V.M. Rendon, Edf. Torres de la Merced, piso 3 
Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-563-177, 563-201, 563-305, 566-481; Fax:  593-4-563-259 
President:  Norberto Nurenberg 
Executive Director:  Dra. Maria Teresa Perez 
(Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce) 
 
Camara de la Pequena Industria del Guayas 
Av. de las Americas 128, frente al Aeropuerto, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-281-532, 281-525, 281-526; Fax:  593-4-280-059 
President:  Ing. Joyce Higgins de Ginatta 
(Chamber of Small Industries of Guayas) 
 
Camara de la Construccion Guayaquil 
Ciudadela Bolivariana, Centro Com., Bl. No. 6, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-281-959, 288-467; Fax:  593-4-285-345 
President:  Ing. Rodrigo Andrade Rodriguez 
(Chamber of the Construction of Guayaquil) 
 
Camara de Agricultura de la II Zona 
Escobedo 1210 y Blvd. 9 de Octubre, Piso 2, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-322-120, 523-013; Fax:  593-4-322-120 
President:  Carlos Zevallos Ampuero 
(Chamber of Agriculture of the II Zone) 
 
Cuenca 
 
Camara de Comercio de Cuenca 
Avs. Federico Malo 1-90 y 12 de Abril, Edf. de las Camaras, Piso 1 
Cuenca, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-7-827-531, 823-008, 819-303; Fax:  593-7-833-891 
President:  Enrique Mora Toral 
(Chamber of Commerce of Cuenca) 
 
Camara de Industrias de Cuenca 
Avs. Federico Malo 1-90 y 12 de Abril, Edf. de las Camaras, Piso 2 
Cuenca, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-7-830-845, 817-207, 817-212; Fax:  593-7-830-945 
President:  Ing. Frank Tosi Iniguez 
(Chamber of Industries of Cuenca) 
 
Camara de Comercio Ecuatoriano-Americana, Seccional Cuenca 
Av. Octavio Chacon 155, Centro Comercial del Parque Industrial, 
Piso 2, Of. 302, Cuenca, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-7-863-365, 861-873; Fax:  593-7-806-512 
President:  Eduardo Malo Abad 
(Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce) 
 
Camara de la Pequena Industria del Azuay 
Av. Octavio Chacon, Centro Comercial del Parque Industrial, Cuenca, 
Ecuador 
Tel:  593-7-800-949, 861-578; Fax:  593-7-809-553 
President:  Ing. Fernando Bermeo Coronel 
(Chamber of Small Industries of Azuay) 
 
Ambato 
 
Camara de Comercio 
Montalvo 630, Ambato, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-3-841-906, 829-372; Fax:  593-3-841-906 
President:  Lic. Patricio Mosquera G.  
(Chamber of Commerce) 
 
Camara de Industrias de Tungurahua 
Montalvo No. 630, Ambato, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-3-820-003; Fax:  593-3-829-655 
President:  Carlos Erazo Sanchez 
Executive Director:  Ing. Luis Salcedo Lucio 
(Chamber of Industries of Ambato) 
 
Camara de Comercio Ecuatoriano-Americana 
Av. Cevallos y Montalvo, Piso 3, Of. 301, Ambato, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-3-821-073; Fax:  593-3-821-073 
President:  Arq. Fernando Callejas 
Executive Director:  Lcdo. Vicente Villafuerte Vasco 
(Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce) 
 
Camara de la Pequena Industria de Tungurahua 
Rocafuerte y Castillo, Casilla 486, Ambato, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-3-822-493; Fax:  593-3-829-370 
President:  Econ. Victor Hugo Moya 
(Chamber of Small Industries of Tungurahua) 
 
Manta 
 
Camara Ecuatoriano-Americana de Comercio, Manta 
Avenida 2 entre 13 y 12, Bco. del Pichincha, Piso 3, Manta, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-5-627-386, 627-770; Fax:  593-5-627-386 
President:  Freddy Platon 
(Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce) 
 
Camara de Industriales de Manta 
Avenida 2 y Calle 12, Edf. Banco de Pichincha, Piso 6, Manta, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-5-621-214; Fax:  593-5-621-214 
President:  Ing. Galo Palacios 
(Chamber of Industries of Manta) 
 
Camara de Comercio de Manta 
Av. Segunda 10-47 entre 10 y 11, Manta, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-5-621-306, 626-527; Fax:  593-5-613-553 
President:  Horacio Cantos Aliatis 
(Chamber of Commerce of Manta) 
 
Machala 
 
Camara de Comercio de Machala 
Rocafuerte y Buenavista, Edf. Camara de Comercio, Piso 1 
Casilla 825, Machala, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-7-930-640, 930-435; Fax:  593-7-930-640 
President:  Numa Ramirez Bejarano 
(Chamber of Commerce of Machala) 
 
Camara Ecuatoriano-Americana de Comercio, Machala 
Rocafuerte y Buenavista, Edf. Camara de Comercio 
Casilla 834, Machala, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-7-930-640, 930-435; Fax:  593-7-930-640 
President: Numa Ramirez Bejarano 
(Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce) 
 
COUNTRY TRADE AND INDUSTRY ASSOCIATIONS 
 
Quito 
 
Asociacion Nacional de Empresarios (ANDE) 
Avs. Amazonas 1429 y Colon, Edf. Espana, Piso 6, Of. 67, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-238-507, 550-879; Fax:  593-2-509-806 
President:  Dr. Antonio Teran Salazar 
(National Association of Entrepreneurs) 
 
Asociacion Ecuatoriana Automotriz del Interior (AEADI) 
Av. Colon 535 y 6 de Diciembre, Edif. Cristobal Colon, Piso 6, Quito, 
Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-509-473, 527-912; Fax:  593-2-527-110 
President:  Francisco Ponce 
(Automotive Association) 
 
Asociacion de Bancos Privados del Ecuador 
Av. Rep?blica de El Salvador 890 y Suecia, Edf. Delta, Piso 7, Quito, 
Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-466-670, 466-671, 466-672; Fax:  593-2-466-701, 466-702 
President:  Ing. Alvaro Guerrero Ferber 
(Private Banks Association) 
 
Asociacion de Companias Consultoras del Ecuador (ACCE) 
Av. Republica de El Salvador 890 y Suecia, Edf. Delta, Piso 4, Quito, 
Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-465-047, 465-048; Fax:  593-2-465-047 
President:  Ing. Eduardo Villarreal 
(Consulting Companies Association) 
 
Asociacion de Industriales Graficos de Pichincha 
Av. Amazonas y Republica, Edf. de las Camaras, Piso 8, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-452-912; Fax:  593-2-456-664 
President:  Javier Bucheli Moreano 
(Graphic Industry Association) 
 
Asociacion Ecuatoriana de Industriales de la Madera (AIMA) 
Av. Republica y Amazonas, Edf. de las Camaras, Piso 7, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-454-391, 454-386; Fax:  593-2-439-560 
President:  Arq. Nicanor Fabara 
(Wood Industry Association) 
 
Asociacion de Industriales Textiles del Ecuador 
Av. Republica y Amazonas, Edf. de las Camaras, Piso 8, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-249-434, 451-286, 451-350; Fax:  593-2-445-159 
President:  Ing. Marcelo Pinto 
(Textile Industry Association) 
 
Asociacion Hotelera del Ecuador 
Av. America 5378 y Diguja, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-453-942; Fax:  593-2-453-942 
President:  Jean Pierre Magnenat 
(Hotel Association of Ecuador) 
 
Asociacion Ecuatoriana de Industriales 
  e Importadores de Productos Farmaceuticos (ASOPROFAR) 
Av. Republica El Salvador y Portugal, Edf. Gabriela No. 3, Piso 1, of. 
101 
P.O. Box 17-07-8842, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-469-139; Fax:  593-2-454-212 
Executive President:  Econ. Julio Camacho 
(Pharmaceutical Industry and Suppliers Association) 
 
Asociacion Nacional de Metalmecanicos del Ecuador (ASOMETAL) 
Av. Republica 1331 y Alemania, Edf. Alvarez Garcia, Piso 2, Quito, 
Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-445-826; Fax:  593-2-445-826 
President:  Augusto Celin Pazos 
(National Metalmechanics Association) 
 
Colegio de Ingenieros Electricos y Electronicos de Pichincha (CIEEPI) 
Av. Amazonas 477 y Roca, Edf. Banco de los Andes, Piso 3, of. 311 
Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-564-332; Fax:  593-2-502-216 
President:  Ing. Armando Vinueza 
(Electric and Electronic Engineers Association) 
 
Asociacion de Industriales Molineros de la Sierra 
Av. 6 de Diciembre 3470 e Ignacio Bossano, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-465-597, 465-598, 465-599; Fax:  593-2-464-754 
President:  Carlos Ponce Martinez 
(Highland Millers Associates) 
 
Cuenca 
 
Asociacion Automotriz del Austro 
c/o Importadora Terreros Serranos S.A., 
Av. Espana 800 y Barcelona, Cuenca, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-7-800-444; Fax:  593-7-860-091 
President:  Mario Terreros 
(Automotive Association) 
 
COUNTRY MARKET RESEARCH FIRMS 
 
BDO Stern C. Ltda. 
Av. Amazonas 540 y Carrion, Edf. Londres, Piso 6, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-566-916, 552-271, 566-915; Fax:  593-2-504-477 
President:  Rolf Stern 
 
Deloitte & Touche C. Ltda. 
Av. Amazonas 3617 y Juan Pablo Sanz, Edf. Xerox, Piso 7, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-246-095, 251-319; Fax:  593-2-435-807 
Manager:  Frederick H.M. Brown 
 
Price Waterhouse del Ecuador C. Ltda. 
Av. 12 de Octubre 394 y Pasaje Jimenez, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-562-288, 565-162; Fax:  593-2-567-096, 565-174 
General Manager:  Ramiro Chiriboga 
 
COUNTRY COMMERCIAL BANKS 
 
For information on the local banks please contact the Economic Section 
at U.S. Embassy, Unit 5306, APO AA 34039-3420, Tel: 593-2-562-890, 
Fax: 593-2-560-660. 
 
Quito 
 
Banco Citibank N.A. 
Juan Leon Mera 130 y Av. Patria, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-563-300, 563-258; Fax:  593-2-566-895, 566-893 
General Manager:  Eric Mayer 
 
Banco del Pichincha C.A. 
Av. 10 de Agosto y Bogota, esquina, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-551-088, 509-190; Fax:  593-2-509-234, 509-235 
General Manager & Executive Vice President:  Antonio Acosta 
 
Banco Popular 
Av. Amazonas 3535 y Juan Pablo Sanz, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-444-700, 444-793; Fax:  593-2-436-306, 444-794 
General Manager & Executive President:  Econ. Nicolas Landes 
 
Guayaquil 
 
Banco del Pacifico 
Fco. de P. Ycaza 200 y Pichincha, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-566-010, 563-744  ext. 2135/2133; Fax:  593-4-325-266 
President:  Marcel Laniado de Wing  
 
Filanbanco S.A. 
Blvd. 9 de Octubre 203 y Pichincha, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-4-322-780; Fax:  593-4-326-916 
Vice President:  Roberto Isaias Dassum 
 
MULTILATERAL DEVELOPMENT BANKS 
 
Banco Mundial (World Bank) 
Juan Leon Mera 130 y Av. Patria, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-566-861, 506-572; Fax:  593-2-566-862 
Resident Representative:  Econ. John Panzer 
 
Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (Interamerican Development Bank) 
Av. Amazonas 477 y Roca, Edf. Bco. de los Andes, Piso 9, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel:  593-2-562-141; Fax:  593-2-564-660 
Country Representative:  Ronald Brousseau 
 
Multilateral Development Bank Operations 
U.S. Department of Commerce 
14th and Constitution, NW, Room 1107, Washington, DC  20007 
Tel:  202-482-3399; Fax:  202-482-5179 
Director:  Brenda Ebeling 
 
U.S. EMBASSY TRADE PERSONNEL 
 
Quito 
 
Janice A. Corbett, Commercial Attache 
Commercial Service 
U.S. Embassy, Unit 5334, APO AA 34039-3420 
Tel:  593-2-562-890; Fax:  593-2-504-550 
 
Paul Simons, Economic Counselor 
Economic Section 
U.S. Embassy, Unit 5306, APO AA 34039-3420 
Tel:  593-2-562-890; Fax:  593-2-560-660 
 
Daryl Brehm, Agricultural Attache 
Foreign Agricultural Service 
U.S. Embassy, Unit 5336, APO AA 34039-3420 
Tel:  593-2-529-088; Fax:  593-2-506-283 
 
Guayaquil 
 
Manfred Sheets, Commercial Advisor 
Commercial Service 
U.S. Consulate General, Unit 5350, APO AA 34039-3420 
Tel:  593-4-323-570; Fax:  593-4-324-558 
 
 
WASHINGTON-BASED USG CONTACTS 
 
U.S. Department of Commerce 
Desk Officer for Ecuador 
14th St. and Constitution Ave., Room HCHB 3204, Washington, DC   20230 
Tel:  (202) 482-0057; Fax:  (202) 482-4726 
 
Office of Inter-American Affairs 
U.S. Department of Commerce 
14th St. and Constitution Ave., Room 3023, Washington, DC 20230 
Tel:  (202) 482-1647; Fax:  (202) 482-4726 
 
Trade Promotion Coordinating Committee 
Trade Information Center 
U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC  20007 
Tel:  1-800-USA-TRADE 
 
U.S. Department of Agriculture 
Foreign Agricultural Service, 
Trade Assistance and Promotion Office, Washington, DC 20250 
Tel:  202-720-7420 
 
Department of State 
2201 C. Street, N.W., Washington, DC  20520 
 
U.S. Export-Import Bank 
811 Vermont Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C.  20571 
Tel:  (202) 565-3946; Fax:  (202) 563-3380 
 
U.S.-BASED COUNTRY CONTACTS 
 
Embassy of Ecuador 
Commercial Counselor 
2535 15th St., N.W., Washington, DC  20009 
Tel:  (202) 234-7200; Fax: (202) 667-3482 
 
Ecuadorian Government Trade Office 
Ecuadorian Consulate General 
800 Second Ave., Suite 501, New York, NY  10017 
Tel:  (212) 808-0170; Fax:  (212) 808-0188 
 
U.S. BASED MULTIPLIERS RELEVANT FOR ECUADOR 
 
The Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce of Greater Miami 
1390 Brickell Av., Suite 220 
P.O. Box 144917, Miami, FL   33131 
Tel:  (305) 539-0010; Fax:  (305) 635-3604 
 
The Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce of Houston 
4100 Westheimer, Suite 200, Houston, TX   77027-4427 
Tel:  (713) 877-8534; Fax:  (713) 960-1052 
 
Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce of Los Angeles 
701 N. Alvarado St., Los Angeles, CA   90026 
Tel:  (213) 484-9434, 484-9426, 484-9457; Fax:  (213) 484-0680 
 
Ecuadorian-American Chamber of Commerce of Atlanta 
5685 Lake Placid Drive, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA   30342 
Tel:  (404) 303-7027; Fax:  (404) 303-0115 
 
Ecuadorian-American Association Inc. 
150 Nassau Street, New York, NY  10038 
Tel:  (212) 233-7776; Fax:  (212) 233-7779 
 
KEY AGRICULTURAL BUSINESS CONTACTS 
 
ECUAGRAN (Wheat Importers Association)   
Ave. 6 de Diciembre 3470 y Bosano, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel: 593-2-465-625, 457-863; Fax: 593-2-464-754 
General Manager: Mr. Patricio Hidalgo 
 
INDUSTRIAL MOLINERA (wheat importer) 
El Oro 109 y la Ria                 
P.O. Box 644, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel: 593-4-442-060; Fax: 593-4-445-576, 444-151 
General Manager: Eng. Jacinto Alvear 
 
GRUPO COMERCIAL FIGALLO CIA. LTDA. (wheat and wheat flour importer) 
Cdla. Simon Bolivar, Manzana No. 5, Villa 99, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
TEL: 593-4-286-217; Fax: 593-4-288-212, 284-169 
President: Carlo Figallo 
 
AFABA (National Association of Feed Meal Compounders) 
Av. Colon y Reina Victoria, Edif. Banco de Guayaquil, Suite 803, Quito 
Tel: 593-2-566-662, Fax: 593-2-566-663 
Technical Manager: Mr. Jose Orellana 
 
CORPCOM (Agricultural Commodity Trade) (rice and corn) 
Lizardo Garcia 301 y Velez 
P.O.Box 09-01-0660, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel: 593-4-454-429, 364-276; Fax: 593-4-454-234 
President: Eng. Jimmy Caicedo C. 
 
APROGRACE (National Assoc. of Cooking Oil Producers) 
Jaboneria Nacional, Francisco de Marcos 102 y Eloy Alfaro 
P.O.Box 189, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel: 593-4-417-025; Fax: 593-4-414-507, 418-278 
President: Dr. Ernesto Noboa B. 
 
ASOCIACION DE INDUSTRIALES 
TEXTILES DEL ECUADOR/AITE (cotton importers)         
Av. Republica y Amazonas, Edif. Las Camaras, 8th floor 
P.O. Box 17-01-2893, Quito, Ecuador 
Tel: 593-2-249-434; Fax: 593-2-445-159 
General Manager: Mr. Antonio Jose Cobo 
 
SUPERMAXI (ready food products) 
Av. Los Pinos y Eloy Alfaro  
P.O.Box 17-11-04910, Quito, Ecuador 
TEL: 593-2-401-140, 401-100; Fax: 593-2-402-499 
Import Manager: Ms. Angela Duenas 
                          
IMPORTADORA EL ROSADO (ready food products)     
9 de Octubre 729 y Boyaca            
P.O.Box 534, Guayaquil, Ecuador 
Tel: 593-4-322-555, 322-000; Fax: 593-4-328-196, 382-465 
General Manager: Johnny Czarninski 
 
APPENDIX F:  Market Research 
 
List of Commercial Service Reports 
 
A.  Industry Sector Analysis (ISA) 1995 
 
1.  Automotive Parts (AUT)           February 95 
2.  Switching Equipment (TEL)        June 95 
3.  Consumer Goods                   August 95 
4.  Food Packaging Equip (FFP)       September 95 
5.  Pollution Control Equip (POL)    September 95 
 
B.  Industry Sector Analysis (ISA) 1996 
 
1.  Fruit and Vegetable Processing Equipment (FPP)   
2.  Safety and Security Equipment (SEC)     
3.  Electric Generation Equipment (ELP) 
4.  Telecommunications Equipment (TEL) 
5.  Pre-Paid Health Care Services (MED) 
 
Commercial Service reports are available from the National Trade Data 
Bank, Economics and Statistics Administration, Office of Business 
Analysis, Room 4885, HCHB, Washington, DC 20230. 
 
List of USDA/FAS Commodity Reports and Market Briefs 
 
1.  Grain and Feed Annual Report (January each year) 
2.  Oilseeds and Products Annual Report (April each year) 
3.  Coffee Annual Report (May each Year) 
4.  Coffee Semiannual Report (November each year) 
5.  Cocoa Annual Report (September each year) 
6.  Sugar Annual report (April each year) 
7.  Annual Marketing Plan Information Report (July each year) 
8.  Agricultural Situation Report (September each year) 
9.  Foreign Buyer List Annual Report (March each year) 
10. Foreign Agriculture Article (Every other year) 
11. Market Briefs already done: Dairy Products Report, Cereals Report 
12. Market Briefs to be done in the near future: Red Meats and Poultry 
Meat Report, Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Research, and Dried Fruits 
Research 
 
FAS performs alert or voluntary reports on agricultural  commodities 
when significant developments occur.  Background and current data are 
filed and kept up-to-date as a key resource for the reporting function. 
 
APPENDIX G:     Trade Event Schedule 
 
A.  U.S. Government Events: 
 
    February 13-15, 1996   California Farm Equipment Show and 
                           International Exposition 
                           (International Buyer Program) 
                           Tulare, CA 
 
    February 16-19, 1996      American International Toy Fair 
                             (International Buyer Program) 
                             New York, NY 
 
   May 20-24, 1996       WasteExpo 
                         (International Buyer Program) 
                         Las Vegas, NV 
 
     September 9-12, 1996  MINExpo 
                           (International Buyer Program) 
                           Las Vegas, NV 
 
   September 1996        New Products USA Multi-State Catalog Exhibition 
                        (ID 96000437) 
                         Guayaquil, Ecuador 
 
B.  Post Initiated Project (PIP) Events: 
 
    June 1996                 Expo Visit USA 1996, Quito, Ecuador 
 
C.  Local Events: 
 
    February 20-25, 1996    Expo Equipos 
                            Centro de Exposiciones Quito, Quito, Ecuador 
 
    October 1996            COMPU '96 
                            Centro de Exposiciones Quito, Quito, Ecuador 
 
Please note that Trade Events schedule may change.  Firms should consult 
the Export Promotion Calendar on the NTDB or contact the post for the 
latest information.
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