United States Department of Agriculture

Blue Mountains National Forests

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

Forest Service

Malheur, Umatilla, and 

Wallowa-Whitman National Forests February 2014
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Proposed Revised Land Management Plans 

for the Malheur, Wallowa-Whitman and Umatilla National Forests

Baker, Crook, Grant, Harney, Malheur, Morrow, 

Umatilla, Union, Wallowa, and Wheeler Counties, Oregon

Asotin, Columbia, Garfield, and Walla Walla Counties, Washington

Lead Agency: USDA Forest Service

Cooperating Agencies: 

Confederated Tribes of the 

Umatilla Indian Reservation

State of Oregon

Baker County, Oregon

Grant County, Oregon

Harney County, Oregon

Morrow County, Oregon

Umatilla County, Oregon

Union County, Oregon

Wallowa County, Oregon

Wheeler County, Oregon

Asotin County, Washington

Columbia County, 

Washington

Garfield County, Washington

Responsible Official: Kent Connaughton, Regional Forester

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region

1220 SW 3rd Avenue

Portland, OR 97208 

For Information Contact: Sabrina Stadler, Forest Plan Revision Team

Blue Mountains National Forest 

1550 Dewey Ave.

Baker City, OR 97814

(541) 523-1264 

Website: http://www.fs.usda.gov/goto/BlueMtnsPlanRevision

Email: http://www.fs.usda.gov/goto/BlueMountainForestPlanRevisionComments

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests i

Contents

Introduction....................................................................................................................................1

Purpose of the Land Management Plan.......................................................................................1

Legal Framework.........................................................................................................................2

Decisions of a Forest Plan ...........................................................................................................3

Decision Criteria..........................................................................................................................4

Best Available Science ................................................................................................................4

Organization of the Forest Plan...................................................................................................4

Consistency with Plan Components............................................................................................9

Part 1 – Vision..............................................................................................................................10

Geographical Location ..............................................................................................................10

Roles and Contributions of the Blue Mountains National Forests............................................12

Unique Physical and Biological Characteristics........................................................................12

Social and Economic Characteristics ........................................................................................13

Management Challenges............................................................................................................15

Considering Climate Change in Designing Desired Conditions ...............................................19

Goals and Desired Conditions...................................................................................................19

Part 2 – Strategy...........................................................................................................................74

Introduction ...............................................................................................................................74

Special Areas.............................................................................................................................74

Suitability of Areas....................................................................................................................96

Management Focus....................................................................................................................96

Objectives................................................................................................................................103

Annual Anticipated Accomplishments for each National Forest ...........................................108

Allowable Sale Quantity..........................................................................................................108

Monitoring and Evaluation Plan..............................................................................................109

Part 3 – Design Criteria.............................................................................................................117

Introduction .............................................................................................................................117

Forestwide Standards and Guidelines......................................................................................117

Management Area Standards and Guidelines..........................................................................130

Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation........................................................145

Introduction .............................................................................................................................145

Benchmark Analysis................................................................................................................145

Current Level of Goods and Services Provided by the Unit ...................................................146

Projections of Demand for Goods and Services......................................................................147

Determination of the Potential to Resolve Public Issues and Management Concerns............149

Determination of the Need to Establish or Change Management Direction ...........................149

References...................................................................................................................................151
Contents

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

ii for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Tables

Table 1. Terrestrial and aquatic focal and management indicator species.....................................31

Table 2. Desired conditions for wildland fire* severity and frequency within each potential 

vegetation group ...............................................................................................................34

Table 3. Desired conditions for forested structural stages, described as a percent of each 

upland forest or woodland potential vegetation group......................................................37

Table 4. Desired conditions for species composition, described as a percent of each upland 

forest or woodland potential vegetation group .................................................................40

Table 5. Desired conditions for stand density, described as a percent of each upland forest or 

woodland potential vegetation group................................................................................41

Table 6. Desired Conditions for age and structural composition of aspen (Swanson et al. 

2010).................................................................................................................................46

Table 7. Ranges of down wood (desired condition) ......................................................................49

Table 8. Desired percentage ranges across the landscape of snags (dead trees) per acre 10 

inches d.b.h. and greater and less than 20 inches d.b.h.....................................................49

Table 9. Desired percentage ranges across the landscape of snags (dead trees) per acre 20 

inches d.b.h. and greater ...................................................................................................49

Table 10. Scenic integrity levels and scenic stability levels (desired condition)...........................52

Table 11. Management area designation, name, and acreage for each national forest (2F and 

2G show miles).................................................................................................................75

Table 12. Designated wilderness areas for each national forest ....................................................76

Table 13. Miles of designated wild and scenic rivers for each national forest ..............................78

Table 14. Miles of eligible wild and scenic rivers for each national forest ...................................79

Table 15. Miles of suitable wild and scenic rivers for the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest....80

Table 16. Research natural areas for each national forest..............................................................81

Table 17. Botanical areas for each national forest.........................................................................82

Table 18. Geological areas for the Malheur and Umatilla National Forests..................................83

Table 19. Historical areas for the Malheur and Umatilla National Forests....................................84

Table 20. Scenic byways within each national forest ....................................................................85

Table 21. Nationally designated trails within each national forest ................................................85

Table 22. Scenic areas within the Malheur and Umatilla National Forests...................................86

Table 23. Designated municipal watersheds for each national forest............................................88

Table 24. Riparian management area widths.................................................................................92

Table 25. General suitability matrix for management areas..........................................................97

Table 26. Objectives and associated desired conditions for each national forest ........................104

Table 27. Annual anticipated accomplishments related to objectives .........................................108

Table 28. Allowable sale quantity for each national forest..........................................................108

Table 29. Monitoring plan framework for the action alternatives for each national forest .........110

Table 30. Projected benchmark timber outputs (MMBF)............................................................146

Table 31. Maximum yearly benchmark outputs from 1990 forest plan summary of AMS.........146

Table 32. Timber sale program quantity (million board feet per year)........................................146

Table 33. Animal unit months (AUMs) per year.........................................................................146

Table 34. Designated wilderness areas by national forest in the Blue Mountains.......................147

Table 35. Potential wilderness areas by national forest in the Blue Mountains...........................147

Figures

Figure 1. Vicinity map of the Blue Mountains national forests.....................................................11

Figure 2. Description of forested structural stages used to classify vegetation for the Blue 

Mountains national forests plan revision ..........................................................................38
Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 1

Introduction

Purpose of the Land Management Plan

The land management plan (the “forest plan”) is a guide for the future management of natural 

resources on the Malheur, Umatilla, and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests (also referred to as 

the “Forest”) for the plan period, approximately 10 to 15 years. This plan:

• Is strategic in nature. It does not include project and activity decisions. Those decisions are 

made later, only after more detailed analysis and further public involvement. 

• Is adaptive in that new knowledge and information can be analyzed and the forest plan can be 

amended, if appropriate, at any time.

• Honors the continuing validity of private, statutory, or preexisting rights.

This forest plan represents a revision of the 1990 Land and Resource Management Plans. The 

revision was conducted under the legal framework of the National Forest Management Act, and 

the provisions of the 1982 Planning Rule, as allowed by the 2012 Planning Rule language (36 

CFR 219.7(b)(3)). 

The forest plan describes the goals and desired ecological, social, and economic conditions of the 

national forests and provides direction that focuses management activities toward maintaining or 

achieving those conditions. The goals and desired conditions are designed to contribute to the 

sustainable stewardship of the nation’s national forests, to contribute to local communities, and to 

meet the Forest Service’s responsibility to American Indian tribes in relation to trust 

responsibilities and treaty resources. For the purposes of commenting on the draft forest plans, the 

three forest plans have been consolidated into one document. For the most part the plans for each 

national forest have the same plan components, where there are differences these distinctions are 

identified.

Forest plan guidance for the management of natural resources is intended to provide a predictable 

flow of forest products and uses to the public during the life of the plan while maintaining and 

restoring ecosystems. The Forest Service will contribute to meeting the needs of the present 

generation without compromising the ability to contribute to meeting the needs of future 

generations. 

The forest plan:

• Provides programmatic guidance

• Provides the basis for subsequent site-specific, project-level decisions made after additional 

detailed analyses and further public involvement

• Provides a context for future, project-level planning

• Identifies strategies for maintaining or achieving desired conditions and for achieving 

objectives

• Identifies land areas as generally suitable or generally unsuitable for various uses 

• Identifies standards and guidelines to guide project and activity planning and implementation

• Identifies areas with special or unique characteristics Provides monitoring and evaluation 

requirements

• Emphasizes the use of best available scientific information and adaptive management 
Introduction

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

2 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Legal Framework

Over time, a framework of laws, regulation, and guiding legislation that works to guide the 

management of National Forest System lands has been enacted. Legal mandates governing 

national forest management date back to the Organic Act of 1897, which provided that national 

forests would be managed for the dual purpose of protecting water flows and providing a 

continuous supply of timber for the American public. The Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act 

(1960) provides for the sustainability of the multiple uses of natural resources in ways that best 

meet the needs of the public while maintaining the long-term productivity of the land for multiple 

uses and in such a manner that these lands are available to future generations. The magnitude and 

intensity of any effects are disclosed to the public, and the public has the opportunity to comment 

on the actions proposed. The National Forest Management Act 1976 and its accompanying 

legislation guides the creation, revision, and amendment of National Forest Land Management 

Plans, and the Forest and Rangeland Renewal Resources Planning Act of 1974 directs that the 

suitability of lands for resource management be identified and a process for the revision of land 

and resource management plans

1 established. This revision process was conducted under the legal 

framework of the National Forest Management Act, and the provisions of the 1982 Planning 

Rule, as allowed by the 2012 Planning Rule language (36 CFR 219.7(b)(3)). NFMA requires 

forest plans to be revised at least every 10 to 15 years or sooner if warranted by changed 

conditions. The multiple-use desired conditions and objectives, design criteria (standards and 

guidelines), and monitoring all work together to define management direction for the three Blue 

Mountains national forests. However, successful implementation of the management direction 

and the rate of accomplishment of desired conditions are dependent upon the congressional 

budget process and other factors.

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 requires that all major Federal actions 

significantly affecting the human environment be analyzed, and the consequences to the quality 

of the human environment from proposed management actions are to be considered. The 

regulations implementing the NEPA further require that agencies prepare environmental impact 

statements concurrent and integrated with environmental analysis and related surveys and studies 

required by such laws as the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the National Historic Preservation 

Act of 1966, the Wilderness Act of 1964, and the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. Other 

environmental review laws and executive orders, such as the Clean Air Act of 1977 and the Clean 

Water Act of 1948 are also considered. 

The revised forest plans will continue to honor American Indian reserved rights through 

consultation and coordination, and will maintain a government-to-government relationship with 

federal recognized tribal governments. 

Additional direction for managing NFS lands comes from a variety of sources, including 

Executive Orders, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) and the Forest Service directive 

system, which includes the Forest Service Manual (FSM) and the Forest Service Handbook 

(FSH). This management direction is generally not repeated in the forest plan. 

Appendix D of the associated DEIS lists many of the laws, regulations, executive orders, and 

other guiding direction for the scope and content of analysis for each section of chapter 3. 

Additionally, the “Legal and Regulatory Framework” section in chapter 1 provides more details 

 1 Note the term “land and resource management plan” comes from the 1982 Planning Rule. The term has been revised 

to “land management plan” in the 2012 Planning Rule (see the transition provisions at 36 CFR 219.17 (b)(3)).
Introduction

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 3

regarding the relationship between this planning effort and national, regional, forestwide and 

landscape scale planning efforts.

Decisions of a Forest Plan

Planning for National Forest System units involves two levels of decisions. First is the 

development of a forest plan that provides direction for the resource management of the entire 

planning unit. Forest plans provide forestwide and management area standards and guidelines for 

future decision making and are adjustable through amendment and revision. Forest plan 

management area and forestwide direction are the “zoning ordinances” under which future 

decisions are made. Forest plan approval establishes multiple-use goals, desired conditions, and 

objectives for the planning unit. Forest plan level actions are approval (16 USC 1604(d) and (j), 

amendment (16 USC 1604(f)(4)) and revision (16 USC 1604(f)(5)). 

Forest plan approval results in:

1. Establishment of desired conditions and national forest multiple-use goals and objectives 

(1982 rule provision 36 CFR 219.11(b))

2. Establishment of standards and guidelines that apply to future activities (1982 rule provision 

36 CFR 219.13 to 219.27)

3. Establishment of management areas and management area direction that applies to future 

activities in that management area, including the suitability of lands for resource management 

(16 USC 1606(g)(2)(A) and 1982 rule provision 36 CFR 219.11(c))

4. Designation of suitable timber land (16 USC 1604(k) and 1982 rule provision 36 CFR 

219.14) and establishment of allowable timber sale quantity (16 USC 1611 and 1982 rule 

provision 36 CFR 219.16)

5. Recommendation to Congress of areas eligible for wilderness designation as required (36 

CFR 219.17) and rivers eligible for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System 

as required (16 USC 1271-1287, 36 CFR 297, and 47 FR 39454)

6. Establishment of monitoring and evaluation requirements (1982 rule provision 36 CFR 

219.11(d))

For the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, forest plan approval would complete the two wild and 

scenic rivers suitability analyses. Additionally, the 2003 Hells Canyon National Recreation Area 

Comprehensive Management Plan is being carried forward without modification and will 

continue to be a part of the forest plan for the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest.

The second level of planning involves the analysis and implementation of management practices 

designed to achieve the goals, desired conditions, and objectives of the forest plan. Projects and 

activities are proposed, analyzed, and carried out within the framework of the forest plan and 

must be consistent with it. This second level involves site-specific analysis to meet NEPA 

requirements for decision making. The Blue Mountains forest plan revision does not include this 

second level of decision making.

Equally important to the decisions being made is the identification of the types of decisions that 

will not be made within the revised forest plans. Project decisions are not authorized, carried out, 

or funded by forest plan approval, amendment, or revision, except as specifically authorized and 

documented in the record of decision. 
Introduction

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

4 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

The designation of routes, which include both roads and trails, or areas for motor vehicle travel is 

not being made during this forest plan revision. Some issues, although important, are beyond the 

authority or control of the Forest Service and will not be considered.

Decision Criteria

Decision criteria were identified by the forest supervisors for the Blue Mountains national forests 

and approved by the regional forester. These criteria will be used to evaluate the alternatives and 

determine which alternative ultimately will be selected:

• Meeting all applicable laws and regulations and be aligned with Forest Service policy 

• Determining the balance between meeting the purpose and need with addressing the 

significant issues raised during the NEPA process

• Providing a mix of benefits to address the needs for change by:

♦ Leading to more resilient and sustainable terrestrial ecosystems

♦ Accelerating improvement of watershed and aquatic/riparian conditions

♦ Restoring and maintaining scenery, cultural and recreation resources, treaty resources, 

and wildland urban interface

• Minimizing conflicts between revised forest plans and travel management decisions

• Maintaining or enhance biological diversity and the long-term health of the national forests

• Contributing to economic and social needs of people, cultures, and communities

Best Available Science

What constitutes best available science might vary over time and across scientific disciplines. As 

a general matter, we show consideration of the best available science when we insure the 

scientific integrity of the discussions and analyses in the project NEPA document. Specifically, 

the NEPA document should identify methods used, reference scientific sources relied on, discuss 

responsible opposing views, and disclose incomplete or unavailable information, scientific 

uncertainty, and risk. See 40 CFR 1502.9 (b), 1502.22, and 1502.24.

The Forest Service has a long history of science-based decision-making. Using scientific 

information in planning provides the responsible official with the knowledge, methods, and 

expert review needed to make an informed decision. To ensure that land management planning 

decisions help contribute to sustainable stewardship and ecological integrity of the nation’s 

national forests, the agency has taken into account the best available scientific information 

pertaining to the economic and social conditions and ecosystem composition, structure, and 

function. In addition to other research, the scientific studies conducted by the Interior Columbia 

Basin Ecosystem Management Project (ICBEMP) (Quigley et al. 1996, Quigley et al. 1997) were 

considered in the development of this forest plan. 

Organization of the Forest Plan

This plan is organized in several parts: an Introduction, Part 1—Vision, Part 2—Strategy, and 

Part 3—Design Criteria. The parts of the plan and their associated plan components are described 

in the following text.
Introduction

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 5

Forest Plan Components

The proposed draft revised plan includes “plan decisions” and “other content”. There is an 

important distinction between plan components and other elements of the plan. Plan components 

may only be changed by plan amendment, revision, or administrative correction (FSM 1920 and 

FSH 1909.12). A change to other content may be made using an administrative correction 

process, whereby nonsubstantive errors, such as misspellings or typographical mistakes, are 

corrected, or information (e.g., data and maps), is updated. The public is notified of all plan 

amendments and administrative corrections before they become effective. 

Other elements of the forest plan that are not plan components provide information and/or 

background material integral to successful implementation of the forest plan. This information 

may be changed by the approving official without a formal process. 

Plan components consist of goals and desired conditions, standards, guidelines, objectives, 

special areas, management areas, suitable uses and activities, and monitoring and evaluation. 

Goals create the framework for the plan. Under each goal, there is a set of desired conditions, 

standards, guidelines and objectives. The goals and desired conditions are a set of interrelated 

ecological, social, and economic conditions. The Forests will manage the land and resources of 

the planning area to achieve or maintain the goals and desired conditions; allowing the national 

forests to contribute to a range of outcomes now and in the future. This emphasis on integration 

of the goals and desired conditions promotes an adaptive and active management philosophy, 

including working with partners, to accomplish this vision for the Blue Mountains. 

The following goals and desired conditions explain the conditions, processes, and relationships 

that the Forest Service will seek to achieve. Some conditions may already exist. Some are 

achievable during the life of the forest plan. Others may take a longer period, possibly decades.

Making progress toward achieving the goals and desired conditions will depend on funding and 

program direction provided by higher levels in the agency and Congress, as well as natural 

events. 

Each desired condition is associated with a brief background description and a brief existing 

condition description of each indicator, and statement of scale. Provided as information only, the 

background and existing condition descriptions are not plan direction. 

Management actions that cause movement away from achieving goals and desired conditions in 

the short term are acceptable as long as the forests achieve or maintain the desired conditions in 

the long term.

Many desired conditions were derived from national fire regime condition class (FRCC) 

information, vegetation dynamics development tool (VDDT) modeling (ESSA Technologies Ltd. 

2005), national Landfire modeling, collaborative workshops, and professional experience 

informed by estimates of historic range of variability (HRV).

Desired conditions set forth the desired social, economic, and ecological attributes of the three 

National Forests. They attempt to paint a picture of what we (the public and Forest Service) 

desire the forests to look like and/or the goods and services we desire them to provide. Desired 

conditions are broad expressions in general terms and are timeless in that there is no specific date 

by which they are to be completed. Desired conditions may only be achievable over a long 

timeframe (in some cases, several hundred years). In some cases, a desired condition matches the 
Introduction

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

6 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

current condition, and the goal is to maintain it. Desired conditions are aspirations and are not 

commitments or final decisions to approve projects.

To be consistent with the desired conditions of the plan in assessing a project or activity, at the 

appropriate spatial scale described in the plan (e.g., landscape scale), each project or activity must 

be designed to meet one or more of the following conditions:

• Maintain or make progress toward one or more of the desired conditions of a plan without 

adversely affecting progress toward, or maintenance of, other desired conditions; or 

• Be neutral with regard to progress toward plan desired conditions; or

• Maintain or make progress toward one or more of the desired conditions over the long term, 

even if the project or activity would adversely affect progress toward or maintenance of one 

or more desired conditions in the short term; or

• Maintain or make progress toward one or more of the desired conditions over the long term, 

even if the project or activity would adversely affect progress toward other desired conditions 

in a negligible way over the long term.

The project documentation should explain how the project is consistent with desired conditions 

and describe any short-term or negligible long-term adverse effects the project may have on the 

maintenance or attainment of any desired condition.

The desired conditions may apply at a forestwide scale, but many apply at a particular scale, such 

as at the subbasin, watershed or subwatershed. A subbasin refers to a 4th-level Hydrologic Unit 

Code (HUC), which is generally about 450,000 acres in size. A watershed refers to a 5th-level 

HUC, which generally range from 40,000 to 250,000 acres in size. A subwatershed refers to a 6thlevel HUC, which generally ranges from 10,000 to 40,000 acres in size.

Objectives are concise, time-specific statements of measurable planned results that make 

progress towards or maintain desired conditions. An objective forms the basis for further planning 

to define the precise steps to be taken and the resources to be used in achieving desired 

conditions. The objectives represent just some of the expected outcomes or actions required for 

the Forest to make progress towards desired conditions. The plan only identifies the primary 

objectives (actions) that the three National Forests will initiate.

Variation in achieving objectives may occur during the life of the plans because of changes in 

environmental conditions, available budgets, and other factors. Influences on objectives include 

recent trends, past experiences, anticipated staffing levels, and budget projections.

A project or activity is consistent with the objectives of the plan if it contributes to or does not 

prevent the attainment of any desired conditions that apply to it. The project documentation 

should identify any applicable objective(s) to which the project contributes and document that the 

project does not prevent the attainment of any objectives. If there are no applicable objectives, the 

project must be consistent with the objectives decisions of the plan, and the project document 

should state that fact.

Standards are constraints upon project and activity decision making. The design of projects and 

activities absolutely must meet the standard requirement. A project or activity is consistent with a 

standard when its design is in accord with the explicit provisions of the standard; a plan 

amendment is the only way to vary from a standard.
Introduction

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 7

Guidelines are components with which a project or activity must be consistent, in either of two 

ways:

• The project or activity is designed exactly in accord with the guideline; or

• The project or activity design varies from the exact words of the guideline, but is as effective 

in meeting the purpose of the guideline to contribute to the maintenance or attainment of the 

relevant desired conditions and objectives.

The design of projects and activities must follow guideline requirements; however, modification 

may occur for a specific project if the intent of the guideline is followed and the deviation is 

addressed in a decision document with supporting rationale. When deviation from a guideline 

does not meet the original intent, however, a plan amendment is required.

Special areas are lands that have designations by Congress or another delegated authority. 

Special areas are designated because of their unique or special characteristics. Special areas 

establishment may occur at the national level either through legislation (Congressional 

designation) or at the regional or local level through administrative action (administrative 

designation). The forest plan may recommend the establishment of new special areas. This plan 

provides direction for the following special areas: scenic byways and All-American roads, 

national designated trails, eligible and suitable wild and scenic rivers, scenic areas, botanical 

areas, geological areas, historical areas, Starkey experimental forest and range, research natural 

areas, and recommended and designated wilderness and wilderness study areas.

Where the plan provides plan decisions specific to a special area, a project or activity must be 

consistent with those area-specific decisions. The project documentation should describe how the 

project or activity is consistent with the area-specific decisions of the plan. Special areas are 

described in detail in Part2—Strategy.

Management areas are spatially distinct areas with a unique set of plan components. The 

management areas range along a continuum from little development by humans in MA 1A to 

extensive human development in MA 5. The types of uses and desired settings define the land use 

that would occur in them under the revised forest plans. They occur across districts, mountain 

ranges, and ecosystems but have commonalities that make their overarching land uses similar. 

Management areas are described in detail in Part2—Strategy.

Suitability describes the appropriateness of applying certain resource management practices 

(uses) to a particular area of land. A unit of land may be suitable for a variety of individual or 

combined uses.

A project with the purpose of timber production may only occur in an area identified as suitable 

for timber production [16 U.S.C. 1604(k)]. The documentation for the project should confirm the 

project area meets the suitability requirements.

Except for projects with a purpose of timber production, a project or activity can be consistent 

with plan suitability determinations in either of two ways:

• The project or activity is a use identified in the plan as suitable for the location where the 

project or activity is to occur; or

• The project or activity is not a use identified in the plan as suitable for the location (the plan 

is silent on the use or the plan identifies the use as not suitable), but the responsible official 

determines that the use is appropriate for that location’s desired conditions and objectives.
Introduction

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

8 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

The project documentation should describe that the project or activity is either (1) considered 

suitable according to the plan, or (2) not considered suitable in the plan but nonetheless 

appropriate for that location.

Monitoring and evaluation consists of key element monitoring that will occur as implementation 

of the forest plan progresses (i.e., future site-specific actions). Monitoring is part of an adaptive 

management process that measures the performance of plan implementation against the goals, 

desired conditions and objectives to which it aspires. It also evaluates whether implementation of 

standards and guidelines are producing the desired results.

The following lists plan components and other elements of the forest plan:

Plan Components

Goals and Desired Conditions

Management Areas

Special Areas

Suitable Uses and Activities

Objectives

Monitoring and Evaluation

Standards

Guidelines

Other Elements of the Forest Plan

Introduction

Forest Roles and Contributions

Management Challenges

Management Priorities

Appendices, Glossary, and References

Note that goals and desired conditions are brief background and existing condition descriptions 

that precede the desired conditions and scale statements. The background and existing condition 

descriptions provide context and are not plan components.

Part 1—Vision

This part of the document provides the context for managing the three national forests by 

discussing Forest Service roles and challenges and the goals and desired conditions that the Forest 

Service will work to achieve or maintain across the landscape. The other elements included in 

Part 1 are:

• National forest roles and contributions: this section describes the roles, contributions, and 

setting that these public lands provide to tribes, local communities, the states of Oregon and 

Washington, and the Nation.

• Management challenges: this section describes the challenges managers face while striving 

to achieve or maintain the goals and desired conditions.

Part 2—Strategy

The strategy is the guidance for how management activities will be conducted within the Blue 

Mountains national forests in order to make progress toward achieving or maintaining the goals 

and desired conditions. It describes the elements necessary for achieving the desired conditions, 

including special areas, management areas, suitable uses, objectives, and monitoring. The other 

element included in Part 2 is:

• Management focus: this section describes how the goals and desired conditions and 

objectives may be applied to guide development of projects and activities on National Forest 

System lands. These priorities do not limit activities to those types of areas identified, but 
Introduction

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 9

guide decision makers to focus activities primarily in those areas with the greatest need for 

maintenance and restoration.

Part 3—Design Criteria

The design criteria provide the parameters for how future, site-specific activities can occur within 

the context of the forest plan. This includes the standards and guidelines that provide specific 

information and guidance for project decision making. Design criteria may also include 

references to other applicable guidance, such as laws and regulations that are already in place and 

are not repeated in this plan.

Consistency with Plan Components

As required by NFMA, all projects and activities authorized by the Forest Service must be 

consistent with the forest plan (16 USC 1604 (i)). This is accomplished by a project or activity 

being consistent with all applicable plan components. 

Project or Activity Consistency with the Forest Plan

Where a project or activity as proposed would not be consistent with any of the six plan 

components, the responsible official has the following options: 

1. Modify the proposal so that the project or activity will be consistent. 

2. Reject the proposal. 

3. Amend the plan simultaneously with the approval of the project or activity so that the project 

or activity is consistent with the plan as amended. The amendment may be limited to apply 

only to the project or activity.

The following paragraphs describe how a project or activity is consistent with plan components 

and the requirements for documenting consistency.

Management activities are developed specifically to achieve the desired conditions and objectives 

of the forest plan. To the extent practicable, documentation for such projects should identify the 

elements of the desired conditions and objectives to be achieved. It should not be expected that all 

projects or activities would contribute to all desired conditions and objectives, but rather to a 

limited subset. It should also be recognized that some projects designed to contribute to some 

desired conditions and objectives may have consequences considered adverse to the achievement 

of other desired conditions and objectives. In this situation, the responsible official for the project 

needs to identify and disclose those effects within project documentation and make a decision that 

balances these considerations.

There are also project activities that are necessary but are not specifically related to one of these 

elements of the forest plan (e.g., routine road maintenance, facility maintenance, etc.). Such 

projects should be briefly evaluated to assess if they conflict or impede maintaining or achieving 

desired conditions and objectives.

In the implementation of the forest plan, projects are expected to comply with the suitability and 

standards and guidelines direction contained in Part 2—Strategy and Part 3—Design Criteria. 

Early in the project planning process, the applicable standards and guidelines and suitability 

considerations should be identified. To ensure compliance with the forest plan, each project 

should document consistency with applicable standards and guidelines. 
Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 10

Part 1 – Vision 

This section describes background information, existing conditions, desired conditions, 

objectives, scale, and the roles and contributions made by the Blue Mountains national forests at 

the local, regional, and national levels. The plan revision team engaged in a collaborative effort 

that included participation from tribes, state, county, and local governments, and a diverse array 

of public interest groups and nonprofit organizations. Many concepts, research studies, issues, 

goals, objectives, and strategies were reviewed. The vision was developed by integrating that 

information with the Forest Service mission, the need for change, the current management 

situation, and the best available scientific information. 

The vision for the national forests of the Blue Mountains is to maintain and restore healthy 

forests, landscapes, and watersheds. The national forests provide clean air, clean water, 

productive soils, diverse habitats, recreational opportunities, cultural benefits, quality jobs, and 

products that support traditional uses, communities, and economies at local, regional, and national 

levels.

This vision recognizes the historic role that the national forests have played in shaping the 

environment, cultures, customs, and economies of the Blue Mountains. It also recognizes that the 

management of the national forests has changed in the last several decades and will continue to 

change due to a variety of factors. These factors include natural disturbance (wildfire and insects 

and disease), climate change, and changing public demands. The vision recognizes that social and 

economic components cannot be separated from ecological systems. People are a part of the 

ecology of the Blue Mountains and are also an integral part of National Forest System lands. 

They contribute to the ecology as producers, distributors, users, and stewards. Human roles add 

complexity to the system. Their roles are essential to the vitality and sustainability of the system.

The vision acknowledges that the Blue Mountains national forests have some areas of 

unsustainable stand structures, densities, and species composition, which compromise habitats for 

all living organisms. Forest conditions are such that human contribution is needed in terms of 

reducing fuels, decreasing stand density, restoring streams, and other activities. Ecological needs 

can be addressed by human contributions. Addressing ecological needs will, in turn, support 

social and economic systems, bringing all three closer to sustainability.

Geographical Location 

The Malheur (and a portion of the Ochoco administered by the Malheur), Umatilla, and WallowaWhitman National Forests include approximately 5.5 million acres in northeastern Oregon and 

southeastern Washington (figure 1).

The majority of the acreage (4.8 million acres) is in Oregon with about 311,000 acres in 

Washington. 

The Malheur National Forest is comprised of about 1.7 million acres in the southern Blue 

Mountains with headquarters in John Day and district offices in Prairie City, John Day, and 

Hines, Oregon. The Malheur National Forest Emigrant Creek Ranger District also administers an 

adjacent 240,000-acre portion of the Ochoco National Forest. The web address for the Malheur 

National Forest Web site is http://www.fs.usda.gov/main/malheur/home.
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Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 11

Figure 1. Vicinity map of the Blue Mountains national forests
Part 1 – Vision

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

12 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

The 1.4-million-acre Umatilla National Forest straddles the Oregon-Washington border. It is the 

northern-most national forest in the planning area and is administered from Pendleton, Oregon 

with district offices located in Pomeroy and Walla Walla, Washington and Heppner and Ukiah, 

Oregon. The web address for the Umatilla National Forest website is 

http://www.fs.usda.gov/main/umatilla/home.

Located on the eastern edge of the Blue Mountains, the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest 

consists of more than 2.4 million acres, which includes the Hells Canyon National Recreation 

Area in Idaho. This plan, in combination with the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area 

Comprehensive Management Plan, constitutes an integrated resource management plan for the 

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. This plan carries forward in its entirety the Hells Canyon 

National Recreation Area Comprehensive Management Plan, which guides management on the 

Hells Canyon National Recreation Area on the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest (USDA Forest 

Service 2003). See the Legal Framework for further explanation. The headquarters of the 

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest is in Baker City, Oregon. District offices are located in Baker 

City, La Grande, and Enterprise, Oregon. The web address for the Wallowa-Whitman National 

Forest website is http://www.fs.usda.gov/main/wallowa-whitman/home.

The Web site address for the Blue Mountains forest plan revision is 

http://www.fs.usda.gov/goto/BlueMtnsPlanRevision.

Roles and Contributions

of the Blue Mountains National Forests

The highly diverse natural resources of Blue Mountains national forests serve many important 

ecological, social, and economic functions. This section highlights some of the unique roles and 

characteristics that the national forests contribute to the local area, state, region, and nation; 

describes emerging challenges that national forest managers face; and outlines the vision of the 

national forests. The descriptions are not intended to be comprehensive. Additional information is 

available in the plan record and the draft environmental impact statement. 

Unique Physical and Biological Characteristics

The complex geological history of the Blue Mountains, including floods, volcanic eruptions, 

landslides, and erosion, has shaped the landscape into a unique combination of landforms and 

vegetative patterns. The Blue Mountains province contains deep river canyons layered with 

gently sloping upland benches that are vertically cut by steep, V-shaped drainages. 

The area is known for extreme variations in elevations that range from less than 2,000 feet at the 

bottom of Hells Canyon, the deepest gorge in North America, to nearly 10,000 feet at the top of 

the Wallowa Mountains in Oregon and the Seven Devils Mountains in Idaho. Rocky outcrops and 

high peaks of about 9,000 feet protrude along the backbone of the Strawberry, Aldrich, Elkhorn, 

Wallowa, and Wenaha mountain ranges. 

This combination of geology and topography produces a distinctive, mosaic pattern of dense, 

heavily-forested slopes interspersed with open, rugged herblands. Deep volcanic ash soils 

contribute to productive forest stands and herblands that provide forage and browse. Sparse, 

scattered stands of ponderosa pine and junipers dot areas of shallow, rocky soils. 

The national forests are at the extreme eastern edge of the Cascade Range’s rain shadow. This 

produces a combination of high-desert climate with hot, dry summers (less than 10 inches of 
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 13

precipitation per year) in the lower valleys and moist maritime conditions influenced by the 

Columbia River at the higher elevations (more than 80 inches of precipitation per year).

This variety of landform, elevation, and climate results in a diversity of plants and animals within 

the three national forests that ranges from lower to higher elevations: juniper, sage, herblands, 

ponderosa pine plant communities, mixed conifer, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce stands, and 

alpine plants. 

Unique plant communities include the Cedar Grove Botanical Area within the Malheur National 

Forest, which contains the only stand of Alaska yellow cedar east of the Cascade Mountains in 

the United States. Thirty research natural areas include other unique features, such as the 

bluebunch wheatgrass of the Pataha within the Umatilla National Forest and the montane 

sphagnum bog at Duck Lake within the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest.

An individual fungus (Armillaria ostoyae), the largest living organism on earth (estimated at 

2,385 acres), grows and spreads primarily underground within the Malheur National Forest. 

Calculations of the age of this fungus vary from about 1,900 years old to greater than 8,600 years 

old. 

The national forests provide habitat for more than 250 native wildlife species, including larger 

species, such as cougar, black bear, mountain goat, bighorn sheep, deer, pronghorn antelope, gray 

wolf, and elk, along with a host of smaller birds and animals, such as marten, mink, beaver, 

badger, bobcat, coyote, river otter, Clark’s nutcracker, ruffed and blue grouse, and turkey. The 

area provides an important wildlife corridor connecting habitats and animal migration routes 

between the Rocky Mountains and central Oregon. 

The Blue Mountains are inhabited by one of the nation’s largest herds of Rocky Mountain elk. 

Cooperative efforts to restore and protect Rocky Mountain elk, as well as bighorn sheep 

populations, are recognized regionally and nationally. 

Streams, rivers, and lakes provide habitat for a variety of native, anadromous fish species. For 

example, the Imnaha and Grande Ronde river drainages provide the highest upstream spawning 

areas for Chinook salmon and steelhead trout on the Snake River in Oregon. The John Day River 

is the second longest undammed river (280 miles) in the contiguous United States and supports 

four different species of naturally reproducing, native salmonids. 

Bull trout are federally listed as threatened across their range. Summer steelhead in the Middle 

Columbia Basin and in the Lower Snake Basin are also federally listed as threatened. Chinook 

salmon (both fall and spring/summer) are federally listed in the Lower Snake Basin. Westslope 

cutthroat and inland redband are also important fish species within the Blue Mountains. 

Watersheds also provide clean water for national forest and downstream recreational, municipal, 

and agricultural uses. 

Social and Economic Characteristics

The Blue Mountains have a rich and diverse cultural history of human habitation that spans more 

than 10,000 years. The national forests are within the ceded boundaries of several American 

Indian tribes and these tribes maintain strong ties to the national forests. The area plays a 

significant role in the life and culture of these and other tribes. Numerous archaeological and 

historical resources that exist within the national forests are important to American Indian tribes, 
Part 1 – Vision

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

14 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

including special plant locations, traditional hunting and fishing sites, and other traditional use 

areas. 

Many historical uses of the national forests resonate today in the western culture of the area and 

continue to contribute to the economies of local communities. The national forests still provide 

trees to contribute to the demands of the American public for lumber, paper, and other wood 

products. In doing so, they continue to contribute to local economies and communities. The 

national forests provide unique habitats for wildlife, contribute to healthy watersheds, and provide 

opportunities for people to experience primitive natural surroundings. Historical sites for this 

period include remnants of the 1860s gold rush in the John Day River country and traces of 

railroad logging and company towns in numerous places.

Local ranchers graze cattle on the herblands and forested ranges of the national forests during late 

spring, summer, and early fall. The Blue Mountains encompass one of the most extensively 

mineralized areas in Oregon. Gold and other valuable minerals still exist beneath the land’s 

surface and are still available for prospecting in accordance with mining laws. The area’s 

residents enjoy rural lifestyles and amenities associated with the national forests. Many maintain 

a strong commitment to continuing to actively manage the national forests to contribute to forest 

health, social well-being, and economic vitality. 

American Indian tribes continue to practice their traditional hunting, gathering, and religious 

activities within the national forests. They gather culturally important plants and find spiritual 

renewal in sacred areas. Their activities also depend on the maintenance of healthy forests and 

herblands across the Blue Mountains.

Local residents and visitors alike seek out the national forests year-round for recreational 

opportunities. Activities range from seeking solitude in the backcountry to staying in developed 

campgrounds along travel corridors and more, including hunting, fishing, wildlife watching, rock 

climbing, hiking, whitewater rafting, horseback riding, and off-highway vehicle use. Hunters 

congregate during elk, deer, and antelope season in the late summer and fall and make important 

contributions to local economies. Winter sports opportunities for snowmobiling and cross-country 

and downhill skiing are exceptional. 

The Blue Mountains provide areas with an undeveloped character and backcountry setting. With 

7 designated wilderness areas, 1 national recreation area, and 13 wild and scenic rivers, the 

national forests offer a variety of diverse experiences. The Eagle Cap Wilderness Area, the largest 

wilderness area in Oregon, is especially popular and is often referred to as the little Switzerland 

of America. 

Exceptional scenic qualities are important features of the Blue Mountains. The beautifully rugged 

and remote Hells Canyon National Recreation Area comprises an exceptional richness and 

diversity of unique geology and vegetation that support a variety of fish and wildlife species. The 

wild and scenic Snake River corridor provides outstanding scenic qualities, as well as important 

recreational boating and hiking opportunities. Other wild and scenic rivers, including the Grande 

Ronde, Malheur, and North Fork John Day rivers and Eagle Creek, have outstanding features, 

such as unique history, critical fish habitat, and unusual geology.

The national forests provide the backdrop to communities that value views and scenery. Several 

of the roads that provide access to the national forests are part of national, regional, and state 

scenic byways. Along the Hells Canyon, Blue Mountain, Elkhorn, or Journey through Time 

Scenic Byways, visitors and residents enjoy scenic panoramas of pastoral valleys, mountain 
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 15

vistas, and rolling uplands interspersed with steep river canyons. An abundance and variety of 

wildlife species may be seen, including bald eagles in the winter and bighorn sheep in the 

summer and fall. Remarkable scenery and solitude is available in many areas, including the 

Vinegar Hill-Indian Rock Scenic Area located along the border of the Malheur and Umatilla 

National Forests.

Management Challenges

Providing for the socially, economically, and ecologically sustainable management of the 

Malheur, Umatilla, and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests is affected by a complex set of 

factors outlined in the Blue Mountains Forest Plan Revision Need for Change (2005). Sustaining 

the values and contributions provided by the national forests depends on the ability to reconcile 

these challenges to national forest and community sustainability. By achieving a set of integrated 

ecological, social, and economic goals and desired conditions, the national forests are more likely 

to contribute to a broader range of sustainable and resilient ecosystems now and in the future.

Social and Economic Expectations

Public land management inevitably involves conflicting public desires, values, and preferences. 

The public expects a diversity of uses from National Forest System lands. People frequently 

disagree about how the national forests should be managed. Interests and opinions are often held 

strongly, which can lead to a decision-making process characterized by conflict and controversy. 

This increases the complexity of national forest management.

Diverse Experiences

An increasing number of visitors (local, regional, and national) rely on the national forests for 

recreational opportunities and resource uses in ways that are not always compatible. 

Technological advances have changed the day-to-day activities of visitors and the way people 

recreate within the national forests. The increased popularity of motorized recreation has 

generated user conflicts between those seeking motorized experiences and those seeking solitude 

in their recreation experiences. New capabilities in other recreational equipment, such as 

mountain bikes and global positioning systems (GPS), allow people to experience the national 

forests in new and different ways. 

Fire-adapted Ecosystems

Fire is a natural part of the ecosystem and ecosystems within the national forests exhibit a wide 

diversity of natural fire behavior. The cumulative effects of periodic and sometimes extended 

drought, climate change, increasing vegetative density, shifts in forested species composition, and 

modified landscape patterns have resulted in conditions in many locations that are outside the 

range of what is sustainable. These conditions may put the ecosystem at high risk of 

uncharacteristically large and severe fires and disturbances from insects and disease. The 

potential for fires with uncharacteristically severe effects exists on approximately 60 percent of 

the three national forests. In addition, climate change may lead to longer fire seasons and more 

severe fires. These conditions increase both the challenge and the motivation for restoring the 

landscape to reduce the severity of fires.

Approximately 20 percent of the Blue Mountains is considered wildland urban interface: area 

where wildfire can pose a substantial threat to life and property. Firefighter safety and increasing 

large fire suppression costs are additional consequences and challenges.
Part 1 – Vision

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

16 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Grazing

Livestock grazing (cattle and sheep) within the national forests supports traditional lifestyles and 

local economies. It also has the potential to impact the condition of National Forest System 

resources, especially grasslands, shrublands, and riparian areas. This potential impact can affect 

habitat necessary for terrestrial and aquatic animal species. Contact between permitted domestic 

sheep and bighorn sheep has led to disease transmission, which has had a substantial impact on 

bighorn sheep populations in the area. 

Transportation System

Expanding road networks have created many opportunities for uses and activities within the 

national forests, including a wide range of recreational motorized use, firewood collection, 

hunting and fishing access, and berry picking. Vegetation management and firefighting are 

primarily accomplished by use of the road network. Conversely, road networks have dramatically 

altered the character of the landscape by increasing erosion and introducing sediment to stream 

systems, which can alter the stream channel, reduce aquatic productivity, and limit the survival 

and growth of fishes. The road networks also fragment habitat. Road use can displace animal 

populations and increase the spread of invasive species and noxious weeds. The cost of 

maintaining the road networks and the maintenance backlog also present challenges. The Forest 

Service must find an appropriate balance between the benefits of access to the national forests 

and the costs of road-associated effects to social and ecosystem values. 

Invasive Species 

A large challenge for ecosystem management is arresting the spread and preventing the 

establishment of invasive, undesirable, nonnative species, including insects and disease, aquatic 

species, and terrestrial species. Increasingly, these invasive species are displacing native species 

and altering ecosystem structure, composition, and function. Many invasive species have become 

well established and are difficult to eliminate, and some infestations could become more 

extensive. 

Invasive species do not respect ownership boundaries, and collaboration between the Forest 

Service, partners, and the public is important to prevention, restoration, and control efforts. Rapid 

response is important to address new infestations of high priority invasive species. Many 

pathways exist for introduction and/or spread of invasive species to water bodies on National 

Forest System lands, including public recreational use (off-highway vehicle use, boating, and 

fishing), illegal dumping of yard wastes, wildfire control activities, and vegetation management 

operations.

Climate Change

Average temperatures in the Pacific Northwest have increased by about 1 degree Celsius (1.8 

degrees Fahrenheit) since 1900, and the rate of warming during the last 50 years is nearly twice 

the rate of the previous 100 years (ISAB 2007). The rate of warming is expected to increase in the 

21st century. Mean annual temperatures are expected to rise by 0.3 degrees Celsius (0.5 degrees 

Fahrenheit) per decade through 2050 in response to continued increases in atmospheric 

greenhouse gases (Mote et al. 2008). After 2050, projected temperature increases rely largely on 

changes in greenhouse gas emissions from the present levels. Total temperature increases could 

reach 3 degrees Celsius (5.3 degrees Fahrenheit), relative to the 1970-1999 average, by the 

decade of 2080-89. Little change in precipitation is predicted, although model results vary from 

minus 10 percent to plus 20 percent change by 2080. 
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 17

Other expected changes in the Pacific Northwest include: 

• Higher temperatures will result in more winter precipitation falling as rain instead of snow.

• Low elevation snowpacks may disappear completely; average snowpack is expected to 

decline by 53 to 65 percent by the decade of 2080-89.

• Winter precipitation is expected to increase slightly and summer precipitation is expected to 

decrease slightly. 

• Increased winter and spring temperatures combined with decreased winter snowfall will 

exacerbate the current trend toward earlier spring runoff and lower late-season streamflow.

• Winter streamflow will be more variable with an increased likelihood of rain-on-snow floods.

• Increased risk of higher flood peaks as well as increased risk of extended droughts is 

expected.

• Lower summer streamflow and higher summer water temperatures will likely reduce 

available habitat for cold-water fish species (ISAB 2007) and alter disturbance regimes, 

including, but not limited to, increased fire severity and frequency and more frequent 

occurrences of forest insects and disease outbreaks.

Reductions in winter snowpack are already beginning to be reflected in earlier spring streamflow 

throughout the western United States (Dettinger 2005 and Hamlet et al. 2005), and this decline is 

expected to accelerate during the next century. Continued warming in the Pacific Northwest is 

likely to result in increased water use by vegetation (Hamlet et al. 2007) that may result in 

increased drought stress and reduced water availability for wildlife and humans. In particular, 

changes in the timing of watershed runoff are expected to place increased stress on water supplies

and water storage facilities throughout the Pacific Northwest. Redistribution of forested and 

nonforested habitats is expected, resulting in altered habitat conditions for most terrestrial wildlife 

species. 

Climate change is expected to affect species range and species composition and alter competitive 

relationships between plant species. Changes in the composition and structure of plant 

communities will, in turn, alter the character and distribution of wildlife habitats. Future 

conditions may be more favorable to some undesired nonnative plant and animal species. The full 

extent of changes in response to climate change on natural resources in the Blue Mountains is 

uncertain, but a management priority is to maintain or increase the resilience of the national 

forests in the face of these changes. 

Many of the implications of expected climate change are discussed in the individual resource 

sections in Part 1.

Wildlife Habitat

The increase in dense, multi-story forest stands provides habitat conditions that sustain a variety 

of wildlife species at higher densities and in larger areas than possibly occurred when the national 

forests were dominated by more open forest conditions. The challenge is to balance the need to 

shift forest conditions toward more open and sustainable conditions with the need to continue to 

provide habitat for species that prefer the dense, multi-story conditions. An additional challenge is 

managing public use and land management access to the road system at a level that will not 

render the surrounding habitat unusable to wildlife due to human disturbance and the loss of 

snags as a result of firewood collection and hazard tree removal.
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Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

18 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Old Forest

Open canopy old forest within the dry vegetation type has declined substantially from historic 

levels, and the species that rely on this structural stage are declining (Wisdom et al. 2000). 

Although the status of some species associated with dense old forest multi-story may be 

increasing, the ecological processes are not sustainable. It will be a challenge to restore old forest 

and balance the needs of species that rely on dense forests, especially with the moisture stress that 

climate change may cause on some sites and the associated increase in severity of fires. 

Watersheds and Aquatic Habitats

Watershed conditions in most areas of the Blue Mountains have been degraded to varying degrees 

by a long history of land use activities, including placer and lode mining, timber harvesting, road 

construction, livestock grazing, irrigated agriculture, water diversions, and other human uses. The 

impacts of these activities are still reflected in the condition of many watersheds today (McIntosh 

et al. 1994a, 1994b, Wissmar 2004). The extent and quality of aquatic habitats, as well as 

watershed and soil conditions, have been greatly reduced from historic conditions, and 

populations of anadromous and resident fishes have declined as a result (Gregory and Bisson 

1997). In particular, large declines in pool habitat, large wood, and aquatic habitat diversity have 

been noted in streams in the Blue Mountains (McIntosh et al. 1994a, 1994b). In addition, high 

road densities contribute sediment, alter riparian habitats, and increase the rate of watershed 

runoff. Access to more than 3,700 stream miles on National Forest System lands are blocked or 

partially blocked by culverts that were not originally designed to provide for fish passage.

Remaining high-quality aquatic habitats are often isolated and fragmented. Increasingly, these 

habitats are limited to federally-managed lands and no longer represent the full range of habitat 

types or conditions to which aquatic species are adapted. Restoration of watershed and aquatic 

habitat conditions has been underway for decades but will require an increasingly more integrated 

approach to improve effectiveness. Restoration needs to address terrestrial, riparian, and aquatic 

habitats in multiple spatial scales and multiple ownerships. In some cases, improvements may not 

be seen for decades or centuries (Reeves et al. 1995). Habitat restoration, by itself, is not a 

substitute for appropriate environmental protection, and management that relies solely on 

rehabilitation of altered habitats cannot sustainably provide for ecosystem health (Gregory and 

Bisson 1997; Wissmar et al. 1994a, 1994b).

Degraded habitat conditions and several other factors have contributed to the Federal listing of 

bull trout across their range; Chinook salmon (both fall and spring/summer) and steelhead in the 

Lower Snake Basin; and summer steelhead in the Middle Columbia Basin as threatened under the 

Endangered Species Act.

Water quality does not meet standards in more than 1,200 miles of stream in Oregon and 

Washington. Water quality limited stream segments occur in every major drainage in the Blue 

Mountains and are located on both private and public lands. 

Water that flows from National Forest System lands is used downstream for drinking water, 

irrigation, and hydroelectric power generation, among other uses. Watershed restoration may have 

varying societal benefits, depending on geographic location, by improving water quality for 

downstream users, moderating flood flows, maintaining the quantity of water that flows from 

streams and rivers on National Forest System lands, and reducing the amount of sediment that 

enters the streams. 
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 19

Considering Climate Change in Designing Desired 

Conditions

The development of the desired conditions includes consideration of the future effects of climate 

change. Therefore, this statement about climate change will not be repeated in each desired 

condition description. The broad-scale climate change assumptions and potential effects that were 

considered when writing the desired conditions include:

• Continued warming in the Pacific Northwest is likely to result in increased water use by 

vegetation (Hamlet et al. 2007)

• Reduced water available for forest vegetation, wildlife, and humans 

• Increased stress on water supplies and water storage facilities throughout the Pacific 

Northwest 

• Redistributed forested and nonforested habitats

Making progress toward achieving the desired conditions (or achieving them) provides for the 

adaptations within the landscape necessary to respond to climate change. This in turn contributes 

to the adaptation and mitigation components of the Forest Service’s national climate change 

strategy. 

The climate change adaptation strategy is addressed in the desired conditions by:

• Including genetic considerations that are likely to be better adapted to the expected climate 

and changed species distribution

• Desiring lower stand densities, especially in areas that are uncharacteristically dense 

• Desiring fewer multi-layer stands

• Desiring greater abundance of early seral tree species (ponderosa pine and larch)

• Desiring a larger portion of the landscape to have larger diameter overstory trees along with 

reduced amounts of smaller diameter understory trees

• Desiring fewer invasive species

The climate change mitigation factor is addressed in the desired conditions by:

• Managing for longer forest stand rotations and older trees to store more carbon

• Taking into consideration the increasing use of biomass as technology becomes available and 

demand grows

This desired landscape will allow more flexibility for responding to the potential effects of 

climate change, including longer fire seasons and increased moisture stress in the summer. The 

desired landscape will provide a better contribution to carbon storage by reducing the 

uncharacteristic effects of wildfire and by storing more carbon in larger diameter trees.

Goals and Desired Conditions

The goals and desired conditions are a set of interrelated ecological, social, and economic 

conditions. The land and resources of the planning area are to be managed to achieve or maintain 

goals and desired conditions and to allow the national forests to contribute to a range of outcomes 

now and in the future. This emphasis on integration of the goals and desired conditions promotes 
Part 1 – Vision

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

20 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

an adaptive and active management philosophy, including working with partners, to accomplish 

this vision for the Blue Mountains. Goals and desired conditions are a plan component as 

discussed in the introduction to the forest plan. 

The following goals and desired conditions explain the conditions, processes, and relationships 

that the Forest Service will seek to achieve. Some conditions may already exist. Some are 

achievable during the life of the forest plan. Others may only be achievable during a longer 

period of time, possibly decades. Making progress toward achieving the goals and desired 

conditions will depend on funding and program direction provided by higher levels in the agency 

and Congress and will also be affected by natural events. 

A brief background description and a brief existing condition description of each indicator are 

provided, followed by the desired condition and statement of scale. The background and existing 

condition descriptions are provided for information only. They are not plan direction.

Management actions that cause movement away from achieving goals and desired conditions in 

the short term are acceptable so long as the goal is that desired conditions are either achieved or 

maintained in the long term.

Many desired conditions were derived from national fire regime condition class (FRCC) 

information, vegetation dynamics development tool (VDDT) modeling (ESSA Technologies Ltd. 

2005), national Landfire modeling, collaborative workshops, and professional experience 

informed by estimates of historic range of variability (HRV).

The following outline shows the numbering system and headings and subheadings used to 

organize the goals and desired conditions.

Goal 1: Promote Ecological Integrity Goal 2: Promote Social Well-being

1.1 Watershed Function 2.1 Scenery

1.1.1 Hydrologic Function 2.2 Old Forest

1.1.2 Riparian Function 2.3 Recreation

1.1.3 Wetland Function 2.4 Hunting and Fishing

1.1.4 Groundwater Dependent Ecosystem Function 2.5 Rocky Mountain Elk

1.1.5 Stream Channel Function 2.6 Cultural Resources

1.1.6 Aquatic Habitat Function 2.7 Roads and Trails Access

1.2 Species Diversity 2.8 Wildland Urban Interface

1.3 Productive Capacity 2.9 Tribal Rights and Interests

1.4 Disturbance Processes 2.10 Culturally Significant Foods

1.4.1 Wildland Fire 2.11 Community Resiliency 

1.4.2 Insects and Disease 2.12 Wild Horses

1.5 Invasive Species

1.6 Structural Stages Goal 3: Promote Economic Well-being

1.7 Plant Species Composition 3.1 Facilities and Infrastructure

1.8 Stand Density 3.2 Land Ownership

1.9 Air Quality 3.3 Goods and Services

1.10 Soil Quality 3.3.1 Forest Products

1.11 Water Quality 3.3.2 Livestock Grazing

1.12 Landscape Patterns 3.3.3 Special Uses

1.13 Special Habitats 3.3.4 Mineral and Geological Resources 

1.14 Snags and Down Wood 3.3.5 Water Use
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 21

Goal 1: Promote Ecological Integrity

Ecological integrity is a condition that sustains the wholeness or completeness of ecosystem 

structure, composition, and function. The national forests’ contribution to ecological function is 

described by watershed function, species diversity, productive capacity, disturbance processes, 

and invasive species. Ecological structure and composition are described by structural stages; 

plant species composition; stand density; and air, soil, and water quality. Landscape patterns, 

special habitats, and snags and down wood are also indicators of sustainability in the Blue 

Mountains national forests. Although the primary focus of this section is ecological integrity, this 

goal and the desired conditions are interrelated with the social and economic components of 

sustainability.

Background Information and Existing and Desired Conditions

1.1 Watershed Function

The existing and desired conditions for 1.1 Watershed Function are described by key watersheds 

and all watersheds and in 1.1.1 Hydrologic Function, 1.1.2 Riparian Function, 1.1.3 Wetland 

Function, 1.1.4 Groundwater Dependent Ecosystem Function, 1.1.5 Stream Channel Function, 

and 1.1.6 Aquatic Habitat Function.

Background: Watershed function includes all of the surface and subsurface processes acting on 

or beneath hillslopes and within stream channels that control the movement of water, wood, 

sediment, and nutrients. The rate at which these processes occur is affected by local geology, 

topography, and climate and is moderated by local soil and vegetation. The movement of water 

and sediments modifies the physical structure of watersheds and determines the spatial 

distribution and composition of riparian and aquatic habitats. 

Several elements combine to control the multiple processes that are fundamental to the 

development and long-term vitality of watersheds. These include characteristics of flow regime, 

composition of riparian areas and wetlands, stream channel characteristics, and habitat 

characteristics, each of which is described in this section.

Properly functioning watersheds will provide a range of benefits both on and off of the national 

forests, including, but not limited to, providing habitat for terrestrial, aquatic, and ripariandependent species; maintaining water quality; providing channel stability; reducing erosion; 

moderating floods; and maintaining reliable stream flows for downstream users.

Existing Condition: Since the beginning of European settlement in the mid-1800s, watershed 

conditions in the Blue Mountains have been altered by agriculture, livestock grazing, mining, 

timber harvest, fire suppression, the development of an extensive road network, dams, stream 

channelization, and water diversions (Wissmar et al. 1994) that have resulted in widespread 

degradation of riparian and aquatic habitats (McIntosh et al. 1994). The intentional near 

extirpation of beaver in the Pacific Northwest by the Hudson’s Bay Company prior to 1840 

(Johnson and Chance 1974) may also have been a factor in the decline of riparian and aquatic 

habitats in the Blue Mountains, especially in basins where beaver were formerly abundant (Knopf 

and Scott 1990). Much of the remaining few high quality aquatic habitats are located on National 

Forest System lands and may no longer represent the historical range of occupied habitats 

available to aquatic species (Gregory and Bisson 1997, Sedell et al. 1997). 

The ability to maintain existing high quality habitats and restore degraded habitats will be 

affected by climate change that is expected to include, during the next several decades: higher 
Part 1 – Vision

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

22 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

average temperatures; more winter precipitation falling as rain versus snow; diminishing winter 

snow packs resulting in earlier snowmelt, changes in runoff volume and lower summer base 

flows; higher surface water temperatures; and possibly greater year-to-year variability in 

precipitation that could include extended drought periods as well as greater magnitude floods than 

have occurred in recent history. Flow regimes that change in response to climate change will have 

implications for terrestrial vegetation, terrestrial wildlife, riparian and aquatic species, and water 

availability for human use.

The need to preserve remaining high-quality aquatic habitats in order to preserve existing at-risk 

fish species in the Pacific Northwest is well documented (McIntosh et al. 1994a, Lee et al. 1998, 

Reeves et al. 1995, Rieman et al. 2006). Current research indicates that maintaining the best 

remaining habitat and watersheds that currently support strong populations of anadromous and 

resident fish species is crucial to the continued existence and eventual recovery of these species. 

The key watersheds identified (details are in the project record) currently contain strong 

populations of aquatic species and the habitat needed to support them or are areas that are 

expected to provide high quality habitat at some time in the future (Sedell et al. 1997). The 

selection of key watersheds is based on present knowledge of watershed and habitat conditions, 

recognition of restoration priorities within the Pacific Northwest Region of the Forest Service, 

and other information. The process used to select key watersheds is described by Reiss et al. 

(2008) and is in the project record.

Key watersheds consist of individual subwatersheds or groups of subwatersheds within individual 

subbasins and are ultimately intended to form the centers of broadly connected networks of highquality aquatic habitats, as well as to reduce fragmentation in existing habitats and core fish 

populations. 

Two-hundred-twenty-nine of 489 subwatersheds (47 percent) on National Forest System lands are 

identified as key watersheds based on the presence of strong populations of one or more aquatic 

species, habitat characteristics, and watershed conditions. The project record contains a map of 

key watersheds and a table that identifies the full list. Of these, 76 subwatersheds are identified as 

priorities for restoration. 

The role of key watersheds is to serve as habitat refugia for existing populations and to provide 

sources of individuals that are able to colonize new habitats as conditions improve. The 

management emphasis in all key watersheds is to protect existing populations and their habitats 

while incurring the lowest level of risk to those populations.

Key Watersheds

Desired Condition: Networks of watersheds with good habitat and functionally intact 

ecosystems contribute to and enhance conservation and recovery of specific threatened or 

endangered fish species and provide high water quality and quantity. The networks contribute to 

short-term conservation and long-term recovery at the major population group, core area, or other 

appropriate population scale. 

Roads in key watersheds do not present substantial risk to aquatic resources. 

Key watersheds have high watershed integrity and provide resilient aquatic and riparian 

ecosystems. 

Scale: Subwatershed.
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 23

All Watersheds

Desired Condition: The watershed-scale processes that control the routing of water, sediment, 

wood, and organic material operate at levels that result in self-sustaining riparian and aquatic 

ecosystems that do not require human intervention or restoration. 

Scale: Watershed or subwatershed.

Desired Condition: The distribution, diversity, and complexity of watershed and landscape-scale 

features, including natural disturbance regimes, provide aquatic and riparian ecosystems to which 

species, populations, and communities are uniquely adapted. 

Scale: Subbasin. 

Desired Condition: Connectivity exists within watersheds. Lateral, longitudinal, and drainage 

network connections include floodplains, wetlands, upslope areas, headwater tributaries, and 

intact habitat refugia. These network connections provide chemically and physically unobstructed 

routes to areas critical for fulfilling life history requirements of aquatic, riparian-dependent, and 

many upland species of plants and animals. 

Scale: Connectivity is between watersheds at the subbasin scale for forestwide planning; between 

subwatersheds at the watershed scale for project planning.

1.1.1 Hydrologic Function

Background: Hydrologic function includes all of the processes involved in the conversion of 

precipitation to streamflow, as well as properties of the flow regime, including the magnitude, 

frequency, duration, timing, and variability of streamflow within a watershed. All important 

physical and biological processes within watersheds, including the movement of water, sediment, 

wood, and nutrients, as well as the creation of aquatic habitats, are driven by variability of the 

flow regime (Angermeier 1997). Recurring flows of moderate to high magnitude are responsible 

for most sediment transport and maintain stream channel size and shape (Wolman and Miller 

1960). High flows rearrange and create riparian habitats by dispersing seeds and creating sites for 

establishment of riparian species. In summer months, low flows sustain riparian vegetation that 

provides channel and bank stability, especially on low-gradient streams in wide, unconfined 

valleys. Differences in topography within riparian zones, combined with the differing water 

requirements and tolerances of riparian plant species result in diversity of habitat types.

On hillslopes, the primary controls of hydrologic function are topography, the type and density of 

vegetation, and the physical properties of soils. The alteration or removal of vegetation or ground 

cover by activities such as fire, timber harvest, the use of mechanized equipment, livestock 

grazing, and the construction of roads alters hydrologic pathways in ways that can result in 

increased hillslope and stream channel erosion rates. 

Groundwater inflows and hyporheic exchange in streams and floodplains are important 

contributors to streamflow, especially in summer, and has the additional benefit of being a source 

of cool water that helps moderate stream temperatures.

Existing Condition: Runoff from watersheds in the Blue Mountains is largely dominated by 

snowmelt between March and June, along with the earlier runoff from low-elevation watersheds 

and later runoff from high-elevation watersheds. However, in lower elevation watersheds, a 

substantial part of annual streamflow, and most peak flow events, occurs during winter rains 

between December and February. There is some indication of increasing summer streamflow in 
Part 1 – Vision

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

24 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

parts of the Blue Mountains since the early 1900s (Wissmar et al. 1994a) that some authors 

attribute to land use effects, but that could also be driven by changes in the seasonal distribution 

of precipitation (details are in the project record). There is also evidence that the amount of 

precipitation that becomes streamflow is declining, which is consistent with observed climate 

warming since about 1950 and may be attributed to increased rates of evaporation and 

transpiration by terrestrial vegetation in response to increasing temperature. Changes in the 

timing of runoff, combined with changes in stream temperature due to climate change, could 

affect, for example, the timing of migration and spawning success of salmonid species, as well as 

alter the availability of water for downstream users.

Desired Condition: Instream flows, including water yield, timing, frequency, magnitude, and 

duration of runoff, are sufficient to create and sustain riparian, aquatic, and wetland habitats and 

to retain patterns of movement of sediment, nutrients, and wood. The timing, magnitude, 

duration, and spatial distribution of peak, high, and low flows are within the natural range of 

variability in which the system developed. 

Scale: Watershed.

Desired Condition: The species composition and structural diversity of native plant 

communities in riparian management areas, including wetlands, provides adequate summer and 

winter thermal regulation, nutrient filtering, appropriate rates of surface erosion, bank erosion, 

and channel migration and supplies amounts and distributions of coarse woody debris and fine 

particulate organic matter sufficient to sustain physical complexity and stability. 

Scale: Watershed scale for forestwide planning; subwatershed scale for project planning.

Desired Condition: The timing, variability, and duration of floodplain inundation are within the 

natural range of variability. 

Scale: Watershed. 

Desired Condition: The sediment regime is within the natural range of variability. Elements of 

the sediment regime include the timing, volume, rate, and character of sediment input, storage, 

and transport. 

Scale: Watershed.

Desired Condition: The timing, duration, and variability of inundation, or water table elevation, 

in wetlands, seeps, and springs are within the natural range of variability. 

Scale: Subwatershed.

1.1.2 Riparian Function

Background: Riparian areas are loosely defined as the zones adjacent to stream channels, ponds, 

and lakes that are transitional between the channel and upland habitats (NRC 2002). Riparian 

vegetation includes species that require free or unbound water or conditions more moist than 

normally found in the area (Franklin and Dyrness 1973). 

Riparian areas are important for their critical role in nutrient cycling, stream channel and bank 

stability, water quality, filtering of sediment from upslope areas, and the supply of particulate and 

woody organic material to stream systems. Riparian vegetation provides stream shade that 

contributes to thermal regulation in both winter and summer. Particulate organic material derived 
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 25

from riparian vegetation forms the base of aquatic food webs, while large organic material creates 

channel structure and habitat complexity. Some aquatic insects require certain types of riparian 

vegetation (e.g., willows) in order to complete their life cycles, while an estimated 75 percent of 

terrestrial wildlife species in the Blue Mountains either depend on riparian zones directly or 

utilize them more than other habitats (Raedeke 1989, Thomas 1979). Riparian areas are 

considered the most critical of wildlife habitats in the Blue Mountains (Johnson and O’Neil 

2001). This is due not only to the unique habitat features found in riparian zones, but also because 

they serve as natural corridors or migration routes and as connecting corridors between patches of 

suitable habitat in an otherwise fragmented landscape.

More than 180 riparian plant association types that can be broadly classed into tree, shrub, and 

herbaceous potential vegetation groups have been identified on National Forest System lands in 

the Blue Mountains (Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997, Wells 2006). 

Existing Condition: Based on surveys of perennial, fish-bearing streams, about 48 percent of 

riparian habitats in the Blue Mountains are forested, 29 percent are shrub-dominated and 23 

percent are currently classified as herbaceous. In forested sites, 97 percent are conifer dominated 

and 3 percent are hardwoods dominated (primarily black cottonwood or aspen). 

Hardwood tree and shrub-dominated riparian zones are known to have declined across the Blue 

Mountains since about 1850 (Lee et al. 1997, Wisdom et al. 2000), although the extent of loss on 

National Forest System lands is difficult to quantify. In streams that presently pass through dry 

coniferous forests that have been converted to young, dense stands of Douglas-fir and/or white 

fir, shade intolerant shrubs may be absent or in decline (Liquori and Jackson 2001). Direct 

impacts to riparian areas have included grazing, conversion of floodplains to agricultural lands, 

road construction, mining, timber harvest, splash damming, and channelization, all of which 

result in lost or degraded riparian habitats and loss of channel stability and habitat complexity.

Desired Condition: Riparian management areas (RMAs) within any given watershed reflect a 

natural composition of native flora and fauna and a distribution of physical, chemical, and 

biological conditions appropriate to natural disturbance regimes affecting the area. 

Scale: Subwatershed.

Desired Condition: Key riparian processes and conditions (including slope stability and 

associated vegetative root strength, bank stability, wood delivery to streams, and, within the 

riparian management areas, input of leafy and organic matter to aquatic and terrestrial systems, 

solar shading, microclimate, and water quality) are operating consistent with local disturbance

regimes. 

Scale: Subwatershed.

Desired Condition: Riparian vegetation has the species composition, structural diversity, age 

class diversity, and extent that is characteristic of the setting in which it occurs and the hydrologic 

and disturbance regimes in which it developed. The condition and composition of small habitat 

patches may change over small temporal and spatial scales but remains relatively constant at 

larger scales. 

Scale: Subwatershed to subbasin. 

Desired Condition: Riparian shrub communities occupy their historical range and extent. 

Individual plants are capable of reaching the full potential for a typical individual of a particular 
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Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

26 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

species, as defined by plant height, width, and growth form. Individual plants are able to 

propagate, or reproduce, vegetatively and/or sexually. Plant communities are similar in species 

composition, age class structure, canopy density, and ground cover to plant associations (Crowe 

and Clausnitzer 1997) that are representative of a particular setting.

Scale: Subwatershed.

Desired Condition: Riparian areas consist of native assemblages of riparian-dependent plants 

and animals free of persistent nonnative species and provide for dispersal and travel corridors, as 

well as connectivity, between geographically important areas for both terrestrial and aquatic 

animals and plant species within the planning area. 

Scale: Subwatershed.

1.1.3 Wetland Function

Background: Wetlands, including swamps, bogs, seeps, fens, springs, peatlands, and marshes, 

occur in areas where the soil is either inundated by water or saturated for at least part of the 

growing season. Wetland vegetation includes species that are adapted to saturated soil conditions. 

Some, but not all, streamside riparian areas that meet the above criteria may be classified as 

riverine wetlands (Cowardin et al. 1979), but wetlands occur in a variety of settings where there is 

a source of either surface or groundwater. Wetlands, in general, have disproportionately higher 

plant species diversity relative to surrounding upland habitats.

Small wetlands may be isolated from other surface waters and often represent unique habitats that 

are highly important to aquatic and terrestrial wildlife. Some wetlands are also critical habitat for 

many sensitive, rare, or uncommon plant and lichen species, many of which occur only in these 

habitats.

Wetlands play an important role in protecting water quality, processing excess nutrients, and 

contributing to groundwater recharge, among other functions, but not all wetland types provide 

the same functions, nor do they provide them equally (Euliss et al. 2004). Many wetlands are sites 

of natural water storage that, depending on where they occur, contribute to groundwater recharge 

and reduce the magnitude of floods. Because of the contribution to biological diversity, wetlands 

are regulated under Federal law by the Clean Water Act and through Executive Order 11990, 

which requires Federal agencies to limit or avoid activities that result in impacts to wetlands. 

In addition, some wetlands are essential breeding, rearing, and feeding grounds for many species 

of fish and wildlife, including breeding bird populations, migratory bird, fish, and shellfish 

species. Approximately 75 percent of the terrestrial wildlife species in the Blue Mountains are 

known to use riparian or wetland habitats during their lifetimes (Raedeke 1989, Thomas 1979). 

Headwater springs and their associated wetlands, such as those that occur in the Middle Fork 

John Day River, to name one example, are important sources of stream flow in many drainages. 

More than 1,300 springs, representing an unknown fraction of groundwater resources, are 

developed for water use within the three national forests predominantly for livestock watering, 

but also for human consumption, administrative use, and use by wildlife.

Existing Condition: As with riparian areas, the extent of wetland habitats in the Blue Mountains 

has likely declined from historic conditions. In Oregon, wetland area has declined 38 percent 

since 1800 (Swift 1984). Isolated wetlands that often represent unique habitat types are often 

utilized for human uses, including livestock watering. In streamside areas, the combined effects 
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 27

of water diversions, livestock grazing, beaver removal, channel degradation, and other impacts 

have resulted in widespread loss or conversion of wet meadow wetland types to dry meadows or 

upland shrublands.

Desired Condition: The extent and diversity of wetland types in the Blue Mountains is 

maintained or increased. 

Scale: Subbasin.

Desired Condition: The surface and subsurface flow paths that support wetland habitats are 

undisturbed. The timing and duration of inundation of wetlands are within natural ranges. Plant 

species composition in wetlands is characteristic of the biophysical setting in which they occur. 

Scale: Subwatershed. 

1.1.4 Groundwater-dependent Ecosystem Function

Background: See 1.1.3 Wetland Function. 

Existing Condition: See 1.1.3 Wetland Function.

Desired Condition: Springs, peatlands and groundwater fed wetlands in the Blue Mountains are 

maintaining or regaining their ecological structure and function. 

The aquifer supplying water to groundwater-dependent ecosystems is not being affected by 

groundwater withdrawal or loss of recharge. Soils of groundwater dependent ecosystems are 

intact and functional; erosion and deposition are within the natural range. Runout channels, if 

present, are functioning naturally and are not entrenched, eroded, or substantially altered. 

Vegetation is composed of the anticipated cover of plant species associated with the site 

environment; hydric species are present and are not replaced by upland species. Livestock 

herbivory and trampling are not adversely affecting sites.

Scale: Subwatershed.

1.1.5 Stream Channel Function

Background: Streams and rivers convey water, as well as sediment, nutrients, organic material, 

and dissolved substances. The physical attributes of stream channels are determined largely by 

local geology, topography, climate, and characteristics of the flow and sediment transport 

regimes. Small headwater (ephemeral) streams may comprise up to 70 to 80 percent of the 

channel length in any given watershed and are typically important sources of water, sediment, 

wood, and nutrients to larger streams (Benda 1990, May and Gresswell 2004, Reneau and 

Dietrich 1987).

Existing Condition: Timber harvest, mining, water diversion, livestock grazing, channelization, 

and road construction adjacent to streams have all affected stream channels in the Blue 

Mountains. Most managed watersheds have high road densities (greater than 2.4 miles per square 

mile) that result in increased sediment delivery from road surfaces, drainage features, and roadstream crossings. Roads constructed within riparian areas are likely to directly affect stream 

channels or limit lateral migration of the channel. 

Early timber harvest in the Blue Mountains focused on riparian areas because the areas were 

more accessible and local rivers provided a method for easily transporting trees to sawmills 
Part 1 – Vision

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28 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

(Sedell et al. 1991). Stream cleaning, combined with riparian timber harvest, has reduced inchannel structure and channel stability and has removed potential sources of large wood to 

streams. Removal of beavers from most of the Blue Mountains prior to about 1840 (Johnson and 

Chance 1974) is an early impact to low gradient streams in unconfined river valleys from which 

many of these streams still have not recovered.

Desired Condition: The physical integrity of the aquatic system, including shorelines, banks, 

and bottom configurations, are properly functioning and in dynamic equilibrium with the flow 

and sediment regimes under which aquatic systems have evolved. 

Scale: Subwatershed to watershed. 

Desired Condition: Channel morphology, structure, complexity, and diversity are in ranges that 

are characteristic of the local geology, climate, and geologic processes. 

Scale: Subwatershed.

Desired Condition: The sediment regime under which aquatic ecosystems evolved is maintained, 

including the timing, volume, rate and character of input, storage, and transport. 

Scale: Watershed. 

1.1.6 Aquatic Habitat Function

Background: Aquatic habitats are an important source of biodiversity because of the variety of 

physical and hydrologic settings in which they occur. Aquatic habitats can be divided into running 

water (streams and rivers) and open water (lakes, ponds, and wetlands) habitats. Open water 

habitats occur on river floodplains and in topographic depressions and may be hydrologically 

supported by either ground water or surface water. Backwater or off-channel areas that have 

physical connections to streams and rivers can be biologically important as rearing habitat for 

many aquatic species, including trout and salmon. 

Aquatic habitats are shaped by a combination of physical and biological factors (including 

streamflow variability, sediment transport, stream channel characteristics, riparian habitat 

characteristics, water quality, accumulation, and the processing of wood and other organic 

material) and the connectivity and spatial distribution of habitat types within and adjacent to 

channel networks. 

Existing Condition: Habitat degradation is one of the most commonly cited factors in the decline 

of resident and anadromous fish species in the Pacific Northwest (Gregory and Bisson 1997). 

Habitat quality may still be in decline in some parts of the Blue Mountains. McIntosh et al. 

(1994) noted significant declines in large pool habitats in managed watersheds between 1930 and 

1990, while increases in large pool habitat were noted in unmanaged watersheds during the same 

period. Some habitat types may have been under-represented historically on National Forest 

System lands, underscoring the importance of the remaining high quality habitats, regardless of 

type or ownership. High road densities continue to contribute to poor aquatic and riparian habitat 

conditions. In addition, more than 1,285 culverts block or impair access by aquatic species to 

more than 3,700 miles of streams on National Forest System lands.

Desired Condition: Aquatic habitats contribute to ecological conditions capable of supporting 

self-sustaining populations of native species diversity of plant, invertebrate, and vertebrate 

riparian-dependent species. 
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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 29

National forests in the Blue Mountains contribute to the protection of population strongholds for 

listed or proposed threatened and endangered species, state classified sensitive species, and 

narrow endemics, as these strongholds provide high quality habitat and support expansion and 

recolonization of species to adjacent watersheds. These areas conserve key demographic 

processes likely to influence the persistence of populations or metapopulations. 

Scale: Subwatershed to subbasin. 

Desired Condition: Habitat elements (including spawning and rearing habitat, substrate, pool 

habitat, winter habitat, migration corridors, cover, food, habitat complexity, water quality, refugia, 

productivity, and connectivity) are in functional condition and are sufficiently distributed to 

support self-sustaining populations of native resident and anadromous fish. 

Native fish species have access to historically occupied aquatic habitats and connectivity between 

habitats allows for the interaction of local populations. 

Scale: Subbasin.

1.2 Species Diversity

Background: Providing for the appropriate amount, distribution, and quality of habitat for native 

and desired nonnative aquatic and terrestrial species (plants and animals, vertebrates and 

invertebrates) within the Blue Mountains is an integral component of ecological function. The 

ability to sustain this habitat, as well as the connectivity of habitat patches, is also important to 

the maintenance of ecological function. 

The National Forest Management Act requires land and resource management plans to contribute 

to the diversity of plant and animal communities, based on the suitability and capability of the 

land area, while meeting overall multiple-use objectives. The overall goal for this framework is to 

provide the ecological conditions that support a diversity of native plant and animal species 

within a planning area. Natural ecosystems are only sustainable when the native biodiversity (the 

variety of life and its processes) and the functional basis of productivity are maintained (Johnson 

and O’Neil 2001).

In general, comparing the existing vegetative communities to a set of reference conditions 

(presettlement, natural range of variability, etc.) allows the evaluation of changes in disturbance 

regimes and acts as a check on the adequate representation of ecological communities (Samson 

2002), which in turn should support species diversity. There are instances where maintaining 

ecosystem diversity might not provide the ecological conditions necessary to sustain populations 

of certain species, in which case a species-specific approach is warranted. This is often the case 

for those species that are listed under the Endangered Species Act by either the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service or the National Marine Fisheries Service. 

The Blue Mountains are relatively intact, being dominated by natural or semi-natural vegetation, 

and are home to more than 250 wildlife species. The Blue Mountains have been included in 

several broad scale assessments that have addressed species diversity at various levels, including 

the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project.

Existing Condition: Although the Blue Mountains are relatively intact, habitats have been 

impacted by interrelated changes in ecological process due to logging, grazing, fire suppression, 

and urban development. Although management issues exist for most vegetation communities, the 
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30 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

primary anthropogenic impacts of the last 100 years have resulted in extensive changes in the 

distribution, structure, and species composition of the ponderosa pine forest. 

A wide variety of wildlife species reside in the Blue Mountains. Common large mammals include 

Rocky Mountain elk, mule deer, and black bear. Several furbearers are present, such as beaver, 

marten, and raccoon. Many species of small mammals, birds, bats, reptiles, and amphibians reside 

within the vegetative communities, and the aquatic environments are home to several anadromous 

fish species.

A total of 175 species were identified as being of local and/or regional conservation concern for 

the planning area. The Pacific Northwest Region of the Forest Service adopted processes to guide 

identifying these terrestrial (USDA Forest Service 2010) and aquatic species (Reiss et al. 2008), 

as well as for assessing plant species (Homes et al. 2009). Terrestrial species were grouped by 

potential vegetation group (PVG); risks and threats were identified for the group and a 

representative species (focal species) was selected for the group. The majority of focal species 

were determined to have well distributed source habitats that were reasonably connected and 

similar to what would have been on the landscape historically. There were some species (e.g., 

white-headed woodpecker); however, where source habitats were far diminished from what 

probably occurred historically and those existing habitats had poor connectivity. Aquatic focal 

species were also identified. Based on areas where strong populations of these species are thought 

to occur, it appears that the majority of subwatersheds are in poor condition, with very few 

containing population strongholds of fish focal species.

Within the planning area, there are nine species (one mammal, two plants, one snail, and five 

fishes) listed under the Endangered Species Act by either the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or 

the National Marine Fisheries Service. A list of these species and information regarding each 

species is included in the project record. Of the nine threatened and endangered species, one, the 

Bliss Rapids snail, will not be discussed further as it occurs only within the Hells Canyon 

National Recreation Area and therefore is not within the current planning area.

Desired Condition: The natural range of habitats for native and desired nonnative fish, wildlife, 

and native plant species, including threatened and endangered species, species identified as 

regional forester’s sensitive species, and focal species, is of adequate quality, distribution, and 

abundance to contribute to maintaining native and desired nonnative species diversity. This 

includes the ability of species and individuals to interact, disperse, and find security within 

habitats in the planning area. These habitat conditions are resilient and sustainable considering the 

range of possible climate change scenarios.

Population strongholds for the fish focal species provide high quality habitat and support 

expansion and recolonization of species to adjacent unoccupied habitats. These areas conserve 

key demographic processes likely to influence the sustainability of aquatic species. 

Federally listed species trend towards recovery or are delisted. Management activities improve 

the conservation status of species identified as being focal species or of local or regional 

conservation concern. Habitats and populations are managed in accordance with conservation 

planning documents, recovery plans, best available scientific information, and local knowledge. 

Specialized habitat components, such as caves, standing dead trees, seeps, and springs, are found 

across the landscape in amounts and types commensurate with the natural communities in which 

they occur.
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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 31

Scale: The desired condition for species diversity can be applied at a variety of scales (i.e., 

forestwide, watershed, and subwatershed). During project analysis and implementation, this 

desired condition should be used concurrently with information outlined in the strategy and 

design criteria part of this plan and with consideration of the best available climate change 

projections. 

Table 1 lists terrestrial and aquatic focal and management indicator species for the three national 

forests. Additional information about focal species and their conservation strategies is available 

from the project record.

Table 1. Terrestrial and aquatic focal and management indicator species

Family Group Common Name

Focal 

Species

Management 

Indicator 

Species

Alpine/boreal Alpine Gray-crowned rosy-finch X

Boreal forest Boreal owl X

Water vole X

Forest mosaic All forested communities Northern goshawk X

Medium/large trees All forested communities Cassin's finch X

Cool/moist forest Pileated woodpecker X X

American marten X

Dry forest White-headed woodpecker X X

Open forest All forested communities Western bluebird X

Fox sparrow X

Mule deer MAL only

Post-fire habitat Lewis's woodpecker X

Black-backed woodpecker X

Upland grassland Upland grassland Upland sandpiper X

Human disturbance Habitat generalist Peregrine falcon X

Wolverine X

Rocky Mountain Elk WAW/UMA only

Woodland/grass/shr

ub

Woodland/grass/shrub Golden eagle X

Lark sparrow X

Pallid bat X

Juniper woodland Ash-throated flycatcher X

Woodland/shrub Loggerhead shrike X

Shrub Sage thrasher X

Grass/shrub Rocky Mountain bighorn 

sheep

X

California bighorn X

Grassland Northern harrier X

Chambers/caves Chambers/caves Townsend's big-eared bat X

Riparian Shrubby/deciduous 

riparian

Red-naped sapsucker X

MacGillivray's warbler X

Conifer riparian Inland tailed frog X
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32 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

1.3 Productive Capacity 

Background: Productive capacity is described in terms of the growth and accumulation of plant 

biomass (primary productivity), as well as the growth of animal species that use the products of 

primary productivity (secondary productivity). Key elements of productivity include the physical, 

chemical, and biological properties of soils that provide for vegetative growth and the 

accumulation and cycling of nutrients.

Productivity is based on using natural resources no faster than they are produced or can be 

replaced and is based on using natural resources without impairment of the long-term productive 

capacity of the ecosystems from which they are derived. Recent scientific information recognizes 

that the sustainability of natural systems requires the preservation of the key processes under 

which those systems developed (Aber et al. 2000, Chapin et al. 1996, Holling 1992, Reeves et al. 

1995,). For example, in aquatic systems, variability of the flow regime is responsible for creating 

and maintaining habitats, influencing riparian establishment and succession, controlling the 

routing of sediment, and regulating nutrient cycles. Fires regulate many of the same processes in 

terrestrial systems. 

Existing Condition: One of the most commonly measured indicators for productive capacity is 

growth and mortality rates of vegetation. Other examples for which less data are available 

include: soil compaction, available nutrients, etc. National Forest System lands in the Blue 

Mountains generally have high positive net growth rates. Hovee and Jordan (2004), using recent 

Forest Service inventory data, found that net growth on national forests in eastern Oregon was 45 

percent of gross growth. Gross growth was estimated to be 1.7 billion board feet per year. 

Mortality was estimated to be 774 million board feet per year. Net growth for eastern Oregon was 

estimated at 791 million board feet of timber. High net growth rates can contribute to problems 

with overstocking and increased fire hazard. The current removal rate for timber volume in the 

Blue Mountains is far less than net growth.

Desired Condition: Long-term productivity of aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial ecosystems within 

the national forests are maintained or restored by both ecological processes and through the use of 

sustainable management practices, as described in the combined ecological desired conditions. 

The result of maintenance and restoration treatments is that forest and rangeland ecosystems 

provide goods and services for human consumption without impairing their long-term productive 

capacity. However, the restoration of some nutrient cycling processes within some ecosystems 

consistent with their historic disturbance regimes may result in lower levels of productive 

capacity, in comparison to existing conditions.

Scale: Forestwide. 

1.4 Disturbance Processes 

Background: Natural disturbances include wildfire, insects and disease, flooding, drought, 

landsides, windstorms, and herbivory. Disturbances, either of natural or of human origin, affect 

all aspects of ecosystems at a landscape level. Human-caused disturbances include timber 

harvesting, road construction, mining, domestic livestock grazing, and the introduction of exotic 

species. Disturbance can impact habitat stages, successional stages, structural differentiation, 

nutrient cycles, forage availability, water quality and quantity yields, successional pathways, 

wildlife variety and quantity, carbon balances, scenic variability, and the availability and 

economic value of products. 
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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 33

In many ecosystems, biotic communities have developed adaptations to specific disturbances. 

Many plant species, for example, may rely on either fire or floods for reproduction and are thus 

disturbance-dependent. The effect of any particular disturbance is a property of the disturbance as 

well as the system it affects. One example is the effect of flooding on floodplain rivers in which a 

regularly recurring flood pulse is responsible for maintaining the long-term dynamics of the river 

channel, as well as vegetation, on the adjacent floodplain. In this case, the flood is an integral part 

of the system and is not a disturbance in the same sense (Pickett and White 1985). Instead, 

disturbance in such systems occurs when there is significant departure from the average 

hydrological regime (Bayley 1995). Disturbance also depends on spatial scale. A low intensity 

fire in a mature pine forest, for example, partially consumes above ground herbaceous plant and 

ground cover, but leaves the basic forest structure intact. 

The existing and desired conditions for 1.4 Disturbance Processes are described in 1.4.1 Wildland 

Fire and 1.4.2 Insects and Disease.

1.4.1 Wildland Fire

Background: There are two types of wildland fire: prescribed fires (planned ignitions) and 

wildfires (unplanned ignitions). Prescribed fires are ignited by a management action and are 

designed to meet specific land management objectives. Wildfires are those not ignited by 

management actions. Some wildfires may be managed to meet specific land management 

objectives.

The desired conditions for wildland fire (table 1) describe the appropriate severity, frequency, and 

amount of stand-replacing wildfire for each potential vegetation group. Fire severity describes the 

effects of the fire on vegetation and includes:

• Low severity fire, meaning less than 25 percent mortality to the overstory vegetation 

• Mixed severity fire, meaning greater than 25 and less than 75 percent mortality to the 

overstory

• High severity fire, meaning greater than 75 percent mortality to the overstory

Frequency describes the average interval between fires. 

The percent of stand-replacing fire is the average amount of fire (actual or potential) on the 

landscape with greater than 75 percent overstory mortality. 

Fire regimes are a national classification of the historic combined conditions for fire severity and 

frequency for a particular environment. Fire Regime 1 (dry upland forest) is characterized by low 

severity and frequent fires. Fire Regime 2 (dry herbland) is characterized by high severity and 

frequent fires. Fire Regime 3 (moist upland forest) is characterized by fires of mixed severity with 

moderate to long intervals between fires (35 to 200 years). Fire Regime 4 (cold upland forest) is 

characterized by fires of mixed to high severity with long intervals between fires. 

Existing Condition: Wildland fire processes have been altered due to fire exclusion, timber 

harvest, climate change, and grazing. Fires are now larger and more severe than historic levels, 

especially in the dry forest types (Quigley and Arbelbide 1997). Fire suppression costs for the 

Forest Service have ranged between 1 and 1.5 billion dollars in several of the last few fire 

seasons. This level of spending approaches 40 to 50 percent of the total Forest Service budget and 

is a large increase compared to levels expended in the recent past. In the Blue Mountains between 
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34 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

1960 and 1979, the average annual acres burned (wildfire) was 4,400 acres. This increased to 

26,500 acres per year during the period of 1980 to 2000. 

Sixty percent of the Blue Mountains is classified Fire Regime 1. Historically, 5 to 15 percent of 

the dry upland forest had the potential for high severity fires. Based on forest inventory and the 

forest vegetation simulator fire/fuels modeling, 40 to 60 percent of the dry upland forest now has 

the potential for high severity fire as a result of the abundance of multi-storied stands with high 

stocking levels. Forty percent of the dry upland forest has a high negative departure from 

sustainable stand conditions. The amount of potential stand replacing fire in the dry upland forest 

threatens the attainment of desired conditions for vegetation structure and economic outputs. The 

potential for high severity fire in the moist and cold upland forest environments (Fire Regimes 3 

and 4) is currently close to what is estimated for historic levels (Countryman 2008). 

Desired Condition: Wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions) plays an ecological role in 

creating the resilient forest and rangeland conditions needed to adapt to the conditions that result 

from climate changes. Table 2 displays the desired condition ranges for wildland fire within the 

categories of fire severity, fire frequency, and the amount of high severity fire by potential 

vegetation group. The range of desired conditions displayed allow for variation in the mix of fire 

severity, frequency, and amount of stand-replacing wildfire (high severity) by potential 

vegetation group across the landscape to respond to potential changes in climate. Wildland fire 

may be suitable on all acres, depending on expected fire effects and resource objectives.

Scale: Subwatershed for fire regime condition classes 1 and 2, watershed for fire regime 

condition class 3, and subbasin for fire regime classes 4 and 5.

Table 2. Desired conditions for wildland fire* severity and frequency within each potential vegetation 

group

Potential Vegetation 

Group

Fire

Regime 

Condition Class

Fire

Severity

Fire 

Frequency

(years)

High Severity fire

(percent acres burned)

Cold upland forest 4IV mixed-high 100-200 40-80%

Moist upland forest III mixed 30-150 20-40%

Dry upland forest I low-mixed 5-25 5-15%

Dry upland woodland III mixed 80-160 25-45%

Cold upland shrubland III-IV mixed-high 30-60 30-100%

Moist upland shrubland II-III mixed-high 10-40 30-100%

Dry upland shrubland II high 20-40 20-80%

Cold upland herbland 4IV high 30-80 55-100%

Moist upland herbland II high 20-40 20-80%

Dry upland herbland II high 5-20 40-80%

Cool/Cold riparian forest III-IV mixed-high 100-200 40-90%

* planned and unplanned ignitions

Desired Condition: Fire regime condition class measures the degree of departure from the 

historical range of variability for vegetation characteristics, fuel composition, fire frequency, 

severity and pattern, and other associated disturbances. In landscapes that exhibit a moderate or 

high degree of departure (condition class 2 or 3), the degree of departure is decreased to low or 

moderate (condition class 1 or 2). In landscapes that exhibit a low degree of departure (condition 
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Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 35

class 1), conditions are maintained over time. Over the long-term, landscapes exhibit a low 

degree of departure (condition class 1) from the historical range of variability. Fire behavior, 

effects, and other associated disturbances are similar to those that occurred prior to fire exclusion 

(suppression) and mimic the natural fire regime. Composition and structure of vegetation and 

fuels characteristics are similar to the conditions that existed under the historical fire regime. Risk 

of loss of key ecosystem components is reduced.

Scale: Minimum scale of subwatershed. Scale may be changed to watershed or subbasin level if 

justified as more appropriate through project analysis.

1.4.2 Insects and Disease

Background: Forestland susceptibility to major insects and disease disturbances is heavily 

influenced by stand and landscape-level tree species composition, stand density, and stand 

structure, which can be affected by timber harvest, grazing, climate change, and fire suppression 

(Hessberg et al. 1999). Some past management activities in the Blue Mountains have led to 

unanticipated large, landscape-level changes and have increased the potential for uncharacteristic 

disturbances from insects and disease across the landscape. 

Existing Condition: At the subbasin level, there have been increases in susceptibility, duration, 

extent, and severity of disturbances from bark beetles, defoliators, mistletoes, and root diseases 

due to increased cover, connectivity, stand densities, and multi-storied canopies of Douglas-fir 

and grand fir dominated stands (Hessberg et al. 1999). There is also a continued loss of whitebark 

pine and western white pine due to blister rust. Recent plan modeling of the potential mortality 

from disturbances from insects and disease indicates that approximately 30 percent of the forest 

stands in the Blue Mountains have the potential to have more than 25 percent of their total 

volume killed in the next 10 years. The dry upland forest environment has a much larger level of 

predicted losses than the moist and cold upland forests (Countryman and Justice 2008). All of 

these changes have created landscapes more susceptible to uncharacteristically severe 

disturbances that potentially affect the ability to sustain wildlife habitat, recreational use, fisheries 

resources, and the flow of products from National Forest System lands.

Desired Condition: Characteristic levels of insect and disease activity contribute to diverse 

landscape conditions and provide important wildlife habitat components, such as hollow trees, 

dead wood, and mistletoe brooms. The desired conditions for vegetation structure, stand density, 

and species composition (displayed in tables 12 through 16 of the forest plan) create stand 

conditions with low to moderate susceptibility to insects and diseases across the majority of the 

upland forest potential vegetation groups. These stand conditions result in ecologically resilient 

forests with composition, structure, and density characteristics that are fully compatible with 

periodic disturbance occurring at characteristic levels of severity, intensity, size, and spatial 

distribution.

Scale: Minimum scale of subwatershed. Scale may be changed to watershed or subbasin level if 

justified as more appropriate through project analysis.

1.5 Invasive Species

Background: Invasive species (aquatic, terrestrial, invertebrate, and vertebrate plants and 

animals) are recognized as a major threat to native plant and animal communities, as well as 

social and economic conditions. The effects of invasive species can cause reductions in long-term 

productivity of the land, cause economic loss, disrupt recreational use, and reduce resource 

production. A wide range of species can be invasive, including plants, fish, animals, insects, 
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36 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

fungi, mussels, and pathogens such as white pine blister rust. Some species are commonly 

transported between water bodies by recreational boating and fishing activities 

Existing Condition: The area affected by invasive plant species has increased throughout the 

Interior Columbia Basin during the last 100 years (Quigley and Arbelbide 1996). The same trend 

has also occurred in the Blue Mountains during the last 10 to 15 years. A large portion of the Blue 

Mountains is characterized as being susceptible to invasive plants (Quigley and Arbelbide 1996). 

The susceptibility is most prevalent in areas dominated by dry forest, dry grass, dry shrub, and 

cool shrub types, which are the types of sites that many invasive species evolved in and are 

adapted to. The current level of invasive plant species in the Blue Mountains is about 55,000 

acres (this figure includes some overlap between species).

Other examples include the invasive insect balsam woolly adelgid that affects 40,000 to 60,000 

acres per year in the Blue Mountains from 2005 to 2006 and causes substantial mortality in highelevation true firs. 

Invasive aquatic pathogens, plants, and animals are not yet widespread in the headwater streams 

and lakes of the Blue Mountains. However, many highly invasive aquatic species are well 

established in neighboring states, in the Columbia River, and in the lower reaches of major 

tributaries adjacent to the national forests. Streams and springs within the national forests are at 

risk of invasion by detrimental invasive organisms, such as New Zealand mudsnails and Asian 

clams. Lakes and reservoirs are at risk of invasion by zebra mussels, hydrilla, and other highly 

undesirable introduced plant and animal species. 

Desired Condition: Healthy, native and desired nonnative animal communities and native plant 

communities dominate the landscape and are resilient given current and projected climate 

conditions. Invasive species (aquatic and terrestrial, plant and animal) are absent or occur in small 

areas. Invasive species do not jeopardize the ability of the national forests to provide the goods 

and services communities expect or the habitat that plant and animal community diversity 

depends upon. New invasive species resulting from changes in plant and animal habitats due to 

changes in climate occur only at low levels.

Scale: Watershed scale.

1.6 Structural Stages

Background: The structural arrangement of vegetation, both vertical and horizontal, and the size 

and arrangement of trees, grasses, and shrubs is an important component related to wildlife 

habitat, insects and disease, wildfire hazard, scenic integrity, and potential social and economic 

products, such as timber and culturally significant foods. The structural classes in table 3

represent the full spectrum of structure from young to old stands. 

For forested environments, this includes stand initiation (bare ground to young stands less than 5 

inches d.b.h.), stem exclusion (single layer stands from 5 to 20 inches d.b.h.), understory 

reinitiation (multi-storied stands from 5 to 20 inches d.b.h.) old forest multi-story (multi-storied

stands with an overstory generally greater than 20 inches d.b.h.), and old forest single-story 

(single-storied stands with an overstory generally greater than 20 inches d.b.h.). Figure 2 desrcbes 

the various structural stages as does the glossary. These definitions include both size and trees per 

acre and sometimes include age.

Existing Condition: In the Blue Mountains many changes to forest stand structure have occurred 

due to disturbances, such as wildfire, timber harvest, and insects and disease disturbances. There 
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Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 37

has been a loss of large (20 inches d.b.h. and larger) and medium (15 to 20 inches d.b.h.) trees 

across the landscape. The old forest single-story stage within the dry upland forest PVG has been 

greatly reduced from pre-1900 levels. The amount of old forest within the moist and cold upland 

forest potential vegetation groups is believed to be within the range of what occurred historically 

on the landscape, although there have been shifts from single-storied to multi-storied conditions 

in many areas. 

Some of the most significant changes in forested structural stages have occurred in the dry upland 

forest environment. Within the dry upland forest potential vegetation group, the percent of the 

potential vegetation group in the understory reinitiation stage ranges from 50 to 54 percent in the 

Blue Mountains, compared to a desired condition of 0 to 5 percent. Within the dry upland forest 

potential vegetation group, the percent of the potential vegetation group in the old forest singlestory structural stage ranges from 1 to 4 percent in the Blue Mountains, compared to a desired 

condition of 40 to 65 percent. Most of the reduction in old forest structure occurred prior to 1993 

due to harvesting and wildfire. Since then, the primary loss of old forest on National Forest 

System lands in eastern Oregon and Washington has been due to insects, diseases, or wildfire. 

Structural classes in the shrubland environment have shifted toward one that has higher levels of 

older plants due primarily to fire exclusion and grazing. 

All of these changes have led to reductions in habitat for some wildlife species, increases for 

others, reductions in the output of products, and decreases in scenic quality due to the increased 

occurrences of uncharacteristically severe disturbances (insects, disease and wildfire). Having 

fewer large diameter old trees has led to decreases in habitat for certain species and fewer stands 

that are more resistant to wildfire. Having more multi-storied stands has contributed to the 

increased susceptibility to more severe wildfire.

Desired Condition: The distribution and abundance of forested structural stages creates 

conditions that are ecologically resilient, sustainable, and compatible while maintaining 

disturbance processes within the desired conditions. Table 3 displays the desired conditions for 

the percent of each upland forest or woodland potential vegetation group in each of the forested 

structural stages. The range of desired conditions allows for variations in the mix of structural 

stage combinations across the landscape to respond to potential changes in climate. 

Table 3. Desired conditions for forested structural stages, described as a percent of each upland 

forest or woodland potential vegetation group

Potential 

Vegetation Group

Stand 

Initiation

Stem 

Exclusion

Understory 

Reinitiation

Old Forest 

Single Story

Old Forest 

Multi-story

Cold upland forest 20-45 15-30 10-25 5-20 10-25

Moist upland forest 20-30 20-30 15-25 10-20 15-20

Dry upland forest 15-30 10-20 0-5 40-65 1-15

Dry upland 

woodland 5-10 10-20 1-5 20-40 30-50

Within the cold and moist upland forest potential vegetation groups, the desired diameter 

distribution within the stem exclusion and understory reinitiation stages is to have equal 

representation in the 5 to 10, 10 to 15, and 15 to 20-inch diameter classes. Figure 2 describes the 

forested structural stages.
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38 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Figure 2. Description of forested structural stages used to classify vegetation for the Blue Mountains 

national forests plan revision
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Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 39

Within the dry upland forest potential vegetation group, the desired diameter distribution within 

the stem exclusion and understory reinitiation stages is: 25 percent in the 5 to 10 inch diameter 

class, 25 percent in the 10 to 15 inch diameter class, and 50 percent in the 15 to 20 -inch diameter 

class.

Scale: Minimum scale of subwatershed. Scale may be changed to watershed or subbasin level if 

justified as more appropriate through project analysis.

Desired Condition: The distribution and abundance of herbland and shrubland structural stages 

create conditions that are ecologically resilient, sustainable, and compatible with maintaining 

disturbance processes within the desired conditions. The structural diversity of herblands and 

shrublands are characteristic of the settings in which they occur and the disturbance regimes in 

which they developed. These conditions support the capacity of the plants to reproduce and 

persist on the landscape. Variations in the mix of structural stage combinations across the 

landscape allow herblands and shrublands to respond to potential changes in climate. The desired 

conditions for structural stages include shrubland and herbland potential vegetation groups, as 

well as grass and shrub layers in forested environments.

Scale: Herbland and shrubland desired conditions should apply at the project scale (minimum of 

1,000 acres).

1.7 Plant Species Composition 

Background: The vegetative species composition within different vegetation groups (forested 

and nonforested) can be directly correlated to wildfire, and insects and disease hazard. Much of 

the increase in insects and disease activity and resultant mortality is due to the increase in grand 

fir within dry upland forest. Grand fir is highly susceptible to defoliators, root diseases, fir 

engraver beetle, stem decay, and other insects and disease agents. Drought and excessive stocking 

will exacerbate mortality caused by these agents. Species composition can also influence 

landscape diversity, scenic diversity, and the availability of socially desired products. Desired 

ranges of species composition were developed through the use of a model that projected historic 

species composition based on historic disturbances. Desired species composition is also based on 

estimates that would create a more sustainable condition.

Table 4 displays the desired conditions for species composition, described as a percent of each 

upland forest potential vegetation group. Table B-12 in appendix B contains a crosswalk of cover 

type to species composition/shade tolerance classes by potential vegetation group.

Existing Condition: At the subbasin level, there have been increases in the distribution of 

Douglas-fir and grand fir (Hessberg 1999) on sites historically dominated by ponderosa pine. The 

abundance of juniper has increased on many sites that were historically dominated by sagebrush. 

The distribution of aspen has decreased and the recruitment of younger aspen trees is declining 

due to conifer encroachment, browsing, and the exclusion of wildfire. Whitebark pine has 

decreased due to white pine blister rust, mountain pine beetle mortality, and competition with 

subalpine fir. Western white pine, although abundant in small localized areas, has a limited 

abundance at the larger landscape level. This level of white pine at the landscape level is 

consistent with estimated historic levels, although in localized areas within the Malheur National 

Forest, current levels are estimated to be significantly lower than historic levels. While these 

vegetation conditions may be visually intact, these conditions are unstable and are likely to 

negatively alter scenic character.
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40 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

In the Blue Mountains, many landscape and forest stand-level species compositions have been 

modified by past logging of overstory ponderosa pine and western larch, wildfire suppression, 

grazing, and the introduction of invasive plant species. Planning efforts at the subbasin, basin, and 

watershed scale have documented increases in conifer encroachment onto herbland, shrubland, 

and woodland landscape types. Within the dry upland forest potential vegetation group, the 

percent of the potential vegetation group in shade-tolerant species ranges from 24 to 55 percent in 

the Blue Mountains, compared to a desired condition of 5 to 20 percent. Changes such as this in 

the existing species composition have created a landscape that is less sustainable than what is 

desired and is more susceptible to larger scale uncharacteristic disturbances. As with some of the 

other indicators, some of the most significant differences between the existing condition and the 

desired condition occur in the dry environment. 

Desired Condition: The mix of species composition tolerance classes across the landscape 

creates conditions that are ecologically resilient, sustainable, and compatible with maintaining 

disturbance processes within the desired conditions. Sites having the potential to support forested 

vegetation now and in the future, given regional climate projections, are occupied by stands of 

trees within the ranges displayed in table 4. Table 4 displays the desired condition ranges for the 

percent of each upland forest or woodland potential vegetation group in each of the species 

composition tolerance classes. The range of desired conditions allows for variations in the mix of 

species/composition tolerance class combinations across the landscape to respond to potential 

changes in climate.

Table 4. Desired conditions for species composition, described as a percent of each upland forest or 

woodland potential vegetation group

Potential 

Vegetation Group

Shade-intolerant

Species Composition

Mixed-tolerant 

Species Composition

Shade-tolerant 

Species Composition

Cold upland forest 40-60 5-20 25-50

Moist upland forest 30-60 20-40 10-30

Dry upland forest 75-90 0 5-20

Dry upland woodland 75-90 0 5-20

Scale: Minimum scale of subwatershed. Scale may be changed to watershed or subbasin level if 

justified as more appropriate though project analysis.

The mix of species in the grass and shrub layer of forests, as well as shrubland and herbland 

vegetation, contain a diverse array of native species distributed across the landscape reflecting 

historical conditions. Perennial native bunchgrasses dominate many grass and shrublands. Native 

grasses, grass-like plants (sedges and rushes), forbs and various shrubs characterize the forest 

understory. Riparian zones consist of meadows with obligate wetland species including native 

grasses, sedges and rushes, riparian hardwoods and structurally diverse shrublands.

1.8 Stand Density

Background: Stand density (canopy cover, trees per acre, or basal area) is an important 

component of wildfire, wildlife habitat, insects and disease disturbance, and stand structure. It can 

also be directly linked to vegetation health, hazard indices, and product outputs.

Stand density refers to a measure of the amount of tree vegetation of a unit of land area (Curtis 

1970, Ernst and Knapp 1985, and Powell 1999). One measure of stand density is percent canopy 

cover. Canopy cover refers to the proportion of the forest floor covered by the vertical projection 
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 41

of tree crowns (Jennings et al. 1999). Within the dry upland forest potential vegetation group, 

closed stand density was defined as those stands having 40 percent canopy cover or greater. 

Within the moist and cold upland forest potential vegetation groups, closed stand density was 

defined as those stands having 60 percent canopy cover or greater. Percent canopy cover could 

be equated to other measures of stand density, such as percent of maximum stand density index or 

basal area.

Existing Condition: Generally, average tree diameters have decreased and the average forest 

stand density has increased from estimated pre-1900 levels due to timber harvest and fire 

suppression. Within the dry upland forest potential vegetation group, the percent of the potential 

vegetation group in closed stand densities ranges from approximately 40 to 70 percent in the Blue 

Mountains, compared to a desired condition of 5 to 20 percent. The major changes during the last 

100 years across the Blue Mountains may have reduced biodiversity and created a landscape 

condition dominated by dense and multi-storied stands, creating a visual composition that lacks 

diversity and is atypical of historic mosaic conditions. These changes are most apparent in the dry 

upland forest types. This contributes to the potential for uncharacteristically severe and large 

disturbances due to wildfire, insects, and disease. These conditions could create an unsustainable 

system.

Desired Condition: The range of vegetation densities across the landscape creates conditions 

that are ecologically resilient, sustainable, and compatible with maintaining disturbance processes 

within the desired conditions. Table 5 displays the desired condition ranges for the percent of 

each upland forest or woodland potential vegetation group in each of the stand density classes 

(open or closed). The range of desired conditions allows for variations in the mix of vegetation 

density combinations across the landscape to respond to potential changes in climate. Lowdensity vegetation is more likely to survive possible future drought stress, fires, and insects and 

disease outbreaks.

Table 5. Desired conditions for stand density, described as a percent of each upland forest or 

woodland potential vegetation group

Potential Vegetation Group Open Stand Density Closed Stand Density

Cold upland forest 20-30 65-80

Moist upland forest 30-40 60-80

Dry upland forest 80-90 5-20

Dry upland woodland 80-90 5-20

Note: Dry upland forest closed stand density is 40 percent canopy cover or greater. Cold and moist upland forest 

closed stand density is 60 percent canopy cover or greater.

Scale: Minimum scale of subwatershed. Scale may be changed to watershed or subbasin level if 

justified as more appropriate through project analysis.

Desired Condition: The distribution and abundance of vegetation density within herblands and 

shrublands create conditions that are ecologically resilient, sustainable, and compatible with 

maintaining disturbance processes within the desired conditions. These conditions support the 

capacity of the plants to reproduce and persist on the landscape. Variations in the mix of 

vegetation density combinations across the landscape allow herblands and shrublands to respond 

to potential changes in climate. The desired conditions for vegetation density includes shrubland 

and herbland potential vegetation groups, as well as grass and shrub layers in forested 

environments. 
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42 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Scale: Herbland and shrubland desired conditions should be applied at the project scale 

(minimum of 1,000 acres).

1.9 Air Quality

Background: Air quality is measured by the concentration of substances that are known to be 

harmful to the health and welfare of humans and the environment. Human-caused sources of air 

pollution, such as vehicle emissions, large and small industrial sources, and open burning, 

produce a number of air pollutants, including nitrous oxides, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, 

and many other organic chemical compounds. 

Smoke, which includes fine particulate emissions from wildland fire (planned and unplanned 

ignitions), results in reduced visibility and haze at lower concentrations and can be hazardous to 

human health at moderate concentrations. Federal and state standards include protection of air 

quality-related values in Class I areas (wilderness areas greater than 5,000 acres that existed on or 

before August 1977; in the Blue Mountains this includes the Strawberry Mountain, Eagle Cap, 

and Hells Canyon Wilderness Areas). In the Blue Mountains, the primary national forest activity 

influencing air quality is smoke production from wildfires and prescribed fires. Smoke from the 

national forests cannot be eliminated. The main objectives of fuel reduction activities within the 

national forests are to lessen the total amount of annual smoke emissions, to reduce the risk of 

high-severity wildfires, and to lower the potential of smoke impacts to local communities and 

other smoke-sensitive areas. 

Existing Condition: Smoke emissions from wildfires can vary greatly from year to year, while 

annual smoke emissions from prescribed fires are less variable. Both have the potential to affect 

local community and regional air quality. 

Desired Condition: National forest air quality complies with national and State (Oregon, Idaho, 

and Washington) ambient air quality standards and State air quality and smoke management plans 

(ODF 2008) and is sufficient to protect human health and the environment.

Minimize smoke intrusions in smoke-sensitive receptor areas. Smoke-sensitive receptor areas are 

generally defined as communities with populations of more than 10,000. In the Blue Mountains, 

this includes Baker City, La Grande, John Day, and Pendleton. Outside of smoke-sensitive 

receptor areas, the intent of the Oregon and Washington Smoke Management Plan is to limit the 

intensity and duration of smoke intrusions in order to minimize smoke exposure to humans at 

their place of residence or at places where they normally gather.

Air quality in Class I areas is consistent with Clean Air Act regulations and meets applicable state 

and Federal air quality standards.

Scale: Smoke emissions are relevant at the scale of the Blue Mountains as well as the local 

airsheds surrounding local communities and the broader areas that encompass designated 

wilderness areas. 

1.10 Soil Quality 

Background: Soils develop during long time periods (from decades to centuries), depending on 

local site characteristics, including climate, the nature of geological parent material (rock type), 

the actions of living organisms (including vegetation, soil organisms, and microbes), topography, 

and weathering and decomposition processes (Brady 1990, Harvey et al. 1994). The biological, 

physical, and chemical properties of soils contribute to both the biological productivity of plant 
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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 43

communities and the hydrologic functioning of watersheds. In addition, soils likely store as much 

carbon as is contained in above ground vegetation and, as a result, are important when 

considering the effects of climate change. 

Decomposition of organic material is the principal source of nutrients in soil and varies with 

vegetation type, stand age in forested settings, species composition, and fire history (Jurgensen et 

al. 1997). In forested watersheds, wildfires were historically important in creating vegetative 

patches of differing plant community types and stages of succession, as well as in ensuring the 

availability and recycling of soil nutrients. Important properties include soil depth, organic matter 

content, nutrient content, ground cover (litter), soil texture, water holding capacity, and 

infiltration capacity, all of which have biological and physical importance (Childs et al. 1989, 

Meurrisse et al. 1990). Soil properties vary greatly across the landscape and between different soil 

types. 

Surface soil erosion and sediment delivery to streams are common contributors to reduced water 

quality (Coats and Miller 1981). Sediment in streams can increase water treatment costs where 

water is used for human consumption (Forster et al. 1987) but is more commonly known for 

effects on aquatic habitats (Bisson and Bilby 1982, Bjornn and Reiser 1991, Cordone and Kelly 

1961, Waters 1995).

High intensity wildfires may result in elevated post-fire water temperatures (Dunham et al. 2007), 

channel incision (Moody and Kinner 2006), greatly elevated erosion rates (MacDonald and 

Robichaud 2008, Shakesby and Doerr 2006) and loss of soil carbon and nitrogen (Bormann et al. 

2008).

Existing Condition: The quality of national forest soils across the Blue Mountains has been 

affected to varying degrees by past land uses, such as livestock grazing, the introduction of 

nonnative plant species, timber harvesting, road construction, mining, wildfire suppression, and 

off-highway vehicle use. The effect of these activities is reduced ground cover, altered vegetative 

conditions, increased soil erosion rates, and depressed soil productivity and hydrologic function.

Desired Condition: The productive potential of forest and range soils is maintained at levels that 

contribute to long-term sustainability of ecosystems considering the range of possible climate 

change scenarios. Soil physical and chemical properties (texture, porosity, strength, coarse 

fragment content, and fertility) and organic matter (surface woody debris, humus) are at levels 

that maintain soil productive potential and hydrologic function (infiltration, percolation, and 

runoff).

Surface erosion rates and sediment deposition are within the natural range of variability for each 

biophysical setting. 

Scale: Subwatershed to watershed depending on the severity of the disturbance.

1.11 Water Quality 

Background: Water quality is regulated nationally by authority of the Clean Water Act. Water 

quality criteria are established by the individual states and some tribes for the protection of 

aquatic species and humans. Water quality criteria vary depending on the beneficial use of water. 

For example, the criteria for irrigation use, domestic use, and coldwater fisheries are all different. 

For aquatic species, water quality concerns include elevated stream temperature, elevated fine 

sediment levels, and the availability of nutrients on which aquatic food webs are based. Rivers 
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Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

44 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

that originate from within the national forests are used for irrigation of agricultural crops and for 

human consumption. These rivers must meet appropriate water quality criteria for those uses. 

Ongoing protection of water quality in domestic supply watersheds and protection and 

enhancement of riparian areas is a priority.

Existing Condition: The primary designated beneficial use of water on National Forest System 

lands in the Blue Mountains is for cold-water fish habitat. More than 1,200 stream miles are listed 

as not meeting water quality criteria for this use due to elevated stream temperatures. Fewer than 

100 stream miles are listed due to excess stream sedimentation. The flow regimes of many 

streams are affected by dams and water diversions. Removal of instream wood, changes in 

channel morphology, loss of floodplain connectivity, and alteration and loss of riparian vegetation 

all contribute to declines in water quality.

Desired Condition: Water quality of surface and groundwater is sufficient to support healthy 

riparian, aquatic, and wetland ecosystems. It is within the range that maintains the biological, 

physical, and chemical integrity of the system and is capable of benefiting the survival, growth, 

reproduction, and migration of individuals composing aquatic and riparian communities. 

The quality of water emanating from the national forests is sufficient to provide for statedesignated beneficial uses, including human uses.

Water quality in streams within the national forests is sufficient to meet applicable state, local, 

and tribal water quality criteria. 

Scale: Forestwide.

1.12 Landscape Patterns 

Background: Landscapes are ecological units with structure and function and are composed 

primarily of patches that differ in origin, dynamics, size, shape, and spatial orientation (Forman 

and Godron 1981). Landscape patterns or landscape heterogeneity is the spatial patchiness and 

variability in the landscape patterns, and it can occur at multiple spatial scales (Benton et al. 

2003). Landscape heterogeneity that resembles natural patterns has been shown to provide for 

greater biodiversity (Fischer et al. 2006).

Issues of landscape fragmentation and patch connectivity are a concern in conservation biology 

(Forman and Godron 1986). Hann et al. (1998) found that when land use, ecosystem health, and 

species diversity are out of balance with inherent disturbance processes and biophysical 

capabilities, the landscape ecosystem tends toward unbalance. Hemstrom et al. (2001) concluded 

that past types and levels of human use have caused extensive changes and have run counter to 

the historical ecological conditions.

The basic foundation of landscape patterns involves an understanding of patches and patch 

dynamics. Patches are areas of similar vegetation and environmental conditions while patch 

dynamics is the process in which a patch interacts with the surrounding area (Morrison et al. 

1992, ICBEMP SDEIS 2000). 

Landscape patterns can influence disturbance processes, nutrient cycling, and plant and animal 

distribution (Gosz et al. 1999 in Szaro et al. 1999). Landscape patterns determine how, where, and 

when vertebrate and nonvertebrate species utilize a given area. Landscape patterns influence the 

movement of species across the landscape. Landscape patterns are dynamic and are influenced by 

both natural and human-induced disturbances. Wildfires of different intensities, along with 
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 45

storms, windthrow, and insects, created complex and shifting mosaics of forests across the 

landscapes of the Blue Mountains (Langston 1995).

Landscape patterns are a major factor that contribute to scenic character. Unnaturally appearing 

patterns, such as clearcuts, mine tailings, and roadways, reduce scenic integrity. This detracts 

from valued scenery that is viewed from scenic byways, communities, and important recreation 

sites. 

Existing Condition: Patch size of dry and moist old forest structure in the Blue Mountains has 

decreased and isolation and fragmentation has increased primarily due to timber harvest and 

wildfire. These changes are most evident in the portions of the landscape that are actively 

managed, which also may result in low scenic integrity in these areas within the Blue Mountains. 

Wisdom et al. (2003) found that fragmentation and homogenization of patches may be of 

substantial concern within the Columbia Basin. Within the basin, the highest departure of 

fragmented landscapes occurred in watersheds at lower elevations. These watersheds made up 16 

percent of the Columbia Basin. The watersheds with the least departure occurred at higher 

elevations, primarily within existing wilderness areas and undeveloped areas.

Less than 10 percent of the old forest landscape is in patches greater than 300 acres. The percent 

of the landscape in young forest patches less than 40 acres exceeds 50 percent. The high 

percentage in the less than 40 acres category is a result of the National Forest Management Act 

requirement that limits the size of regeneration harvests to less than 40 acres.

Desired Condition: Landscape patterns are spatially and temporally diverse and have a positive 

influence on overall ecological function and scenic integrity. Landscape patterns provide a 

connectivity, allowing animals to move across landscapes. Landscape patterns are resilient and 

sustainable, considering the range of possible climate change scenarios.

Scale: Forestwide.

1.13 Special Plant Habitats 

Background: Special habitats are unique groups of living organisms and nonliving attributes 

that are limited in geographic extent, such as legacy trees, caves, cliffs, talus slopes, specific plant 

communities, and soil types. The ICBEMP DEIS referred to special habitats as special features 

(Giannettino and Middaugh 2000). Oregon and Washington both completed conservation 

strategies in 2005 (ODFW 2006 and WDFW 2005). Both of these strategies identify specialized 

and rare habitats for these areas that occur within the Blue Mountains, as well as conservation 

actions. A listing of these areas is included in the project record. 

A wide variety of special habitats occurs across the Blue Mountains, and these habitats are 

important for sustaining ecosystem function. Some special habitats are a result of or are affected 

by disturbances. Other special habitats, such as rock outcrops, may be indirectly affected by 

disturbance. Depending on the extent and intensity of the disturbance, many special habitats are 

either created or pushed back in the successional pathway. 

Legacy trees are old trees that have been spared or have survived stand replacing natural 

disturbances (Mazurek and Zielinski 2004). Legacy trees provide important foraging and 

breeding habitat in managed timber stands. 
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46 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Some of the special habitats are associated with water and riparian areas (i.e., wetlands, small and 

larger bodies of water, springs, seeps, and bogs). These types of special habitats are discussed in 

section “1.1 Watershed Function.”

The special habitats tend to be small in area and localized in distribution. 

Desired Condition: Special plant habitats include mountain mahogany, aspen, cottonwood, 

sagebrush steppe, and whitebark pine. They provide high quality habitat for associated species. 

The distribution and abundance of structural stages and vegetation density classes within these 

special plant habitats are consistent with their HRV and create conditions that are ecologically 

resilient, sustainable, and compatible with maintaining disturbance processes within the desired 

conditions. Variations in the mix of structural stages and vegetation density combinations across 

the landscape allow special plant habitats to respond to potential changes in climate.

Whitebark Pine

Desired Condition: There is no net loss in whitebark pine habitat on NFS lands. Genetic 

diversity is conserved across the landscape. Degraded habitat and connectivity are restored 

wherever necessary, including in designated wilderness. Populations exhibit an increase in age 

class diversity. The risk of mortality from mountain pine beetle and stand-replacing fire is 

reduced. Resistance to white pine blister rust is increased. (Aubry et al. 2008, Keane et al. 2012.)

Fire may be used as one tool to achieve these desired conditions. Minimize negative impacts to 

whitebark pine resulting from fire suppression activities.

Scale: The identification and protection of whitebark pine special plant habitats are primarily 

accomplished at project level planning. The sustainability of special plant habitats is best 

addressed at the forestwide scale utilizing consideration of the best available climate projections.

Aspen

Desired Condition: The amount of aspen forest area is increased across the landscape. Genetic 

diversity is maintained through preservation of existing clones. The distribution and abundance of 

age and structural classes are consistent with the HRV and create conditions that are ecologically 

resilient, sustainable, and compatible with maintaining disturbance processes within the desired 

conditions (see Table 6). Aspen clones older than 80 years old that are healthy and adequately 

stocked would generally not be regenerated to achieve the desired conditions for the percent of 

aspen forest area in age classes less than 80 years old. Fire may be used as a tool to achieve these 

desired conditions. Protection of suckers from ungulate browsing is critical for survival of aspen 

regeneration, generally for a minimum of 10 years. 

Table 6. Desired conditions for age and structural composition of aspen 

Age (Years) Structural Class

Percent of aspen 

forest area

0-40 SI 45-50

40-80 SE, UR 45-50

80+ OFMS, OFSS 5-10

Source: Swanson et al. 2010
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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 47

Scale: The identification and protection of aspen special plant habitats are primarily 

accomplished at project level planning. The sustainability of special plant habitats is best 

addressed at the forestwide scale utilizing consideration of the best available climate projections.

Sagebrush Steppe Special Habitat

Background: Sagebrush habitats in eastern Oregon are both extensive and diverse, ranging from 

low elevation valleys to high mountain areas and from grassland-like shrub-steppe to relatively 

dense shrublands. In addition, there are many species of sagebrush. For example, in the Blue 

Mountains, sagebrush shrubland species vary by elevation and soils but include low sagebrush, 

sliver sagebrush, rigid sagebrush, basin big sagebrush, Wyoming big sagebrush, mountain big 

sagebrush, threetip sagebrush, bitterbrush, and rabbitbrush. Altered fire regimes, invasive plants, 

human development, and climate change are the primary stressors to sagebrush. 

Sagebrush habitats have been reduced by more than 21 percent in Oregon from the late 1850s 

(Hagen 2011). Much of the loss has been due to conversion to agriculture and the conversion of 

lands to other exotic forbs and annual grasses (Wisdom et al. 2000). More than 90 percent of the 

sagebrush steppe community currently occurs within BLM and private lands, while only eight 

percent occurs within National Forest System lands, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administered 

lands, and Oregon Department of State Lands.

Existing Condition: As indicated previously, there are several sagebrush communities in the 

Blue Mountains, not all of which would be part of the sagebrush steppe special habitat. For 

example, the mountain big sagebrush/elk sedge plant community is a high elevation community 

found on gentle to steep mountain slopes above 5,000 feet (Johnson and Clausnitzer 1992). 

Within National Forest System lands in the Blue Mountains, the sagebrush steppe habitat occurs 

on less than 1 percent of the Wallowa-Whitman and the Umatilla National Forests and occurs on 

approximately 6 percent of the Malheur National Forest.

Desired Condition: There is no net loss of sagebrush steppe habitat on NFS lands and 70 

percent of the existing sagebrush rangelands are in later structural stages (sagebrush classes 3, 4, 

and 5). The remaining 30 percent of the landscape includes areas of juniper encroachment, 

nonsagebrush shrub lands, annual grasslands, and nonnative perennial grasslands that potentially 

could be rehabilitated and enhanced as sagebrush habitat. The understory is comprised of native 

species, resulting in conditions that are sustainable and resilient to disturbance (i.e., they are 

capable of recovering to their potential community without intervention after a disturbance).

Scale: The identification and protection of sagebrush steppe special habitat is primarily 

accomplished at project level planning. The sustainability of special plant habitats is best 

addressed at the forestwide scale utilizing consideration of the best available climate projections.

1.14 Snags and Down Wood 

Background: Snags (standing dead trees) and down wood are critical elements of healthy, 

productive, and biologically diverse forests (Bull et al. 1997). Thomas et al. (1979) found that 

179 wildlife species use snags and down wood within the Blue Mountains. These species depend 

on snags and down wood for foraging, denning, roosting, and nesting habitat. Down wood also 

stores nutrients and moisture and aids in soil development. Levels of snags and down wood can 

affect the sustainability of particular animal or plant species.

Table 7 displays the desired condition for down dead wood across the landscape. The desired 

condition varies based upon potential vegetation groups, size of the dead down wood, and amount 
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48 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

of the dead down wood to be found the across the landscape. The table illustrates that the desired 

condition for the majority of the landscape is to have less than 20 tons of down wood per acre 

with the majority of course woody debris being less than 10 inches in diameter.

The ranges were developed from Current Vegetation Survey (CVS) inventory plot unharvested 

data and blended with levels that are sustainable given the wildfire desired conditions. The 

categories of potential vegetation groups were based on those used in DecAID (Marcot et al. 

2002). The lodgepole category is recognized by DecAID, and is listed in the table as a potential 

vegetation group, but in the Blue Mountains classification system, it is not recognized as a 

potential vegetation group. It instead is classified as a cover type that is transitional to either the 

cold or moist forest potential vegetation groups. The desired characteristics for the lodgepole 

cover type are different enough from either cold or moist forest that it is necessary to separate it 

as is done in DecAID. 

Table 8 and table 9 display the desired percentages of the landscape that should occur within the 

different categories (ranges of dead trees per acre) within the different potential vegetation 

groups. The potential vegetation discussion for this table is the same as in the preceding 

paragraph. 

Existing Condition: Analysis conducted as part of the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem 

Management Project reveals the following information regarding the historical distribution of 

snags:

• Small snags have increased on Forest Service or Bureau of Land Management administered 

lands (7 percent).

• Small snags have decreased across the basin (14 percent).

• Large snags have decreased on Forest Service or Bureau of Land Management administered 

lands (8 percent).

• Large snags have decreased across the basin (31 percent).

Most of the increase in small snag occurred within dry forests. The analysis indicated that within 

the Blue Mountains ecological reporting unit (ERU), small snags decreased in the north and 

increased in the south. Abundance of small diameter snags and small diameter down wood in the 

dry forest has increased because of the reduction in the amount and frequency of low intensity 

wildfire.

The largest decreases in large snags occurred within dry and moist forests. Large snag declines on 

Forest Service or Bureau of Land Management administered lands were compounded in managed 

and roaded areas. The decline in large snags was particularly noted within the northern portion of 

the Blue Mountains ERU.

Past management activities have reduced snag levels and created a higher percentage of the 

landscape that has low number of snags than is desired. Past activities have also reduced the 

percentage of the landscape with pulses of large numbers (trees per acre) of snags greater than 20 

inches d.b.h.

Desired Condition: Snags and down wood occur within all of the potential vegetation groups 

and vegetation cover types (lodgepole) at levels identified within table 7 through table 9. Snags 

and down wood persist across the landscape either singularly or in patches. Snags and down 

wood density will be highest following disturbance events, such as wildfire, wind events, and 
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Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 49

insects and disease outbreaks. Snags and down wood density will tend to be higher in riparian 

areas. Snags are the major source of down wood in both upland and riparian areas.

Snags and down wood provide habitat for the following focal species: boreal owl, pileated 

woodpecker, American marten, white-headed woodpecker, western bluebird, fringed myotis, 

Lewis’s woodpecker, black-backed woodpecker, wood duck, bald eagle, and red-naped sapsucker.

Scale: The desired condition and the levels of snags and down wood presented within table 7

through table 9 can be applied at a variety of scales: forestwide, watershed, and subwatershed. 

During project analysis and implementation, the desired condition, along with the snag and down 

wood levels presented in the tables, will be used concurrently with information outlined in Part 2 

(Strategy) and Part 3 (Design Criteria) within the forest plan.

Table 7. Ranges of down wood (desired condition)

Potential 

Vegetation 

Group

0-10

Tons

10-20

Tons

20-45

Tons

45-65

Tons

65-90

Tons

90-Plus

Tons

Desired Residual 

Tons Composed of 

Material Greater than 

12 Inches Diameter*

Cold upland 

forest 0-5% 70-80% 5-20% 2-4% 1-2% 1-2% 40-50%

Moist upland 

forest 0-5% 70-80% 5-20% 1-2% 1-2% 1-2% 50-60%

Dry upland 

forest 60-80% 5-15% 2-4% 1-2% 1-2% 1-2% 60-80%

Lodgepole 

pine forest 0-5% 80-95% 1-10% 1-10% 1-2% 1-2% 10-20%

* The intent of the 12-inch down wood portion of the desired condition is not that 12 inches exactly is needed, but instead 

that retention of the largest potential size class based on the size of the existing overstory trees is emphasized.

Table 8. Desired percentage ranges across the landscape of snags (dead trees) per acre

10 inches d.b.h. and greater and less than 20 inches d.b.h.

Potential 

Vegetation Group

1-2 Dead 

Trees

2-6 Dead 

Trees

6-10 Dead 

Trees

10-14 

Dead 

Trees

14-18 

Dead

Trees

More Than 

18 Dead 

Trees

Cold upland forest 45-55% 5-10% 0-1% 5-10% 1-5% 20-30%

Moist upland forest 35-45% 10-20% 0-1% 5-10% 2-5% 25-35%

Dry upland forest 65-75% 10-15% 0-1% 5-10% 1-5% 5-15%

Lodgepole 

pine forest 60-70% 5-10% 0-1% 5-10% 2-5% 20-30%

Table 9. Desired percentage ranges across the landscape of snags (dead trees) per acre

20 inches d.b.h. and greater 

Potential 

Vegetation Group

1-2 Dead 

Trees

2-6 Dead 

Trees

6-10 Dead 

Trees

10-14 

Dead 

Trees

14-18 

Dead 

Trees

More Than 

18 Dead 

Trees

Cold upland forest 70-80% 10-20% 1-3% 1-10% 2-4% 1-3%

Moist upland forest 55-65% 15-25% 2-6% 5-9% 2-6% 1-5%

Dry upland forest 75-85% 10-20% 1-3% 2-4% 1-2% 1-2%

Lodgepole 

pine forest NA NA NA NA NA NA
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50 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Goal 2: Promote Social Well-being

Social well-being contributes to national forest resilience by fostering public use patterns and 

restoration strategies that support human communities, livelihoods, cultures, and social values. 

National forests contribute to community resilience by providing jobs, ecosystem services, 

scenery, and recreational opportunities. Each individual’s ties to the land, traditional cultures, and 

communities help characterize social well-being (Pierce Coffer and Byron 2001). 

Attachments to places in and adjacent to the national forests reflect core values that shape and 

define social, economic, and ecological sustainability within the Blue Mountains and elsewhere 

(Endter-Wada et al. 1998). Examples include the values different people place on biodiversity, 

scenery, economic opportunities, self-reliance, tradition, and ecological integrity (Brown and 

Reed 2000). These and a suite of other values form the basis for collaborative discussions about 

national forest management and, ultimately, how it affects social well-being. 

A diverse and complex set of values that contribute to one’s social well-being can be tied to 

natural resources-related work, including restoration, ranching, and recreation. This work allows 

people to live in communities that are adjacent to the national forests. These values may include 

viewing or hunting wildlife, being able to do natural resource-related work, knowing that 

restoration efforts are supporting fish populations, and being part of an environment where human 

traditions and cultures can be maintained. 

2.1 Scenery 

Background: Scenic attributes, including identifiable patterns, distinct color, texture, and form, 

and elements, such as aspen stands and rock formations, are derived from specific geological 

features and functioning ecosystems. These features provide a scenic identity and image that is 

valued as a backdrop for the activities and experiences that create memories and meet 

expectations of national forest visitors (Bacon et al. 1974 and Ryan 2005). People value the 

scenery of the Blue Mountains national forests for the natural beauty, undeveloped or undisturbed 

scenes, and rural western setting while visiting or recreating. There are many opportunities to 

view historic structures and traditional uses, such as historic mining operations, ranching 

facilities, Civilian Conservation Corp structures, pole fences, and historic ditches. Mountainous 

environments and canyons that create scenes of dynamic vertical change combine with the plant 

communities that are present at differing elevations and with geological features, such as rock 

outcrops and peaks. Water features create strong visual images that are highly valued. All of these 

attributes and many more create patterns and mosaics that contribute to the scenery of the Blue 

Mountains. 

Scenery is inventoried and placed into one of seven scenic classes with Scenic Class 1 being 

highly valued and distinctive and Scenic Class 7 being nondistinctive and valued the least. Each 

classification is determined by the combination of scenic attractiveness, viewpoint, viewing 

distance, and duration along with the frequency and/or number of viewers (USDA Forest Service 

1995a). Determining this range of scenic classes allows managers to understand the social 

acceptability of any change in scenery. 

Scenic integrity and scenic stability are two indicators used to evaluate the condition of scenery 

resources (table 10). Scenic integrity addresses human caused disturbances and development that 

may detract from the desired scenic character. Scenic stability addresses the relative stability of 

the valued scenic character and its scenic attributes. Further in-depth scenic character descriptions 

can be found in the scenery resource implementation guide and the plan record. 
Part 1 – Vision 

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 51

Scenic Integrity

Existing Condition: Impacts to scenic integrity are predominantly related to harvest activities 

dating before 1980. More recent harvest activities were designed to blend with the natural 

appearing settings. Within the Blue Mountains, 10 to 15 percent of the landscape has a low or 

very low Scenic Integrity Level, where visual disturbances detract from the valued scenic 

character. An example is a vegetation harvest unit that appears distinctly geometric and unnatural. 

Twenty percent of the area has a moderate Scenic Integrity Level, where openings in the 

vegetation are largely out of scale, but the edges are blended or are shaped in a manner that 

appears somewhat natural. Fifty percent of the area has a high Scenic Integrity Level, and 15 

percent is very high, where the valued scenic character appears intact with no detracting visual 

disturbances. 

Scenic Stability

Existing Condition: In many areas the long-term stability of scenery resources is at risk of large 

scale impacts due to conditions exacerbated by past wildfire suppression and harvest practices. 

The resultant conditions of homogenous, overly dense forests of nonfire-resistant species heavily 

laden with fuels put scenery resources at risk from uncharacteristically large, stand-replacing 

wildfires and insects and disease disturbances. 

Forty-five percent of Scenic Class 1 has moderate scenic stability, meaning that most dominant 

scenery attributes of the valued landscape are present, but there are conditions that pose a threat 

to the stability of the attributes, such as a large-scale wildfire or disturbance from insects and 

disease. Less than 5 percent of Scenic Class 1 has high scenic stability, meaning that the dominant 

scenery attributes are present and are likely to be sustained.

Scenic Integrity and Scenic Stability

Desired Condition: Scenery is a highly valued forest resource and is quantified through the use 

of the scenery management system. The scenery management system provides the framework to 

effectively integrate scenic values and ecological considerations, to achieve a scenic integrity and 

scenic stability for future generations. Although the scenic resources vary by location, all 

activities that forest visitors experience are performed in a scenic environment composed of the 

natural and constructed features within the landscape. The scenery management system process 

involves identifying scenic components as they relate to people, mapping these components and 

assigning a value to aesthetics. These components are inventoried and provided guidance for the 

development of the desired scenic integrity and stability levels.

The following components have been inventoried for the Blue Mountains national forests:

• Landscape character descriptions

• Scenic attractiveness

• Existing scenic integrity

• Existing scenic stability

• Concern levels

• Landscape visibility

• Distance zones

• Scenic class
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52 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Scenic integrity and stability objectives are associated with public observation points such as 

travel routes, use areas and waterbodies.

Table 10. Scenic integrity levels and scenic stability levels (desired condition)

Scenic 

Class

Scenic Integrity Levels Scenic Stability

Very 

High High Moderate Low Very 

Low

Very 

High High Moderate Low Very 

Low

1 x x x x

2 x x x x x x x

3 x x x x x x x

4 x x x x x x x

5 x x x x x x x

6 x x x x x x x

7 x x x x x x x

Scenic Class 1

Desired Condition: In Scenic Class 1, the scenery is highly valued, distinctive, and viewed 

frequently for a continuous duration. The view is highly intact with no utility corridors or other 

energy developments present and with minimal management disturbances. High to very high 

scenic integrity is present. All naturally occurring or historically valued dominant attributes of the 

scenic character are present. The ecological condition maintains a high to very high level of 

scenic stability.

Scale: Forestwide.

Scenic Classes 2 and 3

Desired Condition: In Scenic Classes 2 and 3 the scenery is valued, typical, and viewed 

frequently, but not continuously. The view is predominately intact, with alterations compatible 

with valued scenic attributes. Utility corridors and other energy developments are not present. 

Moderate to very high scenic integrity is maintained. Most dominant scenery attributes are 

present and are likely to be sustained. Ecological conditions may pose a threat to the valued 

scenic attributes. Low to very high scenic stability can be maintained.

Scale: Forestwide.

Scenic Classes 4, 5, 6, and 7

Desired Condition: In Scenic Classes 4, 5, 6, and 7, the scenery is not distinct in form, line, 

texture and color, viewing frequency is low, and durations are short. The scenery is usually 

visually intact and disturbances do not dominate the view. Disturbances are shaped and blended 

with the natural terrain. Visible utility corridors are linear features with feathered and undulating 

edges. Corridor floors are contoured to blend into natural contours and have groupings of low 

growing shrubs and boulders that break up the unnatural appearance of a cleared forest floor. 

Other energy developments are also blended into the natural surroundings. Low to high scenic 

integrity is maintained. The dominant scenery attributes of the valued landscape character are 

present and likely to be sustained. Low to very high scenic stability is maintained.

Scale: Forestwide.
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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 53

2.2 Old Forest and Individual Old Trees

2.2.1 Old Forest

Background: The Blue Mountains were historically dominated by and well known for vast 

expanses of old forest single-story ponderosa pine. Frequent, low intensity wildfire is one of the 

dominant forces that historically created and maintained these stands. A wide spectrum of social 

values is associated with old forests. Various groups of people find old forests aesthetically 

pleasing, ecologically important, intrinsically and economically valuable, and necessary for future 

sustainability. Maintaining and restoring old forest addresses a wide spectrum of social values in 

addition to ecological values.

Existing Condition: Within the dry upland forest potential vegetation group, the amount of old 

forest single-story and open canopy (low stand density) is far less than levels that occurred prior 

to 1900. Within the moist and cold upland forest potential vegetation groups, the amount of old 

forest is closer to the desired condition, compared to the dry upland forest potential vegetation 

group.

Desired Condition: Old forest (multi-story and single story) is a forested structural stage that 

has an abundance of physiologically old trees (for the species and site conditions) that are 

dominant in the overstory and are usually larger in diameter. Old forest stands are maintained and 

restored across the landscape to provide a wide variety of ecological and social values. See the 

ecological desired conditions for specific ranges for the percent of each upland forest or 

woodland potential vegetation group in old forest structural stages. Like other forested structural 

stages, the management of old forest is also guided by other ecological desired conditions, such 

as stand density (see desired condition of “1.8 Stand Density”), plant species composition (see 

desired condition Plant Species Composition 1.7), fire regime condition classes (see desired 

condition of “1.4.1 Wildland Fire”), and landscape patterns (see desired condition of “1.12 

Landscape Patterns”). 

Scale: See the ecological desired conditions for forested structural stages.

2.2.2 Individual Old Trees

Desired Condition: Individual live old trees are maintained both within and outside of old forest 

stands to meet a wide variety of ecological and social values. For most tree species, certain 

physical tree characteristics can be used to infer old age. Old age for most tree species is 

generally considered to be greater than 150 years in age. However, old tree characteristics and old 

age may vary by species and site. A description of these characteristics and age should be further 

developed on a site-specific project basis.

Scale: Forestwide

2.3 Recreation

Background: National forests provide opportunities for a wide variety of outdoor recreation 

activities and settings. The Forest Service manages three types of recreational settings: developed 

recreation, dispersed recreation, and backcountry recreation. Different recreation activities can 

occur in any or all of these settings, depending on the nature of the activity. Most recreation users 

in the Blue Mountains participate in dispersed recreation individually or in small groups, with a 

small component of activities created for large, organized groups. This creates a diverse range of 

visitor needs and expectations that the Forest Service must respond to. 
Part 1 – Vision

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

54 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Recreation visitation to the Blue Mountains national forests includes two distinct demographics: 

local and regional. Regional recreation trends indicate an increasing average age of national forest 

visitors, an increasing proportion of multicultural and urban visitors, and decreasing use by 

younger generations. These regional visitors are looking for developed recreation facilities that 

are accessible, allow larger recreational vehicles, accommodate larger group sizes, have a high 

level of staff presence for security, and provide more urban amenities, such as dump stations, cell 

phone coverage, and potable water. The limitation of outdoor skills makes regional users more 

dependent on amenities at developed sites. These regional visitors may find the developed sites in 

the Blue Mountains national forests wanting as the level of development generally does not meet 

the urban user’s desires. 

In contrast, the local recreation visitor, who has a more rural perspective, is drawn to the less 

developed sites within the national forests and typically recreates in dispersed and backcountry 

settings. These visitors are predominately middle-aged (40 to 60 years old) Caucasian males. 

Eighty percent or more of the visitation in the Blue Mountains national forests comes from the 

counties that are associated with the national forests. (USDA Forest Service 2004) These visitors 

seek more remote and traditional recreation activities that require a high level of outdoor skill. In 

addition, they frequently use motor vehicles to access the national forests, which increases the 

demand for trailer parking at trailheads, pull-through campsites at campgrounds, and routes that 

accommodate off-highway vehicle (OHV) use. 

This distinction and somewhat different needs of local and regional visitors creates a dilemma. 

The current mix of recreation settings is the result of years of limited appropriated national forest 

funding, creating budgets that have been considerably less than the total costs of daily operation 

and maintenance for developed, dispersed, and backcountry recreation settings. This limits the 

ability to be responsive to changing needs and has resulted in a high level of deferred 

maintenance. When facilities maintenance issues reach the point where health and safety concerns 

exist, a manager must develop partnerships or seek alternative funding beyond appropriated 

funding to keep the facilities safe and open. If managers are unsuccessful, facilities, such as 

campgrounds, trails, trailheads, roads, and dispersed sites, face closure. Deferred maintenance 

creates a constant void, making surplus funding unavailable to upgrade facilities with newer, 

more durable materials and designs or to develop them for universal accessibility.

The national forests also fulfill the Forest Service mission by permitting many commercial, 

volunteer, and organizational partners to operate recreational activities. These partners in turn 

contribute their unique talents, financial resources, and the technical capabilities to provide 

services that visitors may not otherwise have the ability to participate in. Some of the permitted 

activities include outfitter and guide services, ski areas and trams, lodges, and recreation events. 

Long term permits are used to manage structures and facilities while short term permits authorize 

events and services.

Existing Condition: Generally, recreation user satisfaction across the three national forests is 

good or very good regarding developed day use and overnight sites. Visitor satisfaction regarding 

dispersed recreation is of a wider range with more recreation visitors expressing an average, 

good, or very good level of satisfaction with the general forest. Wilderness visitors rated their 

satisfaction as good or very good, with notable dissatisfaction about interpretive displays and 

signs (USDA Forest Service 2004).

Across the three national forests 1,450,000 visits were identified by the 2003 National Visitor Use 

Monitoring (NVUM) survey. Data has been collected for the 2009 NVUM survey and will soon 

be available to determine trends in use. The top five activities categories for all three national 
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forests are relaxing, driving for pleasure, hiking/walking, wildlife viewing, and viewing natural 

features. These are activities that recreation visitors participate in, regardless of the primary 

purpose of the visit (USDA Forest Service 2004). 

Hunting is the activity with the greatest percentage of primary engagement, with a range of 20 to 

26 percent. Relaxing ranked second, with 8 to 20 percent of all visitors indicating it as the 

primary purpose of their visit. Fishing, downhill skiing, driving for pleasure, hiking/walking, 

viewing wildlife, and gathering forest products are indicated as primary visit purposes by 5 to 20 

percent of visitors (USDA Forest Service 2004). 

Desired Condition: Outdoor recreation and relaxation in natural environments enrich the 

lifestyle and mental and physical condition of national forest visitors. Recreation user satisfaction 

is maintained or improved. Valued recreation activities continue to be provided as traditional uses 

and generational activities. Providers include Forest Service, other agencies, and private 

operators. National forest visitors have opportunities to learn environmental ethics, develop 

outdoor recreation skills, respect other outdoors users, and take on appropriate challenges and 

risks. Recreation use creates minimal amounts of resource damage. Recreation facilities are 

properly maintained and meet all health, safety and accessibility requirements. Facility structures 

are of consistent design and character. Facilities complement the natural environment by using 

materials that fit with the surrounding landscape. Scenic integrity is commensurate with the 

inventoried scenic class.

Scale: Forestwide.

2.3.1 Developed Recreation 

Existing Condition: The developed recreation setting is primarily found in areas accessible to 

motor vehicles and adjacent to primary roads and highways. This recreational experience is 

generally accommodated by facilities that provide comfort and convenience for the visitor in the 

outdoor environment. Developed recreation sites in this setting include developed campgrounds; 

ski areas; snow parks; interpretive trails; designed, developed, large, and popular trailheads; and 

motor boat launch sites. The facilities generally have more constructed amenities than elsewhere 

within the national forests, which enhance the visitor’s experience. Examples of enhanced 

amenities include: interpretive sites and overlooks along scenic byways, downhill ski areas, and 

lodges and resorts that are managed by commercial operators. The environmental surroundings 

are usually scenic in nature, such as scenic ridgetops, river corridors, or lakes. The social setting 

generally involves frequent contact with other recreation users who expect to share the facilities. 

The primary activities available within these settings are camping, boating and fishing, 

snowmobiling, downhill skiing, biking, driving for pleasure, and viewing wildlife and scenery. 

Developed recreation settings are typically the most well-known and heavily used sites within the 

national forests. This type of concentrated use requires ongoing maintenance to meet user 

expectations. For example, few of the facilities offered currently accommodate the size and length 

of modern recreation vehicles and most are not yet fully accessible for visitors with disabilities. 

Some crowding is experienced and expected and the cleanliness of the sites may be impacted for 

short periods during peak use. Resource impacts are also more frequent due to heavy use near 

lakes and streams that can cause impacts to stream banks, riparian vegetation, beaches, fish 

spawning areas, and overall water quality.
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Approximately 4 percent of visitors camp in developed sites as their primary recreation activity, 

with 10 to 20 percent participating in camping at developed sites when they are participating in 

other activities.

Desired Condition: Developed facilities, such as campgrounds, restrooms, picnic areas, 

trailheads, snow parks, and boating and fishing sites, are well maintained, fully functional, 

provide for visitor safety, and are accessible to people with disabilities. Potable water and sanitary 

systems provided at the sites meet required health standards. Areas of highly concentrated use 

provide a full suite of amenities that provide for people of all ages, ethnicities, and abilities. The 

facilities are fully utilized with occupancy rates approaching 90 to 100 percent during peak use 

periods and occupancy rates of 25 to 40 percent during nonpeak summer and fall periods.

Facilities provide some comfort for the user as well as site protection. New construction and 

reconstruction projects utilize a contemporary/rustic design based on the use of native or durable 

materials (i.e., naturally found materials or materials that appear natural). Facility structures are 

of consistent design and character. Facilities complement the natural environment by using 

materials that fit with the surrounding landscape. Impacts to natural resources from concentrated 

visitor use are minimal. Partnerships with private providers are encouraged and sustained at highend developed areas, such as ski areas, trams, lodges, and concessionaire-operated campgrounds. 

Some special use permits, such as recreation residences, are retained and provide for recreation 

opportunities not available to the general public. Scenic integrity is commensurate with the 

inventoried scenic class.

Scale: Recreational setting.

2.3.2 Dispersed Recreation

Existing Condition: Dispersed recreation settings offer a broad array of opportunities to users 

who require few developed site amenities. National forest camps, rental cabins and lookouts, 

OHV trailheads, and wayside interpretive sites are examples of minimally developed facilities 

that are rustic in nature yet appeal to those wanting to be more self-sufficient. The sites lack 

plumbing, paved surfaces, or potable water sources found in the developed recreation setting. 

These areas are accessed via secondary or primitive roads and trails. Scenic and recreation river 

corridors also occur within this setting. Many activities occur here that people associate with a 

primitive or self-reliant dispersed activity. Peak periods can occur during fall hunting seasons 

when larger groups tend to congregate for hunting in traditional locations. During the rest of the 

year, campsites and activities are more dispersed, and social encounters tend to be infrequent. 

Visitors seek these settings to participate in a wide variety of activities, such as hiking, hunting, 

backpacking, stock packing, gathering forest products, biking, OHV riding, fishing, and viewing 

scenery and wildlife. Outfitter and guide services also provide commercial service for hunting, 

fishing, day rides, and river boating and rafting.

The site amenities and road access in these settings are infrequently maintained, which can result 

in resource damage due to heavy use of dispersed sites and OHV use off of roads and trails. 

National forest roads and trails comprise between 50 and 70 percent of facilities used in the Blue 

Mountains national forests by dispersed recreation users. Notable differences between national 

forest facility uses includes Wallowa-Whitman National Forest visitors using scenic byways and 

picnic areas, Umatilla National Forest visitors using picnic areas and snowmobile areas and trails, 

and Malheur National Forest visitors frequenting developed fishing sites and scenic byways. 
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Desired Condition: Dispersed recreation allows national forest visitors opportunities to recreate 

independent of developed recreation facilities. Encounters with other visitors are common along 

travel routes; however, activities away from developed facilities provide for fewer encounters. 

Recreation activities and access are readily available in this setting. Areas and facilities 

accommodate a variety of motorized and nonmotorized uses and are primarily used by visitors to 

begin and end recreational experiences with a majority of the time spent away from developed 

facilities. The rustic amenities provided are well maintained and fully functional. Rustic facilities 

are provided for site protection and sanitary purposes and fit in with the surrounding area. 

Partnerships with private providers are encouraged and sustained for specialty services, such as 

big game outfitting and guiding, horseback riding, shuttle services, and bicycle touring. Some 

special use permits, such as for members only events and limited entry contests, are retained and 

provide for recreation opportunities not available to the general public. Scenic integrity is 

commensurate with the inventoried scenic class.

Scale: Recreational setting.

2.3.3 Backcountry Recreation

Existing Condition: Backcountry recreation includes use of roadless and roaded backcountry, 

designated wilderness areas, and wild rivers. While the NVUM does not separate backcountry 

and roadless visits from general forest visits, there is a distinction for designated wilderness area 

use, and there were 109,000 wilderness area site visits to the Blue Mountains national forests in 

2003 (USDA Forest Service 2004).

Backcountry recreation occurs in the least developed setting and provides the greatest opportunity 

for solitude, risk, and challenge in environments of rugged, undeveloped landscapes. These 

landscapes are often deep, isolated canyons, heavily forested plateaus, subalpine high lake 

regions, and rocky ridgelines. There are minimal facilities, creating more self-reliance and 

challenge for visitors. Facilities, which are considered rustic or primitive in nature, such as 

information or direction signs, rustic toilets, and trails, may be found. Secondary roads provide 

access to small trailheads with only minimal directional signage. Trails designated for motor 

vehicle use and trails where motor vehicle use is prohibited are available in some areas but are 

not always open or maintained. Activities available in these areas, such as hunting and fishing, 

mountain biking, OHV riding, trail riding and stock packing, and river boating and rafting, often 

require self-reliance and higher levels of outdoor skills. 

Although less frequent than at dispersed and developed recreation sites, there are instances of 

resource damage due to heavy use of popular dispersed campsites, cross-country OHV use, 

frequent use near beaches and high alpine lakes, and heavily traveled destination trails. The 

degree of solitude can be less than expected in popular areas, as well. Some conflicts between 

users groups, such as horseback riders, hikers, OHV users, backcountry skiers, and snowmobile 

users, occur on trails and in multiple use areas. 

Desired Condition: Backcountry recreation allows national forest visitors opportunities to 

recreate independent of developed recreation sites with the exception of trails that facilitate 

access. Encounters with other people are uncommon or rare, and motorized uses are uncommon 

except near main portals. Recreation activities that require minimal amenities are available. The 

setting presents visitors with opportunities to be alone, and backcountry skills and abilities are 

required. The rustic amenities provided are well maintained and functional. Rustic and 

rudimentary facilities are provided primarily for site protection, information, and sanitary 

purposes. Materials used are rustic and minimal. Partnerships with private providers are 
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58 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

encouraged and sustained for specialty services, such as backcountry skiing, jet boat and raft 

trips, and big game outfitting and guiding services.

Scale: Recreational setting.

2.4 Hunting and Fishing

Background: Hunting and fishing are traditional recreational and subsistence uses within the 

Blue Mountains national forests. They are important aspects of local lifestyles and cultures and 

provide recreational and economic opportunities to surrounding communities, tribes, family 

groups, and individuals to socialize and harvest food for their own use. Hunting was identified by 

the 2003 NVUM as the number one primary activity in the Blue Mountains.

Existing Condition: Hunting and fishing remain important to tribes, national forest visitors and 

residents who live in the surrounding areas. The activities contribute to and diversify local 

economies. Activity levels have changed in recent years. Trends indicate that fewer people are 

hunting and more people are fishing.

Desired Condition: Opportunities for hunting and fishing are available in a variety of settings. 

The national forests provide a mix of opportunities that foster hunting and fishing, visitor 

activities, support Oregon and Washington Departments of Fish and Wildlife management 

objectives, and contribute to local, tribal, and regional economies and lifestyles.

Scale: Forestwide.

2.5 Rocky Mountain Elk 

Background: Elk have been identified as a hunted species that is of local interest within the 

planning area. Both Oregon (ODFW 2003) and Washington (Fowler 2001) have developed 

management plans for elk located within the Blue Mountains. Elk are important both 

economically and socially within the planning area. Bolon (1994) reported that the value of elk 

hunting within the Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington ranges between 17 and 20 million 

dollars per year.

In the past, management emphasis has been placed on sustaining cover, reducing vulnerability, 

and retaining elk on National Forest System lands. Part of this management emphasis stressed the 

retention of explicit canopy cover amounts in the dry forest areas. Management emphasis also 

identified particular road density goals within important elk habitat areas. 

Research conducted at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range and associated research sites is 

providing new insights into the importance of maintaining adequate nutritional resources for elk 

and into minimizing human disturbance effects through effective management of motor vehicle 

access and cover.

Existing Condition: Elk and the management of elk habitat continue to be important issues 

within the planning area. The number of elk hunters is declining slightly and the number of bulls 

and antlerless elk harvested appears to be declining more sharply (ODFW 2003).

Elk use of forage areas often depends on proximity to cover areas and the distance to roads and 

trails open to motor vehicles. Much of the open road density in the planning area outside of 

wilderness and roadless areas exceeds 2.4 miles per square mile. Many of the forage areas are 

associated with roads, and therefore the value of these areas to elk is minimized or totally lost. To 
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provide for elk security during hunting season, there is a greater need for motor vehicle road and 

trail network closures on landscapes dominated by flat, open terrain. The need for vegetative 

cover is reduced in areas of steep, convex topography. This topography can limit human access 

during hunting season. Historically, elk summered in the higher elevations and moved to the 

adjacent valleys during the winter. A large portion of the historic elk winter habitat has been 

converted to agricultural lands, residential use, or rural residences. As a result, elk no longer have 

access to their traditional winter ranges in the Blue Mountains. Damage to crops and pastures on 

private land by wintering elk has increased markedly during the past 40 years. This has led to the 

development of several elk winter feeding areas.

Desired Condition: In landscapes where elk use is promoted, as identified in coordination with 

state wildlife agencies, there is a mosaic of forage and cover areas, with minimal or no motor 

vehicle access through forage areas. There is an emphasis on maintaining existing cover areas in 

most winter range, which often compose smaller portions of the landscape, motor vehicle access 

and uses on winter range is minimized or eliminated during winter. Maintaining adequate forage

areas close to cover and far from roads and trails open to motor vehicle uses is emphasized for 

most spring, summer, and fall range. For landscapes where hunting occurs, motor vehicle access 

is restricted so that elk can effectively use cover and topography as security. During hunting 

seasons, emphasis is placed on closing roads and trails to motor vehicles within landscapes that 

are flat and open; however, less emphasis is placed on closing roads and trails to motor vehicles 

within landscapes that are steep and have more cover, as identified in coordination with state 

wildlife agencies. 

Maintaining a mosaic of elk forage and cover areas for a given season and landscape varies based 

on the biophysical potential of each landscape to sustain cover areas and based on the capability 

to maintain or enhance adequate forage areas that provide higher nutritional resources far from 

motor vehicle access. In areas where elk have the potential to damage adjacent private lands or 

there is a need to meet other goals of management across mixed land ownerships, the quantity of 

forage and cover areas may be reduced, such as in the wildland urban interface (WUI) where the 

goal may be to reduce the risk of wildfire, in these locations, forage and cover may not be optimal 

for elk.

Scale: A variety of spatial extents and boundaries (administrative, hydrologic, or ecological 

ranging from individual projects to areas as large as state wildlife areas or other administrative or 

jurisdictional boundaries. In general, monitoring change in habitat conditions for elk requires 

evaluation at smaller spatial extents, such as areas the size of subwatersheds (5,000 to 20,000 

acres), but typically not as small as individual projects. Monitoring change in habitat condition or 

compliance in management direction for elk is appropriate when considering all management 

activities that occur or that are proposed over longer time periods of 5 to 15 years, as opposed to 

individual project activities over shorter time periods.

2.6 Cultural Resources

Background: Understanding the role of humans in past and present ecosystems provides a 

context for understanding contemporary landscapes and natural resource issues. Cultural 

resources have local, regional, and national scientific interest and significance and are elements of 

worldwide patterns and processes. The cultural resource program ensures that significant 

archaeological and historical resources are identified, protected, and preserved for the benefit and 

enjoyment of the public and future generations.
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Cultural resource sites are categorized into three broad types: prehistoric site, historic site, or 

traditional cultural property. A prehistoric site is one that was established before the advent of a 

continuous written record, or approximately 1800 in this area. A historic site postdates this time. 

A traditional cultural property is associated with cultural practices or beliefs of a living 

community, is rooted in that community’s history, and is important in maintaining the continuing 

cultural identity of the community.

Prehistoric and historic sites and traditional cultural properties that are eligible for listing with the 

National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) are considered historic properties under the National 

Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) and are managed and protected under that law. Cultural 

resource sites for which NRHP eligibility has not yet been determined are managed as historic 

properties until that determination is completed. The most significant and/or endangered historic 

properties are identified as priority heritage assets and are proactively monitored and managed.

Existing Condition: More than one-third of all cultural resource sites identified on National 

Forest System lands within Oregon and Washington are within the Blue Mountains national 

forests.

Prehistoric sites common to the Blue Mountains include quarries, tool manufacturing sites, 

hunting camps, fishing stations, plant gathering and processing sites, rock art sites, and villages. 

Historic sites in the area include homesteads, mines, railroads, cabins, corrals, lookouts, and 

Forest Service administrative sites. Traditional cultural properties include plant gathering sites 

and fishing stations.

Cultural resources are threatened by development, public use, looting and vandalism, as well as 

natural processes, such as erosion by wind and water, weathering, and wildfire. Educational and 

volunteer projects, such as the Forest Service’s Passport in Time program, foster public 

participation in identifying and understanding cultural resources.

Desired Condition: Significant prehistoric and historic sites and traditional cultural properties 

are protected and are managed to standard as part of the Heritage Program. Traditional cultural 

properties are available for appropriate use. Knowledge of cultural resources is enhanced by 

scientific study, and public understanding of cultural history is enhanced through interpretation 

and education.

Scale: Forestwide.

2.7 Roads and Trails Access

Background: Access via roads and trails to and across the national forests has a long history in 

the Blue Mountains. Trails and migration routes date back to prehistoric times. American Indian 

migration routes are well documented through the stories of the Nez Perce, Umatilla, Warm 

Springs, and other tribes. Many of these ancient routes are the basis for roads, portions of roads, 

or trails that are in use today. Trails within the national forests also contributed to 1800s western 

migration as expeditions passed through this area. Notable ones include the original Oregon Trail, 

which can be traced along its intact template. 

The history of the development of the road systems of the Blue Mountains national forests is 

primarily related to extractive resource management activities, such as mining and logging, which 

included constructing transportation infrastructure as it progressed. Many roads were located 

directly adjacent to streams and rivers because mining operations were often associated with 
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water. Lode mining necessitated the construction of roads and railroads to haul the ore. Logging 

operations often followed mining operations because timbers were needed to shore up tunnels or 

build cabins. Prior to the dependency on trucks, railroads provided the primary access into the 

area. Railroad logging can be traced as far back as 1901, and signs of this activity remain today, 

as evidenced by the numerous railroad grades throughout the area. 

Additional roads were constructed to connect communities and for firefighting and administrative 

access to the national forests. Roads provided access for viewing scenery, reaching traditional 

campsites and hunting areas, grazing, and gathering forest products, such as berries and firewood.

During the last 25 years, Forest Service project analyses have determined that many roads could 

be closed and decommissioned to improve resource conditions. Some benefits of these closures 

include reducing disturbances to wildlife, improving water quality and reducing road maintenance 

costs. In the 1990s, advancements in OHV technology began to result in changes in use. Riders 

found that they could use OHVs to access rugged areas which had previously been accessible 

only by foot or horseback. This new type of use resulted in resource impacts, conflicts between 

user groups, and safety concerns.

Many trails within the national forests evolved from game trails, early American Indian hunting 

trails, and livestock herding trails, or those that were constructed by early recreation users. These 

trails were constructed to access remote lakes and scenic viewpoints. The majority of national 

forest trails are in dispersed and backcountry recreation areas.

Existing Condition: New, permanent road construction has markedly declined, and the current 

transportation system includes a backlog of maintenance needs. Maintenance of the transportation 

system is not sustainable given the current funding level of the Forest Service. The majority of 

the road maintenance budget is used for double-lane passenger vehicle roads, which are the most 

expensive and most highly traveled portions of the road system. It is important to understand that 

some roads require annual maintenance while other roads, due to the stability of the roadbed, are 

rarely maintained. When high-clearance and closed roads receive maintenance on an infrequent 

interval, deferred maintenance issues can become exacerbated. With the focus shifting to 

maintaining maintenance level 3 through 5 roads, the deferred maintenance backlog for the 

remainder of the road system continues to grow. In addition to annual appropriated funds, there is 

additional funding available for maintenance through the Forest Service capital investment 

program. This program is intended to address expensive road maintenance issues, such as bridge 

replacement or asphalt resurfacing. The limited amount of funds in the program are distributed by 

Forest Service regional offices via a competitive process. These large intermittent investments are 

required to keep roads serviceable, and annual allocations cannot meet all of the needs of the 

accruing deferred maintenance.

The average allocated road maintenance budget from 2008 to 2010 is approximately 1.3 million 

dollars for the three national forests. The annual shortfall is approximately 200,000 dollars, which 

adds to an already substantial deferred maintenance backlog. Given the priority of maintaining 

passenger vehicle access roads, much of the deferred maintenance will fall on maintenance level 

1 and 2 roads, which represent 93 percent of the road network. Many of these roads are decades 

old with aging infrastructure that may require complete reconstruction in order to meet standards, 

especially considering that they have had inadequate maintenance due to the increasing 

maintenance intervals and growing backlog issues. 

The continued maintenance of an extensive road system creates many challenges. Roads in 

disrepair create safety issues and conflicts with resource protection goals. Wildlife, soil and water 
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62 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

quality, and the spread of noxious weeds are negatively affected by the existence and use of the 

transportation system. Road closures have only been moderately successful, with many road 

closures breached. Off-road access varies across the three national forests. Although providing a 

unique recreational use for hunting, viewing wildlife and scenery, and gathering forest products, 

cross-country travel by motor vehicles has contributed to resource damage, spread of invasive 

species, habitat disturbance, and to changing wildlife and visitor use patterns.

Combining motor vehicle users and nonmotorized users at trailheads and along travel routes 

results in occasional conflicts. The majority of trails and trailheads have numerous maintenance 

needs due to the aging infrastructure. There are limited opportunities for motor vehicle use on 

system trails throughout the three national forests, however this type of use is increasing both 

locally and regionally. 

Trails used primarily for foot, pack or riding stock, and mechanized transportation have 

occasional conflicts between users. Snow trails for snowmobiles, Nordic skiers, snowshoers, and 

dog sleds are designated on existing National Forest System Roads and contribute the winter 

recreational opportunities offered within the national forests. Many trails are not maintained each 

year due to budget constraints and some are in disrepair, creating safety and resource concerns.

Desired Condition: Road systems are safe and responsive to public needs and desires, are 

affordable and efficiently managed, have minimal effect on aquatic and terrestrial systems, and 

are in balance with available funding. Road density is at a level appropriate to avoid causing 

resource concerns. Administrative use supports Forest Service management objectives. Conflicts 

between user groups are minimized, and users take on appropriate challenges and risks.

Roads needed for the long term are identified and investments are made to minimize their effect 

on the ecosystem and to meet the mobility requirements anticipated in the future.

A system of roads, trails, and areas designated for nonmotorized and motor vehicle use is 

identified and is available for public use. Motor vehicle use that can cause ground disturbance 

occurs only on designated routes and in designated motor vehicle use areas as documented on the 

motor vehicle use map (MVUM). Trails designated for motor vehicle use provide a variety of 

recreational experiences, including various difficulty levels and trail lengths, access to scenic 

areas, and routes through assorted ecosystems. Loop trails, closed road systems, and trailhead 

developments meet the needs of increased recreation use. Snowmobile use is managed to provide 

varying challenges and distances while respecting ecological systems and other users.

Opportunities for trails where motor vehicle use is prohibited are emphasized in backcountry and 

wilderness areas. Trails where motor vehicle use is prohibited provide a range of difficulty for a 

variety of recreational experiences, including mechanized transportation (except in wilderness 

areas), foot travel, and pack or riding stock. Trails are located to provide experiences in different 

ecosystem types and scenic settings and do not contribute to resource damage.

Rights-of-way and easements provide adequate and legal access to National Forest System lands. 

Jurisdiction of county, state, and local access roads is appropriate to assure management 

objectives are met for both private and state lands. 

The need for tribal access to traditional sites is acknowledged and supported. 
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Access and Open Motor Vehicle Route Density 

The desired condition is to reduce road-related sedimentation by reducing road density and 

reducing hydrologic connectivity of the road system. The desired condition for open motor 

vehicle route density within watersheds in MA 3C is 1 mile per square mile or less. In addition, 

all cross-country over-the-snow vehicle travel is prohibited within MA3C, and over-the-snow 

vehicle travel permitted only on routes designated open to summer motor vehicle travel. 

The desired condition for open motor vehicle route density within watersheds within MA 3B is to 

minimize the number of miles per square mile as determined by a roads analysis. The open motor 

vehicle route density in winter elk habitat is 1.5 miles square mile or less.

Scale: Forestwide.

2.8 Wildland-urban Interface

Background: The wildland-urban interface areas have been defined and mapped through a 

collaborative process that included developing community wildfire protection plans. In the 

absence of a community wildfire protection plan, the Healthy Forests Restorations Act of 2003 

provides a default definition of wildland-urban interface as a 0.5 to 1.5 mile buffer surrounding a 

community-at-risk, depending on slope, fuels, location of logical fuel breaks, and other factors. 

Communities may also adjust the boundary to a more logical and defensible location or to include 

critical features, such as municipal watersheds, safety corridors, and infrastructure. 

These areas are managed to meet a variety of ecological and human needs, with the main intent 

being to aid in the protection of communities from wildfire. These lands often display high levels 

of management activity and associated roads. The landscape area treated within the wildlandurban interface often exceeds 30 percent. The interval between treatments will often be more 

frequent than is typical for areas outside the wildland-urban interface. These areas are among the 

highest priority for vegetation treatments (including retreatment for maintenance) and wildfire 

suppression activities. 

Existing Condition: Approximately 300,000 acres have been identified as wildland-urban 

interface within the locally developed community wildfire protection plans. Much of this has 

been identified as moderately to highly departed from the vegetation desired condition. 

Desired Condition: Vegetation treatments within the wildland-urban interface areas are based on 

wildfire protection objectives, which may over-ride ecological desired conditions. Vegetative 

structure would result in fire intensity that allows for safe and effective suppression actions within 

wildland-urban interface areas. In general, vegetation density would be more open, with lighter 

fuel loadings, in comparison to areas outside wildland-urban interface. Fire risk within wildlandurban interface areas would be managed so as not to limit the ability to use fire for resource 

restoration in areas adjacent to wildland-urban interface areas.

Scale: Forestwide.

2.9 Tribal Rights and Interest

Background: The Forest Service establishes and maintains government-to-government 

relationships with the American Indian tribes that have sovereign governments. Government-togovernment relationships are vital to protecting and managing ecological resources to honor, 

support, and respect cultural, spiritual, and community interests and to integrate these as fully as 
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64 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

possible into project design. Through treaties, tribes have reserved rights and privileges for their 

tribal members on off-reservation lands ceded to the U.S. Government. A significant portion of 

lands ceded (by virtue of the Treaties of 1855) by the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian 

Reservation, Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs, Nez Perce Tribe, and Confederated Tribes 

and Bands of the Yakama Indian Nation of the Yakima Reservation that remained in the public 

domain were designated as part of the National Forest System by the Organic Administration Act 

of June 4, 1897. These treaties are known for their specific language recognizing that the tribes’ 

reserved certain rights on the ceded lands. Therefore, the Forest Service has certain legal 

responsibilities to American Indian tribes. These legal responsibilities are clarified in statutes, 

executive orders, and case law enacted and interpreted for the protection and benefit of federally 

recognized American Indian tribes. In meeting these responsibilities, the Forest Service consults 

with tribes whenever proposed policies or management actions may affect their interests. The 

Burns Paiute Tribe, Shoshone-Bannock Tribes of the Duck Valley Reservation, Fort McDermitt 

Paiute and Shoshone Tribes, Fort Bidwell Indian Community of Paiute Indians, Klamath Tribes, 

and the Joseph Band of Nez Perce-Colville Confederated Tribes are federally recognized 

American Indian tribes that also have interests in the management direction and project planning 

of the Blue Mountains national forests.

While federal laws apply to all federally recognized American Indian tribes, each tribe is different 

and is recognized as a separate and unique government. Treaty rights and the historic 

relationships between tribes and the lands on and near their current reservations differ. Cultural 

differences between tribes can be significant. In some cases, several tribes may each have 

legitimate interests in the same lands because they each may have occupied or otherwise used 

those lands during different historic periods. These factors and others combine to make each 

Forest Service tribal consultation relationship unique. 

Existing Condition: Government-to-government relationships and communications are a priority 

in national forest management across the Blue Mountains. National forest staffs understand the 

significance an interconnectedness of treaty resources within tribal cultures. Memoranda of 

Understanding for collaboration, consultation, and cooperation in the management of natural 

resources on National Forest System lands are in effect between the Forest Service and the 

Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, the Nez Perce Tribal Executive 

Committee, the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs, and the Burns Paiute Tribe.

Desired Condition: National Forest System lands administered by the Malheur, Umatilla, and 

Wallowa-Whitman National Forests are available for tribal members to exercise their reserved 

rights. The ability to utilize trust resources contributes to the exercise of tribal rights, interests, 

and cultures in a manner that promotes sustainability of the ecosystem.

Scale: Forestwide.

2.10 Culturally Significant Foods

Background: Culturally significant foods, such as water, salmon, deer, cous (biscuitroot), and 

huckleberries, are critical to the perpetual cultural, economic, and sovereign benefit of American 

Indian cultures. 

Existing Condition: Forest composition creates varying risks to and opportunities for supporting 

culturally significant foods.
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Desired Condition: Culturally significant foods are available and accessible and are sustained by 

the ecological and cultural processes under which they historically developed.

Scale: Forestwide.

2.11 Community Resilience

Background: Resiliency is the ability of communities and cultures to adapt to changing 

ecological, social, and economic conditions. The availability of national forest goods and services 

has varying impacts on communities within the project area. Remote communities with less 

diversified economies tend to be less resilient than communities that are more urban (Horne and 

Haynes 1999, Quigley and Arbelbide 1997). 

Resiliency refers to the ability of communities and cultures to adapt to changing ecological, 

social, and economic conditions. The resiliency of local communities and tribes in the Blue 

Mountains is important to the national forests because managers benefit from community 

infrastructure, which includes local knowledge, skilled workers, and social networks/relationships 

that provide the basis for accomplishing work within the national forests. Communities also 

provide and maintain roads and facilities that are needed for access to the national forests and 

services for the public, such as food, beverages, and lodging.

The national forests are important to the resiliency of local communities and tribes because 

residents benefit from jobs and income produced from management activities, such as timber 

harvesting, livestock grazing, and mining. The national forests also provide the context and 

source for clean water, clean air, wildlife, recreation opportunities, and landscape settings that 

contribute to residents’ quality of life and the character of local communities and tribes. 

Past shifts in land management practices and priorities have had varying effects on local 

communities and tribes. In general, isolated communities with less diversified economies have 

been the least resilient and have had the greatest difficulty retaining the local people whose 

knowledge and resources can contribute to national forest management and restoration.

Existing Condition: Some communities and tribes in the project area have suffered from 

declining economies, which have contributed to changes and challenges. Unemployment rates 

have risen along with the need for social services. Some of the communities within the planning 

area are experiencing population declines, particularly among younger people of working age. 

For many communities, the lack of people in this demographic has meant a smaller pool of 

volunteers for the fire department, the school board, and for service organizations. For some 

communities, the demographic shift has influenced declining school enrollment and the ability to 

maintain medical services.

Changes in national forest management have also contributed to declining local economies. 

Similarly, community changes threaten to hamper the ability of the Forest Service to implement 

projects that contribute to sustainability. In most counties, sawmills have closed either 

temporarily or permanently. Some skilled workers have remained in the communities, 

anticipating that market changes or other opportunities to earn a living will emerge. 

Additional declines in social and economic conditions in the communities and tribes will continue 

to negatively affect national forest management. Although some restoration work can be 

accomplished by nonlocal contract workers, managing the national forests will require a 
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functional, local infrastructure, with attributes including local knowledge, skilled workers, people 

who have attachments to the local landscape, and social networks/relationships.

Many of the factors that contribute to community resiliency are beyond the control of 

communities, counties, states, and the Federal government, including the Forest Service. This 

limits the ability to improve community resiliency through the management of the national 

forests.

Desired Condition: The management of the Blue Mountains national forests contributes to 

outputs and opportunities that support community infrastructure. The national forests foster 

healthy and resilient communities and American Indian tribes by providing sustainable ecological 

services or products. In turn, communities use their infrastructure (which includes manufacturing 

facilities, local knowledge, skilled workers, and social networks/relationships) to support natural 

resource management and restoration activities. Local communities and tribes that rely on the 

resources of the Blue Mountains national forests are resilient and adapt well to changing 

conditions. Climate change scenarios may foreclose some opportunities while providing others. 

Being able to adapt to multiple potential scenarios is important to maintaining resilient 

communities. They have the capacity to collectively create and pursue ecological and economic 

opportunities that foster sustainability. 

Scale: Forestwide.

2.12 Wild Horses

Background: Wild horse herds are often associated with Bureau of Land Management 

administered land, however they are often found on National Forest System lands as well. Wild 

horses are typically descendants of horses brought to North America by Spanish explorers. Wild 

horses are often thought of as a symbol of pioneers and the west. In 1971, Congress enacted the 

Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act, which was subsequently amended in 1978 to state 

that horses needed to be managed “in a manner that is designed to achieve and maintain a thriving 

natural ecological balance on the public lands.”

Existing Condition: The Murderers Creek Wild Horse Territory/Herd Management Area was 

established in 1972 and encompasses both National Forest System land and Bureau of Land 

Management administered land. A management plan was developed for the territory and 

approved in 2007. More than 50 percent of the horses within the territory are considered timber 

horses, as they live in the heavily timbered areas of ponderosa pine and mixed conifer. 

Desired Condition: A viable, free-roaming wild horse herd (consistent with the desire of the 

herd management plan in effect at the time of project level planning) that is genetically diverse 

and is in ecological balance with other approved multiple uses is present within the Murderers 

Creek Wild Horse Territory. In concert, this leads toward stable or improving habitat conditions.

Scale: The Murderers Creek Wild Horse Territory/Herd Management Area.

Goal 3: Promote Economic Well-being

Economic well-being is a condition that enables people to work, provide income for their 

families, and support the economies of local communities, American Indian tribes, the region, and 

the Nation. The contributions of the national forests to economic well-being are described for 

capital and wealth and for the economic production of goods and services. 
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There are many other values, benefits, and costs not addressed in the following discussion of 

economic well-being. They include the multitude of benefits and costs not traded in the 

marketplace and values that are difficult to express in monetary terms or other quantitative 

measures. These values, benefits, and costs are an important part of social and economic 

sustainability. They are addressed in the section “Goal 3: Promote Social Well-being.”

Local economic conditions are interrelated with changes in the economies of Oregon, Idaho, and 

Washington, as well as with changes in regional, national, and global economies. Recognizing the 

interdependency between the Forest Service’s need for forest management work and the degree to 

which local industries, infrastructure, employment (including youth), skilled workforce, and other 

factors provide for this need is important to sustaining and restoring the ecological integrity of the 

national forests and social and economic conditions of the communities. 

Historically, the national forests of the Blue Mountains made significant contributions to area 

communities, both socially and economically. These national forests still contribute in vital ways 

to community resilience by providing jobs and quality of life. However, they are not the sole 

providers of economic stability for communities in the area. Recognizing mutual benefits of the 

relationships between local communities and the national forests is critical to understanding the 

contributions to the maintenance and enhancement of other desired conditions, such as healthy 

forests, clean water and air, scenery, cultural and historic resources, skilled workforce, and 

manufacturing infrastructure in the context of other local, regional, and national conditions. 

3.1 Facilities and Infrastructure

Background: The Blue Mountains national forests maintain administrative and recreational 

facilities for a variety of purposes. Examples of administrative facilities include offices, storage, 

service and utility buildings and housing. Due to the recreation emphasis of the national forests, 

there are considerable numbers of recreational and historic facilities. Many of these are in remote 

locations. Some are only accessible by horseback, foot, or boat. This section does not address 

recreation facilities. Refer to section “2.3 Recreation” for more information. The three national 

forests use facility master plans to align changing budgets, administrative, and workforce needs.

Existing Condition: The existing square footage of owned and leased administrative facilities 

within the Blue Mountains national forests exceeds the Forest Service’s administrative needs. 

There are approximately 727,021 square feet of facilities. Of this, 29 percent is office space, 45 

percent is storage, and 25 percent is housing. The cost of maintaining these facilities exceeds 

current budget allocations. The long-term goals identified in the national forest master plans are 

to reduce the amount of facilities space to affordable levels while meeting administrative needs. 

Office space is being reduced by 6 percent, storage by 13 percent, and housing by 22 percent. The 

total square footage will be approximately 624,839 square feet after these reductions are 

accomplished. The current master plans show that the facilities that will be retained are properly 

located. There are plans to either remove some of the remote facilities or leave them in place to 

deteriorate naturally, with no further planned maintenance. 

Several buildings and sites are eligible for or listed on the National Register of Historic Places. 

Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 requires Federal agencies to take 

into account the effects of their undertakings on historic properties and afford the Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation a reasonable opportunity to comment. An undertaking such as 

removal of an eligible or potentially eligible historic building would require compliance with 

section 106.
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Desired Condition: Administrative facilities are safe, efficient, cost-effective, and are maintained 

at a function and use level that meets management needs. Facilities meet all applicable health and 

safety standards. Impacts to natural resources are minimal. Administrative facilities complement 

and harmonize with natural settings. The form of structures is derived by the function and from 

the landscape setting. For example, structures in mountainous, timbered landscapes have steep 

rooflines and broad eaves and use durable indigenous materials, such as stone and heavy timbers, 

with the appearance derived from the local environment. Structures, signage, and other built 

environment elements reflect the style and character inherent in the local environment (USDA 

Forest Service 2001).

Scale: Forestwide.

3.2 Land Ownership 

Background: The Forest Service lands program emphasizes land acquisitions that protect and 

enhance identified management resource needs. The program also pursues opportunities to 

consolidate land ownership, decrease management conflicts, increase management efficiencies, 

secure and mark property boundaries, and secure rights-of-way to meet administrative and public 

needs.

In addition, there is national emphasis on open space preservation, protecting the most 

ecologically and socially important lands, conserving working lands as sustainable forests and 

herblands, and working with communities and private land owners to preserve and maintain 

existing open space (USDA Forest Service 2007).

Existing Condition: Since 1990, the Blue Mountains national forests have acquired 42,320 acres 

of privately held land within the national forest boundaries through land exchanges and 

purchases. The Forest Service has disposed of 19,914 acres through land exchanges, small tract 

sales, administrative site sales, and mineral patents. Within the boundaries of the Blue Mountains 

national forests, 94 percent of the land is federally administered. Of the remainder, 5 percent is 

private land and 1 percent is state or county land.

Desired Condition: Property boundaries are marked to standard. Encroachments, title claims, 

and trespasses are identified and resolved. Property boundaries are maintained to reduce the 

likelihood of future encroachments, title claims, and trespass. Road and trail easements are 

prioritized and obtained to continue access across private lands and reduce rerouting costs.

Landownership adjustment by purchase, exchange, or other authority simplifies and improves 

management of the Blue Mountains national forests. Priorities for land acquisition include 

congressionally designated areas and lands that support known populations of threatened, 

endangered, proposed, or sensitive species.

Scale: Forestwide.

3.3 Goods and Services

Background: Historically, the Blue Mountains national forests made contributions to local 

economies and they continue to do so today. Many people depend on the national forests directly 

or indirectly for a wide range of goods and services. These include wood for local sawmills and 

fuel, forage for livestock, water for drinking and irrigating downstream crops, recreational 

opportunities, minerals, and energy. Non-commercial uses include gathering Christmas trees, 
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firewood, plants, herbs, poles, traditional cultural plants, and mushrooms. Goods and services 

also include clean water and natural water storage. 

There are mutual benefits that flow between cultures, communities, and the national forests that 

are critical to the maintenance and enhancement of desired conditions. The interdependency 

between the need for forest management work and the local needs of industries, workforce, and 

other factors are important to sustaining and restoring the ecological integrity of the national 

forests and the social and economic conditions of the cultures and communities. 

Providing a level of certainty and predictability in the flow of goods and services from the 

national forests is important to maintaining an economically viable workforce and supporting 

industrial capacity to facilitate national forest management needs and contributions to community 

resiliency. These contributions benefit local, tribal, regional, and national economies. 

The existing and desired conditions for 3.3 Goods and Services are described in 3.3.1 Forest 

Products, 3.3.2 Livestock Grazing, 3.3.3 Special Uses, 3.3.4 Mineral and Geological Resources, 

and 3.3.5 Water Use.

3.3.1 Forest Products

Background: The Blue Mountains national forests have a long history of providing timber and 

other forest products to address local community and national needs. During the post-World War 

II era, communities throughout the Blue Mountains plan revision assessment area had a strong 

economic component related to a flourishing wood products industry. The area includes Baker, 

Grant, Harney, Malheur, Morrow, Umatilla, Union, Wallowa, and Wheeler counties in Oregon, 

and Asotin, Columbia, Garfield, and Walla Walla counties in Washington. Recently, 

environmental protection required by stronger environmental laws has resulted in a focus on 

sustainability across a broader range of resources. These protections and changing mill 

technology resulted in significant declines in timber harvest and timber industry employment on 

both private and National Forest System lands within the Blue Mountains.

The amount of timber volume harvested from the Blue Mountains national forests has declined 

dramatically, from highs of almost 600 million board feet annually during the early 1990s to less 

than 50 million board feet per year now. Fifty million board feet is the average annual harvest, 

excluding firewood, between 2004 and 2007. Harvest on all other ownerships has also declined 

by about 30 percent during the same period, resulting in an overall decline of about 70 percent in 

local log supply. 

Existing Condition: The actual timber harvest amount is about 50 million board feet annually. 

Market conditions have a considerable effect on the amount of timber sold.

During the past 20 years, wood products processing has also changed. There was a decrease in 

sawmill production of almost 60 percent. Manufactured board processing decreased by 

approximately 30 percent, and there was a reduction in plywood and veneer processing of about 

10 percent, while pulp processing remained about the same.

The decreasing production capacity, labor saving technological changes, and decreases in logging 

have resulted in declines in associated employment. In 1990 wood products employment in 

sawmills; veneer and plywood production; reconstituted wood, pulp, and paper production; and 

logging totaled about 6,300 jobs. Since then, employment has declined, and wood products 

related employment totaled about 3,500 jobs in 2006. The greatest overall employment decline 

was in the sawmill sector, where about 2,300 jobs were lost.
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Although some economic diversification has taken place, especially in the retail and health and 

business services sectors, economic growth in the Blue Mountains region has been slower than 

that of Oregon and Washington and the Nation overall. Wood products manufacturing remains an 

important part of local economies in Grant, Umatilla, and Union counties in Oregon and Asotin 

County in Washington. There is expanding use and interest in biomass for fuels. 

Timber harvest continues to be an important tool for managing vegetation to achieve desired 

conditions, including those for wildlife and wildland fire management. Without the local timber 

products industry, the capability of the Forest Service to affordably manage vegetation would be 

reduced.

The Blue Mountains national forests have also contributed nontimber forest products, such as 

firewood, mushrooms, and berries to residents and tribes. In 2007, the national forests sold about 

140,000 dollars of firewood collection permits and about 30,000 dollars of mushroom collection 

permits. These uses provide important connections between people and the national forests. 

Desired Condition: Land classified as suitable for timber production has a regularly scheduled 

timber harvest program that provides social and economic benefits while contributing to 

ecosystem health and sustainability. Land classified as unsuitable for timber production, but 

where timber harvesting can occur for other multiple-use purposes, has an irregular timber 

harvest program that contributes to ecosystem health and sustainability while providing benefits 

to people. 

A predictable supply of timber outputs, known as the allowable sale quantity, contributes to a 

local forest products industry. 

Small diameter biomass provides a variety of forest products, such as hog fuel, fuel chips, pulp, 

small diameter roundwood, and firewood. 

Non-timber forest products, such as berries and mushrooms, continue to be available for 

gathering in sustainable amounts for general public, commercial, and tribal use.

Scale: Forestwide.

3.3.2 Livestock Grazing

Background: Livestock grazing is a historical use of the national forests that still resonates 

today in the western culture of the area. Grazing has been a part of the landscape since the 1860s 

when the first miners and homesteaders entered the area. Although livestock grazing on National 

Forest System lands has decreased since the early 1900s, the ranching industry remains an 

important part of the local community culture and economy. Local ranchers graze cattle on the 

herblands and forested ranges of the national forests during late spring, summer, and early fall. 

Public land grazing is often an integral component of overall ranch operations.

The Blue Mountains national forests, like many areas in the western United States, have a 

reputation of livestock overuse that started in the late 1800s and continued into the mid-1930s. 

Beginning in the late 1970s, improved grazing systems and pasture designs were implemented to 

facilitate resource recovery. Implementation of the land and resource management plans in the 

early 1990s reduced the amount of allowable use by livestock grazing to accelerate the rate of 

recovery. In the mid to late 1990s, other mitigations associated with the Endangered Species Act 

and the PACFISH (USDA and USDI 1995) and INFISH (USDA Forest Service 1995b) 

amendments to the 1990 Forest Plans were implemented to further protect riparian areas and 
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associated aquatic species. Modified grazing strategies and implementation of utilization 

standards have resulted in reduced use levels in riparian areas resulting in many of the riparian 

systems showing definite signs of recovery and riparian vegetation improvement. Woody shrubs 

are more prevalent. Investments and maintenance of structural and nonstructural range 

improvements are contributed to by both the permittee and the Forest Service.

Permitted numbers of livestock and/or seasons of use have declined slightly in response to the 

utilization standards and resolution of resource conflicts. 

The annual amount of grazing that occurs within the national forests varies due to resource 

conditions and livestock markets. The Forest Service adjusts the amount and timing of use based 

on forage utilization standards. Permittees adjust how much of the authorized use they actually 

use based on market conditions. 

Background: The average number of cattle using the national forests during the 2005,2006, and 

2007 grazing seasons was about 54,000 animals, varying from 47,000 to 60,000. This amount of 

use also averages about 250,000 head months. The average sheep use during the same period was 

about 12,000 animals, varying from 9,000 to 15,000. Grazing use by horses and burros was less 

than 100 animals. There typically are more than 200 permittees grazing livestock within the 

national forests. There currently are 224 active allotments with 3.4 million acres associated with 

those active allotments.

Desired Condition: Grazing allotments contribute to a predictable supply of livestock forage 

that contributes to local ranching operation sustainability and local community growth while 

maintaining or achieving ecological desired conditions.

Scale: Forestwide.

3.3.3 Special Uses 

Background: The Forest Service provides and manages a wide range of recreation and 

nonrecreation special use permits within the Blue Mountains that authorize the occupancy and 

use of National Forest System lands. The authorizations provide primary use to the permit 

holders. Some of the key objectives of the special uses program include managing special uses in 

a manner that protects natural resource values and public health and safety consistent with the 

forest plans, and facilitating the delivery of recreational opportunities for services the Forest 

Service cannot provide.

Existing Condition: The Forest Service manages more than 900 special use permits annually 

within the Blue Mountains national forests. This includes permits that are long term in nature, 

such as a reservoir or a recreation residence. These types of special use permits may exist for 

decades. Permits also include short term uses, such as weekend lodging in a guard station, movie 

or television filming, and recreation events. 

Slightly more than one-half of all special use permits are recreation related with recreation 

residences being the most common, followed by outfitting and guiding permits. The most 

common nonrecreation special use permits authorize utility corridors for powerlines and water 

transmission, electronic towers, and road easements.

Desired Condition: Special uses are authorized for uses that the national forests have a unique 

niche to provide. These authorizations are managed to protect natural resources values consistent 

with the ecological, social, and economic desired conditions.
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Scale: Forestwide.

3.3.4 Mineral and Geological Resources

Background: Geological resources in the Blue Mountains include leasable energy minerals, 

such as oil, natural gas, coal, and geothermal resources; saleable minerals, such as sand, gravel, 

and other rocks used in the construction and landscaping industry; and locatable minerals, such as 

gold, silver, and other precious and base metals.

Existing Condition: Oil and gas resources are known or suspected to occur in a deep 

sedimentary basin that underlies parts of the Wallowa-Whitman and Malheur National Forests 

and all of the Umatilla National Forest. The extent of these resources is unknown due to their 

depth and the difficulty of exploration through the overlying Columbia River basalts.

To date, there has been very little coal development on National Forest System lands in the Blue 

Mountains. Coal deposits are known to occur in the Troy and Flora areas and west of Ukiah in the 

Arbuckle coal field. These coal deposits have been explored in the past with little indication that 

the deposits are of economic value. There is no active, proposed, or anticipated coal mining or 

coal bed methane operation on National Forest System lands. 

Geothermal resources exist throughout the Blue Mountains and are revealed in numerous hot 

springs and warm water wells. This indicates the presence of a widespread, shallow geothermal 

resource. This resource is not limited to surface manifestations, such as hot springs, but rather 

appears to occur throughout the area; consequently, estimating the development potential is 

difficult. 

Saleable common variety mineral resources exist throughout the Blue Mountains. The overabundance of volcanic basalt and andesite formations make this resource readily available.

Locatable mineral resources occur on all three national forests but are primarily concentrated in a 

broad linear path that begins southwest of John Day, Oregon and extends northeast through 

Sumpter, Granite, Unity, and Baker City and across to Durkee, Halfway, and the Eagle Cap 

Mountains. They are also exposed in the bottom of Hells Canyon. These deposits are closely 

associated with Jurassic age intrusive rocks. Chrome, gold, silver, copper, zinc, and other metals 

have been produced from placer and lode mines along this path. 

Desired Condition: Exploration, development, and production of mineral and energy resources 

contribute to the social and economic needs of the Nation as well as local communities, and are 

conducted so as to minimize adverse environmental effects on national forest surface resources.

3.3.5 Water Use

Background: National forests in the Blue Mountains contain the headwaters of the John Day, 

Umatilla, Walla Walla, Tucannon, Grande Ronde, Imnaha, Powder, Burnt, Malheur, and Silvies 

rivers and other streams. The combined area of these river basins totals roughly 19.7 million 

acres, of which 5.2 million acres are National Forest System lands. The combined flow of all 

rivers originating on National Forest System lands is an estimated 7,400,000 acre-feet per year, 

and approximately 5,150,000 acre-feet flows directly from within the national forests (Brown et 

al. 2008 and Gecy 2009a). Seventy percent of total streamflow originates on less than 30 percent 

of the watershed area that comprises the national forests. Within the national forests, water 

provides habitat for aquatic species, sustains riparian vegetation, which provides habitat for 

numerous terrestrial wildlife species, and is used for recreation, stock watering, and other uses. 
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Downstream of the national forests, streams and rivers provide water for the same uses, in 

addition to domestic, industrial, commercial, and agricultural uses.

Existing Condition: Data for the 1995 water year (Solley et al. 1998) indicate that 97 percent 

(2.4 million acre-feet; 33 percent of total streamflow) of total water withdrawals from rivers 

emanating from the Blue Mountains is used for irrigation and about 1 percent is used for human 

consumption. Seventeen percent of total water withdrawals are from groundwater and the 

remaining 83 percent is water diverted directly from surface streams. Irrigation water is used 

primarily from March through October, depending on the basin and state water right laws. In all 

basins, the availability of additional water for irrigation use is limited and in some basins 

available water is already fully appropriated. 

Of more than 8,200 water rights held in the name of the United States on National Forest System 

lands, 1,360 have groundwater sources (seeps, springs, etc.), 2,245 are instream rights held for the 

benefit of aquatic species, including anadromous fish, and 3,200 are used primarily for livestock 

watering.

During the past 30 to 40 years, there has been a trend toward decreased winter precipitation and 

lower spring stream flows in several river basins in response to gradually warming temperatures 

in the Pacific Northwest (Gecy 2009b). Continuation of this trend, combined with the lack of 

water storage facilities, is likely to result in water shortages during years of lower than average 

winter precipitation.

Desired Condition: Water is available in sufficient quantity downstream to meet human needs as 

well as the needs of aquatic species considering the range of possible climate change scenarios. 

Water quality and quantity of groundwater resources, including seeps, springs, fens, and other 

groundwater-dependent ecosystems, is sufficient to provide for the extent and diversity of species 

normally associated with these habitats.

Scale: Watershed to subbasin.
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Part 2 – Strategy

Introduction

Part Two—Strategy describes the strategy the Forest Service intends to use to achieve or maintain 

the forestwide goals and desired conditions described in part one and the management area 

desired conditions described in this part of the forest plan. This part also includes discussion of 

special areas, management areas, general suitability of areas, and the objectives, which includes 

the management focus and the associated management approaches.

Special Areas

Special areas within the national forests are managed to protect or enhance unique or special 

characteristics. They have individual management areas and are identified or designated because 

of their unique or special characteristics. These areas provide for conservation of representative, 

unique, or rare ecosystems or ecological components, as well as culturally significant 

components. Some of these areas help provide an important role under an adaptive management 

philosophy by providing natural reference areas that are intensively managed for a particular 

objective. Management emphasis is primarily focused on protecting or improving, and where 

appropriate, developing and interpreting the area’s special characteristics for public education and 

enjoyment. 

Special areas are formally designated either by congressional statute or by administrative action 

and are divided into two types of designations.

Congressionally Designated Areas

Congressionally designated areas have been established through a formal act of Congress, such as 

a wilderness area or the Hells Canyon National Recreational Area (HCNRA).

Through legislation, Congress has designated several areas that are unique for their special 

characteristics and the opportunities offered. Congressional designation provides specific 

management actions and direction in specific areas. In addition to congressionally designated 

wilderness areas and wild and scenic rivers, this includes national recreation areas.

Administratively Designated Areas 

These areas have been established through special administrative procedures, usually at the 

national level unless the authority for such establishment has been locally delegated. 

While administratively designated areas may be proposed in the forest plan, they are established 

through a separate process subsequent to the planning process. Management direction may 

include specific direction to preserve the unique characteristics of the area. The following types of 

administratively designated areas occur on or across the Blue Mountains: scenic areas; historical, 

geological, and botanical areas; research natural areas; municipal watersheds; scenic byways; and 

nationally designated trails.

Management Areas

Management areas broadly describe areas where general management intent is similar. The 

purpose of management areas is to provide consistent guidance for similar portions of national 

forest landscape when implementing or continuing management activities. The management areas 
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generally range along a continuum from little development by humans in MA 1A to extensive 

human development in MA 5. 

All management areas are displayed in table 11 and described in full following the table. Overlap 

occurs between most management areas but is not accounted for in table 11. The overlapping 

management areas result in the total acreage of all management areas being greater than the 

official national forest acreages. For example, several research natural areas (MA 2B) and wild 

and scenic rivers (MA 2A) overlap into congressionally designated wilderness areas (MA 1A). 

Wilderness area acres have been recalculated using the most current GIS technology. No 

additions or subtractions to any wilderness areas have been made since the 1990 forest plans were 

signed. Acres of private land inclusions are not included in any wilderness area acre calculations.

The acreage for the portion of the Ochoco National Forest adjacent to and administered by the 

Malheur National Forest is included in this table. Scenic byways and national designated trails 

within the HCNRA are not included in this table. The figures in the table are rounded to the 

nearest 100 (acres) and to the nearest whole mile.

In addition, this table does not include acreage for the HCNRA. The HCNRA CMP, which was 

updated and approved in 2003, will be carried forward in its entirety. The HCNRA CMP is the 

portion of the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan that 

guides management of the HCNRA.

Table 11. Management area designation, name, and acreage for each national forest (2F and 2G 

show miles)

Management Area Designation and Name Malheur Umatilla WallowaWhitman

1A – Congressionally Designated Wilderness Areas 82,600 304,200 372,900

1B – Recommended Wilderness Areas 30,400 40,100 20,300

1C – Wilderness Study Area 0 0 2,400

2A – Wild and Scenic River (Includes Designated, 

Eligible, and Suitable Rivers)

12,100 44,600 52,900

2B – Research Natural Areas 11,100 11,000 8,000

2C – Botanical Areas 100 2,400 0

2D – Geological Areas 200 400 0

2E – Historical Areas 34,000 1,200 24,700

2F – Scenic Byways and All-American Roads 13 miles 51 miles 85 miles

2G – Nationally Designated Trails 9 miles 30 miles 25 miles

2H – Scenic Areas 14,400 31,100 0

2I – Starkey Experimental Forest and Range 0 0 30,500

2J – Municipal Watersheds 500 20,200 24,500

3A – Backcountry (nonmotorized use) 53,600 70,100 104,500

3B – Backcountry (motorized use) 119,100 160,600 145,500

3C – Wildlife Corridor 0 21,600 6,500

4A – General Forest 1,245,600 625,200 844,300

4B – Riparian Management Areas 

(300/150/100 foot buffer)

192,900 237,500 362,500

5 – Developed Sites and Administrative Areas 2,200 3,700 7,700
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76 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

MA 1A Congressionally Designated Wilderness Areas

Description: As defined by the 1964 Wilderness Act, a wilderness area is undeveloped Federal 

land retaining its primitive character without permanent improvements or human habitation and is 

managed to preserve its natural conditions. 

There are six designated wilderness areas within the Blue Mountains national forests that were 

established through a number of legislative acts, including the Oregon Wilderness Act (1984) and 

the Washington Wilderness Act (1984). These areas are displayed in table 12.

Table 12. Designated wilderness areas for each national forest

Wilderness Area Name Acres*

Malheur National Forest Designated Wilderness Areas 

Strawberry Mountain 69,509

Monument Rock 13,047

Total 82,556

Umatilla National Forest Designated Wilderness Areas

Wenaha-Tucannon 176,753

North Fork John Day 107,158

North Fork Umatilla 20,255

Total 304,166

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest Designated Wilderness Areas**

Eagle Cap 351,859

Monument Rock 7,188

North Fork John Day 13,897

Total 372,944

Total All 759,666

* The management area acres displayed are taken from the 1990 forest plans and have not been recalculated using the 

most current GIS technology.

** Wilderness area acres within the HCNRA are not included in this table.

Desired Condition: Designated wilderness areas exhibit primitive qualities. Opportunities for 

research, exploration, solitude, risk, challenge, and primitive recreation are widespread. On the 

trail system, opportunities for solitude are moderate to high, with few human encounters 

expected. Opportunities for solitude are high when traveling cross-country with almost no human 

encounters expected. Campsites may be visible at popular destinations along water features and at 

major trail junctions. These sites accommodate moderate use. Directional and regulatory signs are 

primarily found at trailheads outside of this management area but some signs may be present 

within these areas along trails and junctions. Buildings are rare within this management area; 

however, the preservation of historical features or retention of facilities for administrative use 

may occur. Ecosystems are influenced by natural processes with little or no human intervention. 

Geological and ecological processes, such as wildfire and insects and disease, operate relatively 

free from the influence of humans. Any influences upon these processes by humans is intended to 

protect human life; protect adjacent private property or private in-holdings; and reduce impacts to 

Federal facilities, historic or cultural structures, and threatened and endangered plant or animal 

species or species included in the regional forester’s sensitive species list. Predominately diverse, 

native vegetation results from natural succession and disturbance processes, while nonnative 

vegetation is rare. The recreation opportunity spectrum is primitive.
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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 77

MA 1B Preliminary Administratively Recommended Wilderness Areas

Description: The areas in MA 1B have been determined to meet the criteria established to qualify 

for designation as wilderness areas. These areas are recommended for designation and inclusion 

in the National Wilderness Preservation System. Until a decision is made by Congress, these 

areas will be managed to protect the wilderness characteristics that meet the criteria for 

designation of these lands as designated wilderness areas.

Desired Condition: Recommended wilderness areas exhibit primitive qualities. Opportunities for 

research, exploration, solitude, risk, challenge, and primitive recreation are widespread. On the 

trail system, opportunities for solitude are moderate to high, with few human encounters 

expected. Opportunities for solitude are high when traveling cross-country with almost no human 

encounters expected. Ecosystems are influenced by natural processes with little or no human 

intervention. Geological and ecological processes, such as wildfire and insects and disease

disturbances, operate relatively free from the influence of humans. Predominately diverse, native 

vegetation results from natural succession and disturbance processes, while nonnative vegetation 

is rare. Uses are conducive to maintaining the wilderness characteristics of the areas. The 

recreation opportunity spectrum is primitive.

MA 1C Wilderness Study Area

Description: The Homestead Wilderness Study Area, including the neighboring Federal lands 

managed by the Bureau of Land Management, contains about 14,000 acres of public land. 

Inventoried roadless areas were reviewed, and the portion of this roadless area managed by the 

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest increased from about 5,700 acres to about 9,000 acres. Most 

of the area is within the HCNRA, and the remainder of the roadless area is within the Whitman 

Ranger District. The 1991 Bureau of Land Management wilderness study process included the 

national forest acres and did not propose to recommend this roadless area for wilderness 

designation. Congress has not yet accepted the study, so these acres remain in the wilderness 

study area category. Wilderness values and resources will be protected until Congress either 

designates the area as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System or releases the area 

from consideration. 

Desired Condition: The Homestead Wilderness Study Area provides opportunities for primitive 

recreation where natural processes dominate the landscape. The recreation opportunity spectrum 

is primitive.

MA 2A Wild and Scenic Rivers (Includes Designated, Eligible, and Suitable Rivers)

Description: This management area applies to river segments that have been designated as part 

of the Wild and Scenic Rivers System under the authority of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, as 

amended (1968) and the Oregon Omnibus River Act (1988) (see table 13). Depending on the 

alternative, it also applies to rivers identified as eligible or suitable for designation (table 14 and 

table 15). The act requires that a detailed study report be prepared for all rivers mandated for 

study under section 5(a) of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, as amended, and for all other rivers 

identified by the Forest Service as eligible for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers 

System (sec. 5(d)(1) of the act). Section 5(d)(1) study rivers found eligible are to be protected 

pending a suitability determination. Land management agencies must protect section 5(d)(1) 

study rivers found suitable for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System for their 

free-flowing condition, water quality, and outstandingly remarkable values. The existence of low 

dams, diversion works, or other minor structures at the time any river is proposed for inclusion in 
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78 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

the National System does not automatically disqualify it for designation, but future construction 

of such structures is not allowed.

Across the Blue Mountains national forests, there are 11 rivers designated by Congress as wild 

and scenic. On those 11 rivers, about 153 miles are classified as wild, 68 miles as scenic, and 35 

miles as recreational (see table 13).

Desired Condition: Eligible, suitable and designated wild and scenic rivers are free flowing, 

without impoundment, diversion, straightening, rip-rapping or other modification of the 

waterways. Water quality and outstandingly remarkable values for each are protected and 

enhanced. Development and access levels are consistent with the classification of the stream or 

stream segment as designated (or deemed suitable or eligible in the case of river segments that are 

not designated).

Table 13. Miles of designated wild and scenic rivers for each national forest

River Name Wild Scenic Recreational

Malheur National Forest 

Malheur River 6.0 6.0 0.0

North Fork Malheur River 0.0 25.5 0.0

Totals 6.0 31.5 0.0

Umatilla National Forest 

Wenaha River 18.7 2.7 0.2

Grande Ronde River* 17.4 0.0 1.5

North Fork John Day River* 24.3 10.5 8.9

Totals 60.4 13.2 10.6

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest**

Eagle Creek 4.0 6.0 17.0

Grande Ronde River* 17.4 0.0 1.5

Joseph Creek 8.6 0.0 0.0

Imnaha River 15.0 0.0 0.0

Lostine River 5.0 11.0 0.0

Minam River 39.0 0.0 0.0

North Fork John Day River* 3.5 0.0 6.9

North Powder River 0.0 6.0 0.0

Totals 92.5 23.0 25.4

Total All* 141.5* 67.7 34.5*

* The Grande Ronde and North Fork John Day rivers are listed above for both the Umatilla and Wallowa-Whitman 

National Forests as administration is shared. Mileage for the North Fork John Day River is divided within the table to 

reflect the mileage within and administered by each national forest. The Grande Ronde River is part of the 

administrative boundary between the Umatilla and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests, and the mileage is displayed 

equally for each of the national forests and is only counted once in the overall total.

** Designated wild and scenic rivers (Rapid and Snake rivers and part of the Imnaha River) within the HCNRA are not 

included in this table.
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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 79

Table 14. Miles of eligible wild and scenic rivers for each national forest

River Name Wild Scenic Recreational Potential Outstandingly 

Remarkable Values

Malheur National Forest 

Lake Creek 3.3 0.0 0.0 Scenery

Umatilla National Forest

Bear Creek 4.6 0.0 0.0 Fisheries

Butte-West Fork Creek 13.9 0.0 0.0 Scenery, fisheries

Desolation Creek 0.0 0.0 21.4 Recreation, botanical

Lookingglass Creek 8.7 0.0 0.0 Fisheries, hydrological

North Fork Desolation Creek 0.0 0.0 6.8 Botanical

North and South Fork

Wenaha River

26.3 0.0 0.0 Scenery, fisheries, 

botanical

Sheep Creek (in 

Washington)

0.0 0.0 0.5 Scenery, fisheries, 

botanical

South Fork Desolation Creek 8.9 0.0 0.0 Fisheries, botanical

Tucannon River 9.1 4.6 8.7 Recreation, fisheries, 

cultural, botanical

Totals 71.5 4.6 37.4

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest

Big Sheep Creek 10.0 0.0 39.1 Recreation, fisheries, 

cultural

Dutch Flat Creek/Van Patton 

Creek*

5.3 0.0 0.0 Scenery, recreation, 

geological, hydrological, 

botanical

East Eagle Creek* 9.0 2.1 4.5 Scenery, recreation, 

fisheries, hydrological, 

geological, cultural

Five Points Creek* 0.0 12.1 0.0 Scenery, fisheries, wildlife

Killamacue/Rock Creek 10.2 8.6 0.0 Scenery, recreation, 

geologic, botanical

North Fork Catherine Creek 11.1 0.0 2.6 Scenery, recreation, 

fisheries, wildlife

Swamp Creek 7.6 0.0 9.2 Fisheries, wildlife, cultural

Upper Grande Ronde River 11.7 0.0 18.0 Recreation, fisheries, 

wildlife, cultural

Totals 64.9 22.8 73.4

Total All* 139.7 27.4 110.8

Wild Rivers

Wild river segments are free flowing and are generally inaccessible except by trail and/or water; 

the shorelines are essentially natural appearing. Signs of human activity, including structures or 

evidence of resource use, are minimal. Visitors have the opportunity to interact with a natural 

environment with minimal sights and sounds of other people. Wild rivers within designated 

wilderness areas meet the desired condition for MA 1A. The recreation opportunity spectrum is 

primitive to semiprimitive nonmotorized.
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80 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Scenic Rivers

Scenic river segments are free flowing. Shorelines and viewing areas are largely natural 

appearing but are accessible by roads in some places. Some recreation structures, evidence of 

timber harvest roads, and other evidence of human activity may be present but do not detract 

from the near natural appearance and scenic qualities of the immediate environment. A variety of 

water related recreational opportunities are available. The recreation opportunity spectrum is 

semiprimitive nonmotorized to semiprimitive motorized.

Recreational Rivers

Recreational river segments are free flowing and are readily accessible from roads. Some major 

public use facilities, such as developed campgrounds, administrative buildings, bridges, private 

residences, and commercial businesses, may be within the corridor. Considerable development 

and silvicultural treatments may have occurred and may be evident near the river. A range of 

recreational opportunities is available in settings where visitors are likely to share their 

recreational experience with other individuals or groups. The recreation opportunity spectrum is 

semiprimitive motorized to roaded natural.

Table 15. Miles of suitable wild and scenic rivers for the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest

River Name Wild Scenic Recreational Outstandingly 

Remarkable Values

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest*

Dutch Flat Creek 5.3 0.0 0.0

Scenery, recreation, 

geological, hydrological, 

botanical

East Eagle Creek 9.0 2.1 4.5

Scenery, recreation, 

fisheries, hydrological, 

geological, cultural

Five Points Creek 0.0 12.1 0.0 Scenery, fisheries, wildlife

Totals 6.0 31.5 0.0

* These rivers were determined suitable. Analysis is documented in the Dutch Flat Creek, Killamacue Creek, and Rock 

Creek Wild and Scenic River Study Report (1996) and Wild and Scenic River Study Report and Final Legislative EIS for 

Eight Rivers (1997).

MA 2B Research Natural Areas 

Description: Research natural areas (RNAs) form a network of ecological reserves established 

for research and education purposes and for the maintenance of biodiversity. They are established 

to conserve unique ecological communities and are intended to promote and protect natural 

diversity. Research natural areas typify important vegetative, aquatic, and geological types, as 

well as other natural situations that have special and unique characteristics of scientific interest 

and importance. 

Research, study, observation, monitoring, and educational activities that are nondestructive and 

nonmanipulative are generally allowed within research natural areas. While research natural areas 

are generally not suitable for livestock grazing, some incidental use by livestock could occur 

within these areas as administrative boundaries are typically not fenced. The network of 

established or proposed research natural areas within the national forests of the Blue Mountains is 

displayed in table 16.
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Table 16. Research natural areas for each national forest

Area Name Acres Status Change

Malheur National Forest

Baldy Mountain 3,861 Proposed Boundary update

Canyon Creek 738 Established NA

Dixie Butte 335 Proposed Boundary update

Dry Mountain 2,260 Established NA

Dugout Creek1 908 Established NA

Shaketable 385 Established Boundary update

Silver Creek 802 Proposed NA

Stinger Creek 1,663 Proposed Boundary update

Strawberry Mountain 107 Proposed New

Total 11,059

Umatilla National Forest

Birch Creek Cove 411 Proposed NA

Kahler Creek Butte

(formerly Kelly Creek Butte)

84 Proposed NA

Mill Creek2 7,486 Proposed Boundary update

Pataha Bunchgrass 63 Established NA

Rainbow Creek 570 Established NA

Vinegar Hill 424 Proposed NA

Wenaha Breaks

(formerly Elk Flats-Wenaha Breaks)

1,970 Established Boundary update

Total 11,008

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest

Clear Creek Ridge 637 Proposed New

Craig Mountain Lake 172 Proposed NA

Glacier Lake 102 Proposed NA

Haystack Rock 425 Proposed NA

Horse Pasture Ridge 338 Proposed NA

Indian Creek 1,003 Established NA

Johnson

(formerly Cougar Meadow) 131 Proposed Name change

Lake Fork1 224 Proposed Boundary update

Mount Joseph 705 Proposed NA

Nebo1 1,695 Proposed New

Point Prominence 365 Proposed NA

Standley 742 Proposed New

Gerald S. Strickler

(formerly Government Meadow)

195 Established Name change

Sturgill 139 Proposed New

Tenderfoot Basin 891 Proposed New

Vance Knoll 190 Established NA

West Razz Lake 47 Proposed NA

Total 8,001

1. Acres within the HCNRA are not included in this table.

2. This research natural area is also a designated municipal watershed.
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Desired Condition: Research natural areas and proposed research natural areas exhibit natural 

conditions with minimal human intervention, and ecological processes prevail. Under some 

circumstances (i.e., when there is an approved establishment report that includes a management 

plan), deliberate manipulation may occur to maintain the ecosystem or the unique feature for 

which the research natural area was established, except in wilderness areas. The recreation 

opportunity spectrum depends on the surrounding management areas.

MA 2C Botanical Areas

Description: Botanical areas have special values and unique natural characteristics. Botanical 

areas contain specimens, groups of plant colonies, or plant communities that are significant 

because of form, color occurrence, habitat location, life history, ecology, variety, or other features. 

While botanical areas are generally not suitable for livestock grazing, some incidental use by 

livestock could occur within these areas as administrative boundaries typically are not fenced. 

The network of established or proposed botanical areas within the national forests of the Blue 

Mountains is displayed in table 17.

Desired Condition: Botanical areas exhibit the natural composition, structure, and function of 

each area’s unique ecosystem. The recreation opportunity spectrum depends on the surrounding 

management areas.

Table 17. Botanical areas for each national forest

Area Name Current 

Acres

Proposed 

Acres Change

Malheur National Forest 

Fergy Spruce Grove 29 29 No changes proposed

Cedar Grove 94 116 Updated calculation from current 

mapping

Totals 123 145

Umatilla National Forest

Charley Creek 50 111 Increased acres to protect unique values

Ruckel Junction 5 5 No changes proposed

Karl Urban 500 500 Name changed from Sheep Creek Falls

Botanical Area 

Shimmiehorn Canyon 197 197 No changes proposed 

Sourdough 0 1,511 Proposed

Farr Meadows 0 12 Proposed

Elk Flats Meadow 0 97 Proposed

Totals 695 2,437

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest

None NA NA NA

Total All 818 2,582
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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 83

MA 2D Geological Areas

Description: Geological areas have outstanding formations or unique geological features of the 

earth’s development, such as caves, fossils, dikes, cliffs, or faults. These areas are protected or 

enhanced, and where appropriate, public use and enjoyment is fostered. The network of 

established geological areas within the Malheur and Umatilla National Forests is displayed in 

table 18.

Desired Condition: Geological areas display unusual formations and significant events. 

Developments provide public enjoyment and interpretation opportunities with high scenic, 

recreational, and historic value. Access within the areas is by nonmotorized trails. The recreation 

opportunity spectrum depends on the surrounding management areas.

Table 18. Geological areas for the Malheur and Umatilla National Forests

Area Name Acres

Malheur National Forest 

Magone Lake 185

Tex Bridge 1

Total 186

Umatilla National Forest 

Big Sink 416

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest

None NA

Total All 788

MA 2E Historical Areas

Description: These areas are protected or enhanced, and, where appropriate, public use and 

enjoyment is fostered. These areas are usually small (generally less than 1,000 acres). Historical 

areas have historic sites, buildings, or objects of significance. The network of established 

historical areas within the Malheur and Umatilla National Forests is displayed in table 19.

Desired Condition: Historical areas demonstrate legacies unique to the area. Developments exist 

to enhance public enjoyment and interpretation. Their high historic value is maintained. The 

recreation opportunity spectrum depends on the surrounding management areas.
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84 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Table 19. Historical areas for the Malheur and Umatilla National Forests

Area Name Acres

Malheur National Forest

Sumpter Valley Railroad 13

Depression ERA CCC Buildings 11

Early and Intermediate Period Buildings 4

Historic Lookouts 7

Malheur Headwaters National Register District 4,950

Camas Oven Site 10

Pre-Mazama Site 10

Arch Rock Site 2

Historic Mining Districts 598

Obsidian Source Archaeological Complex 28,000

Total 33,605

Umatilla National Forest

Greenhorn 90

Olive Lake-Fremont Powerhouse 1,000

Target Meadows 83

Total 1,173

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest NA

None

Total All 34,778

MA 2F Scenic Byways and All-American Roads

Description: The National Scenic Byways Program is a part of the U.S. Department of 

Transportation. The program is a grassroots, collaborative effort established to help recognize, 

preserve, and enhance selected roads throughout the United States. The U.S. Secretary of 

Transportation recognizes certain roads as All-American roads or national scenic byways based 

on one or more archeological, cultural, historic, natural, recreational, or scenic quality.

The purpose of the scenic byways program is to create a distinctive collection of designated

roads, their stories, and treasured places by creating a unique travel experience and enhanced 

local quality of life through efforts to preserve, protect, interpret, and promote the intrinsic 

qualities of designated byways. Table 20 displays the miles of designated national and state scenic 

byways and designated routes within the Blue Mountains national forests. Each of the scenic 

byways has additional mileage outside of national forest boundaries.

Desired Condition: The scenic integrity of scenic byways is high. Scenic byways connect 

communities with the surrounding natural environment. Constructed features contribute to the 

attractiveness of the landscape and/or theme. The recreation opportunity spectrum depends on the 

surrounding management areas.
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Table 20. Scenic byways within each national forest

Scenic Byway Name Length (miles) Designation

Malheur National Forest 

Journey Through Time Scenic Byway 13 State

Umatilla National Forest 

Blue Mountain Scenic Byway 48 State

Elkhorn Scenic Byway 3 State

Total 51

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest

Blue Mountain Scenic Byway 2 State

Hells Canyon Scenic Byway* 10 National

Journey Through Time Scenic Byway 21 State

Elkhorn Scenic Byway 52 State

Total 85

Total All 149

* A portion of the Hells Canyon Scenic Byway, an All-American Road, is within the HCNRA and is not 

included in this table. 

MA 2G Nationally Designated Trails

Description: The National Trail System Act (1968) authorized the creation of a national trail 

system comprised of National Recreation Trails, National Scenic Trails, and National Historic 

Trails. These trails are included in the listing of specially designated areas because of their scenic, 

recreational, and historic value. Table 21 displays trails designated within the Malheur, Umatilla, 

and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests.

Table 21. Nationally designated trails within each national forest

Trail Name Length (miles)

Malheur National Forest 

Arch Rock National Recreation Trail 0.3

Cedar Grove National Recreation Trail 1.0

Malheur River National Recreation Trail 8.0

Total 9.3

Umatilla National Forest 

Jubilee Lake National Recreation Trail 3.0

North Fork John Day National Recreation Trail 22.9

South Winom Creek National Recreation Trail 4.0

Total 29.9

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest*

Elkhorn Crest National Recreation Trail 23.0

High Wallowa National Recreation Trail 2.0

Oregon Trail National Historic Trail 8.3

Total 33.3

Total All 72.5

* The following designated trails are within the HCNRA and are not included in this table: Nez PerceNee Me Poo National Historic Trail and the Western Rim/Summit Ridge, Heaven’s Gate, and 

Snake River National Recreation Trails.
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Desired Condition: Nationally designated trails meet standards commensurate with the 

significance of each trail. They are well maintained and are upgraded where necessary to 

minimize resource problems while providing a safe, consistent surface. Signage is adequate or is 

improved. Their high scenic, recreational, and historic value is evident. The recreation 

opportunity spectrum depends on the surrounding management areas.

MA 2H Scenic Areas

Description: Scenic areas are places of natural variety where unique physical characteristics 

provide pleasing views and dispersed recreational opportunities. Scenic areas are designated to 

protect or enhance, and, where appropriate, foster public use and enjoyment of areas with special 

landscapes noted for their natural beauty. There are three designated scenic areas within the 

national forests of the Blue Mountains. The network of established scenic areas within the 

Malheur and Umatilla National Forests is displayed in table 22.

Desired Condition: Scenic areas provide a variety of recreational opportunities for public use 

and enjoyment while remaining mostly natural in appearance. While roads provide motor vehicle 

access to the unique natural beauty and sense of vastness of these areas, the supply and visibility 

of existing roads is subordinate to the overall scenic character of the landscape. The scenic 

integrity of these areas is high to very high. The recreation opportunity spectrum depends on the 

surrounding management areas.

Table 22. Scenic areas within the Malheur and Umatilla National Forests

Name Acres Establishment

Malheur National Forests

Vinegar Hill-Indian Rock Scenic Area 12,835 Established in 1966 by Regional Forester 

Silver Creek Scenic Area 1,572 Proposed

Total 14,407

Umatilla National Forest

Vinegar Hill-Indian Rock Scenic Area 21,956 Established in 1966 by Regional Forester and 

amended in 1978 by adding the Desolation Unit

Grande Ronde Scenic Area 9,158 Established in 1979 by Regional Forester 

Total 31,114

Total All 45,521

MA 2I Starkey Experimental Forest and Range 

Description: The Starkey Experimental Forest and Range (Starkey) was established in 1940. It is 

managed to support existing research projects and to provide for future research needs. 

Experimental forests and ranges were established explicitly to conduct research benefitting and 

supporting National Forest System management. Management treatments on experimental forests 

and ranges generally are integrated with and support research projects. The national network of 

experimental forests and ranges, a land base authorized by Congress and designated by the Chiefs 

of the Forest Service over the last 100 years, provides sites where long-term ecological research 

can be maintained. Experimental forests and ranges are living laboratories where scientists not 

only make discoveries but also demonstrate relevant research results for cooperators and 

stakeholders. They provide opportunities to conduct the innovative research that will be required 

for sound management of future landscapes.
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Starkey is a world-class research facility and a primary field location for long-term, operational 

scale scientific studies of the effects of management activities on ungulates and other wildlife, as 

well as effects of deer, elk and cattle on ecosystem process and function. Scientists conducting 

research at Starkey have generated numerous publications that have been instrumental in 

providing managers with defensible options and best management practices for managing roads 

and traffic, including off-road recreation, livestock grazing, and fuel treatments in relation to 

ungulates. Significant, long-term research on interactions between livestock and wild ungulates 

began in 1989, through a joint wildlife research project conducted by the Oregon Department of 

Fish and Wildlife, Oregon State University, and the U.S. Forest Service. 

The Station Director will review and concur with management activities proposed within this 

Experimental Forest and Range.

Desired Condition: The Starkey Experimental Forest and Range provides opportunities to study 

deer, elk, cattle, and other wildlife, as well as other aspects of intensive forest and rangeland 

management including disturbance ecology (e.g., fire, insects and disease, large mammal 

grazing). A wide variety of land uses and human activities will continue to be included in 

management of Starkey including: active silviculture, fuels reduction, biofuel management, fire 

suppression, cattle grazing, public access, public uses of motorized and nonmotorized roads and 

trails, firewood cutting, camping and other nonconsumptive recreation, and protection of all 

research facilities. Public access and activities are managed to protect the facilities and meet 

research needs.

Depending on research objectives, studies range from nonmanipulative studies at very small 

scales, to experiments involving commercial timber harvesting across multiple stands. Typical 

forest practices, such as fuels reduction, prescribed fire, and timber harvest, are conducted as part 

of research direction and may result in a higher level of uncertainty of effects than is expected in 

other management areas, because research within experimental areas can include testing of novel 

prescriptions and management approaches. Timber harvest is allowed to meet specific resource 

objectives for Starkey. Timber harvest is not scheduled and does not contribute towards the 

allowable sale quantity.

Enclosures, exclosures, and long-term vegetation plots are maintained and protected to provide a 

continuous data stream to meet research objectives. However, future research may dictate 

treatment within these areas. Livestock management systems include (1) use of novel cattle 

grazing systems to facilitate habitat recovery in riparian systems, (2) manipulative ungulate 

treatments to evaluate cattle versus elk and deer herbivory effects on vegetation development, and 

(3) evaluating effects of ungulates on a wide variety of other resources (e.g., water quality, 

hydrology, nutrient cycling, forest productivity, and wildlife). The number of animals, as well as 

the allocation of this number between cattle, deer and elk, may be manipulated as part of the 

research conducted on the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range.

The recreation opportunity spectrum is roaded natural.
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88 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

MA 2J Municipal Watersheds

Description: A municipal watershed is an area that serves a public water system as defined by the 

Safe Drinking Water Act. The act applies to systems that provide water for human consumption, 

have at least 15 service connections, or regularly provide water to at least 25 people. The act was 

amended in 1996 to require source water protection zones for groundwater wells that provide 

water for public use. The act regulates both community and noncommunity water systems. 

Six communities in the Blue Mountains have water systems that derive water supplies directly 

from National Forest System lands (see table 23). 

The definition of municipal watershed in current Forest Service regulations does not include 

communities served by a well or confined groundwater unaffected by Forest Service activities. 

However, the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 was amended in 1996 to require source water 

protection zones for groundwater wells that provide water for municipal use. Designation of 

municipal watersheds recognizes the need to protect public water supplies. Municipal watersheds 

may be managed for multiple uses so long as management activities do not degrade water quality. 

Management of some municipal water supply watersheds is subject to the terms of existing 

agreements between the Secretary of Agriculture and the respective cities.

In general, management of the municipal watersheds displayed in table 23 is guided by existing 

agreements between the individual cities and either the Secretary of Agriculture or the Forest 

Service. Actions that could degrade water quality are either prohibited or are subject to approval 

by the respective city. For some communities, wells outside the national forest are the primary 

water source, but well-head protection zones may extend onto National Forest System lands.

Table 23. Designated municipal watersheds for each national forest

Watershed Acres City Establishment

Malheur National Forest 

Long Creek Municipal Watershed 256 Long Creek, OR 1937 Special Use Permit

Byram Gulch Municipal 

Watershed 279 Canyon City, OR 1926 Special Use Permit

Total 535

Umatilla National Forest

Mill Creek Municipal Watershed 20,300 Walla Walla, WA

1918 Agreement between 

Secretary of Agriculture and City 

of Walla Walla

Total 20,300

Wallowa-Whitman National Forest 

Baker City Municipal Watershed 

(multiple streams) 9,322 Baker City, OR 1912 Agreement with Department of Agriculture

La Grande City Municipal 

Watershed (Beaver Creek) 15,161 La Grande, OR 1935 Agreement with Department of Agriculture

Total 24,483

Total All 45,318
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In addition to the municipal watersheds listed in table 23, nine communities in Oregon have 

watersheds or water sources located on or adjacent to National Forest System lands that should be 

protected in order to meet state source-water protection guidelines.

Within the Malheur National Forest 

The town of Seneca uses two groundwater wells for its public water supply. The well-head 

protection zones for these wells may include National Forest System lands and require protection 

under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Prairie City obtains its water supply from Dixie Creek, which 

originates on National Forest System lands.

Twelve additional sites, including campgrounds and administrative sites and one privately owned 

site, provide water for public use and are regulated by provisions of the Safe Drinking Water Act 

as noncommunity water systems.

Within the Umatilla National Forest 

The North Fork Umatilla River was designated as the municipal water supply for the city of 

Pendleton by the Oregon State Legislature in 1941. In 1984, the area was designated as a 

wilderness area and the city has since transferred its water intake to a point on the Umatilla River 

near the city of Pendleton. 

Within the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest 

The town of Granite has a water intake on National Forest System lands operating under special 

use permit. A wellhead protection zone for a groundwater well extends onto National Forest 

System lands.

The town of Halfway has municipal water rights on National Forest System lands but has 

converted the water system to groundwater sources on city-owned lands.

The upper Wallowa River, including Wallowa Lake, is designated by the Oregon Department of 

Environmental Quality as the municipal water supply for the city of Joseph. The city water intake 

is located near the outlet of Wallowa Lake and is not on National Forest System lands. 

The city of Sumpter has a water intake operating under special use permit on National Forest 

System lands. The watershed is designated by Oregon Department of Environmental Quality as a 

municipal water supply.

The city of Wallowa owns municipal water rights on National Forest System lands (Bear Creek) 

but has converted its water system to groundwater sources on city-owned lands. 

The communities of Richland and Greenhorn obtain their water from surface sources originating 

on National Forest System lands. 

Fifteen additional sites within the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, primarily campgrounds and 

administrative sites, provide water for human consumption and are regulated under the authority 

of the Safe Drinking Water Act as noncommunity water systems.

Desired Condition: With appropriate treatment, the quality of water used for human 

consumption meets or exceeds all associated state water quality criteria. The recreation 

opportunity spectrum is semi-primitive motorized.
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MA 3A Backcountry (Nonmotorized Use)

Description: Use in MA 3A Backcountry (nonmotorized use) is nonmotorized year-round and is 

essentially primitive. Lands in this management area often provide high quality or undisturbed 

soil, water, and air; sources of public drinking water; diversity of plant and animal communities; 

habitat for species listed under the Endangered Species Act and other species that depend on 

large, undisturbed areas of land; primitive and semi-primitive nonmotorized dispersed recreation 

opportunities; natural appearing landscapes with high scenic quality, natural integrity, apparent 

naturalness, solitude and remoteness; and traditional cultural properties and sacred sites.

Desired Condition: Generally, natural ecological processes predominate. 

The social setting is one of moderate to high challenge and risk, where people using these areas 

experience some isolation from the sights and sounds of others. Mechanized uses, such as 

bicycles, chainsaws, and generators, are allowed. Trail systems are constructed and maintained 

for use by hikers, equestrians, and cyclists. The scenic integrity of these areas is high. The 

recreation opportunity spectrum in MA 3A is semi-primitive or primitive nonmotorized.

MA 3B Backcountry (motorized use) 

Description: Use in MA 3B Backcountry (motorized use) includes both motor vehicle use and 

nonmotorized use. These areas are relatively remote but may show signs of past activities. Motor 

vehicle access to these areas may be restricted seasonally, by route designations, or by area 

restrictions. These areas are characterized by semi-primitive nonmotorized and motorized 

dispersed recreation opportunities and modified appearing landscapes with moderate scenic 

quality.

Desired Condition: Generally, natural ecological processes predominate.

The social setting is one of moderate challenge and risk, where people using these areas 

experience some isolation from the sights and sounds of others. Motorized and mechanized uses, 

such as motorcycles, OHVs, snowmobiles, bicycles, and motorized equipment such as chainsaws 

and generators are allowed. Trails and primitive developments are constructed and maintained for 

both motor vehicle and nonmotorized users. The open motor vehicle route density within HUC5 

watersheds in this management area is no greater than 1.5 miles of open motor vehicle routes per 

square mile. The recreation opportunity spectrum in MA 3B is semi-primitive or motorized.

MA 3C Wildlife Corridor

Description: Wildlife corridors are areas designed to maintain habitat linkages between 

wilderness areas. Although disagreement exists regarding the utility of corridors, this 

management area emphasizes management for landscape connectivity, which is “the degree to 

which the landscape facilitates or impedes movement among resource patches,” (Taylor et al. 

1993) or “the functional relationship among habitat patches, owing to the spatial contagion of 

habitat and the movement responses of organisms to landscape structure,” (With et al. 1997). A 

wide variety of vegetation structure and composition is present, with some showing evidence of 

past human disturbance and others showing affects primarily from natural disturbances, such as 

wildfires. Both summer and winter motor vehicle travel is restricted to designated routes. 

Recreation users can expect to find evidence of human activity in the form of vegetation 

management, mining, and road building. However, many of the roads that are closed to motor 

vehicle travel occur in these areas.
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Desired Condition: Wildlife species using these areas experience minimal human disturbance. 

Thinning forested vegetation results in variable densities, with greater than 40 percent canopy 

cover, over greater than 75 percent of the area, during the life of the plan.

The social setting is one of little challenge and risk. The area’s many routes may not be available 

for motor vehicle travel. Within HUC5 watersheds in this management area, year round open 

motor vehicle route density is less than 1 mile per square mile, including over-the-snow motor 

vehicle routes. Over-the-snow motor vehicle travel is restricted to designated routes. Major 

travelways (i.e., state, county, and paved roads) remain open year round, and may be groomed for 

over-the-snow motor vehicle use in winter. The recreation opportunity spectrum in MA3C is 

semiprimitive motorized.

MA 4A General Forest

Description: General forest areas are managed to meet a variety of ecological and human needs. 

A wide variety of vegetative structure and composition is present, with some showing the effects 

of past management activities and others showing the effects of predominantly natural forces, 

such as wildfire, insects, and disease. These lands often display high levels of management 

activity and associated roads. Visitors expect to see other people and evidence of human 

activities. 

Desired Condition: General forest contributes to the variety of native plant communities and the 

composition, structure, and patterns defined in the desired conditions. While the landscape is 

predominantly natural in appearance, there are some locations where the vegetation composition, 

structure, density and/or pattern is altered to meet short- or long-term management objectives that 

move the landscape towards the desired conditions. The area is maintained through ecological 

processes, as well as management activities. This management area contributes important habitat 

for aquatic, plant and wildlife species that benefit from functional habitat. Additionally, the area 

supplies a variety of dispersed or developed summer and winter recreational activities. 

Recreational use is generally dispersed and/or located at recreation developments, such as 

campgrounds with higher use levels. Facilities (whether Forest Service or permitted) are those 

necessary to provide public or resource benefit, or provide for safety. This area has Forest Service 

system and other authorized routes. A wide spectrum of travelway types are present, ranging from 

maintenance level 1 through 5 roads (closed roads to highways) to trails that serve as recreational 

features themselves. The recreation opportunity spectrum in MA4A is roaded natural.

MA 4B Riparian Management Areas 

Description: Riparian management areas (RMAs) are areas that include portions of watersheds 

where aquatic and riparian-dependent resources receive primary emphasis and where special 

management direction applies. Riparian management areas encompass lands adjacent to 

permanently flowing streams, ponds, lakes, wetlands, seeps, springs, and intermittent streams, 

including geologically unstable sites that may influence these lands. Riparian management areas 

will generally have minimum widths but are designed to extend to the outer edge of riparian 

vegetation, or to the outer extent of the 100-year floodplain, whichever is greater. Riparian 

management areas are managed to maintain and restore the riparian structure and function of 

intermittent and perennial streams, confer benefits to riparian-dependent plant and animal species, 

enhance habitat conservation for organisms that are dependent on the transition zone between 

upslope and riparian areas, and provide for greater connectivity within and between watersheds 

for both riparian and upland species.
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Acres associated with MA 4B are only those acres within MA 4A General Forest. However, the 

desired conditions and standards and guidelines that apply to MA 4B apply to all riparian 

management areas (table 24).

Table 24. Riparian management area widths

Category Minimum Riparian Management Area Width*

Fish-bearing streams 300 feet slope distance on either side of stream or to 

outer edge of 100-year floodplain, whichever is greatest

Permanently-flowing non-fish-bearing 

streams

150 feet slope distance on either side of stream or to 

outer edge of 100-year floodplain, whichever is greatest

Constructed ponds, reservoirs and wetlands 

greater than 1 acre

150 feet slope distance from the outer edge of wetland or 

from the maximum pool elevation, whichever is greatest

Lakes and natural ponds 300 feet slope distance

Seasonally-flowing, intermittent and 

ephemeral streams, wetlands smaller than 1 

acre, and unstable areas

100 feet slope distance

* Additional delineation criteria apply, as described in the glossary.

Riparian vegetation performs numerous key functions for stream ecosystems, including the 

provision of shade, bank stability, nutrient transfer, retention of organic material, and the supply 

of woody material. 

Because riparian plant species vary in their establishment mechanisms, water requirements, and 

tolerance to flooding, differences in channel and floodplain morphology result in high spatial and 

temporal variability in species composition and age class structure within and along riparian 

zones. This makes riparian areas among the most biologically diverse and productive habitats on 

the landscape. 

Healthy riparian areas are important for the protection of the water quality upon which aquatic 

species depend and are also used by approximately 75 percent of terrestrial vertebrate species in 

the Blue Mountains (Raedeke 1989, Thomas 1979). In addition, riparian areas provide critical 

habitat for numerous sensitive, rare, or uncommon plant and lichen species. Management 

activities within riparian management areas are designed to maintain, enhance, or restore, as 

applicable, the ecological processes responsible for the diversity, productivity, and sustainability 

of riparian habitats.

Management of riparian management areas focuses on the ecological processes and conditions 

within the riparian management areas and contributes to the value of the aquatic and riparian 

habitats they contain. 

The full definition and criteria for delineating riparian management areas are in the glossary.

Desired Condition: Riparian management areas within any given watershed reflect a natural 

composition of native and desired nonnative plant and animal species and a distribution of 

physical and vegetative conditions appropriate to natural disturbance regimes affecting the area.

Key riparian processes and conditions, including slope stability and associated vegetative root 

strength; wood delivery to streams; input of leafy and organic matter to aquatic and terrestrial 

systems; solar shading; microclimate; and water quality, are within ranges typical of the 
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biophysical setting and the corresponding disturbance regime. The recreation opportunity 

spectrum in MA4B is semi-primitive to primitive.

Acres associated with MA 4B are only those acres within MA 4A General Forest. However, the 

desired conditions and standards and guidelines that apply to MA 4B apply to all riparian 

management areas.

MA 5 Developed Sites and Administrative Areas

Description: Developed sites, administrative areas, and permitted uses such as ski areas, 

developed campgrounds, recreation residences, administrative sites, communication sites, and 

utility corridors, are generally limited in extent to meet their designated purpose and occur as a 

place or feature on the landscape. Ecological values are conserved while protecting the health and 

safety of humans. Livestock grazing within developed and administrative sites is generally 

unsuitable, although some administrative sites are used to pasture Forest Service administrative 

stock. Transportation and motor vehicle access varies. Roads and trails typically are limited and 

provide access to the main site features, such as buildings, permit areas, and campsites. Some of 

these areas are used for administrative purposes such as employee housing, storage, and longterm condition and trend studies and conifer seed orchards. Though small, these areas are 

important data collection points that assist with understanding ecosystem function and resilience.

Desired Condition: Infrastructure design promotes employee, permit holder, and visitor safety. 

The appearance is neat, orderly, and complementary to the surrounding landscape setting. 

Facilities, structures, and other built elements blend with the natural landscape where possible 

and are consistent with landscape architecture principles found in the Forest Service Built 

Environment Image Guidelines (USDA Forest Service 2001). The scenic integrity of these areas 

is commensurate with the inventoried scenic class. Snags and down wood levels are generally 

less than in other management areas or are absent due to safety concerns. Administrative studies 

and seed orchards are maintained. The level of development of buildings and ancillary structures, 

such as water and power systems, is commensurate to support the objective of the developed site, 

permit area, or administrative area without exceeding the desired condition for scenic integrity in 

the area. 

Vegetation treatments may include consideration of wildfire protection objectives, which may 

over-ride ecological desired conditions. In these instances, vegetative structure would result in 

fire intensity that allows for safe and effective suppression actions. 

The recreation opportunity spectrum in MA5 is roaded natural to rural. The following 

descriptions further explain the desired conditions for specific facility types within the three 

national forests.

Communication Sites

Desired Condition: Communication facilities and ancillary features are designed to be 

consistent with the designated purpose while maintaining human health and safety values and 

inventoried scenic class. New facilities are designed to minimize impairing scenic, natural, and

cultural resource values and to blend with the natural appearing landscape, repeating the form, 

line, color, and texture of the surrounding valued landscape character. Existing sites and facilities 

are improved to mitigate affects to on-site values and visual appearance, and to be consistent with 

the inventoried scenic class.
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Utility Corridors

Desired Condition: Utility corridors and ancillary features are designed to be consistent with the 

designated purpose of providing power and telecommunication services to communities. Human 

health and safety values are maintained. Proposed new facilities are evaluated for compatibility 

with existing corridors and scenic, natural, and cultural resource values. Horizontal lines are 

softened through feathering and scalloping the edges of the corridors commensurate with 

vegetative and other resource needs. Proposals for new corridors are designed to minimize the 

visibility of the corridors and repeat the form, line, color and texture of the surrounding valued 

landscape character. 

Developed Recreation Sites and Facilities

Desired Condition: Developed public facilities are operated by Forest Service personnel or 

permit holders. Sites such as campgrounds, picnic areas, trailheads, snow-parks, and boating and 

interpretive sites, are well maintained, fully functional, provide for visitor safety, and are 

accessible to people with disabilities. Potable water and sanitary systems are limited yet are 

provided at some sites and meet required health standards. Areas of highly concentrated use 

provide a full suite of amenities that provide for diversity of users. The facilities are fully utilized 

with occupancy rates approaching full capacity during peak use periods and moderate occupancy 

rates during nonpeak summer and fall periods. Facilities provide some comfort for the user as 

well as site protection. New construction and reconstruction projects utilize a contemporary/rustic 

design based on the use of native or durable materials. Impacts to natural resources from 

concentrated visitor use are minimal. Partnerships with permit holders are encouraged and 

sustained at high-end public developed areas, such concessionaire-operated campgrounds. 

Permitted Recreation Facilities

Desired Condition: Special use permit holders operate private facilities within the terms and 

conditions of the permit. Public uses are allowed at permitted sites such as lodges, organization 

camps, and trams. Private users are permitted at facilities such as recreation residences. No new 

recreation residence tracts or unoccupied lots are permitted. The recreation opportunity spectrum 

in MA5 is rural. The following descriptions further explain the desired conditions for specific 

facility types within the three national forests.

Ski Areas

Desired Condition: Facilities and structures are designed to blend with the natural environment, 

using the principles in the Built Environment Image Guide for the National Forests and 

Grasslands (USDA Forest Service 2001). Removal of vegetation for ski runs is designed to blend 

with the natural patterns of the surrounding valued landscape character. Activities are consistent 

with the approved master development plan. 

Administrative Sites

Desired Condition: Administrative facilities include guard stations, administrative sites, 

pastures and airstrips and are safe, efficient, cost-effective, and are maintained at a function and 

use level that meets management needs and provide for universal accessibility. Facilities meet all 

applicable health and safety standards. Impacts to natural resources are minimal. Administrative 

facilities complement natural settings. The form of structures is derived by the function and from 

the landscape setting. For example, structures in mountainous, timbered landscapes have steep 

rooflines and broad eaves and use durable indigenous materials, such as stone and heavy timbers, 

with the appearance derived from the local environment. Structures, signage, and other built 
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environment elements reflect the style and character inherent in the local environment (USDA 

Forest Service 2001).

Management area designations and names follow:

MA 1A Congressionally Designated Wilderness Areas 

MA 1B Preliminary Administratively Recommended Wilderness Areas

MA 1C Wilderness Study Area

MA 2A Wild and Scenic Rivers (includes designated, eligible, and suitable rivers)

MA 2B Research Natural Areas

MA 2C Botanical Areas

MA 2D Geological Areas

MA 2E Historical Areas

MA 2F Scenic Byways and All American Roads

MA 2G Nationally Designated Trails

MA 2H Scenic Areas

MA 2I Starkey Experimental Forest and Range

MA 2J Municipal Watersheds

MA 3A Backcountry (nonmotorized use)

MA 3B Backcountry (limited motor vehicle use)

MA 4A General Forest

MA 4B Riparian Management Areas

MA 5 Developed Sites and Administrative Areas
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Suitability of Areas

An area may be identified as generally suitable for uses that are compatible with desired 

conditions and objectives for that area. An area may be identified as generally not suitable for 

uses that are not compatible with desired conditions and objectives for that area. Identification of 

an area as generally suitable or generally not suitable for a use is guidance for project and activity 

decision making and not a commitment nor a final decision approving projects and activities. 

Uses of specific areas are approved through project and activity decision making.

Management areas are used in this forest plan to help further refine suitable uses and guide 

management.

For ease of reference, general suitability determinations for management areas are listed in table 

25.

Management Focus

The management focal points describe how the goals and desired conditions and objectives may 

be applied to guide development of projects and activities on National Forest System lands. These 

three interconnected points (areas of restoration need) are the most important in the Blue 

Mountains: 

♦ Restoring and Maintaining Terrestrial Vegetation Conditions

♦ Restoring and Maintaining Watershed Conditions

♦ Restoring and Maintaining Social and Economic Conditions

The themes reflect that the restoration needs are great, that socio-economic needs are great, and 

that neither can be met nor sustained without the other. Much of the forested and nonforested 

vegetation in the Blue Mountains is highly departed from desired conditions. Dry forest 

vegetation types have both the greatest extent of departed acres and the greatest level of 

departure. Alteration of vegetative conditions has cascading effects on the extent and quality of 

terrestrial wildlife habitats and watershed conditions. Riparian and aquatic habitats in the Blue 

Mountains have become fragmented to the extent that local populations of some aquatic species 

have become extinct, while the sustainability of remaining species is at increasing risk. Many 

rural communities throughout the Blue Mountains have been affected because of downturns in 

local economies that can be associated in part with declines in the delivery of forest products. 

Many rural communities continue to be heavily dependent on forest products and services. 

The overall strategy incorporates the assessment that the level of restoration needs within the 

Blue Mountains is large and exceeds the capacity of the workforce and current budgets. As a 

consequence, there is a need to prioritize implementation of projects in order to efficiently use 

available resources. Those projects that benefit multiple resource areas will have a higher priority 

than those that benefit just one resource. Information contained in the State of Oregon 

Conservation Strategy, Northwest Power Planning Council subbasin assessments, ICBEMP 

scientific assessments, Nature Conservancy Portfolio Planning, Community Wildfire Protection 

Plans, and local forest assessments was utilized in the development of the management focus. 
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Table 25. General suitability matrix for management areas

Use or Activity Management Area

1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 2D 2E 2F 2G 2H 2I 2J* 3A 3B 3C 4A 4B 5

Timber production U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U S U U

Timber harvest U U U S U S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

Grazing (cattle and 

sheep) S S S S U U S S S S S S U S S S S S U

Motor 

vehicle use 

(summer)1

U U U U2 U S S S S S S U U U S S S S S

Motor vehicle use 

(winter) U S U U2 U S S S S S S U U U S S1 S S S

Road construction U U U U2 U U S S S U S U U U U S S U S

Trail construction (for 

motor vehicle use) U U U U2 U U S S S U S U U U S S S U S

Mechanical fuel 

treatment U U U U2 U U S S S S S S S S S S S S S

Energy development 

(wind farms, utility 

corridors, pipelines, 

etc.)

U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U S U S

S designates use or activity as generally suitable. Refer to desired conditions and standards and guidelines for each management area and/or use for specific guidance.

U designates use or activity as generally unsuitable. Refer to desired conditions and standards and guidelines for each management area and/or use for specific guidance.

* All activities in municipal watersheds are dependent on the agreement for management of the watershed between the Forest Service and the municipality.

1. indicates generally suitable applies only to use or activity on designated roads and trails and within designated areas.

2. indicates generally not suitable for wild and scenic rivers, generally suitable for recreational rivers.
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98 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Restoration will be accomplished by a combination of active and passive management. Active 

management will be concentrated in areas that have established road systems and where previous 

investments in the land have been made. Undeveloped areas will remain largely undeveloped, and 

unplanned fire will be the main tool utilized to improve ecosystem resilience in those areas. The 

full range of wildfire suppression strategies, from aggressive suppression to monitoring, will be 

used within all areas so long as the effects are compatible with maintaining or achieving desired 

conditions. The strategy also recognizes that restoration won’t just occur in areas that are the most 

departed from the desired conditions. By treating areas (maintaining areas) that are close to or are 

at the desired condition, management may prevent a departure that could result in the need for 

expensive restoration treatments.

Restoring and Maintaining Terrestrial Vegetation Conditions

The cumulative effects of a periodic and sometimes extended drought, climate change, increasing 

vegetative density, shifts in forest species composition, and modified landscape patterns have 

created vegetative conditions in many locations that are at high risk of impacts from large and 

uncharacteristically severe wildfires, and disturbances from insects and disease. Approximately 

60 percent of the three national forests have a moderate to highly increased potential for 

uncharacteristically severe wildfire effects. Old forest (particularly ponderosa pine) has declined 

significantly from historic levels. The abundance of mid-age, multi-layer (stem exclusion and 

understory reinitiation), dense, fir dominated stands has increased substantially, especially in dry 

forest types. Many invasive species have become well-established and are difficult to eliminate, 

and some infestations could become more extensive. 

These vegetation changes, along with human disturbance factors (i.e., roads and grazing), have 

placed numerous plant and animal species at risk. For some species, the quality and quantity of 

habitat is below the level necessary for sustainability. Some species may have more habitat; 

however, the habitat itself may not be sustainable or the human disturbance factors may render 

the habitat less than fully functional. 

The management approach includes creating more resilient and sustainable terrestrial ecosystems 

that maintain future management options by:

• Implementing appropriate invasive plant prevention practices to help reduce the introduction, 

establishment, and spread of invasive plants associated with management actions and land 

use activities

• Modifying stand conditions to reduce the likelihood of uncharacteristically severe 

disturbances from wildfires and insects and disease

• Improving the geographic extent, connectivity, and stand structure of plant and animal habitat 

• Creating a landscape better able to respond in a positive way to climate change

• Concentrating active restoration activities (timber harvest, fire, and thinning) primarily, but 

not exclusively, in the dry environment, as the dry vegetation type is generally the most 

departed from the desired condition

• Concentrating active restoration in areas with established road systems and previous 

treatments (plantations, past thinning areas, etc.)

• Emphasizing treatments in wildland-urban interface, municipal watersheds, other areas of 

high social values 

• Using planned and unplanned fire to accomplish restoration objectives
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There are multiple risks to restoring terrestrial conditions, and the existing conditions and 

restoration and maintenance opportunities will vary within the planning area. The approach will 

manage short-term risks to achieve long-term benefits. 

To create a landscape that is more resilient and better able to respond to climate change, 

management activities will be designed to maintain specific conditions, such as:

• A larger portion of the landscape that contains larger diameter overstory trees with reduced 

amounts of smaller diameter understory trees

• Longer forest stand rotations

• Greater abundance of early seral tree species (ponderosa pine and larch)

• Fewer multi-storied stands

• Lower stand densities, especially in areas that are uncharacteristically dense. 

• Planting of tree species (includes genetic considerations) that are likely to be better adapted to 

the expected climate and changed species distribution

• The increased use of biomass for alternative uses as demand increases and technology 

becomes available

• Conditions that are less susceptible to invasive species

This desired landscape will allow more flexibility in responding to potential effects of climate 

change, including longer fire seasons and increased moisture stress in the summer. The desired 

landscape will provide a better contribution to carbon storage by reducing the uncharacteristic 

effects of wildfire and storing more carbon in larger diameter trees. The desired landscape will 

also benefit wildlife species that favor large diameter trees. A more resilient landscape will be less 

susceptible to uncharacteristically severe disturbance from wildfires and insects and diseases and 

will provide for the full range of habitats for native terrestrial plant and animal species, while 

contributing to a sustainable flow of natural resources from National Forest System lands. 

Restoring and Maintaining Watershed Conditions

The overall strategy is to accelerate improvement of watershed and aquatic/riparian conditions 

across the landscape by: 1) conducting new and ongoing management activities in a manner that, 

across broad scales, protects areas in good condition and allows for passive recovery of those that 

are degraded; 2) actively restoring conditions at watershed scales in high-priority areas by 

implementing integrated, strategically-focused sets of restoration treatments that facilitate 

recovery of critical watershed processes. 

This strategy is an updated and enhanced version of the Forest Service’s existing aquatic strategy 

known as PACFISH (USDA and USDI 1995) and INFISH (USDA Forest Service 1995a). It 

consists of five essential elements: riparian management areas, key watersheds, mid-scale 

analysis of watersheds, watershed restoration, and monitoring. These elements work together to 

achieve a distribution of watershed conditions that are resilient to natural disturbance and that 

maintain, restore, and enhance habitat for resident and anadromous fish and other aquatic and 

riparian dependent organisms:

Riparian management areas are areas bordering perennial and intermittent streams in which the 

management emphasis is to maintain, restore, or enhance the ecological health of aquatic and 

riparian ecosystems.
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Key watersheds are subwatersheds, or groups of subwatersheds, selected to serve as strongholds 

for important aquatic resources or that have the potential to do so.

Mid-scale analysis is a procedure used within the Pacific Northwest for evaluating the 

geomorphic and ecological processes operating within watersheds and is used to assess the 

condition and trend of watershed, riparian, and aquatic ecosystems and provide the basis for 

watershed-scale restoration.

Watershed restoration is an integrated set of both passive and active actions intended to facilitate 

the recovery of the physical, biological, and chemical processes that promote the maintenance or 

recovery of riparian and aquatic ecosystem structure and function.

Monitoring is a strategic assessment of the implementation and effectiveness of management 

actions and a means of determining whether or not progress toward achieving desired conditions 

is being made.

Implementation of the watershed restoration element is tiered to the regional Aquatic Restoration 

Strategy, which uses a strategic, integrated, multi-scale approach to prioritizing watershed 

restoration treatments. The highest priority is to first restore critical watershed processes in those 

areas in which the structure and function of the aquatic ecosystem are largely intact, but are 

threatened by existing or projected watershed conditions. Watersheds with highly degraded 

aquatic ecosystems are a lower priority for restoration until threats to existing strongholds (e.g., 

key watersheds) are mitigated.

Watershed conditions in the Blue Mountains have been altered by a series of human uses during 

the last 150 years, including mining, logging, agriculture, water diversions, flood control, wildfire 

suppression, grazing, road construction and maintenance, and hydro-electric development. The 

ability of watersheds to function has been affected by the alteration of vegetation conditions, 

increased erosion, and changes in the rates and magnitude of watershed runoff (McIntosh et al. 

1994). The resulting degradation and fragmentation of aquatic and riparian habitats has led to 

widespread decline or outright extinction of many resident and anadromous fish stocks and the 

listing of several fish stocks under the Endangered Species Act in the early 1990s. Of the 214 

remaining salmonid stocks identified by Nehlsen et al. (1991) in the Columbia and Klamath 

basins, 101 are considered at high risk of extinction. Only 2 percent of salmon, steelhead, and 

cutthroat trout populations in the Columbia Basin are classified as strong (Thurow et al. 2000). In 

the Blue Mountains, Nehslen et al. (1991) identified 17 extinct salmonid populations:

• Spring/summer Chinook salmon from the Umatilla, Walla Walla, and Malheur Rivers

• Fall Chinook salmon from the Umatilla and Walla Walla Rivers

• Coho salmon from the Grande Ronde, Wallowa, Tucannon, Walla Walla, Snake, and Umatilla 

Rivers

• Chum salmon from the Umatilla and Walla Walla Rivers

• Sockeye salmon from the Wallowa River

• Steelhead trout from the Malheur, Powder, and Burnt Rivers

In addition, Snake River Chinook salmon and steelhead are listed as threatened under the 

Endangered Species Act and mid-Columbia Basin steelhead are listed as threatened. Bull trout are 

listed as threatened within their entire range in the western United States.
Part 2 – Strategy

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for the Blue Mountains National Forests 101

In the Blue Mountains, as elsewhere in the Pacific Northwest, remaining high-quality aquatic 

habitats are largely located on Federal lands but are often fragmented or disconnected from other 

high-quality habitats, resulting in reduced ability of aquatic species to access or move between 

habitats. The quality and types of available habitats may no longer encompass the range of 

habitats that existed historically and may not, in some cases, be sufficient to support the full range 

of life histories of affected aquatic species. 

Aquatic habitats on National Forest System lands in the Blue Mountains once supported 

culturally and economically important populations of freshwater species, including anadromous 

and resident fishes (Chinook salmon, steelhead, redband trout, and bull trout), lamprey, and 

mussels. In most cases, declines in the populations of these species can be traced to habitat 

degradation (Gregory and Bisson 1997).

It is generally recognized that preservation of existing high-quality habitats and remaining strong 

populations is critical to the continued survival of anadromous and resident fish populations 

(Reeves et al. 1995). In addition, restoration efforts should focus on restoring the key ecological 

functions responsible for the creation and maintenance of aquatic and riparian habitats in order to 

make those ecosystems self-sustaining (Beechie and Bolton 1999, Naiman et al. 1992).

The focus of watershed restoration is to complete needed restoration work from ridgetop to valley 

bottom in order to have healthy watersheds. It should be recognized that not all watersheds will 

be in good condition at the same time and that the condition of some existing high-quality 

watersheds will eventually be degraded by future disturbance and that replacement habitats will 

be needed for some populations of aquatic and riparian species (Reeves et al. 1995). 

Because of the extent of decline in populations of some aquatic species and the degradation of 

their habitats, protection of remaining strong populations and their habitats is crucial to their 

recovery (Sedell et al. 1997). A network of key watersheds is identified in order to meet this need. 

Key watersheds have a combination of relative population strength for one of four aquatic species 

(Chinook salmon, steelhead, inland redband trout, and bull trout), good watershed conditions, and 

good aquatic and riparian habitat condition (Reiss et al. 2008). Key watersheds are identified at 

the subwatershed level (U.S. Geological Survey, HUC 6; Federal Geographic Data Committee 

2004). 

Some of the attributes of key watersheds that make them important for aquatic species may also 

make key watersheds important habitats for terrestrial wildlife species. Key watersheds may 

encompass a variety of habitats important to various wildlife species, including source habitats, 

summer range, winter range, refugia, and migration corridors. In addition, key watersheds are 

likely to be less affected by past land uses and are therefore more likely to be important to the 

maintenance of water quality and quantity for a variety of downstream uses, including human 

uses.

The overall strategy is to protect and restore whole watersheds, while reducing risk to remaining 

populations of aquatic species and increasing the availability and connectivity of high quality 

aquatic and riparian habitats. Watersheds in good condition should be preserved by reducing 

existing impacts, implementing best management practices, and through more comprehensive 

project design. Watershed restoration activities will be prioritized so that investments are made in 

areas that have the highest restoration potential while providing the greatest benefit to multiple 

resources and the least risk to existing populations. These areas are identified as priority 

watersheds in the project record. Restoration actions may take place in areas of lower priority as 

circumstances warrant and as opportunities are presented.
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

102 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Land managers should recognize and seek to restore the processes responsible for creating and 

maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, as well as the diversity of those habitats. This may 

include, but is not limited to:

• Altering the structure and composition of upland vegetation in order to make progress toward 

achieving desired conditions

• Managing vegetation to reduce wildfire risk and restore stand structure and resiliency

• Reducing road-related erosion and sediment delivery to streams through road closure, road 

obliteration, improved maintenance, and/or improved erosion control

• Removing barriers that block or restrict access to historically occupied habitats or restrict 

connectivity between habitats

• Altering riparian habitats to favor deciduous trees and shrubs as appropriate where such 

species were formerly abundant

• Reintroducing keystone species, such as beaver, into suitable habitats within their former 

range

• Increasing the diversity and complexity of aquatic and riparian habitats by promoting natural 

establishment and succession of riparian plant communities

• Restoring the natural range of stream flows to the extent possible

• Managing invasive species to maintain the composition and diversity of native species

• Restoring complexity and aquatic and riparian habitat

• Adapting management actions to account for the expected effects of climate change

Key watersheds are located in each of the 15 subbasins with streams originating on National 

Forest System lands. Fifty-eight subwatersheds that are considered the highest priority for 

restoration have restoration work that either is ongoing or is expected to begin within the next 10 

to 15 years. The full list of key watersheds, including maps, is available from the project record.

Restoring and Maintaining Social and Economic Conditions 

Ecological conditions and forest management practices are driven by human values and the 

choices they have fostered (Cronon 1996, Langston 1996, Newell et al. 2005). Since its creation

more than a century ago, the Forest Service has been charged with protecting watersheds and 

other resources, as well as with providing the American public with recreational opportunities and 

a flow of goods and services. Additionally, the Forest Service has been charged with meeting 

legal obligations to American Indian tribes. 

A sustainable flow of social amenities depends upon sustainable ecological management practices 

in watersheds and with terrestrial species. Sustainability requires a symbiotic relationship 

between social, economic, and ecological aspects of ecosystem management (Formann 1995, 

Wright 2002).

The management approach is designed to restore and maintain scenery, cultural resources, treaty 

resources, recreation resources, and the wildland urban interface, as well as contribute to 

economic opportunities for local communities by:

• Improving the integration of land and resource management with local community and tribal 

economic development strategies and capabilities
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 103

• Improving the quality, diversity, and sustainability of natural resource related jobs and 

businesses

• Supporting actions to help achieve the goals of greater economic diversity, resilience, and 

vitality for rural and tribal communities

• Developing the utilization of community capacity and infrastructure to the extent practicable 

to accomplish ecosystem restoration objectives

Integration of the Management Focus

The identification of focal points highlights those areas where immediate improvements to the 

resiliency of the system could be made or that are most sensitive from a social perspective. 

Considering the factors discussed previously, the drivers for active restoration priorities are:

• Priority watersheds 

• Wildland-urban interface

• Dry upland forest potential vegetation groups

A primary assumption for active restoration is that activities will occur in areas with established 

road systems (primarily within MA 4 General Forest). Areas where multiple factors overlap are a 

higher priority than those with only a single factor. Depending on cost sharing or other factors, 

lower priority work may still occur before higher priority work. This prioritization also 

recognizes the need for maintenance activities to prevent areas from becoming departed and then 

needing more expensive restoration treatments. 

Objectives

Objectives are projections of Forest Service activities and program outcomes that are measurable 

and time specific. Like goals and desired conditions, objectives are not commitments or final 

decisions approving projects or activities. They are an effort by the Forest Service to share with 

the public the way progress toward achieving or maintaining the desired conditions during the life 

of the plan will be measured. The objectives stated are only a partial list of the management 

activities expected to be accomplished to contribute to maintaining or achieving desired 

conditions (table 26).

Objectives are based on ecological needs, community capacity, and expected funding, including 

budgets, partnerships, and cooperative agreements. The actual accomplishments will be 

dependent on actual funding, staffing levels, and local infrastructure. The objectives are not 

intended to limit or guarantee the amount of work that will be accomplished. More work may be 

accomplished if additional infrastructure or funding, such as increased budget allocations, 

partnerships, or other external sources, becomes available. Less work could occur if funding is 

less than expected, additional infrastructure is not constructed, or existing infrastructure declines 

and becomes unusable. 

Objectives are expected to be accomplished during the first decade of the plan period, unless 

otherwise indicated within the objective statement. The objectives reflect the activities and 

program outcomes necessary to achieve or maintain desired conditions. Objectives are displayed 

for each the Blue Mountains national forests in the following table. The table displays the portion 

of the Ochoco administered by the Malheur as part of the Malheur.
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

104 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Table 26. Objectives and associated desired conditions for each national forest

Objective Statements Malheur Umatilla Wallowa-Whitman

1.1 Watershed Function2

(W1) Increase the number of 

watersheds in condition class 1 

(from CC2) and 2 (from CC3) 

through active restoration. 

Measure: number of 

subwatersheds (HUC6) with 

improved condition class.

16 watersheds 14 watersheds 24 watersheds

Improve hydrologic function by:

• Improving forest vegetative 

conditions (acres) (WH1)

7,800 acres

(annually)

6,600 acres

(annually)

7,300 acres

(annually)

• Improving soil hydrologic 

function in areas of detrimental 

soil disturbance (acres) (WH2)

600 acres 750 acres 950 acres

• Reducing road-related 

sedimentation by reducing road 

density and reducing hydrologic 

connectivity of the road system 

(road miles) (WH3)

30-35 miles road 

surface treated 

(annually)

30-35 miles road 

surface treated 

(annually)

30-35 miles road 

surface treated 

(annually)

Improve riparian and wetland 

function by:

• Restoring floodplain 

connections, channel 

morphology, channel structure, 

and flow regime (flood flows 

and low flows) (stream miles) 

(WR1)

80 miles 90 miles 90 miles

• Restoring riparian/wetland 

species composition (riparian 

acres) by increasing natural 

seedling establishment, 

planting, fencing, or modifying 

riparian management (riparian 

acres) (WR2)

300 acres 165 acres 225 acres

• Increasing effective stream 

shade (WQ objective 1) by 

increasing amount and extent 

of woody riparian species and 

increasing age-class structure 

of terrestrial vegetation in MA 

4B 

(stream miles) (WR3)

450 miles 225 miles 375 miles

Improve riparian and wetland 

function by (continued):

• Increasing extent and 

vegetative species diversity of 

off-channel and isolated 

wetlands by restoring 

hydrologic pathways, modifying 

existing water diversions, or 

fencing (number of sites) (WR4)

30 sites 40 sites 40 sites

 2 All measures are proposed in priority watersheds.
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 105

Objective Statements Malheur Umatilla Wallowa-Whitman

• Increasing the number and 

extent of beaver-created 

wetlands (sites)

12 sites 10 sites 12 sites

Improve stream channel and 

aquatic habitat function by:

• Improving riparian habitat 

conditions (riparian acres, 

WR1-3)

600 acres

(annually)

525 acres

(annually)

675 acres

(annually)

• Restoring channel morphology 

to reflect natural conditions 

(miles)

38 miles 45 miles 60 miles

• Increasing habitat complexity 

through channel reconstruction, 

placement of large wood or 

other structures, habitat 

enhancement (miles)

75 miles 90 miles 113 miles

• Increasing aquatic habitat 

connectivity through culvert 

replacement (number of 

culverts)

90 culverts

143 stream miles

75 culverts

68 stream miles

90 culverts

135 stream miles

1.2 Species Diversity

In cooperation with state wildlife 

agencies, expand bull trout 

occurrence within 10 years into 

unoccupied suitable stream 

segments within its historic range. 

1 segment 1 segment 1 segment

Increase the amount and quality of 

source habitat (open, OFSS in the 

dry upland forest PVG) for white 

headed woodpecker (per decade).

64,000 acres 12,000 acres 11,000 acres

Increase the amount and quality of 

source habitat (open canopy 

dry/moist upland forest PVG) for 

western bluebird and Cassin’s 

finch.

49,000 acres (finch) 78,000 acres 

(bluebird)

66,000 acres 

(bluebird)

12,000 acres (finch)

Maintain mule deer security cover 

on a percentage of the landscape 

within MA 4A (varies by 

alternative).

24% of landscape 29% 33%

Restore stronghold watersheds 

connectivity for aquatic species.

4-6 subwatersheds 

or 80-120 stream 

miles

3-5 subwatersheds 

or 60-100 stream 

miles

6-9 subwatersheds 

or 120-180 stream 

miles

Reduce juniper canopy cover to 

less than 10 percent in sagebrush 

steppe habitat.

800 acres

Reduce sagebrush density to less 

than 10 percent canopy cover in 

sagebrush steppe habitats where 

sagebrush canopy cover is greater 

than 25 percent.

700 acres
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

106 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Objective Statements Malheur Umatilla Wallowa-Whitman

1.4 Disturbance Processes

1.4.1 Wildland Fire (Planned and Unplanned Ignitions)

Treat stands using silvicultural 

treatments and/or prescribed 

burning (planned ignitions) to 

move towards Fire Regime 

Condition Class 1 and 2 in the dry 

and moist upland forest PVGs or 

to protect values at risk from 

wildland fire. 

220,000 acres 220,000 acres 220,000 acres

Treat stands using silvicultural 

treatments and/or prescribed 

burning (planned ignitions) to 

decrease the potential for high 

severity wildfire in the dry upland 

forest PVG or to protect values at 

risk from wildland fire.

185,000 acres 125,000 acres 140,000 acres

Manage wildfires (unplanned 

ignitions) for resource benefits: 

modify species composition, stand 

density, structural stages, fire 

frequency, and fire severity to 

move Fire Regime Condition Class 

2 and 3 to Fire Regime Condition 

Class 1 and 2. 

39,000 acres 37,000 acres 64,000 acres

1.4.2 Insects and Disease

Within the dry upland forest PVG, 

treat stands with moderate to high 

susceptibility ratings using 

silvicultural treatments and/or 

wildland fire to decrease insect 

and disease susceptibility to low or 

moderate.

225,000 acres 155,000 acres 170,000 acres

Within the moist upland forest 

PVG, treat stands with moderate 

to high susceptibility ratings using 

silvicultural treatments and/or 

wildland fire to decrease insect 

and disease susceptibility to low or 

moderate.

25,000 acres 55,000 acres 35,000 acres

1.5 Invasive Species

Reduce current infestations of 

invasive plant species. 1,500 acres 7,000 acres 7,000 acres

1.6 Structural Stages

Decrease mid-age multi-story 

forest (UR stage) in the dry and 

moist upland forest PVGs by 

continuing to manage towards a 

large diameter (old forest) 

condition.

180,000 acres 175,000 acres 170,000 acres

Increase OFSS (open canopy) in 

the dry upland forest PVG by 

converting OFMS to OFSS (per 

decade).

16,000 acres 6,000 acres 5,000 acres
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 107

Objective Statements Malheur Umatilla Wallowa-Whitman

1.7 Plant Species Composition

Increase shade intolerant stands in 

the dry upland forest PVG (per 

decade).

225,000 acres 155,000 acres 170,000 acres

Manage rangeland vegetation to 

improve phases C and D to phase 

A or B. 

7,000 acres 6,000 acres 10,000 acres

1.8 Stand Density

Reduce the dry and moist upland 

forest PVGs that are in the closed 

stand density class (per decade).

220,000 acres 220,000 acres 220,000 acres

1.10 Soil Quality

Implement erosion control and 

stabilization measures on unstable 

hillslopes. Possible activities 

include road realignment and 

improving forest vegetation 

conditions. 

200-400 acres 200-400 acres 150-250 acres

Restore soil function (also see 

objectives for 1.1 Watershed 

Function).

175-350 acres 175-350 acres 75-150 acres

1.11 Water Quality

Improve water quality through 

implementation of water quality 

restoration plans. 

4-6 watersheds

160-240 stream 

miles

5-7 watersheds

200-280 stream 

miles

5-7 watersheds 

200-280 stream 

miles

2.7 Roads and Trails Access

Maintain the identified minimum 

road system needed for safe and 

efficient travel and for the 

protection, management, and use 

of NFS lands. Where open motor 

vehicle route density exceeds 

desired conditions, implement 

route closures and/or 

decommissioning or consider 

designating routes for other uses 

(refer to 1.1 Watershed Function 

for road 

decommissioning/obliteration 

objectives).

Identified minimum 

miles of road:

250 miles MLs 4/5

38 miles ML 3

1,025 miles ML 2

Identified minimum:

200 miles ML 4/5

200 miles ML 3

140 miles ML 2

Identified minimum:

90 miles MLs 4/5

170 miles ML 3

150 miles ML 2

3.3 Goods and Services

Contribute to local economies by 

harvesting sawlogs and timber 

volume other than sawlogs (TSPQ 

annually).

56 MMBF 56 MMBF 50 MMBF

Contribute to local economies by 

providing forage for cattle and 

sheep.

123,500 AUMs 

(annually)

35,800 AUMs 

annually

80,500 AUMs 

(annually)
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

108 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Annual Anticipated 

Accomplishments for each National Forest

The following table displays the anticipated accomplishments (related to the objectives) that are 

expected to take place annually as the Forest Service strives to achieve or maintain desired 

conditions. These anticipated accomplishments are not commitments or final decisions approving 

projects, nor are they targets or guarantees of future accomplishments. They are a means of 

measuring program progress toward achieving desired conditions. While the Forest Service will 

make every effort to achieve the following accomplishments, actual accomplishments may 

exceed or fall below these estimates, depending on yearly budgets and conditions at the time.

Table 27. Annual anticipated accomplishments related to objectives

Activity MAL UMA WAW

Acres suitable for timber production (acres) 770,000 420,000 530,000

Predicted harvest level (MMBF) 56 56 50

Allowable sale quantity (MMBF) 55 51 46

Timber Harvest (includes the following two rows)

Even-aged regeneration harvest (acres) 2,900 2,400 2,000

Uneven-aged and intermediate harvest (acres) 9,600 8,200 7,350

Total Timber Harvest 12,500 10,600 9,350

Planting (acres) 1,400 1,200 1,000

Precommercial thinning (acres) 1,400 1,600 2,600

Burning and mechanical treatment of fuels (acres) 22,000 20,600 19,850

Suppress invasive plants (acres) 1,500 4,000 3,500

Cattle and sheep grazing (AUMS) 123,500 35,800 80,500

* Split assumption for timber harvest is 90 percent ground-based logging system and 10 percent cable logging system.

Allowable Sale Quantity

One key decision of the forest plan is the identification of the allowable sale quantity of timber. 

The allowable sale quantity is the average annual amount of commercial timber that can be 

harvested from National Forest System lands that are suitable for timber production. Although the 

allowable sale quantity is identified as an average annual quantity, the amount produced in any 

one year may surpass the identified allowable sale quantity so long as the totals per decade are 

not exceeded. The allowable sale quantity is measured in million board feet (MMBF). 

Table 28. Allowable sale quantity for each national forest

National Forest MMBF

Malheur National Forest 55

Umatilla National Forest 51

Wallowa-Whitman National 

Forest 46
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 109

Monitoring and Evaluation Plan

There are three types of monitoring: implementation, effectiveness, and validation. 

Implementation monitoring determines if “we did what we said we would do.” Effectiveness 

monitoring determines how well a particular practice helps achieve a project objective. The 

purpose of validation monitoring is to test key assumptions and generally involves designed 

research. 

This monitoring and evaluation plan is designed primarily to assess whether or not forest plan 

implementation is making progress toward achieving desired conditions described by various 

forest plan goals, objectives, and standards and guidelines. Some desired conditions and goals 

will not be monitored. Some effectiveness monitoring is also in the monitoring plan. 

Forest Service planning regulations also contain specific monitoring requirements that are 

incorporated into the monitoring and evaluation plan (36 CFR 219.12). 

There are many other Forest Service monitoring programs designed to address specific questions. 

Those programs are not part of this monitoring plan. 

Monitoring and evaluation are separate, sequential activities required by the National Forest 

Management Act (NFMA). Monitoring is the collection of data by observation or measurement. 

Evaluation is the analysis and interpretation of monitoring data. The results of monitoring and 

evaluation may lead to changes in forest plan management direction. 

Monitoring the effects of climate change on the achievement of forest plan goals, objectives, and

standards and guidelines within the life of a forest plan (10 to 15 years) is challenging. Due to the 

10 to 20 year cycle of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and the overlapping 5 to 10 year 

cycle of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and their effects on climate, long-term data 

sets are needed to be able to detect differences due to climate change. Implicit in the evaluation 

phase of monitoring is that, where possible, the effects of climate both in the short term (PDO and 

ENSO) and in the long term would be incorporated into the evaluation.

Table 29 displays the monitoring plan framework for alternatives B, C, D, E, and F for each 

national forest.
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

110 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Table 29. Monitoring plan framework for the action alternatives for each national forest

Proposed Monitoring 

Question

Proposed Indicator

Parameter Plan Component

Related 

Programs/ 

Indicators

Monitoring 

Frequency, 

Evaluation 

Frequency

Monitoring 

Type

Precision/ 

Reliability

Why? 

L: legal 

requirement 

S: strategic

C: consultation

1. Status of select watershed conditions. Key ecosystem characteristics related to water resources and watershed conditions, such as water quality, 

quantity, timing and distribution provide the basis for monitoring watershed conditions.

What is the status and trend 

of water quality?

Miles of statelisted impaired 

waters

State 303d-list 5 years Implementation Moderate L, S, C 1.11 Water Quality

What is the status and trend 

of stream temperature?

Stream 

temperature

NRIS-AqS 

temperature 

data, other 

agency 

databases, 

RMRS stream 

temperature 

models

Annual, 

5 years Implementation Moderate L, S, C FOR-6 G-38

What is the status and trend 

of streamflows? Streamflow

Federal and 

state agency 

databases and 

Forest Service 

databases

Annual, 

10 years Implementation Moderate S, C 1.1.1 Hydrologic 

Function

Are watershed/aquatics 

standards and guidelines 

and BMPs being 

implemented at project sites 

(e.g., range, roads, 

recreation, and vegetation 

management)?

Multiple

Project files, 

field 

observations

Annual, 

5 years Implementation High L, S, C 1.1 Watershed Function
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 111

Proposed Monitoring 

Question

Proposed Indicator

Parameter Plan Component

Related 

Programs/ 

Indicators

Monitoring 

Frequency, 

Evaluation 

Frequency

Monitoring 

Type

Precision/ 

Reliability

Why? 

L: legal 

requirement 

S: strategic

C: consultation

Are watershed/aquatics 

standards and guidelines 

and BMPs effective at 

achieving desired on-site 

conditions at project sites 

(e.g., range, roads, 

recreation, and vegetation 

management)?

Multiple Field 

observations

Annual, 

5 years Effectiveness Moderate L, S, C 1.1 Watershed Function

What is the status and trend 

of watershed condition in all 

watersheds and in key 

watersheds?

Multiple 

watershed 

condition 

indicators and 

attributes

Forest Service 

and other 

agency 

databases

3-5 years Implementation Moderate S, C 1.1 Watershed Function

What is the status and trend 

of riparian vegetation 

condition?

Grazing 

utilization on 

riparian 

vegetation, PIBO 

parameters

PIBO and forest 

datasets

Annual, 

5 years Implementation Moderate L,S, C 1.1.2 Riparian Function

What is the change in the 

distribution of known sites 

for selected aquatic and 

riparian invasive species?

Presence of 

selected invasive 

species

Federal and 

state agency 

databases and 

Forest Service 

databases

Annual, 

5 years Implementation High S, C 1.5 Invasive Species

What is the status and trend 

of aquatic habitat?

Miles of stream 

habitat improved, 

PIBO parameters

Forest Service 

databases, 

PIBO datasets

Annual, 

5 years Implementation Moderate L,S, C 1.1.6 Aquatic Habitat

What is the status and trend 

of aquatic habitat 

connectivity?

Miles of stream 

reconnected

Forest Service 

databases

Annual, 

5 years Implementation High L,S, C 1.1.6 Aquatic Habitat
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

112 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Proposed Monitoring 

Question

Proposed Indicator

Parameter Plan Component

Related 

Programs/ 

Indicators

Monitoring 

Frequency, 

Evaluation 

Frequency

Monitoring 

Type

Precision/ 

Reliability

Why? 

L: legal 

requirement 

S: strategic

C: consultation

2. Status of select ecological conditions including key characteristics of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Have lands been 

adequately restocked within 

five years of regeneration 

harvest?

Stocking FACTS 5 years, 

5 years Implementation High L FOR-4 S-14

Have lands that are not 

suitable for timber 

production become 

suitable?

Forest extent, 

congressional 

designations

CVS, GIS 5 years, 

5 years Implementation Moderate L 3.3.1 Forest Products

What is the maximum size 

opening from even-aged 

management?

Opening sizes FACTS 5 years, 

5 years Implementation Moderate L FOR-3 S-12

What are the trends in Fire 

Regime Condition Class? Acres by FRCC

CVS/FIA 

vegetation 

databases, 

remote sensing

Annual, 

5 years Implementation Moderate S 1.4.1 Wildland Fire

What are the trends in high 

insect and disease hazard 

acres?

Spread of 

selected insects 

and diseases

Insects and 

disease surveys

Annual, 

5 years Effectiveness Moderate S 1.4.2 Insects and 

Disease

What are the trends in stand 

density?

Trees per acre by 

PVG CVS (FIA) 5 years, 

5 years Implementation High S 1.8 Stand Density

What are the trends in stand 

density?

Acres of stand 

density reduction 

treatment

FACTS Annual, 

5 years Implementation High S 1.8 Stand Density
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 113

Proposed Monitoring 

Question

Proposed Indicator

Parameter Plan Component

Related 

Programs/ 

Indicators

Monitoring 

Frequency, 

Evaluation 

Frequency

Monitoring 

Type

Precision/ 

Reliability

Why? 

L: legal 

requirement 

S: strategic

C: consultation

What are the trends in the 

introduction, establishment, 

and spread of invasive 

plants?

Acres 

infested/acres 

treated

FACTS Annual, 

5 years

Implementation, 

effectiveness Moderate L 1.5 Invasive Species

What are the trends in early 

seral tree species 

(ponderosa pine and 

western larch) composition?

Acres with 

desired species 

composition

CVS (FIA) 5 years, 

5 years

Implementation, 

effectiveness Moderate S 1.7 Plant Species 

Composition

3. Status of select set of the ecological conditions required under §219.9 to contribute to the recovery of federally listed threatened and endangered

species, conserve proposed and candidate species, and maintain a viable population of each species of conservation concern.

What is the condition and 

trend in habitats for aquatic 

focal species (steelhead, 

spring Chinook salmon, bull 

trout, and redband trout

See Status and 

Trend-Aquatic 

habitat, Status 

and TrendAquatic Habitat 

Connectivity

Forest Service 

databases, 

PIBO datasets

Annual, 

5 years

Implementation, 

Effectiveness Moderate L, S, C 1.2 Species Diversity

4. Status of focal species to assess the ecological conditions required under§ 219.9.

What are the population 

trends and/or habitat trends 

of the management 

indicator species?

Pileated 

woodpeckers and 

white-headed 

woodpecker: 

follow regional 

protocol

See regional 

protocols

5 years, 

5 years

Implementation, 

effectiveness Moderate L 1.2 Species Diversity

What are the population 

trends and/or habitat trends 

of the management 

indicator species?

Rocky Mountain 

elk (WAW and 

UMA only) and 

mule deer (MAL 

only)

State population 

data/open route 

density on 

winter 

range/FACTS

5 years, 

5 years

Implementation, 

effectiveness Moderate L 1.2 Species Diversity
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

114 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Proposed Monitoring 

Question

Proposed Indicator

Parameter Plan Component

Related 

Programs/ 

Indicators

Monitoring 

Frequency, 

Evaluation 

Frequency

Monitoring 

Type

Precision/ 

Reliability

Why? 

L: legal 

requirement 

S: strategic

C: consultation

What are the trends in 

source habitat and risk 

factors for boreal owl (UMA 

only), western bluebird, and 

fox sparrow?

Changes due to 

management or 

disturbance 

events

Accomplishment 

reports, FACTS, 

Fire GIS layer, 

open route 

density (boreal 

owl and western 

bluebird only)

2 years, 

5 years

Implementation, 

effectiveness Moderate S 1.2 Species Diversity

What are the trends in 

source habitat and risk 

factors for Cassin's finch?

Changes due to 

management or 

disturbance 

events

Accomplishment 

reports, FACTS, 

Fire GIS layer

2 years, 

2 years (5 

years for 

alternatives 

B, C, and F, 

UMA only)

Implementation, 

effectiveness Moderate S 1.2 Species Diversity

What is the trend of 

northern goshawk 

(alternative C only)?

Follow 

established 

protocols

Implementation, 

effectiveness Moderate S WLD-HAB-9

What are the trends in 

whitebark pine survival and 

recruitment?

Whitebark pine 

survival and 

recruitment

Whitebark pine 

transects and 

plots

5 years, 

5 years NA Moderate S 1.13 Special Habitats

5. Status of visitor use, visitor satisfaction, and progress toward meeting recreation objectives.

Is recreation user 

satisfaction maintained or 

improved over time?

Visitor use

National Visitor 

Use Monitoring 

Data or similar 

national 

monitoring 

protocol

5 years Effectiveness High S 2.3 Recreation
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 115

Proposed Monitoring 

Question

Proposed Indicator

Parameter Plan Component

Related 

Programs/ 

Indicators

Monitoring 

Frequency, 

Evaluation 

Frequency

Monitoring 

Type

Precision/ 

Reliability

Why? 

L: legal 

requirement 

S: strategic

C: consultation

Are recreation facilities 

properly maintained and 

meet all health, safety and 

accessibility requirements?

Recreation 

facility condition

National Visitor 

Use Monitoring 

Data or similar 

national 

monitoring 

protocol

5 years Effectiveness High S 2.3 Recreation

6. Measurable changes on other plan area related to climate change and other stressors that may be affecting the plan area. 

Does new scientific 

information related to 

climate change indicate a 

need to change plan 

components?

New scientific 

findings

Best available 

scientific 

information

5 years 5 years Low S

1.2 Species Diversity, 

2.11 Community 

Resiliency

7. Progress toward meeting the desired conditions and objectives in the plan, including for providing multiple use opportunities. 

Are watershed/aquatic 

restoration projects (e.g., 

road decommissioning, 

passage improvements, 

riparian stream habitat 

improvements, etc.) being 

implemented at a rate 

consistent with forest plan 

objectives?

Annual 

accomplishment 

metrics (e.g., 

road miles 

decommissioned)

Forest Service 

databases

Annual Implementation High S, C 1.1 Watershed Function

Are structural stages 

trending towards the desired 

range of variation?

Structural stage 

distribution

CVS (FIA), 

FACTS, FSVeg 

Spatial

Annual,

5 years

Implementation, 

effectiveness Moderate S 1.6 Structural Stages

Are trends in percent of 

herblands and shrublands 

making progress towards 

achieving the desired 

condition?

CVS plots CVS (FIA) 5 years, 

5 years

Implementation, 

effectiveness High S 1.6 Structural Stages
Part 2 – Strategy

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

116 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Proposed Monitoring 

Question

Proposed Indicator

Parameter Plan Component

Related 

Programs/ 

Indicators

Monitoring 

Frequency, 

Evaluation 

Frequency

Monitoring 

Type

Precision/ 

Reliability

Why? 

L: legal 

requirement 

S: strategic

C: consultation

Are acres restored using 

wildfire consistent with 

levels expected in the forest 

plan (alternatives C, E, and 

F only)?

Acres of 

restoration from 

wildfire

FACTS Annual, 

5 years Implementation Moderate S 1.4.1 Wildland Fire

Is the mix of wildfire severity 

and frequency within the 

range of variation shown in 

table 2? 

Wildfire severity 

and frequency

Remote sensing 

data

Annual, 

5 years Implementation Moderate S 1.4.1 Wildland Fire

Is open route density less 

than or equal to the desired 

condition?

Open route 

density in 

watersheds by 

management 

area

GIS, INFRA, 

MVUM

Annual, 

5 years Implementation High S 2.7 Roads and Trails 

Access

8. The effects of each management system to determine that they do not substantially and permanently impact the productivity of the lands (16 U.S.C. 

1604(g)(3)C). Focus on key ecosystem characteristics in the plan area related to soils and soil productivity identified in the assessment and planning 

process.

Are outputs of goods and 

services being produced 

consistent with the levels 

expected in the forest plan?

Acres of fuels 

reduction 

treatments, CCF 

timber harvest, 

AUMs

FACTS, TIM Annual, 

5 years Implementation High L 3.3 Goods and Services
Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 117

Part 3 – Design Criteria

Introduction

Design criteria are used in combination with goals and desired conditions, objectives, and suitable 

uses to guide the management of the Malheur, Umatilla, and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests. 

Design criteria include both standards and guidelines. Standards and guidelines are sideboards 

that impose limitations on activities or uses for reasons of environmental protection, public safety, 

risk reduction, or to achieve desired conditions or goals and objectives. These standards and 

guidelines apply to all project decisions and implementations that will be made after the forest 

plan is approved.

Direction for managing National Forest System lands comes from a variety of sources, including 

the Code of Federal Regulations and the Forest Service Directive System, which consists of the 

Forest Service Manual and the Forest Service Handbook. Laws, regulations, and other agency 

policy and directives are generally not repeated in the forest plan and are not repeated in these 

standards and guidelines. For example, threatened and endangered species have very specific 

direction in law, regulation, policy, agency directives, and other sources, such as recovery plans. 

Therefore, standards and guidelines for threatened and endangered species are limited. If a 

particular resource is not addressed in these standards and guidelines, it does not mean the 

resource is not managed or that the Forest Service considers a particular resource less important 

than those listed. 

None of the management direction contained in this plan is intended to prevent appropriate 

actions needed to protect human health and safety. 

This part of the forest plan includes both forestwide and management area specific standards and 

guidelines. Forestwide design criteria applies to all management areas. 

Standards are constraints placed upon project and activity decision making and are established to 

help achieve the goals and desired conditions and objectives of a plan or to comply with 

applicable laws, regulations, Executive orders, and directives. A standard is a requirement to be 

met in the design of projects and activities. 

Guidelines provide design specifications for carrying out projects and activities to ensure that 

they are implemented in a manner that is compatible with desired conditions and goals and 

objectives. 

Neither standards nor guidelines are commitments or final decisions approving projects and 

activities. Standards and guidelines do not compel or force action; they apply only when an action 

is being taken.

Forestwide Standards and Guidelines

Forestwide standards and guidelines are organized by resource or management action and 

generally apply to all three national forests. Where indicated, they apply only to the national 

forest(s) identified. 

Each standard and guideline has an alpha-numeric identifier. The identifier used for the proposed 

action (S-1, G-11, etc.), where applicable, is included to facilitate comparison to the proposed 

action. In addition, the new identifiers match appendix A of the DEIS and are not sequential as a 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

118 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

result of including only those standards and guidelines proposed for the preferred alternative 

(Alternative E). New or modified standards and guidelines are also identified.

Species Diversity

Special Habitats 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

WLD-HAB-6

S-1

Standard

Activities that have potential to cause abandonment or destruction of known 

denning, nesting, or roosting sites of threatened, endangered, or sensitive 

species shall not be authorized or allowed within 1,200 feet of those sites.

WLD-HAB-10

G-11

Guideline

To the extent practical, known cavity or nest trees should be preserved when 

conducting prescribed (planned ignition) burning activities, mechanical fuel 

treatments, and silvicultural treatments.

WLD-HAB-12

S-7

Standard

Where mechanical treatment activities occur within dry or cool moist forest 

habitat, all snags 21 inches d.b.h. and greater and 50 percent of the snags 

from 12 to 21 inches d.b.h. shall be retained, except for the removal of 

danger/hazard trees. Snags shall be retained in patches.

WLD-HAB-13

G-16

Guideline

Motor vehicle use within elk winter range should not be authorized or 

allowed between December 1 and April 30.

WLD-HAB-14

New

Guideline

In greater sage-grouse habitat, developing new roads, motor vehicle trails, 

and artificial water impoundments should be avoided. During the breeding 

season, seasonal closure of open motor vehicle routes within 2 miles of 

known leks (protected activity centers) should be considered.

WLD-HAB-15

New

Guideline

Surface occupancy for mineral or fossil fuel exploration or extraction should 

not be authorized or allowed within 3 miles of occupied greater sage-grouse 

leks (protected activity centers).

WLD-HAB-16

New

Guideline

Power lines, communication towers, meteorological towers, and other tall 

structures should not be constructed within 2 miles of greater sage-grouse 

leks (protected activity centers).

WLD-HAB-17

New

Guideline

Construction of wind turbines should not be authorized or allowed within 3 

miles of known greater sage-grouse leks (protected activity centers).
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 119

WLD-HAB-18

G-7

Guideline

Bat maternity and roost sites should not be disturbed.

Post-fire Habitat

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

WLD-HAB-19

G-4

Guideline

Greater than 50 percent of post-fire source habitat should be retained and 

should not be salvage logged, except in the wildland urban interface.

WLD-HAB-20

G-5

Changed to 

standard

Standard 

Salvage logging shall not occur within burned source habitat areas less than 

100 acres, except for the removal of danger/hazard trees.

WLD-HAB-21

G-6

Guideline

Where salvage logging occurs, all snags 21 inches d.b.h. and greater and 50 

percent of the snags from 12 to 21 inches d.b.h. should be retained except for 

the removal of danger/hazard trees. Snags should be retained in patches.

WLD-HAB-22

New

Guideline

Following wildfires greater than 10 acres in greater sage-grouse habitat at 

high risk of annual grass invasions, seeding with an appropriate mixture 

should be accomplished to reduce the probability of cheatgrass 

establishment.

Riparian Habitat

(guidelines apply to all three national forests)

WLD-HAB-25

G-12

Guideline

Where management activities occur within riparian habitat, the quantity, 

stature, and health of shrubs should not be reduced or degraded.

WLD-HAB-26

G-14

Guideline

Roads and trails should not be constructed within high elevation riparian 

areas.

WLD-HAB-27

G-15

Guideline

Residual herbaceous vegetation within high elevation riparian areas should 

be maintained at a level adequate to prevent stream bank degradation.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

120 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Open Habitat

(guideline applies to all three national forests)

WLD-HAB-28

G-13

Guideline

Vigor and areal extent of seed producing grasses and forbs should not be 

reduced.

Plant Species (Federally Listed and Species at Risk)

Spalding’s catch-fly (Silene spaldingii)

(standards apply only to the Umatilla and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests)

PL-TES-1

New

Standard

Livestock grazing shall not be authorized or allowed during the Silene 

spaldingii active growth period (generally between May 15 and August 30) 

in pastures that exhibit low departure from the desired condition, unless the 

grazing management history demonstrates that livestock avoid Silene 

spaldingii occupied habitat.

PL-TES-2

New

Standard

Livestock grazing shall not be authorized or allowed in pastures occupied by 

Silene Spaldingii that exhibit moderate or greater departure from desired 

condition.

Range Management and Domestic Livestock Grazing

(guidelines apply to all three national forests)

PL-TES-3

New

Guideline

Domestic livestock grazing should not be authorized or allowed in the 

fens/bogs sensitive plant habitat groups.

PL-TES-4

New

Guideline

Maximum forage utilization of key species should not exceed 30 percent in 

occupied habitat of threatened, endangered, and sensitive plant species, 

except where an approved conservation strategy, conservation agreement, or 

recovery plan approves an alternate use level.

PL-TES-5

New

Guideline

New water developments and salting should not be authorized or allowed 

within one-quarter mile of occupied habitat of threatened, endangered, or 

sensitive plant species.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 121

Timber Harvest and Silviculture

(guideline applies to all three national forests)

PL-TES-6

New

Guideline

Timber harvest and associated vegetation activities should avoid the 

occupied habitat of threatened, endangered, and sensitive plant species 

(minimum 100 foot buffer), unless the silvicultural prescription will benefit 

the species or its habitat.

Wildland Fire Management Activities and Fuels Management

(guidelines apply to all three national forests)

PL-TES-7

New

Guideline

Slash piles and other fuels should be managed to avoid the occupied habitat 

of threatened, endangered, and sensitive plant species (minimum 100 foot 

buffer).

PL-TES-8

New

Guideline

Wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions) suppression lines should not 

be constructed within occupied habitat of threatened, endangered, and 

sensitive plant species.

Road Construction

(guideline applies to all three national forests)

PL-TES-9

New

Guideline 

New road construction should be designed to avoid the occupied habitat of 

threatened, endangered, and sensitive plant species (minimum 25-foot 

buffer).

Recreation Management

(guideline applies to all three national forests)

PL-TES-10

New

Guideline

All new trail construction should be designed to avoid the occupied habitat 

of threatened, endangered, and sensitive plant species (minimum 25 foot 

buffer).
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

122 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Minerals Management

(guideline applies to all three national forests)

PL-TES-11

New

Guideline

Mining operations should be authorized or allowed only if activities are 

planned to avoid threatened and endangered plant species. Sensitive plant 

species should be avoided to the greatest extent possible.

Lands

(guideline applies to all three national forests)

PL-TES-12

New

Guideline

Land exchanges should avoid the disposition of occupied habitat of 

threatened, endangered, and sensitive plant species.

Wildland Fire

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

FIRE-1

S-8

Standard

Safety shall be the top priority when conducting wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions) operations.

FIRE-2

G-27

Guideline

Minimum impact suppression tactics (MIST) should be utilized in sensitive 

areas, such as designated wilderness areas, designated wild and scenic river 

corridors, research natural areas, botanical areas, riparian management areas, 

cultural and historic sites, developed recreation areas, special use permit 

areas that have structures, and historic and recreational trails. MIST 

techniques should also be used for post fire restoration activities. 

FIRE-3

G-28

Guideline

Mechanical fireline should not be constructed in areas with greater than 35 

percent slope or on highly erodible soils unless potential adverse effects can 

be mitigated.

FIRE-4

New

Guideline

Greater sage-grouse habitat should be identified in fire management plans 

and should be given high priority for protection.

FIRE-5

New

Guideline

Prescribed fire should not be authorized or allowed within greater sagegrouse habitat unless the pre-burn assessment documents minimal risk of 

invasion by cheat grass or other invasive weeds.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 123

Invasive Species (Aquatic and Terrestrial)

(standards apply to all three national forests)

NOX-1

S-9

Standard

Incorporates all of the standards in the 2005 Preventing and Managing 

Invasive Plants FEIS ROD (USDA Forest Service 2005). See “Management 

Direction for Invasive Species” in appendix A of the DEIS that accompanies 

this proposed forest plan.

NOX-2

G-29

Changed to 

standard

Standard

Materials used for construction or restoration projects on National Forest 

System lands shall be free of invasive species. 

NOX-3

G-36

Changed to 

standard

Standard

All activities shall be conducted to minimize or prevent the potential spread 

or establishment of invasive species.

Timber Harvest and Silviculture

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

FOR-1

S-11

Standard

Clearcutting, shelterwood, and other even-aged regeneration harvest 

methods shall be used only when an interdisciplinary team/line officer has 

determined that protection can be assured for resources, such as soil, 

watershed, fish, wildlife, recreation, aesthetics, and the regeneration of the 

timber resource. It shall also be determined as the optimal harvest method.

FOR-2

S-12

Standard

Forest openings created by the application of even-aged regeneration harvest 

methods shall be limited to a maximum size of 40 acres. Exceptions are 

permitted on an individual basis after a 60-day public notice period and 

review by the regional forester. This maximum size opening limitation does 

not apply to areas harvested after large scale disturbances resulting from 

wildfire, insects, disease, windthrow, or other catastrophic events.

FOR-3

S-13

Standard

Cut blocks, patches, or strips created by the application of even-aged 

regeneration harvest methods shall be shaped and blended with the natural 

terrain.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

124 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

FOR-4

S-14

Standard

Areas that are harvested using even-aged regeneration harvest methods on 

lands identified as suitable for timber production shall be capable of being 

adequately restocked within five years of final harvest. Adequately restocked 

is based on national forest or regional stocking standards. 

FOR-5

G-37

Standard

Stands shall generally have reached the culmination of mean annual 

increment of growth as per NFMA sec.6 (m) prior to harvest. This does not 

preclude the use of thinning or other stand improvement measures or salvage 

or sanitation harvesting of timber stands that are substantially damaged by 

fire, windthrow, or other catastrophic event or that are in imminent danger of 

insect or disease outbreaks. Exceptions: after consideration of multiple uses, 

include other activities, such as cutting for experimental and research 

purposes, removing particular species of trees, improving wildlife habitat, 

range, or recreation resources.

FOR-6

G-38

Guideline

Silvicultural treatments should include provisions to avoid detrimental 

changes in water temperatures, blockages of water courses, and deposits of 

sediment.

FOR-7

G-39

Guideline

Timber harvest projects should include provisions for the maintenance or 

restoration of soil and water resources, including protection for streams, 

stream banks, shorelines, lakes, wetlands, and other bodies of water.

FOR-8

G-40

Guideline

Silvicultural treatments should be developed through interdisciplinary 

review that considers multiple use of the general area and ensures that the 

harvest systems used are not selected primarily because they give the 

greatest dollar return or the greatest unit output of timber.

FOR-9

G-41

Guideline

Timber harvest should not cause irreversible damage to soil, slope, or other 

watershed conditions.

FOR-10

G-42

Guideline

Timber harvest on lands not suitable for timber production should occur only 

to meet multiple-use purposes other than timber production. 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 125

Range Management and Domestic Livestock Grazing

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

RNG-1

G-43

Modified

Guideline

Grazing after wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions) should be 

managed so as not to cause a trend away from the key species desired 

condition. This may include growing season deferment for one or more years 

following wildland fire.

RNG-2

G-44

Guideline

New fences should be designed to accommodate wildlife movement. In 

greater sage-grouse habitat, fence construction within 1 mile of known leks 

and seasonal high use areas should not be authorized or allowed. Fence 

construction on the crest of low hills should not be authorized or allowed 

unless the fence is marked with anti-strike markers.

RNG-3

G-45

Guideline

All new water developments should provide for small mammal and bird 

escape.

RNG-4

G-46

Guideline

In areas classified as less than fully capable or suitable, only limited grazing 

should be authorized or allowed only after the limitations of the site are 

considered in designing the site-specific allotment management plan.

RNG-5

New 

Guideline (for uplands)

Maximum percent utilization by management system 

Utilization should be based on a point in time measurement. Utilization 

includes all use by permitted livestock, wildlife, insects, wildfire, or 

recreational use. Utilization will be based on height-weight curves and/or 

ocular estimates or other approved measures. Utilization is based on key 

species.

Low to moderate departure: phase A or B

Moderate or greater departure: phase C or D

(See MA 4B standards and guidelines for management direction for grazing 

within riparian management areas.)

Management System

Maximum Percent Utilization

Departure from Desired Condition

(guideline)

Low to Moderate Moderate or Greater

Season long 35% 30%

Management systems that 

incorporate deferment, rest, rotation 40% 35%
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

126 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

RNG-6

G-47

Guideline

Upland shrub utilization should not exceed 40 percent as determined by any 

science-based method.

RNG-7

New

Guideline

Grazing utilization within occupied greater sage-grouse habitats should not 

exceed 40 percent at any time during the grazing season and will be 

determined specifically for each greater sage-grouse habitat, i.e., grazing 

utilization measured as an average of the entire pasture or grazing unit will 

not be used to determine compliance with this guideline.

RNG-8

New

Guideline

During greater sage-grouse breeding season, livestock turnout and trailing 

should avoid concentration on known greater sage-grouse leks (protected 

activity centers).

Bighorn Sheep

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

RNG-9

S-2

Standard

Domestic sheep or goat grazing shall not be authorized or allowed on lands 

where effective separation from bighorn sheep cannot be reasonably 

maintained.

RNG-10

S-3

Standard

The use of domestic goats or sheep for manipulation of vegetation (i.e.,

noxious weed control, fuels reduction) shall not be authorized or allowed 

within or adjacent to source habitat for bighorn sheep.

RNG-11

S-4

Standard

The use of recreational pack goats shall not be authorized or allowed within 

or adjacent to source habitat for bighorn sheep.

RNG-12

New

Standard

An effective monitoring program shall be in place to detect presence of 

bighorn sheep in identified high-risk areas when authorized domestic sheep 

or goats are present on adjacent or nearby allotments.

RNG-13

New

Guideline

Trailing of domestic sheep or goats should not be authorized or allowed 

within 7 miles of bighorn sheep home ranges.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 127

RNG-14

New

Standard

When effective monitoring has not been conducted for bighorn sheep 

presence, domestic sheep or goat grazing shall not be authorized. 

RNG-15

New

Standard

Permitted domestic sheep and goats shall be counted onto and off of the 

allotment by the permittee. A reasonable effort to account for the disposition 

of any missing sheep must be made by the permittee.

RNG-16

New

Standard

When permitted sheep are found to be missing, the Forest Service shall be 

notified within 24 hours.

RNG-17

New

Standard

Authorized domestic sheep or goats shall be individually marked in a 

manner that allows immediate identification of ownership at a distance 

during the grazing season at all times while on NFS lands.

RNG-18

New 

Standard

Implement emergency actions when bighorn sheep presence is detected 

within 7 miles of active domestic sheep or goat grazing or trailing. Actions 

to be taken shall ensure separation between bighorn sheep and domestic 

sheep or goats.

RNG-19

New 

Guideline

To maintain separation, when bighorn sheep are found within 7 miles of an 

active domestic sheep and goat allotment, implementation of emergency 

actions for domestic sheep and goat grazing could include:

Reroute (move) domestic sheep or goats to a new routing path that will take 

them away from the likely bighorn movement; this may involve rerouting 

within the permitted allotment, movement to a different allotment, or, if the 

situation cannot otherwise be resolved, moving the permitted sheep off of the 

national forest until the situation can be resolved

Inform the appropriate state agency of the bighorn sheep location

Scenery

(guideline applies to all three national forests)

SCEN-1

G-49

Guideline

Short-term reductions to existing scenic integrity levels should be authorized 

only when needed to achieve the long-term restoration or rehabilitation of 

scenic integrity and/or scenic stability. 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

128 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Cultural Resources 

(guideline applies to all three national forests)

CUL-1

G-50

Guideline

Prehistoric, historic, and traditional cultural properties should be protected 

unless an exemption is specified in a programmatic agreement or a project 

specific mitigation plan is developed in consultation with the appropriate 

State Historic Preservation Officer.

Key Watersheds

(standards apply to all three national forests)

KW-1

S-15

Standard

There shall be no net increase in the mileage of Forest Roads in any key 

watershed unless the increase results in a reduction in road-related risk to 

watershed condition. Priority should be given to roads that pose the greatest 

relative ecological risks to riparian and aquatic ecosystems. 

KW-2

S-16

Standard

Hydroelectric and other surface water development authorizations shall

include requirements for in-stream flows and habitat conditions that maintain 

or restore native fish and other desired aquatic species populations, riparian 

dependent resources, favorable channel conditions, and aquatic connectivity. 

KW-3

S-17

Standard

New hydroelectric facilities and water developments shall not be located in a 

key watershed unless it can be demonstrated that there are minimal risks 

and/or no adverse effects to the fish and water resources for which the key 

watershed was established. 

Watershed Restoration

(guidelines apply to all three national forests)

WR-1

G-57

Guideline

Watershed restoration projects should be designed to maximize the use of 

natural ecological processes as a tool in meeting and maintaining restoration 

objectives. 

WR-2

G-58

Guideline

Watershed restoration projects should be designed to minimize the need for 

long-term maintenance. 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 129

WR-3

New

Guideline

Hydrologic connectivity and sediment delivery from roads and trails should 

be minimized. This includes roads inside and outside of riparian 

management areas (RMAs).

Individual Old Trees

(guidelines apply to all three national forests)

OF-1

G-59

Guideline 

Management activities within and outside old forest stands should generally 

emphasize retaining live trees with certain old tree characteristics. For most 

tree species, old trees are generally considered to be greater than 150 years 

in age. However, tree characteristics and old age may vary by species and 

site. A description of these characteristics and age should be further 

developed on a site-specific project basis.

OF-2

New

Guideline

New motor vehicle routes should not be constructed within old forest stands.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

130 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Management Area Standards and Guidelines

The following standards and guidelines are organized by management area first and then by 

resource or management activity and apply only to the associated management area. Standards 

and guidelines generally apply to all three national forests. Where indicated, they apply only to 

the national forest(s) identified. 

Each standard and guideline has an alpha-numeric identifier. The identifier used for the proposed 

action (S-19, G-61, etc.), where applicable, is included to facilitate comparison to the proposed 

action. In addition, the new identifiers match appendix A of the DEIS and are not sequential as a 

result of including only those standards and guidelines proposed for the preferred alternative 

(Alternative E). New or modified standards and guidelines are also identified.

MA 1A Congressionally Designated Wilderness Areas 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 1A

WIL-1

S-19

Standard

With the exception of permitted livestock, animals other than pack stock and 

pets (see glossary) shall not be authorized or allowed in wilderness areas. 

MA 1A

WIL-2

S-28

Standard

Wheeled vehicles, such as wagons and game carts, shall not be authorized or 

allowed within wilderness areas.

MA 1A

WIL-3

G-61

Guideline

New proposals for outfitter and guide special use permits or recreation event 

permits should be approved only when the special use or event is consistent with 

wilderness area desired conditions and a need is identified by a needs 

assessment and capacity analysis.

MA 1A

WIL-4

G-63

Guideline

Party sizes greater than 12 people and/or 18 head of stock should not be 

authorized or allowed within wilderness areas.

MA 1A

WIL-5

G-64

Guideline

The hitching or tethering of a horse or other saddle or pack animal should not be 

authorized or allowed within 200 feet of lakes or within 100 feet of streams and 

posted wetlands within wilderness areas.

MA 1A

WIL-6

S-29

Standard

Hitching or tethering of horses or other saddle or pack animals to trees, except 

for loading or unloading, shall not be authorized or allowed at campsites within 

wilderness areas.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 131

MA 1A Congressionally Designated Wilderness Areas within the Malheur 

National Forest

MA 1A

MAL-WIL-1

S-25

Standard

Storing or abandoning personal property, equipment, and supplies for more than 

72 hours shall not be authorized or allowed in the Strawberry Mountain 

Wilderness Area.

MA 1A

MAL-WIL-2

G-62

Guideline

Camping and campfires should not be authorized or allowed within 200 feet of 

lakes, streams, or other camps within wilderness areas.

MA 1A Congressionally Designated Wilderness Areas within the Umatilla 

National Forest

MA 1A

UMA-WIL-2

G-62

Guideline

Camping and campfires should not be authorized or allowed within 200 feet of 

lakes, streams, or other camps within wilderness areas.

MA 1A Congressionally Designated Wilderness Areas within the WallowaWhitman National Forest

MA 1A

WAW-WIL-1

S-20

Standard

Eagle Cap Wilderness Area visitors shall not be authorized unless they obtain 

and possess an entry permit.

MA 1A

WAW-WIL-2

S-21

Standard

Campfires shall not be authorized or allowed within 100 feet of any lake or 

posted wetland in the Eagle Cap Wilderness Area.

MA 1A

WAW-WIL-3

S-22

Standard

Campfires shall not be authorized or allowed within one-quarter mile of the 

following lakes in the Eagle Cap Wilderness Area: Bear Lake (Bear Creek 

Area), Blue Lake, Chimney Lake, Dollar Lake, Eagle Lake, Frazier Lake, Little 

Frazier Lake, Glacier Lake, Hobo Lake, Ice Lake, Jewett Lake, Laverty Lake, 

Maxwell Lake, Mirror Lake, Moccasin Lake, Prospect Lake, Steamboat Lake, 

Sunshine Lake, Swamp Lake, Tombstone Lake, Traverse Lake, and Upper Lake.

MA 1A

WAW-WIL-4

S-23

Standard

Grazing of horses and other saddle and pack animals shall not be authorized or 

allowed within 200 feet of any lake in the Eagle Cap Wilderness Area.

MA 1A

WAW-WIL-5

S-24

Standard

Eagle Cap Wilderness Area visitors shall not be authorized or allowed to enter 

posted restoration sites.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

132 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

MA 1A

WAW-WIL-6

S-25

Standard

Storing or abandoning personal property, equipment, and supplies for more than 

72 hours shall not be authorized or allowed in the Eagle Cap Wilderness Area.

MA 1A

WAW-WIL-7

S-26

Standard

Party sizes greater than 12 people and/or 18 head of stock shall not be 

authorized or allowed in the Eagle Cap Wilderness Area.

MA 1A

WAW-WIL-8

S-27

Standard

When camping, party sizes greater than 6 people and/or 9 head of stock shall not 

be authorized or allowed in the Lakes Basin Management Area of the Eagle Cap 

Wilderness Area.

Wildland Fire Management Activities within MA 1A 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 1A

WIL-FIRE-1

G-65

Guideline

All firelines should be restored by actions such as scattering slash piles along 

and onto firelines, knocking down or burning all slash piles greater than 18 

inches tall, pulling back and covering all sod with slash, and placing boulders, 

logs, and slash on firelines to discourage use and camouflage entrance points.

Additionally, all firelines that are within 100 feet of intercepting trails, roads, or 

stream crossings should be restored by cutting stumps flush and close to the 

ground (height of 4 to 5 inches), covering tops with a layer of soil (1 to 2 

inches), and chopping and roughening the ends of logs and stumps.

MA 1A

WIL-FIRE-2

G-66

Guideline

Waterbars should be constructed on fireline slopes that exceed 10 percent.

MA 1A

WIL-FIRE-3

G-67

Guideline

Garbage and trash should be removed.

MA 1A

WIL-FIRE-4

G-68

Guideline

Camps should be restored by replacing logs and rocks, recontouring terrain, 

scarifying soil, and scattering twigs, rocks, and dead branches to discourage use 

and camouflage entrance points.

MA 1A

WIL-FIRE-5

G-69

Guideline

Closed roads that were opened to provide access to wilderness areas should be 

closed after the use has concluded.

MA 1A

WIL-FIRE-6

G-70

Guideline

Wilderness trails used as firelines should be returned to original condition after 

the use has concluded.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 133

MA 1B Recommended Wilderness Areas and 

MA 1C Wilderness Study Areas 

(guideline applies to all three national forests)

MA 1B/C

WIL-ST-1

G-71

Guideline

Existing and proposed uses that could compromise wilderness area eligibility 

prior to congressional designation should not be authorized. 

MA 2A Wild and Scenic Rivers

(Includes Designated, Eligible, and Suitable Rivers)

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 2A

WSR-1

G-72

Guideline

New proposals for outfitting and guiding special use permits or recreation event 

permits should be approved only when the special use or event is consistent with 

Outstandingly Remarkable Values (ORVs), wild and scenic rivers desired 

conditions, and when a need is identified by a Needs Assessment and Capacity 

Analysis.

MA 2A

WSR-2

S-30

Standard

Hitching or tethering of horses or other saddle or pack animals to trees, except 

for loading or unloading, shall not be authorized or allowed at campsites within 

wild and scenic river corridors.

MA 2A

WSR-3

G-73

Guideline

Hitching, tethering, hobbling, and confining of saddle and pack animals within 

wild and scenic river corridors should be authorized or allowed only in 

designated stock facilities or at hardened campsites.

MA 2A

WSR-4

G-74

Guideline

New designated routes and trails should not be constructed within riparian 

management areas unless no other feasible alternative exists.

MA 2A

WSR-5

G-75

Guideline

Recreation livestock should be allowed or authorized only in designated areas.

MA 2A

WSR-6

G-76

Guideline

Timber harvest roads should not be constructed within wild and scenic river 

corridors.

MA 2A

WSR-7

G-77

Guideline

Firewood collection (except for use at onsite campfires) should be allowed only 

at designated sites within wild and scenic river corridors, preferably not within 

riparian management areas.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

134 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

MA 2A

WSR-8

G-78

Guideline

The construction of roads and river crossings that are visible from the river 

corridor of wild and scenic sections should not be authorized or allowed except 

when necessary to meet recreation purposes.

MA 2A

WSR-9

S-34

Standard

Hazard trees shall be felled and left where they fall or moved to a desirable 

location within the wild and scenic river corridor.

MA 2A

WSR-10

S-35

Standard

Mining of common minerals shall not be authorized.

MA 2A

WSR-11

S-36

Standard

Oil and gas leasing shall not be authorized or allowed within 1,320 feet of the 

high water mark in wild river corridors.

MA 2A Wild and Scenic Rivers within the Malheur National Forest 

(includes designated and eligible rivers)

MA 2A

MAL-WSR-1

S-37

Standard

Motor vehicle use shall not be authorized or allowed on trail 303 within the 

Malheur Wild and Scenic River corridor and on trail 381 within the North Fork 

Malheur Wild and Scenic River corridor.

MA 2A

MAL-WSR-2

S-38

Standard

Livestock grazing shall not be authorized between Crane Creek and the southern 

boundary of the Malheur National Forest between July 1 and September 15.

MA 2A Wild and Scenic Rivers within the Umatilla National Forest 

There are no standards and guidelines specific to the Umatilla National Forest. The general WSR 

standards and guidelines displayed previously apply.

MA 2A Wild and Scenic Rivers within the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest 

(designated and suitable rivers)

MA 2A

WAW-WSR-1

S-32

Standard

Camping shall not be authorized or allowed in the Lostine River corridor except 

in campgrounds, at trailheads, and in designated campsites.

MA 2A

WAW-WSR-2

S-33

Standard

With the exception of trailheads and other designated areas, hitching, tethering, 

hobbling, and confining of saddle and pack animals shall not be authorized or 

allowed within the Lostine River corridor. 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 135

MA 2B Research Natural Areas 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 2B

RNA-1

New

Standard

Management activities that directly or indirectly modify the integrity of the 

ecological processes shall not be authorized or allowed.

MA 2B

RNA-2

G-86

Changed to 

standard

Standard

Mineral exploration and development activities shall be managed to minimize 

impacts to research natural areas.

MA 2B

RNA-3

G-87

Changed to 

standard

Standard

Removal of common mineral material shall not be authorized or allowed within 

research natural areas.

MA 2C Botanical Areas 

(guidelines apply to the Umatilla and Malheur National Forests)

MA 2C

BOT-1

G-91

Guideline

Visitor activities should be managed to avoid degradation to botanical areas.

MA 2C

BOT-2

G-92

Guideline

Interpretive facilities should not conflict with the overall purpose of establishing 

botanical areas.

MA 2C

BOT-3

G-93

Guideline

Silvicultural treatments should be allowed only when designed to enhance the 

special features of botanical areas.

MA 2C

BOT-4

G-94

Guideline

Firewood collection should not be authorized or allowed within botanical areas.

MA 2C

BOT-5

G-95

Guideline

Mineral exploration and development activities should be managed to minimize 

impacts to botanical areas.

MA 2C

BOT-6

G-96

Guideline

Removal of common mineral material should not be authorized or allowed 

within botanical areas.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

136 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

MA 2C

BOT-7

G-97

Guideline

Botanical areas should be managed as avoidance areas for utility corridors.

MA 2C

BOT-8

G-98

Guideline

Planned fire should be used to maintain or enhance the vegetation condition for 

which the botanical area was established.

MA 2C

BOT-9

G-99

Guideline

Endemic (normal) levels of insects and disease disturbance should be allowed 

within botanical areas.

MA 2C

BOT-10

G-100

Guideline

Invasive species should be reduced or eradicated within botanical areas.

MA 2I Starkey Experimental Forest and Range

(standards apply to Wallowa-Whitman National Forest)

MA 2I

STA EXP-1

New

Guideline

To protect valuable infrastructure and assure compatibility with research needs 

and objectives, natural, unplanned ignitions should be suppressed with a high 

level of management response. Suppression activities are coordinated with the 

Station director, research project leader, or designee. 

MA 2I

STA EXP-2

New

Guideline

Planned ignitions should occur when/where compatible with research needs or 

objectives.

MA 2I

STA EXP-3

New

Standard

Special forest product collection and firewood cutting shall only be allowed 

when/where compatible with research objectives.

MA 2I

STA EXP-4

New

Standard

Vehicle access shall only be allowed on designated routes, unless necessary to 

meet research needs or objectives.

MA 2I

STA EXP-5

New

Standard

Starkey Experimental Forest and Range shall be closed to public access from 

fall until spring to protect deer and elk from harassment and stress during 

winter, with specific dates established periodically as consistent with research 

objectives.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 137

MA 2I

STA EXP-6

New

Guideline

Existing old forest stands should be retained and additional stands that are the 

closest to old forest structure should be retained at a rate of 20 percent of the 

land area. 

MA 2I

STA EXP-7

New

Standard

Plans of operation for existing locatable mineral claims shall be reviewed and 

modified, to the extent practicable, to be compatible with existing or planned 

research.

MA 2J Municipal Watersheds 

(standards apply to all three national forests)

MA 2J

MUN-WAT-1

S-39

Standard

All management activities shall be designed to protect water quality at the 

intake in public water supply watersheds.

MA 2J

MUN-WAT-2

S-40

Standard

Fertilizers and chemicals shall only be used in emergency situations, subject to 

the terms of existing agreements between individual cities and the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture.

MA 3A Backcountry (nonmotorized use) and 

MA 3B Backcountry (motorized use)

(standards apply to all three national forests)

MA 3A/B

BACK-1

S-58

Standard

Silvicultural treatments shall generally be limited to small diameter material and 

may take place only for the following reasons:

To improve habitat for species with viability concerns, restore terrestrial or 

aquatic ecosystem composition and structural characteristics, or to maintain 

existing unique or important wildlife features or plant communities

Appropriate administrative use

When cutting, sale, or removal of timber is incidental to the implementation of 

another suitable management activity

MA 3A/B

BACK-2

S-59

Standard

New road construction shall be limited to that required for designated special

uses or required by law to provide access to non-Federal land or valid existing 

rights.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

138 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

MA 4B Riparian Management Areas 

General Management within MA 4B

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 4B

RMA-1

G-101

Guideline

When riparian management areas are functioning properly, project activities 

should be designed to maintain those conditions.

When riparian management areas are not properly functioning, project activities 

should be designed to improve those conditions.

Project activities in riparian management areas should not result in long-term 

degradation to aquatic and riparian conditions at the watershed scale. Limited 

short term or site-scale effects from activities in riparian management areas may 

be acceptable when they support, or do not diminish, long-term benefits to 

aquatic and riparian resources.

MA 4B

RMA-2

S-41

Standard

Herbicides, insecticides, pesticides and other toxicants, and other chemicals

shall be applied only to maintain, protect, or enhance aquatic and riparian 

resources or to restore native plant communities. 

MA 4B

RMA-3

G-102

Guideline

Generally trees needed to maintain, protect, or enhance aquatic and riparian 

resources that are felled for safety should be felled and left on site. 

MA 4B

RMA-4

G-103

Guideline

Water drafting sites should be located and managed to minimize adverse effects 

on stream channel stability, sedimentation, and in-stream flows needed to 

maintain riparian resources, channel conditions, and fish habitat. 

MA 4B

RMA-5

S-42

Standard

Pumps shall be screened at drafting sites to prevent entrainment of fish and shall 

have one-way valves to prevent back-flow into streams. 

MA 4B

RMA-6

G-125

Guideline

Fish habitat and water quality should be protected when withdrawing water for 

administrative purposes.

Wildland Fire Management Activities and Fuels Management within MA 4B 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE-1

G-104

Guideline

Disturbed areas, such as firelines, drop-points, camps, roads, and trails, should 

be restored by actions such as scattering slash piles, replacing logs and boulders, 

scarifying soils, recontouring terrain, and reseeding with native species.
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 139

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE-2

G-105

Guideline

Chemicals and retardant should not be used for suppression and mop-up within 

riparian areas.

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE-3

G-106

Guideline

Pumping directly from a stream channel should be avoided if chemical products 

are to be injected directly into the system. When chemicals are used, pumping 

should be conducted from a fold-a-tank that is located outside the riparian area.

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE-4

G-107

Guideline

Pumps and charged hoses should not be back flushed into live water.

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE-5

G-108

Guideline

Temporary firefighting facilities (e.g., incident bases, camps, helibases, staging 

areas, helispots, and other centers) for incident activities should be located 

outside riparian management areas. When no practical alternative exists, all 

appropriate measures to maintain, restore, or enhance aquatic and riparian 

dependent resources should be used. 

(See guideline MA 4B RMA-FIRE-1.) 

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE-6

G-109

Guideline

Aerial application of chemical retardant, foam, or other firefighting chemicals 

and petroleum should be avoided within 300 feet of waterways. 

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE-7

G-110

Guideline

Water drafting sites should be located and managed to minimize adverse effects 

on stream channel stability, sedimentation, and in-stream flows needed to 

maintain riparian resources, channel conditions, and fish habitat. 

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE-8

S-44

Standard

Portable pump set-ups shall include containment provisions for fuel spills and 

fuel containers shall have appropriate containment provisions. Vehicles should 

be parked in locations that avoid entry of spilled fuel into streams. 

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE-9

G-111

Guideline

Generally firelines should be located and configured to minimize sediment 

delivery, creation of new stream channels, and unauthorized roads and trails. 

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE10

S-45

Standard

Minimum Impact Suppression Tactics (NWCG 2006) techniques for wildfire 

suppression activities shall be used in riparian management areas. 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

140 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

MA 4B

RMA-FIRE11

S-46

Standard

To minimize soil damage when chipping fuels within riparian management 

areas, chip bed depths on dry soils shall be limited to 7.5 cm or less (Busse et al. 

2005). 

Timber Management and Silviculture within MA 4B 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 4B

RMA-FOR-1

G-112

Guideline

Silvicultural treatments should occur in riparian management areas only as 

necessary to maintain, restore or enhance conditions that are needed to support 

aquatic and riparian dependent resources. 

MA 4B

RMA-FOR-2

S-47

Standard

Firewood collection shall not be authorized or allowed in the active floodplain 

or within primary source areas for large woody debris. 

Active floodplain is the area bordering a stream that is inundated by flows at a 

surface elevation defined by two-times the maximum bankfull depth (i.e., 

bankfull depth measured at thalweg).

MA 4B

RMA-FOR-3

G-113

Guideline

New landings, designated skid trails, staging or decking should not occur in 

riparian management areas, unless there are no reasonable alternatives, in which 

case they should:

• Be of minimum size

• Be located outside the active floodplain

• Minimize effects to large wood, bank integrity, temperature, and sediment 

levels

MA 4B

RMA-FOR-4

G-114

Guideline

Yarding activities should achieve full suspension over the active channel.

Active channel is the bankfull width of flowing perennial or intermittent 

streams.

Range Management and Domestic Livestock Grazing within MA 4B 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 4B

RMA-RNG-1

S-48

Standard

New livestock handling and/or management facilities shall be located outside 

riparian management areas, except for those that inherently must be located in a 

riparian management area and those needed for resource protection. 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 141

MA 4B

RMA-RNG-2

G-115

Guideline 

The following displays the maximum utilization guidelines for riparian 

management areas.

Measure Maximum utilization within riparian management areas*

Maximum percent utilization of woody 

vegetation (percent of mean annual 

vegetative production)

25% in bull trout spawning and rearing habitat (all three 

national forests)

35% in anadromous fish reaches (UMA and WAW)

40% outside bull trout spawning and rearing habitat (MAL)

40% outside anadromous fish reaches (UMA and WAW)

Maximum percent utilization of 

herbaceous vegetation(percent of 

mean annual vegetative production)

25% in bull trout spawning and rearing habitat (all three 

national forests)

35% in anadromous fish reaches (UMA and WAW)

40% outside bull trout spawning and rearing habitat (MAL)

40% outside anadromous fish reaches (UMA and WAW)

* In addition, the minimum residual stubble height applies at the greenline (4 to 6 inches). The maximum 

bank alteration is 20 percent.

MA 4B

RMA-RNG-3

G-116

Guideline

During allotment management planning, removing existing livestock handling 

or management facilities from riparian management areas should be considered. 

MA 4B

RMA-RNG-4

G-117

Guideline

Livestock trailing, bedding, watering, loading, and other handling in riparian 

management areas should be minimized. 

MA 4B

RMA-RNG-5

G-118

Standard

Trampling of federally listed threatened or endangered fish redds by livestock 

shall be avoided.

Roads Management within MA 4B 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 4B

RMA-RD-1

S-49

Standard

Side-casting (placement of unconsolidated earthen waste materials resulting 

from road construction or maintenance) in riparian management areas shall be 

avoided. 

MA 4B

RMA-RD-2

S-50

Standard

Fill material shall not be placed on organic debris in riparian management areas. 

MA 4B

RMA-RD-3

S-51

Standard

Disruption of natural hydrologic flow paths, including diversion of streamflow 

and interception of surface and subsurface flow shall be minimized or avoided 

when constructing or reconstructing roads or landings either inside or outside of 

riparian management areas. 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

142 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

MA 4B

RMA-RD-4

G-120

Guideline

Wetlands and unstable areas should be avoided when reconstructing existing 

roads or constructing new roads and landings. Minimize impacts where 

avoidance is not practical. 

MA 4B

RMA-RD-5

S-52

Standard

New or replaced permanent stream crossings shall accommodate flows at least 

20 percent greater than the 100-year flood event, including associated bedload 

and debris. 

MA 4B

RMA-RD-6

S-53

Standard

Where physically feasible, construction or reconstruction of stream crossings 

shall avoid diversion of streamflow out of the channel and down the road in the 

event of crossing failure. 

MA 4B

RMA-RD-7

S-54

Standard

In fish bearing streams, construction or reconstruction of stream crossings shall

provide and maintain passage for all fish species and all life stages of fish. 

MA 4B

RMA-RD-8

G-121

Guideline

Construction or reconstruction of stream crossings should allow passage for 

other riparian dependent species where connectivity has been identified as an 

issue. 

MA 4B

RMA-RD-9

G-122

Guideline

Fish passage barriers should be retained where they serve to restrict access by 

undesirable nonnative species and are consistent with restoration of habitat for 

native species. 

MA 4B

RMA-RD-10

G-123

Guideline

Hydrologic connectivity and sediment delivery from roads should be 

minimized. This includes roads inside and outside of riparian management 

areas.

MA 4B

RMA-RD-11

G-124

Guideline

Road drainage should be routed away from potentially unstable channels, fills, 

and hillslopes. This applies both inside and outside of riparian management 

areas. 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 143

Recreation Management within MA 4B 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 4B

RMA-REC-1

G-126

Guideline

Generally placing new facilities or infrastructure within expected long-term 

channel migration zones should be avoided. Where activities, such as the 

placement or construction of road-stream crossings, boat ramps, docks, and 

interpretive trails, inherently must occur in riparian management areas, locate 

them to minimize impacts on riparian dependent resource conditions (e.g., 

within geologically stable areas, avoiding major spawning sites). 

MA 4B

RMA-REC-2

G-127

Guideline

Removing or relocating existing recreation facilities that are causing 

unacceptable impacts in riparian management areas should be considered. 

Minerals Management within MA 4B 

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 4B

RMA-MIN-1

G-128

Guideline

Adverse effects to aquatic and other riparian-dependent resources from mineral 

operations should be minimized or avoided. For operations in riparian 

management areas, ensure operators take all practicable measures to maintain, 

protect, and rehabilitate water quality and habitat for fish and wildlife and other 

riparian dependent resources that may be affected by the operations. 

MA 4B

RMA-MIN-2

G-129

Guideline

Structures, support facilities, and roads should be located outside riparian 

management areas. Where no alternative to siting facilities in riparian 

management areas exists, locate them in a way to minimize adverse effects to 

aquatic and other riparian dependent resources. Existing roads should be 

maintained to minimize damage to aquatic and riparian dependent resources. 

MA 4B

RMA-MIN-3

S-55

Standard

Mine waste facilities with the potential to generate hazardous material (per 

CERCLA) shall be located outside of riparian management areas. If no 

reasonable alternative to locating these facilities in riparian management areas

exists, then locate and design the waste facilities using the best conventional 

techniques to ensure mass stability and prevent the release of acid or toxic 

materials. 

MA 4B

RMA-MIN-4

G-130

Guideline

Where possible, the operating plans for existing activities should be adjusted to 

minimize adverse effects to aquatic and riparian dependent resources in the 

riparian management areas. 
Part 3 – Design Criteria

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

144 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Lands Ownership (Hydropower) within MA 4B

(standards and guidelines apply to all three national forests)

MA 4B

RMA-HYD-1

S-56

Standard

Authorizations for all new and existing special uses, including, but not limited 

to water diversion or transmission facilities (e.g., pipelines and ditches), energy 

transmission lines, roads, hydroelectric, and other surface water development 

proposals, shall result in the reestablishment, restoration, or mitigation of habitat 

conditions and ecological processes identified as being essential for the 

maintenance or improvement of habitat conditions for fish, water and other 

riparian dependent species and resources. These processes include in-stream 

flow regimes, physical and biological connectivity, water quality, and integrity 

and complexity of riparian and aquatic habitat. 

MA 4B

RMA-HYD-2

S-57

Standard

New support facilities shall be located outside of riparian management areas. 

Support facilities include any facilities or improvements (e.g., workshops, 

housing, switchyards, staging areas, and transmission lines) not directly integral 

to the production of hydroelectric power or necessary for the implementation of 

prescribed protection, mitigation or enhancement measures. 

MA 4B

RMA-HYD-3

G-131

Guideline

If existing support facilities are located within the riparian management areas, 

they should be operated and maintained to restore or enhance aquatic and 

riparian dependent resources. At time of permit reissuance, consider removing 

support facilities, where practical. 

The following management areas do not have specific standards or guidelines: 

• MA 2D Geological Areas

• MA 2E Historical Areas

• MA 2F Scenic Byways and All-American Roads

• MA 2G Nationally Designated Trails 

• MA 2H Scenic Areas 

• MA 3C Wildlife Corridor

• MA 4A General Forest 

• MA 5 Developed Sites and Administrative Areas
Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 145

Summary of the

Analysis of the Management Situation

Introduction

This section summarizes the analysis of the management situation (AMS) produced in 2005 for 

the Malheur, Umatilla, Wallowa-Whitman National Forests, including the portion of the Ochoco 

National Forest administered by the Malheur, collectively referred to as the Blue Mountains 

national forests. The development of an AMS is a requirement of the forest plan revision process 

(36CFR sec. 219.12(c)). The AMS provides a determination of the ability of the planning area to 

supply goods and services in response to society’s demands. The primary purpose of this analysis 

is to provide a basis for formulating a broad range of reasonable alternatives. Required elements 

of the AMS include:

• Benchmark analysis (defines the range within the alternatives can be constructed)

• The current level of goods and services provided by the unit

• Projections of demand for goods and services

• Determination of the potential to resolve public issues and management concerns

• Determination of the need to establish or change management direction

Benchmark Analysis

The development of benchmarks is required as a provision of 1982 Planning Rule, sec 219.12 

(e.1). During the need for change evaluation, all benchmarks were reviewed and evaluated. The 

nontimber benchmarks, including wildlife, wilderness areas, and range, were determined to be 

appropriate and reasonable, therefore no new ones were developed. Following the need for 

change evaluation, five new timber benchmarks were developed:

1. Minimum level (219.12 (e)(1)(i))

2. Maximum biological potential (219.12 (e)(1)(ii)) with departure from the base schedule

2a. Maximum biological potential (219.2 (e)(1)(ii)) meeting the base schedule Maximum 

PNV (219.12 (e)(1)(iii) C) with departure from the base schedule

3a. Maximum PNV (219.12 (e)(1)(iii) C) meeting the base schedule

Summary of Projected Timber Benchmark Annual Outputs 

(millions of board feet)

The projected timber outputs in table 30 are based on the initial forest plan revision acres 

identified as suitable for timber production (this may change during revision). Benchmarks 2 and 

2a would produce the greatest long-term sustained yield (LTSY) because they would have more 

timber production acres than benchmarks 3 and 3a. Benchmark 2 would produce the greatest first 

decade level of volume (ASQ). The high first decade harvest rates in benchmarks 2 and 3 

attempted to reduce the high level of available over-stocked stands more quickly than benchmark 

2a or 3a. The first decade volume for benchmark 2A and 3A are lower than benchmarks 2 and 3 

because they level out the flow of volume so that each subsequent decade volume is greater than 

or equal to the previous decade volume (nondeclining flow).
Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

146 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

Table 30. Projected benchmark timber outputs (MMBF)

Benchmark

MAL UMA WAW

LTSY ASQ LTSY ASQ LTSY ASQ

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 126 123 80 79 134 99

2a 126 86 80 40 134 55

3 112 107 71 57 114 83

3a 112 79 71 34 114 43

Summary of Wildlife, Fish and Grazing Benchmarks 

(from 1990 plans)

The nontimber benchmarks, including wildlife, wilderness, and range, were found to be 

appropriate and reasonable; and therefore no new ones were developed. These existing 

benchmarks provide a basis for developing a reasonable range of alternatives. The following table 

displays the 1990 benchmarks for livestock, big game, and fish.

Table 31. Maximum yearly benchmark outputs from 1990 forest plan summary of AMS

National

Forest

Livestock Grazing

(thousand AUMs)

Big Game Use

(thousand user days)

Fish Production

(thousand pounds per year)

MAL 194 168 (WFUDs) 43

UMA 103 580(WUDs) 28 (RVDs), no estimate of pounds but 

1.7 million smolts produced per year

WAW 227 6,957 (WFUDs) 221

WUD= wildlife user days, WFUD= wildlife and fish user days, RVD= anadromous fish use days

AUM= animal unit month

Current Level of Goods and Services Provided by the Unit

The following tables display current levels of goods and services for several selected resources.

Timber

Table 32. Timber sale program quantity (million board feet per year)

National Forest Million board feet

Malheur 30

Umatilla 27

Wallowa-Whitman 24

Range

Table 33. Animal unit months (AUMs) per year

National Forest AUMs (thousand)

Malheur 132

Umatilla 48

Wallowa-Whitman 92
Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 147

Wilderness Areas (Existing and Potential)

Table 34. Designated wilderness areas by national forest in the Blue Mountains

National Forest

Acres of Wilderness Areas 

(percent of national forest)

Malheur 81,970 (2%)

Umatilla 304,925 (22%)

Wallowa-Whitman 585,781 (24%)

Total 972,676 (18%)

Table 35. Potential wilderness areas by national forest in the Blue Mountains

National Forest National Forest

(acres)

Potential Wilderness Areas

(acres)

Percent of 

National Forest

Malheur 1,708,960 16 149,590 9%

Umatilla 1,403,920 24 297,240 21%

Wallowa-Whitman 2,405,180 35 258,480 11%

Total 5,518,060 75 705,310 13%

Projections of Demand for Goods and Services

Timber 

The timber supply and demand situation has changed dramatically during the past few decades. 

Since 1986, Oregon counties in the Blues study area have experienced an 84 percent decline in 

timber harvest. The majority of decline is attributed to a 95 percent decline in volume harvested 

from Forest Service timber sales (1986 to 2008). During the same time period, volume sold from 

the Malheur, Umatilla and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests declined 88 percent. Timber 

volume harvested from the three National Forests has declined dramatically, from a high of 

almost 600 million board feet during the early 1990s to about 50 million board feet today, 

excluding fuelwood. 

A total of 24 processing plants have closed since 1980 in the eastern Oregon counties of the Blue 

Mountains (Lord 2009). Currently, there are 14 processing plants (able to process more than 10 

MMBF per year) in the three state Blue Mountains area of economic influence.

According to Adams and Latta (2007), regarding future prospects for the timber industry, “The 

base case projection envisions a substantial near-term decline in eastern Oregon harvest and 

lumber processing capacity as private harvest falls. In this outlook, industrial lands are unable to 

sustain recent harvest levels and nonindustrial private forests ownerships do not increase harvest 

enough to compensate for the loss. Mill numbers decline by roughly one-third, with the largest 

losses in the Blue Mountains region. Impacts of the harvest decline on log prices are limited 

because demand contraction (mill closure) closely parallels the shift in supply.” 

The timber industry surrounding the Blue Mountains National Forests has undergone significant 

declines in the past few decades. Solid-wood product prices will slightly rise, whereas, prices for

paper and paperboard are expected to decline in real terms. These national level reports point to 

relatively stable supply-demand conditions. While this may be true nationally, it creates a 

problem locally. The stable end-product or output prices may mean that without advancements in 
Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

148 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

wood processing technology, log prices may remain low and not induce investments for local log 

supply or increased imports. Without a sufficient and reliable supply of logs, it is likely there will 

be continued reductions in wood product processing capacity.

Range 

Livestock grazing on the Blue Mountains national forests is an important use to the local ranching 

industry. Grazing on public lands contributes directly to livestock forage needs. In 2009, the 

counties in the Oregon portion of the plan revision area had about 40 percent of the total cattle 

inventory of the state (USDA National Agriculture Statistics Service). Grazing on national forest 

lands directly provided about three percent of the forage needs of the local cattle inventory. The 

total contribution of national forest grazing is likely greater since ranchers have the opportunity to 

grow forage on other ranch lands for feed.

Total yearly forage production) is estimated to be 600 million pounds on the Malheur, 350 million 

on the Umatilla, and 650 million pounds on the Wallowa-Whitman.

The demand for forage from National Forest System lands is affected by the price that permittees 

have to pay for that forage. As long as that price approximates the appraised market value for that 

forage, the demand will remain high.

Wilderness 

The following factors were summarized from the Blue Mountains wilderness need evaluation.

Use, Visitors, and Changing Patterns of Use

Currently, use of the Blue Mountains wilderness areas account for only a small part (8 percent) of 

the overall use on the Blue Mountains and even a smaller proportion (4 percent) of the use of 

national forest lands in the general vicinity. Use trend data suggests that aging populations and 

shifts in the type of activities younger people are interested in will result in a 2 to 8 percent 

increase in demand for activities during the next 15 years. This increase will primarily be in day 

uses from nonwilderness areas. Current wilderness areas in the Blue Mountains reach capacity 

only in specific areas during brief high use periods. 

Opportunities for Unconfined Outdoor Recreation Experiences

The Blue Mountains provide high potential opportunities for unconfined recreation experiences 

and solitude, regionally and locally. The social demand for these unconfined experiences is 

related to general dispersed settings, not specifically wilderness areas that provide both motorized 

and nonmotorized activities. Management direction in the proposed revised land management 

plan will maintain many undeveloped areas where natural ecosystem processes predominate in 

both wilderness and nonwilderness settings.

Capacity of Designated Wilderness Areas to Support Human Use

Although social desires exist for more wilderness areas across the Blue Mountains, there is not a 

social need to designate additional wilderness because the current wilderness areas are not 

exceeding capacity, except in site-specific locations on limited occasions. Alternative sites exist 

within and adjacent to these areas and within other wilderness areas in the Blue Mountains to 

accommodate visitor responses to these instances. Based on current uses, trends, primary market 

zones, demographic changes, crowding levels, visitor pressures, projected uses, existing 

opportunities for unconfined recreation, and social values. Wilderness use is unlikely to exceed 
Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 149

the capacity of the existing wilderness areas and is not likely to result in a need for more 

wilderness in the next 15 years. 

Determination of the Potential to

Resolve Public Issues and Management Concerns

The forest plans for the Malheur, Umatilla, and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests share many 

common issues and resource similarities. The Forest Service established one team, the Blue 

Mountains Forest Plan Revision Team, to revise these forest plans. There are several reasons for 

this collaboration:

• All three forest plans were approved in 1990 

• They share key issues, resources, customers, and interested entities

• Forest managers desire similar management across administrative boundaries

Since June 2004, the revision team has been working collaboratively with local communities to:

• Develop a vision for the future management of the Blue Mountains national forests

• Create the building blocks that will be used in the revised forest plans 

• Identify the things in the current plans that are not working 

• Craft revision proposals

The revision team worked with state government, county governments, tribes, and resource 

advisory groups as co-conveners for the collaborative process. These groups have broad networks 

of contacts, have expertise in land management planning, and have demonstrated that they can 

build partnerships, resolve conflicts, and solve problems.

Determination of the Need to

Establish or Change Management Direction

Legal Requirement 

The existing forest plans for the Malheur, Umatilla and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests are 

more than 20 years old. The National Forest Management Act of 1976 requires each national 

forest to revise its land and resource management plan every 10 to 15 years. Since 1990, 

economic, social, and ecological conditions have changed; new laws, regulations and policies are 

in place; and new information based on monitoring and scientific research is available. The forest 

plan for the Malheur National Forest was signed on May 25, 1990 and has been amended 67 

times. The forest plan for the Umatilla National Forest was signed on June 11, 1990 and has been 

amended 34 times. The forest plan for the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest was signed on April 

23, 1990, and has been amended 40 times. It is evident that the forest plans need to be revised to 

evaluate and incorporate these changes as appropriate. 

Other needs for change include the need to:

• Eliminate redundancy and process requirements

• Improve consistency of management between the three national forests

• Incorporate best available scientific information

• Provide for more protection of terrestrial plant and animal species and their habitats
Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation

Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

150 for the Blue Mountains National Forests

• Provide for more protection of watersheds and aquatic habitats

• Improve management of fuels and fire risk

• Address resiliency in the face of climate change

• Provide better recognition of the interdependency of social and economic components with 

national forest management
Proposed Revised Land Management Plan

for the Blue Mountains National Forests 151

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