WORLD DATA CENTER A 

for 

Solid Earth Geophysics 

CATALOG OF SUBMARINE VOLCANOES AND HYDROLOGICAL PHENOMENA 

ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANIC EVENTS 

1500 B.C. TO DECEMBER 31,1899 

September 1984 

NATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL DATA CENTER 
COVER PHOTOGRAPHS 

Left: Nuee' ardente flow on Mt. Lamington, Papua Island, 1951. 

Center: Lava fountain, Kilauea Iki, Hawaii, 1960. 

Right: Eruption cloud, Mt. Ngauruhoe, New Zealand, May 1972. 

(all photographs, University of Colorado) 
WORLD DATA CENTER A 

for 

Solid Earth Geophysics 

REPORT SE- 36 

CATALOG OF SUBMARINE VOLCANOES AND HYDROLOGICAL PHENOMENA 

ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANIC EVENTS 1500 B.C. TO DECEMBER 31,1899 

Peter Hedervari 

Georgiana Observatory, Center for Cosmic and Terrestrial Physics 

H. 1023, Budapest, II. Arpad fejedelem utja 40 - 41 Hungary 

September 1984 

Published by World Data Center A for Solid Earth Geophysics 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION 

National Geophysical Data Center 

Boulder. Colorado 80303, USA 
DESCRIPTION OF WORLD DATA CENTERS 

World Data Centers conduct international exchange of geophysical observations in accordance with the principles set forth 

by the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). They were established in 1957 by the International Geophysical Year 

Committee (CSAGI) as part of the fundamental international planning for the IGY program to collect data from the numerous 

and widespread IGY observational programs and to make such data readily accessible to interested scientists and scholars 

for an indefinite period of time. WDC-A was established in the U.S.A.; WDC-B in the U.S.S.R.; and WDC-C in Western Europe, 

Australia, and Japan. This new system for exchanging geophysical data was found to be very effective, and the operations 

of the World Data Centers were extended by ICSU on a continuing basis to other international programs; the WDC’s were under 

the supervision of the Comite International de Geophysique (CIG) for the period 1960 to 1967 and are now supervised by the 

ICSU Panel on World Data Centres. 

The current plans for continued international exchange of geophysical data through the World Data Centers are set forth 

in the Fourth Consolidated Guide to lnternational Data Exchange through the World Data Centres, issued by the ICSU Panel 

on World Data Centres. These plans are broadly similar to those adopted under ICSU auspices for the IGY and subsequent 

international programs. 

Functlons and Responslbilitles of WDC’s 

The World Data Centers collect data and publications for the following disciplines: Meteorology; Oceanography; Rockets 

and Satellites; Solar-Terrestrial Physics disciplines (Solar and Interplanetary Phenomena, Ionospheric Phenomena, FlareAssociated Events, Geomagnetic Phenomena, Aurora, Cosmic Rays, Airglow); Solid Earth Geophysics disciplines (Seismology, 

Tsunamis, Gravimetry, Earth Tides, Recent Movements of the Earth’s Crusr, Rotation of the Earth, Magnetic Measurements, 

Paleomagnetism and Archemagnetism, Volcanology, Geothermics), and Marine Geology and Geophysics. In planning for the 

various scientific programs, decisions on data exchange were made by the scientific community through the international 

scientific unions and committees. In each discipline, the specialists themselves determined the nature and form of data exchange, based on their needs as research workers. Thus, the type and amount of data in the WDC’s differ from discipline to 

discipline. 

The objects of establishing several World Data Centers for collecting observational data were: (1) to insure against loss 

of data by the catastrophic destruction of a single center, (2) to meet the geographical convenience of, and provide easy communication for workers in different parts of the world. Each WDC is responsible for: (1) endeavoring to collect a complete set 

of data in the field or discipline for which it is responsible, (2) safekeeping of the incoming data, (3) correct copying and reproduction of data, maintaining adequate standards of clarity and durability, (4) supplying copies to other WDC’s of data not received 

directly, (5) preparation of catalogs of all data in its charge, and (6) making data in the WDC’s available to the scientific community. The WDC’s conduct their operation at no expense to ICSU or to the ICSU family of unions and committees. 

World Data Center A 

World Data Center A, for which the National Academy of Sciences through the Geophysics Research Board and its Committee on Data Interchange and Data Centers has overall responsibili+y, consists of the WDC-A Coordination Office and seven 

subcentem at scientific institutions in various parts of the United States. The GRB periodically reviews the activities of WDCA and has conducted several studies on the effectiveness of the WDC system. As a result of these reviews and studies, some 

of the subcenters of WDC-A have been relocated so that they could more effectively serve the scientific community. The addresses 

of the WDC-A subcenters and Coordination Office are given inside the front cover. 

The data received by WDC-A have been made available to the scientific community in various ways: (1) reports containing 

data and results of experiments have been compiled, published, and widely distributed; (2) synoptic-type data on cards, microfilm, 

or tables are available for use at the subcenters and for loan to scientists; (3) copies of data and reports are provided upon request. 
The idea of a comprehensive catalog of 

hydrological phenovena associated with volcanoes 

originated in 1979. The author has since collected 

hundreds of pieces of worldwide data, spanning 3500 

years from antiquity to the present. It soon became 

clear, however, that there are too many pieces of data 

to include all of the entries in a single volume. 

Therefore, it was decided to treat the events in three 

different volumes. This first volume contains a short 

description of the events from about 1500 B.C. to the 

end of 1899. The secopd volume treats those events 

that occurred between January 1900 and December 1979. 

In these two volumes a catal'og of submarine volcanic 

eruptions, new islands, tsunamis, seiches, and base 

surges is given. The third volume summarizes all the 

known subglacial eruptions and jokulhlaups (that is, 

glacier bursts that are the consequences of such 

eruptions). 

got only the known cases are treated, but also 

those that are doubtful. These are symbolized by a 

questionmark beside the conventional volcanological 

abbreviations. In certain cases I have expressed my 

own view in the discussion of certain phenomena; 

readers should regard these views as personal opinions 

only, which can be accepted or rejected on the basis 

of the results of further research. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The author is very much indebted to the following 

scientists. The late Mr. Gustav Hantke, whom I remember with great esteem and who gave me invaluable 

information on the volcanic events of the AleutianAlaska belt. I am particularly grateful to Dr. 

William H. Berninghausen, USA; Professor Rein W. van 

Remmelen, The Netherlands; Dr. John H. Latter, New 

Zealand; Professor Frederico Machado, Portugal; Dr. 

Maur Neumann van Padang, The Netherlands; Dr. George 

Pararas-Carayannis, Hawaii; Dr. Thomas Simkin, USA; 

Professor Sigurdur Thorarinsson, Iceland; and last, 

but not least, Mr. Daniel C. Shackelford, USA. To 

Geza Toth and Dr. Laszlo Facsinay , Hungarian 

geophysicists, are due many thanks for their help in 

treatment of source material. The author is very 

indebted to the Museum of Natural History, Reykjavik, 

Iceland, and personally to Dr. Sveinn Jakobsson for 

permitting the use of interesting old drawings of 

submarine volcanoes near Iceland. 

iii 
Blank page retained for pagination 
CONTENTS 

P ref ace iii 

Introduction and symbols 1 

A. Events before the beginning of the Christian era 1 

6. Events after the beginning of the Christian era 3 

C. Supplements and list of events of unknown date and/or location 50 

References 55 

L i s t of submarine vol can0 locations A1 

Volcano location maps 61 

CONTENTS BY €VENT NUMBER 

Event 

1 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

Page 

1 

3 

4 

6 

7 

8 

10 

11 

13 

14 

15 

Event Page 

110 16 

120 19 

130 20 

140 21 

150 22 

160 24 

170 25 

180 26 

190 27 

200 28 

Event Page 

210 35 

220 40 

230 41 

240 42 

250 46 

260 50 

270 50 

280 51 

290 52 

300 53 

302 53 

FIGURES 

1. Interior of Santorini caldera. 2 

2. Steep wall of Santorini caldera. 2 

3. Fresh lavas on Nea Kameni Island. 2 

4. Main crater of Nea Kameni volcano. 2 

11/1. Painting of the eruption of Vesuvius. 4 

15/1. Wizard Island within the caldera of Mount Mazama. 4 

28/1. Islands of the Reykjanes Peninsula. 5 

V 
FIGURES (Continued) 

57/1. Development of a base surge, crater lake of Taal volcano. 9 

57/2. Eruption cloud after spread-out of base surge. 10 

73/1. Capt. Mindelberg's report on the submarine eruption off Reykjaness. 

7312. Capt. Pedersens' sketch of Nyey. 12 

73/3. Bathymetric map of the area around Eldey. 12 

73/4. Map of eruptions since the settlement of Iceland. 13 

110/1. Graham Island (Giulia Ferdinandeo Bank). 16 

11111. Graham Island on Sept. 29, 1831. 17 

156/1. 1866 eruption of Nea Kameni. 23 

156/2. Early photo of eruption of Nea Kameni, 1866. 23 

156/3. Old engraving of eruption of Nea Kameni, 1866. 23 

203/1. Volcano in Lake Ilopango. 29 

204/1. Krakatau: sites of floating pumices. 30 

204/2. 

204/3. Profile from topographic map of Ninety East Ridge. 32 

Topographic map of central part of Ninety East Ridge. 32 

204/4. Points with measured heat flow values, Ninety East Ridge. 33 

204/5. Distribution of epicenters of powerful tectonic shocks, 

19Q4 - 1965, Ninety East Ridge. 33 

218/1. Rakata Island after the 1883 eruption of Krakatau. 39 

218/2. Old painting of Krakatau eruption, 1883. 40 

221/1. First appearance of Bogoslof in 1796, and an 1883 view. 41 

241/1. Development of the Bogoslof group. 43 

245/1. Sections across Emperor of China and Nieuwerkerk. 44 

245/2. Sections across some volcanoes. 44 

253/1. Bouvetoya and Thompson Island. 48 

12 

vi 
FIGURES (Continued) 

253/2. Tectonic setting of Thompson Island (TH). 48 

TABLES 

218/1. 

218/2. 

218/3. 

Tsunami generated by the 27 August 1883 eruption of Krakatau. 

Tide gage records of Krakatau wave in the Atlantic. 

Waves from Krakatau eruption along northern coast of Java. 

36 

37 

38 

218/4. Records from the second Krakatau eruption tsunami. 39 

vi i 
CATALOG OF SUBMARINE VOLCANOES AND HYDROLOGICAL PHENOMENA 

ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANIC EVENTS 

1500 B.C. TO DECEMBER 31, 1899 

INTRODUCTION 

On the suggestion of Neumann van Padang, the 

International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry 

of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI), has accepted some symbols for the short description of certain volcanic 

phenomena. These symbols are used in this catalog, 

but it was necessary to add a few more to them. The 

symbols used in the present catalog are as follows: 

A 

9 

W 

W 

* 

=p 

Conventional Synibol s 

eruption in the central crater 

erupt ion 

eruption 

eruption 

subglaci a 

n a parasitic crater 

n a radial fissure 

n a regional fissure 

erupt ion 

normal explosions 

eruptions producing nuees ardentes 

lava flow 

eruption in a crater lake 

eruptions in a lava lake 

extrusion of a lava dome 

extrusion of a spine 

phreatic explosions 

mud flows 

submarine eruption, sublake eruption 

volcanic island 

t sunarrli 

New Symbols 

tornadoes, water spouts, high (vertical) 

seiche 

base surge 

submarine lava flow 

submergence or dennihilation of a volcanic 

island (used generally only in cases when exact date is known) 

water columns 

? doubtful event 

S 

At the end of thi? voluilie the reader will find an "List of Locations" in which all the volcanoes 

(including the unnamed ones) are listed in alphabetical order according to the naine of the volcano or, if 

no naine, in terms of the name of the area in which the 

eruptive center can be found. Names and coordinates 

generally adhere to the volumes, Catalogue of Active 

suppleinent to a former item 

Volcanoes of the World Including Solfatara Fields, 

published by IAVCEI ,and to Simkin et. al, (1981). 

At the time of preparation of the present catalog 

the voliiines for Iceland and for the Aleutian -- Alaska 

belt had not been published. The data for these 

regions are from geoscientists Berninghausen, Hantke, 

and Latter as well as Shackelford. In the Catalogue 

of Active Volcanoes each volcano has a serial number 

which gives information about the region, about the 

district within the given region, and about the special serial number of the volcano in question within 

the district. For instance: G,3-9 means Tangkuban 

Prahu (or Parahu), where 6 incans Indonesia and 3 iiieans 

Java. For easy identification of the individual 

volcanoes we adopted the same system in the "Index of 

Localities." But, since the volumes for Iceland and 

for the Aleutian--Alaska belt dere not available, the 

volcanoes belonging to these regions are mentioned 

wi tCloiit seri a1 numbers, as a *e volcanoes not irlenti oned 

in the Catalogue of Active V7lcanoes. Following Simkin (1931), serial numkrs are given in this forii: 

A. EVENTS BEFORE THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA 

0603-09. 

1. Around 1500 B.C. -- Santorini , Aegean Sea 

A tsunalni accompanied the "Minoan" eruption; it 

was due to the collapse of the ancient, central cone of the volcanic group. Devastation along Northern 

Crete, Western Cyprus (Meszaros 1978). the Eastern 

Mediterranean as far as Ugarit (Rhas Sha:nra) on the 

Syrian coast, and along the coast of the present-day 

Tel Aviv and Jaffa. According to calculations 

(Yokoyana 1973) the tsunami arrived at the western 

shore of Anaphi Island from Santorini in 10 min. The 

northern coast of Crete was reached within 25 inin. 

The waves travelled about 70 min to Llestern Cyprus, 

while the Tel Aviv -- Jaffa line was reached after 

about 105 min. A possible maximum height at the source area of 50 to 89 m was deduced -- the most probable height of the tsunami just at Santorini hecoines 

63 m (Yokoyama 1378). The eruption of the volcano was 

(at least partly) submarine and was accompanied by 

base surges as well (Bond and Sparks 1376). 

This tsunami might have had an important historical role since it destroyed the warships of the Minoan 

Empire and thus the ancient inhabitants of Crete could 

not protect theinsel ves against the Achai an warriors 

1 
Fiqure I.-- The site of the qreatest known tsunami 

of volcanic oriqin: the interior of the Santorini caldera, Aeqean Sea. In the foreqround 

part of the island of Thera is visible; in the 

background is a remnant of the ancient volcanic 

mount, Therasia. (P. Hedervari) 

Fiqure 2.-- A part of the very steep wall of the 

Santorini caldera at Thera. (P. Hedervari) 

caldera of Santorini (Seorgalas 1962). See also A.D. 

46, Santorini. 

KF-n*? 

who came froin mainland Greece to conquer thein (Luce 

1969). 

f 5 =?= 

2. About 330 8.C.--Yoschylos, Aegean Sea 

"It is rurnoured, that Chryse Island and the 

volcano i4oschylos near the island of Lemnos were sunk 

by a shock. If it is true, a huge tsunami should have 

been generated" (Galanopoul os 1360, p. 375). 

According to Sieherg (1932) the strong shock had an 

epicentral intensity of 9" or greater and originated 

at 40°N, 25"E. 

5 ?*3? 

3. 264-241 D.C.--Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia 

Retween these yeirs and during tbe first Punic 

'Yar, submarine eruptions occurred in this area (Imho 

1365). iT 

4. 197 8.C.--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

This is the first of three possihle daws for the 

origin of Palaea Kameni Island within the Santorini 

caldera (Georgalas 1962). In that year a great s!lock 

with an epicentral intensity of at least 7" took place 

in and around ahodes (Galanopoulos 1961) that might 

have perhaps been associated with this eruption. See, 

however, A.D. 46, Santorini as well. Strabo states 

that the Island of Hiera was formed during an oiitburst 

that was accompanied by "flames" (Georgalas 1962). 

xp*? 

5. 194 0.C.--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

This is the second possible date among three for 

the origin of the Island of Palaea Kameni within the 

4 

0 

Fiqure 3.-- Fresh lavas on Nea Kainen 

within the Santorini caldera. In 

ground the caldera wall of Thera 

he seen. (P. Hedervari) 

J 

Is1 and 

the hacksland can 

I. h 

Fiqure 4.-- The main crater of Nea Karneni 

volcano. (P. Hedervari) 

2 
6. 183 B.C.--Vulcanello, Lipari Islands 

This was probably a submarine eruption. MacDonald 

(1972) has mentioned only normal explosions and lava 

flows from the central crater. According to Imbo 

(1965), during the activity of Vulcano the craters of 

Forgia Vecchia and Vulcanello were formed. 

7. About 150 B.C.--Taupo Volcanic Centre, Central 

North Island, New Zealand 

There are some indications that about 23-25 

km3 of tephra were formed during a phase of the great 

cycle of eruptions. Two submarine eruptions also took 

place (Cole and Nairn 1974). Note added in proof: 

Walker (Jour. of Volc. and Geotherm. Res., 8, 69-94, 

1980) has d 

8. 

Submar 

ted this eruption at about A.D.. 31. 

K? 

91 B.C.--Vulcanello (? or Vulcano?), 

Lipari Islands 

ne eruption? (Imbo 1965). 

K? 

B. EVENTS AFTER THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA 

9. A.D. 19--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

The Island Thia was formed by the effusion of 

lavas in the caldera of Santorini (Georgalas 1962). 

;II * 

10. 46--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

This is the third (and usually accepted) date for 

the origin of Palaea Kameni Island within the large 

caldera. The island was formed by repeated lava effusions (Georgalas 1962). An earthquake with an epicentral intensity greater than 7" triggered an 

explosion within the caldera. The shock was felt on 

Crete. It was followed by a tsunami that preceded 

the withdrawal of water some 100 m (Galanopoulos 

1960). Epicentral coordinates: 36.5"N, 25.5"E 

(Sieberg 1932). xF-a*~ 

11. 79 August 24--Vesuvius, Italy 

This event is known as the "Pompeian" eruption. A 

tsunami was mentioned by Pliny the Younger. The exact 

date of the outbreak is uncertain. Giorgetti and 

Iaccarino (1971) gave 79 November 24 as the date of 

the "explosion of Vesuvio" and said that it was preceded by a very strong, 10" shock on November 23 that 

can be regarded as a direct trigger. Its epicenter 

was almost exactly the volcano itself (epicentral 

coordinates: 40°48'N, 14"27'E--in contrast the coordinates of Vesuvius are: 40"49'17"N, 14'25'34"E). 

Judging from the degree of intensity, it appears to 

have been a tectonic shock rather than a volcanic one 

3 

of A or B type. For the date of eruption in question, 

Imbo (1966) gave "79 (October 26 ?I". 

t" 

12. 416--Krakatau (?I, Sunda Strait 

According to Berninghausen (19691, large destructive waves accompanied a volcanic eruption. The waves 

were observed at Java, Sumatra, and in Selat Sunda 

(06"00'S, 105"45'E). 

Note: Concerning this eruption and tsunami we 

have the following information from Shackel ford 

(1980). "It was likely that Krakatau was the site of 

the eruption, as indicated to me by Gustave Hantke 

about a year ago. According to him, this tremendous 

eruption was from the volcanoes of Capi, Karakoto 

(probably = Krakatau I, Batuwara and Kamul a. Hantke' s 

data were from some old sources, and neither of us are 

aware of any volcanoes with those names, so we felt 

that it was likely to be Krakatau or possibly a South 

Sumatran volcano. However, the fact that a tsunami 

accompanied the eruption would seem to suggest to ine a 

submarine or island volcano, of which only Krakatau 

fits the description of known active volcanoes." In 

favor of this opinion it can be mentioned that 

Krakatau lies in Selat Sunda (this is the Indonesian 

name of the Sunda Strait) in which the waves were 

observed. 

- 

t" 

13. 726--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

Submarine activity occurred within the caldera. 

A great quantity of pumice was erupted. An island was 

formed from' the effused lava that united the eruption 

center with Hiera Island, but it disappeared at a 

later tiine. Another possibility is that the new 

island was formed on the northern side of Palaea 

Kameni with which it finally was united (Ceorqalas 

1962). 

14. 765 July or 766 July--Unknown volcano 

(Sakura-zima?) , Kyusyu 

Either a tsunami or a mudflow took place. The 

phenomenon has been observed at Osumi Island or Osumi 

peninsula (Iida et al. 1972). Note: The event was 

associated with a volcanic erupti%n, Kuno (1962) mentioned an outbreak of Sakura-zima in the year 766, and 

according to him a new island was born. In contrast, 

Iida et a1 (1972) said that an island sank. We 

suggest the volcano in question was really Sakurazima, because this inount is situated just in front of 

Osumi Island where the tsunami (or a mudflow into the 

sea) was reported." Therefore, 766 appears to be more 

probable than 765. Sapper (1927) also gave 766, but 

he listed no details. 

t K? * ?A37 "? 

15. 10th century--Crater Lake, Oregon 

After the paroxysmal eruption of Mount Mazama 

about 5000 B.C., when 30 km3 of tephra were injected 

and a collapse-caldera was formed, a new island 

emerged from the bottom of the caldera-lake in the 
Augusrins, Toulouse. 

Figure ll/l.-- In 1813, French neoclassic Painter Pierre-Henri de 

Valenciennes, followinq Plinv the Younqer's account of his uncle's 

death, painted The Erup 

now in the Musee des Au 

10th century A.D. This is now known as Wizard Island 

(Kittlenan 1979). 

vt * 

I I 

Fiqure 15/1.-- !.lizard Island within the caldera of Mount Mazama (Crater Lake, Oreqon). 

After Cotton. 

16. 1050--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

Heck (1947) has reported a small seismic sea 

wave that was associated with a submarine eruption of 

(or near) Santorini. No eruption of this volcano is 

mentioned by Georgal as (1962 1, or by Gal anopoul os 

(1960, 1961); therefore, the event is doubtful. See 

item 265. 

?Tt ?"? 

17. 1226, winter--Eldey, Iceland 

A submarine eruption and ash fall occurred 

(Berninghausen 1964). 

Tt 

18. 1231--El dey , Iceland 

ash fa1 1 took place (Berninghausen 1964). 

A submarine eruption accompanied by sand fall or 

Xt 

19. 1238--Eldey, Iceland 

Submarine activity has been reported, but no 

details are available (Berninghausen 1964). 

?T 

20. 1240--Eldey, Iceland 

This was a submaritie eruption, but no additional 

data are available (Berninghausen 1964). 

?T 

4 
21. 1332--Unnamed volcano, Iceland 

Approximate location: 67"10'N, 25'15'W. A suhmarine eruption was noted, but no further data are 

available (Rerninghausen 1964). 

7K 

22. 1372--Unnamed volcano, Icel and 

Approximate location: 66"40'M, 18"05'W 

(MacDona1 d 1972) or 6G037'N, 17"48'W (Berninghausen 

1964). A submarine eruption, accompanied by the 

wergence of a temporary island, was recorded. 

T* 

23. 1421 May 14--0-sima, Izu-Flarina Is1 ands 

Submarine outburst from a crater just southeast 

of Sasikizi, a village on the southern shore of 0-sima 

Island, occurred (Kuno 1962). 

Submar 

25. 

The vo 

Iceland and 

24. 1422-41 dey , Icel and 

ne, new island (Rerninghausen 1964). 

fi* 

1456--Unnamed volcano, Icel and 

can0 in question may be located between 

Greenland (van Padang et al. 1967). Its 

location is between 65.5 and 66.5"N, 25.5 and 30"W 

(van Padang et al. 1967); 66"N (approximately), 

29"34'W (MacDonald 1972); 67"10'N(?), 25"15'W(?) ,~ . . .a,-"\ . . . , . , . . __ . _I.. .I (Uerningtlausen lYb4). An isiana is snuwn uri d Lndr-1 

published in 1507 and it is remarked that the island 

was consumed hy fire in 1456. According to 

Rerninghausen (19641, a temporary island was formed on 

the site of the submarine eruption point. 

7i* 

26. 1543--Subinarine volcano northwest of 

Kita-Iwo-zima, Izu-Mariana Islands 

No details are known (Kuno 1962). Sapper (1927) 

has also mentioned an eruption here. 

li 

27. 1570 (or 1573?)--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

The Island of Mikra Kameni originated froin lava 

effusions. The activity was accormpanied by strong 

explosive phenomena (Georgalas 1962). No data about 

a tsunami are avail ah1 e (Gal anopoul os 1960). 

7it p* 

28. 1583--Eldey, Iceland 

Submarine activity occurred, but no details are 

available (Berninghausen 1964). 

7i 

Figure 28/1.-- Islands of the Reykjanes Peninsula on 

bishop G. Thorlakssons'nap printed in 1590, including Eldey. Courtesy of Museum of Natural History, 

Icel and. 

with a Richter magnitude (M) of 6.9 took place near 

the town of Oita with an epicentral location of 

33.3"N, 131.7"E. Concerning this event the author has 

received a Japanese text and chart froln Sato (19771, 

the source of which is unknown. The text has hem 

translated by Eva Szenasi (1979). Herewith wc puhlish 

the English version of the original Japanese text: 

During the regime of the 107th 

ruler [of Japan], Emperor Goyozri 

[1586-1611] and in the second part 

of his-reining and in the first 

year of the Long Gladness [in 15961 

an earthquake took place on Kyiisyu 

Island, near the town of Oita,-- 

and the island known as Gri ti-jima 

sunk [?I (or) was covered by lava 

[?I. 

According to a note by Sato, in the next year another 

nearby i sl and, Hi sami tsu- jima, a1 so disappeared. 

According to the information the author has 

received froin Szenasi, the ancient Japanese text is 

rather ambiguous; therefore, it is not clear whether 

there was any lava flow. It must be noted, howpver, 

that the only volcano in the near environs of the 

Reppu Ray, where the two islands disappeared, is 

Turunii. Kuno (1962) has imentioncd only one 

questionable eruption of this imount, on 687 March 4. 

No remarks are inade concerning any activity in and 

about 1596. Therefore the volcanic relation of the 

earthquake in quertion and that of the disappearance 

of the two islands is doubtful. It is unlikely-- 

although not impossible--that preceding, during, or 

following the shock there were lava flows as well. 

Considering this possibility, which cannot he 

excluded, we felt it necessary to inention these 

strange and interestinq events in this cataloq. 

29. 15q6 September 4--Turumi (?I, Kyusyu 

According to Usami (19661, on this day a shock 
30. 1606 January 23--Hatizyo-zima ldi si-yama, 

Izu-i4ariana Islands 

A submarine eruption from a parasitic crater 

that formed an island near Hatizyo-zima has been 

'-ecorded. The place cannot be located now exactly, 

however (Kuno 1962). It is likely, although not certain, that a smaller tsunami was associated with this 

eruption. The waves were observed around Hachijo 

Island of the Izu-group (Iida et al. 1972). 

07T*%? 

31. 1627 September--Caraballos (?), North Luzon, 

Philippine Islands 

In this month an earthquake took place at 16'N, 

131"E (on mainland) and a tsunami inundated the shore 

as far as 5 km inland. Trees were uprooted. Russel 

(1888) has mentioned an eruption of Caraballos, North 

Luzon, for the same year, and Lamb (1970) has repeated 

this. Volcano Caraballos, however, is not treated by 

Sapper (1927) or by Neumann van Padang (1953). This 

volcano is not indicated in the genera! map "Volcanoes 

of the World" (Morris et al. 1979) either. The 

volcanic nature of the tsunami is thus extremely 

doubtful. Note added in proof: A thermal feature of 

Canlaon (strato volcano) is nentioned by Simkin et al. 

in Volcanoes of the World (Smithsonian -Institution 

1981~.---f6<-6~%-6f 'ftie-feifure in question i s Carabao 

Killer. Coordinates are 10.41' N, 123.13' E. 

?" 

32. 1632--Giul ia-Ferdinandeo Bank (Phlegraean 

Fields of the) Sicily Sea 

This was probably the first known eruption of 

this volcanic center (Imbo 1965). 

T 

33. 1638 July 3 - 23--!Jnnained submarine volcano, 

Azores 

Approximate location: 37'52'N, 25'43'W. An 

ephemeral island was built, having an altitude of 100 

rn (Neuinann van 2adang et al. 1967). 

= ?7Tf * 

34. 1640 July 31--Komaga-take, Hokkaido 

A very strong, explosive eruption with great ashfall occurred. The seismic sea wave killed about 700 

persons (Kuno 1962, Heck 1947). Twenty houses were 

washed away. The tsunami (with a magnitude of 1 and 

energy of ergs) coincided in time with the start 

of the eruption. The generating area was Uchiura Bay 

(Iida et al. 1972). In the Hokkaido-Funkawan area an 

earthquake took place on the same day (Usami 1966). 

The total amount of tephra is estimated to be more 

than 1 km3 (Sapper 1927). 

Ot" 

35. 1650 September 26 - December 6--Santorini, 

A terrific eruption occurred at Cape Coluabo. A 

new island formed that was destroyed by wave erosion. 

Aegean Sea 

The remaining Columbo Bank is a volcanic dome; its 

bdSe is at a depth of 300 m and its top at 19 m belovl 

sea level. The eruption was preceded by a strong 

shock, (d = 0" at the epicenter [36.5"N, 25.5"E; 

Gal anopoul os 19611), and the quake was immediately 

followed by a devastating seismic sea wave. The first 

sign of the arrival of the tsunami was the withdrawal 

of the sea. On Sikinos Island the water receded 100 m 

or more from the shore, and on 10s the height of the 

waves was 16 m. In the harbor of Heraklion (Crete) 

rovlboats sank, and at Kea Island a ship was thrown 

upon the shore. At Patmos the water rose on the east 

coast of the island to a height of about 30 m and on 

the west coast it reached a height of 50 m 

(Galanopoulos 1960). According to these figures it 

was one of the greatest tsunamis ever observed, and it 

was particularly powerful as far as tsunamis of volcanic origin are concerned. 

We must make a remark here regarding the 

acoustic phenomenon that accompanied the submarine 

outbreak on the Columbo Bank, some 16 km northeast of 

the Kameni Islands of the Santorini caldera. The 

following considerations are partly based on a personal communication of I. Nagy-Domokos of Budapest in 

1978 and Dartlv on a book written by Professor A. 

__ Note: 

Rethly: Meteorological Events and Elementary 

Calamities in un ar u to 7lRl-CEadXc u ishing 

House, BudFeW6d.- k a1 1 1 i kelPh::d the 

following are quite unknown in English literature. 

According to these sources, at Marosvasarhely (now 

known as Tirgu Mures, Rumania), a town in Translvania, a strange loud noise--like the roar of a 

cannon--was heard on the day the eruption in question 

began. On the same day a similar loud noise was 

observed on Cyprus Island. Great masses of floating 

pumice were seen on the water and pumice was found on 

many places around the seashore of the islands of the 

eastern Mediterranean. The distance between Santorini 

and the westernmost part of Cyprus is about 650 km, 

and the distance from Santorini to Plarosvasarhely is 

some 1120 km. It is very remarkable that the detonation was heard over such a great distance! 

3 6. 1664- -0k i nawa -Tor i -si ma ( or Ry u kyu-To r i si ma , Ryukyu Is1 ands 

This volcano should not be confused with Tori-sima 

of the Izu-Mariana Islands. In 1664 a submarine eruption took place, accompanied by a tsunami that damaged 

many houses (Iida et al. 1972). An earthquake was 

also observed (Usami 1966). Tsunami magnitude: l? 

7TS 

37. 1672(?)--Submarine volcano near Smith Rock, 

Izu-Mariana Islands 

An eruption took place at 31°35'N, 140"15'E. No 

details are known (Kuno 1972). 

38. 1673 May 20--Gamkonora, Halinahera 

A strong explosive eruption from the main crater 

was recorded. Many casualties were noted (Neumann van 

Padang 1951), and a moderate seismic sea wave 

(magnitude: I?) accompanied the event (Berninghausen 

6 
1969) that was observed first on Halmahera Island 

(Iida et al. 1972). 

Ot" 

39. 1673 August 12--Ternate Peak, Halmahera 

An explosive outbreak from the central crater 

took place, and a sea wave of considerable force was 

recorded (Heck 1947). The generating area was the 

Molucca Passage (magnitude: l?), and the place of 

observation was Ternak Island, Indonesia (Iida et al. 

1972). Note: The almost simultaneous eruption of 

these twoneighboring volcanoes is very remarkable. 

Gamkonora had been dormant since 1564 or 1565, and 

Ternate's last eruption had taken place in June 1659. 

The simultaneous awakening may suggest the effect of 

a regional crustal stress. Similar relationships between neighboring volcanoes have been observed in 

many cases and their renewed activities are often 

preceded, accompanied, and/or followed by strong tectonic earthquakes in their vicinity, which also 

suggest the existence of such regional stress. 

Ot" 

40. 1674 February 17--Amboina (???), Moluccas 

The name "Amboina" is often cited by Lamb (1970). 

As a matter of fact, Amboina (Ambon) is the name of a 

town on a sinal1 island just south of the western part 

of Seram (Ceram) Island, at 3"42'S, 128"19'E. No 

volcano is known in this region by the same name. 

This area is very far from the volcanic belt. No mention is made of a volcano in the available catalogs. 

Amboina ("Amboyna") was originally mentioned on a few 

occasions by Russel (1888) as an active center of 

Dresent-dav volcanism. The place in question is shown r ~~ 

again as a volcano in the 'Times Atlas of the World 

(Lamb, personal communicat%r -m9]- 

3"41'S. 128'10'E. However. the most up-to-date volca- - ~. 1- 

nological map (Morris et 'al. 1979) doesn't indicate 

any volcano in this region. Therefore, it is very 

likely that all the seismic sea waves that were 

observed here were the consequences of tectonic earthquakes and not of submarine or subaerial volcanic 

manifestations. Hence all the items concerning the 

alleged "Amboina volcano" will be Omitted from our 

c atal og . 

?" 

41. 1682 December 13--Unnamed submarine volcano, 

Azores 

Approximate mean position: 37'52". 25'43'W. 

Explosions under the sea led to the formation of large 

pumice masses that were floating for several days 

(Neumann van Padang et al. 1967). 

= ?7TT 

42. 1693 Feb. 13 Aug.--Hekla, Iceland 

Outbreaks froin four craters were recorded. 

Large blocks were ejected and ash fell in Norway and 

Scotland. An earthquake and a tsunami along the adjacent coast of Iceland accompanied the eruption 

(Berninghausen 1964, 1968; Thorarinsson 1970). 

t" 

43. 

bank 

1965 

1701 (?)--Giul ia-Ferdinandeo aank (Phelgraean 

Rn eruption might have caused emergence of a 

but the island had only an ephemeral life (Imbo 

Fields of the) Sicily Sea 

7T *A3 

44. 1703 December 30 (or December 31)--O-sima, 

Izu-Mariana Islands 

A great tsunami, having a height of 6-9 m, 

followed a strong shock. The shock had a magnitude of 

3.2 and was located at 34.7"N, 139.R"E (Iida et al. 

1972). Sapper (1927) has mentioned an eruption of 0- 

sima, but it is not treated by Kuno (1962); thus it is 

doubtful. 

The tsunami is assigned a magnitude of 4 by Iida 

et a1 . (1972). Calculating from the expression 

log Et = 21.4 + 0.6 m, 

where in is the tsunami magnitude, we obtain 

Et = 6.31 x loz3 ergs 

for the energy of the tsunami. The earthquake energy-- 

for the Richter magnitude M = 8.2--can be obtained 

from the formula: 

log E = 11.8 + 1.5 M, 

where 

E = 12.59 x lOZ3 ergs. 

That is, the energy of this tsunami was almost exactly 

ha1 f of the earthquake energy. 

IJote: If, however, an eruption of 0-sina really 

occurreir; it appears 1 i kely that the earthquake had 

initiated (triggered) the outbreak and caused a 

tsunami at the same time. Thus the eruption and the 

seismic sea waves were indirectly correlated with one 

another. Altogether four waves were counted and they 

caused terrible damage. The south part of the 

Roso-Hanto peninsula was depressed and 1,020 houses 

were destroyed here. Some 125 persons lost their 

lives. At IZU Island 18 boats and 58 houses were 

destroyed and 56 people died. (Sapper 1927; Heck 

1947; Iida et al. 1972; Usami 1966). 

t ?"' 

45. 1707 May 23 - 1711 September 11--Santorini, 

Nea Kameni Island was formed within the large 

caldera and between the two older islands, Palaea and 

Mikra Kamenis (Georgalas 1962). 

;lr fv 

Aegean Sea 

46. 1707 October 18--Fuji-yama (?I, Honsyu 

4 very severe (M 8.4) tectonic earthquake took 

place at 33.2" N, 135.9' E (Usami 1966). The accoinpanying tsunami (magnitude: 4.8) reached the height 

of 11.5 m. Many thousands of houses were destroyed by 

the waves and about 30,000 persons died (Iida et al. 

1972). In Susaki, Tosa, there were 12 waves, one 

after the other; at Kochi the water redched several 

kilometers inland (Hec 1947). The energy of the tsunami was 1.91 x 10 25 ergs, and the energy of the 

7 
earthquake was 2.51 x loz4 ergs. 

Note: The last known eruption of Fuji-yama commenczn December 16, 1707 and lasted to the end of 

December 1707. In all likelihood the eruption had 

been triggered by the tectonic shock in question 

(Nakamura 1975; Hedervari 1979) and thus the tsunami 

was indirectly correlated with this eruption. On 

December 16, 1707, a tectonic shock was felt in Suruga 

Totomi district (Usami 1966). This might have been a 

direct triggering earthquake. 

?" 

47. 1707?- -Ni shi -yama , Izu-Mari ana I sl ands 

A submarine eruption took place at 38"08'N, 

139'46' E (MacDonald 1972). 

of9x 

48. 1713--Unnamed submarine volcano, Azores 

Approximate location: 37'52'N, 25'43'W. A 

seismic swarm occurred but no other data are known. 

The eruption is therefore doubtful (Neumann van Padang 

et al. 1967). 

K? 

49. 1716 September 24 - 27--Taal, Philippine 

I sl ands 

An outbreak from the crater lake in a radial 

fissure was observed and arable lands were 

destroyed. Seismic waves were reported at first 

(Neiimann van Padang 1953); however, Rerninghausen 

(1969) is of the opinion that it was a seiche rather 

than a tsunami. The wave engulfed a strip of shore 

more than 16.7 m wide. 

t =e50. 1716--0-sima, Izu-Marina Islands 

Sapper (1927) has mentioned a shock and a tsunami, and the seismic wave is mentioned by Heck 

(19471, too. However, the eruption is doubtful as it 

is not treated in the Catalogue of Active Volcanoes of 

- the ____ World (Kuno 1962). In adrtjon, thGzF3 

the waves is also doubtful: A "report by Sapper, copied 

by Heck, of a tsunami in 1716 may have been based on a 

Rikuzen record of a tsunami occurring during the Kyoho 

era (1716-17351, probably the Chile tsunami arriving 

1730 July 9. How this could be attributed to Oshima 

is not known." 

?"? 

51. 1718 February l-l?--Pico, Azores 

There was a questionable submarine eruption in 

the company of an eruption from a parasitic crater. 

Lava flows were also reported (Neumann van Padang 

et al. 1967) 

52. 1720 December 8 - end of December--Don Joao de 

Castro Bank, Azores 

A submarine outburst and an ephemeral island 

were reported (van Padang et al. 1967). At present in 

place of the former island there is a shoal with a 

diameter of 1,500 m and a minimum depth of 14 m. In 

another work Neumann van Padang (1938) gives 1720 August 

the birth-date of the island, which was formed by 

tuff. 

O?T'4" 

53. 1731--Tall, Philippine Islands 

Eruption from the central crater. New island 

(Neumann van Padang 1953)? 

?=*? 

54. 1737 October 17--Avachinsky, Kamchatka 

A great explosive eruption that lasted only 24 

hours occurred. There were earthquakes; the third 

shock was accompanied by a very high tsunami; and the 

inaximum height of the waves has been previously estimated to be about 60-63 m. Eecent estimations, 

however, give 30 m as a probable value. Houses and 

boats were lost, and many people died (Vlodavetz and 

Piip 1959, Sapper 1927, Iida et al. 1972). The 

seismic sea wave in question is known as "Cape Lopatka 

tsunami" and might have had a tsunami magnitude of 5 

on Iida's scale. (Energy: 2.51 x loz4 ergs). Heck 

(1947) gave the date erroneously as 1737 October 6. 

Sapper (1927) has lnentioned that a jokulhlaup 

(glacier-burst) also occurred. Note: It is 

noteworthy that at this time another volcano of 

Kamchatka, namely K1 iuchevskoi, also erupted between 

1737 October 6 and October 14 (Sapper 1927), but as 

this volcano is situated rather far from Cape Lopatka 

it probably had nothing to do with the tsunami. It 

appears likely that the Cape Lopatka tsunami might 

have been only indirectly correlated with the 

Avachinsky eruption; in all probability the outburst 

of this volcano was initiated (triggered) by a tectonic shock that caused a tsunami at the same time. 

f "A 

55. 1741 August 23 - 29--0sima-O-sima, 

Hokkaido 

A very powerful eruption, great ash fall, and 

darkness occurred during the daytime. The tsunami 

that took place during the second paroxysm (August 29) 

killed 1,467 persons and washed away 729 houses on the 

western coast of 0-sima peninsula, and 8 persons and 

82 houses were lost on the coast of northern Honsyu. 

The seismic sea wave was probably caused by a submarine dislocation near the volcano (Kuno 1962, Iida 

et al. 1972). USami (1966) has mentioned 1741 August 

28 as the date of the earthquake that occurred at 

41.5"N, 139.4"E, with a Richter magnitude of 6.9. 

Note that the coordinates of the volcano are 41'30" 

and 139'22'E. The vol me of pumice fall and flow is 

Note: 

Accepting this value for the tephra and applying; 

expression 

estimated to be 1.9 km Y (Katsui et al. 1978). 

log v 4. 4.95 M= 

e 1 .5936957 (Hedervari 1963) 

8 
where V is the volume calculated im m3 and Me the 

eruption magnitude, we get for Me the value of 8.93. 

As 

log E, = 11.0 + 1.6 Me, 

where E, is the energy of the tephra eruption (we mean 

the ___ thermal energy), the resul t will be: 

E, = 1.94 x loz5 ergs. 

The energy of the M = 6.9 shock, calculated from the 

formula 

log E = 11.0 + 1.6 M 

is 

E = 1.09 x 1024 ergs, 

which is only a very smalhproportion of the released 

thermal energy. The tsunami magnitude of the seismic 

sea wave was assigned as 3.0 (Iida et al. 19721, which 

corresponds to a tsunami energy of 1.6 x ergs. As 

i t can be seen: 

where Et, is calculated tsunami energy; therefore, one 

or less lens-shaped cavity filled with rock-melts and 

gases that is found just beneath the volcano at a 

normal depth of only a few kilometers. It should not 

be confused with the primary magma chamber; that is, 

the domain of fresh magma generation that is at a 

depth of many tens or one or Inore hundreds of 

ki 1 ometers beneath the surface. 

It is noteworthy, furthermore, that this extraordinarily great eruption belonged to class VI1 of Tsuya 

for which the thermal eruption magnitude is 9.0625 

- +0.3125 (Hedervari 1963). 

O?t" 

56. 1749 August 11 (or August 6?)--Taal, 

Philippine Islands 

An eruption took place in the crater lake, from 

the central vent, and at the same time from a 

parasitic crater. Neumann van Padang said that 

destruction of arable lands also occurred. A tsunami 

is indicated in this volume of the Catalop_u_e_, but the 

event is not mentioned by Berni nghauT6n71969). 

oot-42 

57. 1754 Flay 13 - December 4--Taal, 

Philippine Is1 ands 

An outbreak was noted in the crater lake, from 

the central vent, and also from a parasitic one. 

Destruction of arable lands and a tsunami occurred 

(Neumann van Padang 1953). Berninghausen (1969) has 

mentioned a lake seiche rather than a true tsunami. 

i 

Figure 57/1.-- Development of a base surge on September 28, 1965, in the crater lake of Taal 

volcano, Philippine Islands. 

The wave, together with the volcanic ejecta (base 

surge?) destroyed the nearby towns or villages (Taal, 

Lipa, Sala, and Tanuan) and washed out the road on the 

west side of the lake, This event took place on 

Nove!nber 28, 1754. See figs. 57/1 and 5712. 

0 0 f -a- 5 7 +=t=? 

58. 1757--North of Ceylon, near 

Pondi cherry, Indi a 

An island made of volcanic scoria has emerged 

from the sea at approximately 12"N, 80"E (Gutenberg 

and Richter 1954). This was also mentioned by Sapper 

(1927) and Neumann van Padang (1938). According to 

Neumann van Padang the coordinates were: 11"45'N, 

80"45'E. No data is available about the disappearance 

of this tiny island, which remains nameless. 

T* 

59. 1757--Azores 

According to Neumann van Padany (1938), 18 
62. 1761 May 3--Unnamed submarine vol cano, 

equatorial Atlantic 

A small "island"--as a matter of fact a mass of 

floating pumice--was seen at 0"23'S, 19"lO'W (Neumann 

van Padang et al. 1967). 

T 

Figure 57/2.-- The eruption cloud, with a form similar 

to that of atomic blasts. after spread-out of the 

base surge, Taal Volcano. 

islands came into being during this year. 

T* 

60. 1750--Konjushi, Aleutian Islands 

This volcano is situated at 52"07'N, 175OW 

(Neunann van Padang 1938) and forms a little island. 

the activity in 1750 is doubtful (Latter 1979; 

Shackel ford 1980). 

*? 

61. 1761 April 17 - 18(?)--Santa Barbara 

(Terceira), Azores 

Huge explosions that emitted water jets, gases, 

and black cinder took place (van Padang et al. 1967). 

Note: According to Figure 12 of the Catalogue of 

Active Volcanoes, Part XXI, the 1761p-fioG 

Te*siox--6czrred at three different localities 

along a line and within a distance of 3 kin. 

63. 1763 September 1--(Probably) Ternate Peak, 

Halmahera 

A wave accompanied an eruption. The sea fell 

9.1 m and then rose suddenly (Heck 1947, Berninghausen 1969). Lamb (1970) gave the following area as 

the place of the volcano in question: Z0N-3"S, 

125"E-131°E. In this region only the Ternate erupted 

in 1763. 

5 

64. 1768--Bogoslof, Aleutian Islands 

The first report and first appearance of Ship 

Rock or Sail Rock was noted (Bullard 1968, Latter 

1979). Its actual appearance may be much earlier. 

TT * 

65. 1773 October--Submarine volcano west of Ibugos, 

i sl ands north of Luzon, Phi 1 i ppi nes 

No details (Neumann van Padang 1953). Doubtful. 

66. 

No 

1953). 

T? 

1773 (?)--Didicas Rocks, islands north of 

details (van Reminelen 1970, Neumann van Padang 

Doubtful. 

Luzon, Philippine Islands 

T? 

67. 1779 November - 1782 January 18--Sakura-zima, 

Kyusyu 

A great explosive eruption has been noted from a 

parasitic crater. According to Neumann van Padang 

(1938), between 1780 September 9 and 1782 January 28, 

9 islands were formed in the northeast coast of the 

volcanic island by submarine lava eruptions and also 

by the upheaval of the sea bottom. From 1779 until 

early 1782, further submarine outbreaks took place in 

the same region, accompanied by tsunamis. A great 

seismic sea wave was reported in 1779 (Kuno 1962). 

For other greater tsunamis see the 1ater.items (Iida 

et al. 1972). 

68. 1780 September g--Sakura-zima, Kyusyu 

Further eruption within the sequence, acccinpanied 

by an earthquake (Usami 1966) and seismic sea wave of 

magnitude 0, occurred (Iida et al. 1972). Waves up to 

6 m were observed. 

at 5 

10 
Figure 73/1.-- The end of Captain Mindelbergs' report 

to the Danish Government on the submarine eruption 

off Reykjaness in 1783, with a sketch of Njey. 

Courtesy of the Icelandic National Archives and 

Museum of Natural History, Iceland. 

Figure 73/2.-- Captain P. Pedersens' sketch of Nyey. 

Courtesy of the Icelandic National Archive5 dnd 

- Museum of Natural History, Iceland. 

69. 1780 October 31--Sakura-zima, Kyusyu 

An outbreak, accompanied by an earthquake 

(Usami 1966) and tsunami of magnitude 0 (Iida et al. 

1972 1, were observed. 

of K! 

70. 1780 (?)--Submarine volcano near Kita-Iwo-zima, 

No details (Kuno 1962). Doubtful. 

Izu-Mariana Islands 

K? 

71. 1781 April 11--Sakura-zima, Kyusyu 

The eruption on this day was accompanied by a 

tsunami of magnitude 1 and a mudflow (Iida et al. 

1972). Usami (1966) has mentioned an earthquake 

Three boats were overturned and 15 people weir 

drowned by the tsunami. 

00 t 

72. 1781--Unnamed volcano, Tonga Volcanic Group 

It is located at 20°22'S, 175"18'W, and is probably identical with Fonua Fo'ou (synonym of Falcon 

Figure 73/3.-- Bathymetric map of the area around 

Eldey (Eldeyjarbodi) where submarine eruptions 

occurred in 1783 and 1830 and probably many other 

times. Icelandic Hydrographic Service, courtesy 

of the Museum of Natural History, Iceland. 

Island). A submarine eruption was noted near Culebras 

Bank (another synonym for the same island). No 

further data are available (Richard 1962). The event 

is doubtful. It is noteworthy, however, that the 

Catalogue of Active Volcanoes mentioned an eruption of 

Falcon Island in the same year, due to which a new 

island was--allegedly--formed. We interpret these two 

events to be the same. 

-__ - ___- 

T?*? 

73. 1783 May--El dey, Ice1 and 

An explosive submarine eruption accompanied by 

the birth of a new island known as Nyo or Noyoe (New) 

occurred. A very great quantity of pumice was formed 

(Berninghausen 1964). The new island was located some 

50 kin southwest of the western coast of Iceland. Nyo 

was destroyed by wave erosion in less than a year, 

1 eaving a submerged reef 9-55 m below sea level. The 

floating pumice covered the sea for a distance of 240 

km, greatly impeding the progress of ships in the 

area. It is important to note that the disastrous 

outburst of Laki fissure, 360 km to the east of this 

new island, began about a month later (Dullard 1968). 

___ Note: In the period 1783-1785 not less than 8 volcanoes erupted in and very near Iceland, these events 

were physically related to one another. At least we 

can suppose such a correlation among them on the basis 

of the almost simultaneous activity. The Laki 

fissure-eruption was the greatest lava flow in 

history, producing 12 km-' of rock melts and an additional 2 km3 of tephra. 
Figure 73/4.-- Eruptlons slnce the settlement of Iceland, lncludlng submrrlnr 

events. After S. Thorarinsson. Courtesy of Museum of Natural Hlstory, 

Iceland. 

74. 1783--Unnamed volcano, Iceland 

A submarine eruption took place at 67"10'N, 15"W 

(?), which--allegedly--created a new island of temporary character (Berninghausen 1964). Great ash fall 

at sea was observed to the north and northwest of 

Iceland. The event was a member of the volcanic 

series previously mentioned. 

lTt *? 

75. 1783--Unnamed volcano, Iceland 

Another underwater eruption took place at 66"15'N 

(?), 18"30'W (?I. A temporary island was formed 

(Berninghausen 1964). 

rt * 

76. 1788 July 22 (or July 27)--St. Augustine (?I, 

A1 aska 

According to Sapper (1927) a submarine eruption 

might have taken place--but this is not certain. Cox 

et al. (1976) are of the opinion that the tsunami 

observed at this time was either due to the eruption 

of St. Augustine or to an unknown phenomenon that 

occurred on the continental shelf. Thus the volcanic 

origin of the seismic sea waves is doubtful. 

T'?" 

77. 1790 November (?)--Kilauea, Hawaii 

This eruption was accompanied by a base surge 

that killed many of the natives (Swanson and 

Christiansen 1976). 

1792 April 1--Probably erroneous date. See: 

1792 May 1--Probably erroneous date. See: 1792 

1792 May 21. 

May 21. 

0 =?= 

78. 1792 May 21--Unzen, Kyusyu 

The activity started on 1797 November 13 with 

earthquakes, rumblings, and avalanches. On 1792 

February 10 rock fragments were thrown out. On March 

1 the summit eruption stopped and lava began to flow. 

On March 5 a landslide occurred. On April 21 about 

300 shocks were felt. On May 21 an earthquake with a 

magnitude of 6.4 on the Richter scale occurred at 

32"18'N, 130"18'E, (Usami 1966). Note that the coordinates of the volcano are 32"45'N, 130"18'E. Also on 

this day, the eastern part of Maye-yama (a cone on the 

northeast, near the shore of the sea) collapsed and 

caused an avalanche toward the eastern foot, causing 

more than 15,000 casualties. A tsunami was produced 

by this avalanche and killed 4,300 persons y the 

copst. The avalanche itself, totaling 0.48 km , was 

either caused by an explosion at Maye-yama or by the 

earthquake mentioned above (Kuno 1962). Note: For 

the same event Heck (1947) gave 1792 April =and Iida 

et al. (1972) gave 1792 May 1. Although these dates 

are considered erroneous, both sources mentioned the 
tsunami itself. The maximum height of the waves was 9 

m and the tsunami magnitude is assigned as 2.5 (Iida 

et al. 1972). 

? ? 0 f 09 XvrS 

79. 1792--Unimak, Aleutian Islands 

A tsunami is mentioned by Cox et al. (1976) and 

is attributed to an earthquake and a volcanic eruption 

on Unimak Island (Pogrumnoi?). There are, however, no 

data about eruption of this volcano or other volcanoes 

on Unimak Island from this year (Latter 1979, Hantke 

1979, Shackel ford 1980). In the Aleutian-Alaska belt 

as a whole the following volcanoes showed activity in 

1792: Goreloi, Great Sitkin, Makushin, Cerberus, and 

Semisopochnoi, respectively. If the tsunami is attributed to the eruption a volcano on Unimak Island, 

the volcano in question is unknown. Note: the 

alleged tsunami is not mentioned by Iidaet al. 

(1972); therefore, both the eruption and the seismic 

sea wave are doubtful. 

-.?f? 

80. 1795--Nameless submarine eruption site southeast of Unalaska, Aleutian Islands 

Mentioned by Sapper (1927). No further information is available; therefore, the event is doubtful. 

Note: In the same year a very fearful, paroxysmal 

eruption, accompanied by a jokulhlaup (glacier burst) 

originated at Pogrumnoi volcano on Unimak Island 

(Mercalli 1907, Sapper 1927, Latter 1979). 

T? 

81. 1796 May--Bogoslof, Aleutian Islands 

A violent ash eruption, earthquakes, and the 

birth of Joanna Bogoslova (also known as Ioann 

Bogoslof or Old Bogoslof or Castle Rock) occurred 

(Latter 1979). 

xt * 

82. 1800 June 24 - 25--Unnamed submarine 

volcano, Azores 

The supposedly linear submarine volcano is 

located at 38"30'N, 27'25'W. Vapor jets were seen on 

June 25. The first earthquakes were felt on June 24 

and the series of shocks continued to July 4 (Neuinann 

van Padang et al. 1967). 

=x 

83. 1804--Bogoslof, Aleutian Islands 

Castle Rock originated in May 1796 and rose until 

about 1804 (Latter 1979). It was not destroyed in 

1804; only its growth ended then. 

* 

84. 1805--Near Unmak Island, Aleutian Islands 

Bogoslof--took place in this year (Mercalli 1907). 

An outbreak--probably an eruptive phase of 

No 

further data are available; coordinates were not given 

by Mercalli. 

T*? 

85. 1806--Bogoslof, Aleutian Islands 

Lava erupted on the northern side of Castle Rock 

and flowed into the sea (Latter 19791. Castle Rock 

began to rise again perhaps during this year and 

continued until about 1820. 

T *9 

56. 1811 February 1 - 8--Unnained suhinarine 

volcano, Azores 

Approximate position: 37"52'N, 25'43'W. 

Submarine explosions, no further data (Neumann van 

Padang et a1 . 1967). 

87. 1811 June 14 - 22--Unnamed submarine 

volcano, Azores 

The position of this volcano is the same as the 

one in item 86. An ephemeral island--named Sabrina-- 

came into being, having had a height of 100 m and a 

diawter of 600 m. The dates in the Catalogue 

(Neumann van Padang et al. 1967) are contrafiCfoTy7 

according to the text the island was born in July but 

the list takes it back to June. The latter was 

accepted, hocause t!ii s is mentioned by another 

catalogue as well (Neumann van Padang 1938) 

=?Tf* 

88. 1813 or 1814--Kona Coast, Hawaii 

A tsunami was observed, but the generating area is 

unknown (Iida et al. 1972, Pararas-Carayannis and 

Calebaugh 1977). Note: As the Kona Coast is the 

western part of Hawaithe direction is favorable for 

a tsunami that originated a1 ong the Japan-KurilKamchatka arc. Lamb (1970) mentioned a submarine 

eruption near Kamchatka in 1814 between the latitudes 

50" and 60" N and longitudes 156" and 163" E. Such a 

submarine outbreak can generate a tsunami ; therefore, 

a volcanic origin for the seismic sea wave observed 

along the Kona Coast is not impossible. However, the 

correlation is doubtful. 

iT?% 

89. 1814 March 9--Raoul Island, Kermadec 

Volcanic Group 

Submarine explosion in Denham Bay. A new island 

came into being that, in May, was almost 5 km in circumference. It disappeared in 1854 (Richard 1962). 

xt * 
90. 1814--Bogosl of, A1 eutian Is1 ands 

An eruption has been noted (Latter 1979). 

Xt * 

91. 1814--Nameless volcano near Unalaska Island, 

Aleutian Islands 

According to Mercalli (19071, a new volcanic cone 

(island) was built up from loose materials and it was 

soon destroyed by the sea waves in the Bogoslof group. 

Whether the eruptions mentioned in items 90 and 91 are 

the same or not is not clear. We regarded them as two 

independent events. 

X *A3 

92. 1815 April 5 - 12--Tambora, Lesser 

Sunda Is1 ands 

This eruption was one of the greatest volcanic 

catastrophes in history. It killed 92,000 people; 

some died from the eruption and the tsunami, and some 

died later from starvation and epidemics. 

The activity started as early as 1812 with 

rumblings and the emergence of dense clouds. The new 

cycle of activity began on 1815 April 5, with strong 

detonations and heavy ash fall. The paroxysm (P1 inian 

phase) took place between April 10 and 12. As a consequence, a caldera of collapse origin has been 

formed. The volume of tee ejecta yas estimated 

variously by authors; Neumann van Padang (Personal 

communication) is of the opinion that about 30 

km3 may be the real value. During the paroxysmal 

phase, extraordinarily strong tor_na$eL were formed 

(Lane 1966). Note: The eruption magnitude was 

calculated to be- 6;lO and the corresponding thermal 

energy 1.44 x 1025 ergs (Hedervari 1963). but these 

values were calculated using a conjectured value (86 

km3) for the ejecta. In the cited paper there was a 

printed error: 150 km3 instead of 86. Accepting 30 

km3 as the real value, we calculate the tilemdl energy 

as follows: 

Ee= VrTqJ 

where E, is the released total thermal energy; V = 30 

x 1015 cm3, the volume of ejecta; r = 2.0 g/cm3, the 

mean density of it; T = 800°C, the mean temperature of 

the solid ejecta; q = 0.25 cal/g°C, the specific heat 

of lava; and J = 4.1855 x 107 ergs/cal, the equivalent 

work of heat. Substituting these values, 

E, = 5.02 x 1026 ergs. 

The corresponding eruption magnitude is now 9.81. The 

tsunami magnitude is assigned as 2.O? (with a maximum 

height of 3.6 at Sumbawa and Amboina, Iida et al. 

1972), and this corresponds to an energy of about 4 x 

which is a very small part of the released 

thermal energy and even that of the explosive energy, 

which might have been about 1 percent of E,. Thus the 

island subsided 5-6 m. 

Although April 4 and April 11 were also mentioned 

as the probable dates of the tsunami, generally April 

10 is accepted (Heck 1947, Berninghausen 1969, Iida et 

al. 1972). The eruption was also accompanied by an 

earthquake. 

(Yokoyama 19%-1957) 

93. 1815--Pribilof Isles, Bering Sea 

Northeast of St. George a submarine eruotion 

occurred at approximately 56'41'N, 169OO7'W (Sipper 

1927, Latter 1979). 

X 

94. 1816 December 8--Unnamed submarine volcano, 

equatori a1 At1 antic 

A "bank" was seen at 0°32'S, 17O46'W. It 

extended almost 5 km in an east-west direction and 1.6 

km in a north-south direction (Neumann van Padang et 

al. 1967). 

X 

95. 1818 November 8--Semeru, Java 

Eruption from the central crater and explosions 

characterized the first known activity of this volcano 

(Neumann van Padang 1951). On the same day a great 

tectonic earthquake was felt all over Java that was 

very severe on the eastern part of this island. A 

tsunami was also observed in the Straits of Bali 

(Visser 1922). In all likelihood the earthquake 

triggered both the tsunami and the eruption; thus the 

outbreak and the seismic sea wave were indirectly 

related to one another. It is noteworthy, 

furthermore, that Guntur volcano had erupted a few 

days prior to these events, namely on 1818 October 21. 

Its activity ended on 1818 October 24. 

Of' 

96. 1819--Assongsong, Izu-Mariana Islands 

A tsunami of magnitude 1 was observed at 

Asuncion, Mariana Island. Heck as well as Iida and 

others attribute it to a probable eruption of the 

volcano mentioned (Heck 1947, Iida et al. 1972). The 

eruption, however, has been questioned (Kuno 1962). 

t ?" 

97. 1820--Bogosl of , A1 eutian Is1 ands 

Either a new eruption or only simple fumarolic 

activity occurred. The growth of Castle Rock probably ended in this year (Latter 1979). 

* 

98. 1823 February - July--Kilauea, Hawaii 

Kilauea erupted from the southwest rift zone, 

ac ompanied by a submarine lava flow of about 2.3 

the Kilauea caldera (MacDonald 1955). 

10 fi m3. In June (or July?) a collapse occurred in 

@F 

14 
99. 1824 May 1--Unnamed submarine volcano, 

equatori a1 At1 antic 

The submarine eruption at 7ON, 21°50'W was 

supposed on the basis of hissing noise and bubblings 

of the water, which resembled the ebullition of 

boiling water. As regards the location of the event 

there are different opinions (for details see Neumann 

van Padang et al. 1967), but the eruption itself is 

regarded as certain. 

iT 

100. 1825 September 6--Avachinsky, Kamchatka 

There was a submarine eruption and a new island 

was formed (Richard 1962). 

iT* 

101. 1827 August 9 (or August 10)--Avachinsky, 

lida et al. (1972) have mentioned a tsunami of 

magnitude 1 that, according to their opinion, might 

be related to an eruDtion of the volcano mentioned. 

Kamchatka 

same time earthquakes were felt on the west coast of 

Sicily (Bullard 1968). 

x 

105. 1831 June - July--Giulia Ferdinandeo Bank, 

The following data in the Catalogue of Active 

Volcanoes (Imbo 1965) are not in exact congruence wm 

TliCtXtTullard (1968). For Bullard's data, see: 1831 

June 28, July 10, July 18, July (end of the month), 

4ugust 4, August, September 3 and 10, respectively. 

According to Imbo (1965), the new island reached a 

height of 65 in above sea level. At the end of the 

outburst the perimeter was 3,700 m. The island Jisappeared in late 1831. According to Neumann van 

Padang (1938). the activity started on 1831 June 12 

and lasted until July 25. The diameter of the island 

was about 1,200 m. 

Sicily Sea 

iT t **3 

106. 1831 July 10--6iul ia Ferdinandeo Bank, 

Sicily Sea 

A column of water about 18 m high was seen 

rising from the sea like a waterspout. It had a circumference Of about 700 m and was followed by dense 

steam clouds that rose to a height of some 540 m (Bullard 1g68). 

Viodavetz and Piip (1959) have described an outbreak 

from the central crater of Avachinsky, accompanied by 

lava and lahar On June 27-29 but they gave data for Augustor lo* Itmay be that the difference in the dates is due to the application of the 

old and the new calendars. An earthquake (of tectonic 

origin) was also reported on August 9. q 1 

0 t ,-Ln 9 = 

102. 1827--Unimak, Aleutian Islands 

107. 1831 July 18--Giulia Ferdinandeo Rank, 

Sicily Sea 

A small island was found that was only about 3.6 

According to Heck (1947)' a wave m high and had d crater from which volcanic debris 

and a high column of vapor were ejected. The sea 

around this islet was covered with many dead fishes 

observed at Chernabura Island that was associated with 

an earthquake and the outbreak of a volcano on Unimak 

Island. The event is questioned by Iida et al. and floating cinders (Bullard 1968). 

(1972): Was it really an eruption on Unimak, or was 

caused by Avachinsky (see item 101)? On Unimak Island 

there are the following volcanoes: Pogrumnoi, 

Westdahl , Fisher, Shishaldin, Isanotski , and Roundtop, 

respectively. Of these, Pogrumnoi was intensely 

active in the period 1827-1829, and Shishaldin had an 

explosive outbreak in January 1827 (Latter 1979). Or 

may it be that the activity of Shishaldin and 

Pogrumnoi were confused with one another by the 

observers? 

it confused with the August 9-10 tsunami, that was xt F* 

t =? 

103. 1830 March 11 - May--Eldey, Iceland 

Submarine explosions and smoke were observed 

rising from the sea about 4 km off Eldey 

(Berni nghausen 1964). 

'Irt 

I 

108. 1831 July (end of the month)--Giulia 

Ferdinandeo Bank, Sicily Sea 

The eruption continued with great violence to the 

end of July, when the new island was 15-27 m high and 

had a circumference of some 1900 m (Bullard 1968). 

109. 1831 August 4--Giulia Ferdinandeo Bank, 

Sicily Sea 

The new island has reached the heiqht of 60 m and 

104. 1831 June 28--Giulia Ferdinandeo Bank Graham was about 5,800 m in circumference. Tiis was the maximum height, and thereafter the island began to diminish in size (Bullard 1968). Island), (Phlegraean Fields of the) Sicily Sea 

The start of the underwater eruption was felt on 

a ship that was crossing the area in question. At the 

15 
113. 1833 March 10--Atitlan (?I, Suatemala 110. 1831 Auqust--Giulia Ferdinandeo Bank. 

Sicily Sea 

During this month there was violent agitation of 

the sea at the southwest side of the new island 

that caused dense white columns of steam to be 

emitted, which suggests the existence of a second vent 

under the sea (Bullard 1968). 

T* 

111. 1831 September 3--Giulia Ferdinandeo Bank, 

The new island was 32 m high at most and had a 

Sicily Sea 

circumference of some 960 m (Bullard 1968). 

* 

Figure 111/1.-- Graham Island on 

Sept. 29, 1831. Sketch by M. 

Joinville. Courtesy of Museum 

of Natural History, Iceland. 

112. 1831 October--Giul ia Ferdinandeo Bank, 

At the end of this month the new island was 

destroyed by the action of sea waves. Only a small 

mound of scoria marked the site. The rocky mass was 

composed of lava that had solidified in the throat of 

the submarine volcano. According to Bullard, if such 

a remnant was exposed on land it would be a volcanic 

neck (Bull ard 1968). 

*t3 

Sicily Sea 

A tsunami of magnitude 1 was reported on March 10 

(Iida et al. 19721, and Lamb (1979) has mentioned an 

eruption of Atitlan volcano in this year. The relationship between these events is, however, very 

questionable because we have no further data about the 

outburst--e.g., the month and day are unknown. Can it 

be that this eruption was confused with the activity 

of Atitlan in the year 1837? 

?ST? 

114. 1835 February ZO--Minchinmavida, Osorno, 

and Corcovado, Chile 

The events that took place on this day represent 

one of the most interesting cases regarding the physical relationship between earthquakes, tsunamis, and 

volcanic eruptions. 

The principal seismic event was a very great (M > 

8.0) tec-earthquake in southern Chile, near 

Concepcion, Valdivia, and Chiloe. The last earthquake 

of similar magnitude had taken place on November 19, 

1822 and touched about the same area. Its epicenter 

was near Valparaiso, and the epicenter of the 

1835 shock was situated somewhat southward of this 

point. In the.following we shall try to establish the 

position of the 1835 epicenter--which can be regarded 

as the source area of the big tsunami as well--using 

the description of the earthquake given by Darwin 

(1957). 

In the case of both earthquakes mentioned, elevations of the coast were experienced: In 1822 the 

coast was raised by 1 to 2 m for about 150 km in 

length; in 1835 the elevation reached 2.7 m (Iida et 

al. 1972) and even 3 m at Santa Maria Island (Darwin 

1957). In the course of the next great earthquake of 

the same area, with an epicenter near Valdivia, on 

1837 November 7, the reported uplift was of the same 

order (Richter 1958). On 1836 July 3, another strong 

shock took place in Chile but in the northern part of 

the country, probably near Antofagasta. No data are 

available for crustal deformations on the mainland in 

association with this earthquake. It is noteworthy, 

Figure 110/1.-- Graham Island, or Giulia Ferdinandeo Bank on August 25, 

1831. After Mercalli. 

16 
however, that uplift of the coastal parts and of 

the belt between the axis of the oceanic trench and 

the shoreline is a frequent phenomenon in Chile; 

remarkable uplifts were observed, for example, as a 

result of the great earthquake sequence in 1960 as 

well. The pattern of the deformation was similar in 

each observed case. Such sudden deformations are the 

consequences of the shallow (h 5 70 km) shocks. The 

earthquakes of the years of 1822, 1835, 1836, and 1960 

were accompanied by tsunamis, which are also the 

results (almost exclusively) of shallow shocks that 

occur when sudden, more or less vertical displacements occur on the ocean bottom. 

According to Davison (1936), the 1835 earthquake 

has been felt over a very large area, namely from the 

town of Mendoza to the Juan Fernandez Islands and from 

Chiloe Island to Copiapo. This is an elliptical area, 

the center of which in all likelihood lies near the 

real epicenter and can be found near the common boundary of the Pacific Plate and the South American 

Plate, by and large at the southernmost tip of the 

trench-1 ike ocean deep. 

There were three (or four?) great seismic sea 

waves, followed by numerous smaller ones. Three waves 

swept Concepcion. The first was 8.4 m in height, the 

others were still higher. At Talcahuano Bay--the 

port of Concepcion--the water reached an a1 ti tude of 

15 m and ships sunk here. The Rsunami magnitude was 

estimated to be about 3 (Iida et 1. 19721, and the 

corresponding energy was 1.6 x ergs. According, 

to Kausel (19651, the Richter magnitude of the principal shock might have been 8.418.6 (our calculations 

give 8.2, see later), Ttich means a total energy of 

25.1 x - 50.1 x 10 ergs. 

The tsunami waves were observed as far away as 

Hawaii, and moderate damage was reported from Kauai. 

The average velocity of the waves in the open ocean 

might exceed 650 km/hr, depending on the depth of the 

water. 

It is worthwhile to mention that Sapper (1927) 

has attributed the seismic sea waves to a submarine 

eruption at the Juan Fernandez Islands (see next 

item). This opinion must be rejected, because this 

tsunami was without any doubt of seismic origin and 

similar phenomena were frequently observed in other 

times along the Chilean coast without any submarine 

outbreak. 

Darwin (1957) has written a dramatic account of 

the great earthquake of 1835 that is based for the 

most part on his own experiences (it happened that he 

had been in Valdivia at the time of the shock). 

According to his account (see Adams 1964) the principal shock occurred at half-past eleven o'clock in 

the forenoon of February 20 and *the shaking of the 

ground lasted for about 2 minutes. In Concepcion and 

*Concerning the time of occurrence and the time 

sequence of the main events we have somewhat differing 

data as follows: 

Event Local time of occurrence (start) Tract of time in minutes 

Iida et al. Davi son Darwin Davi son Darwin 

(1936) (1957) (1936) (1957) (1972) 

0.5 g0.5 First 11 hr 40 min 

shock 

principal or 11 hr 30 min 

shock 41.5 min 

Final vibrations 

Second 11 hr 26 min 11 hr 41 min 11 hr 2 

1.5 

2 

First 11 hr 30 min 

tsunami (arrival 1 

Second 11 hr 40 min 

tsunami (arrival 1 - 

The time of 11 hr 30 min probably means the arrival Talcahuano. After an equal interval a great Wave came 

of the first wave at Santa Maria Island and 11 hr 40 very SlOwlY through the Passage between Qiriquina min is probably the arrival of the second wave at Island and the mainland. In a few minutes a second 

Talcahuano. According to Davison, 15 min after the larger wave Swept in, and after it a third and still 

earthquake (which--the first or second shock?) the larger One arrived. All the later sea waves decreased 

sea fetreated about a mile from the coast of in height, but for 3 days following the shock the water 

Talcahuano. According to Davison, 15 min after the ebbed and flowed irregularly--2 or 3 times an hour. 

earthquake (which--the first or second shock?) the For the CalCUlatiOnS, we accepted Iida's data. 

sea retreated about a mile from the coast of 

17 
Talcahuano a1 1 the houses were partly or perfectly 

destroyed and the ruins of Tal cahuano were totally 

washed away by the seismic sea waves. In addition, 70 

villages were demolished. There were large and wide 

ruptures in many places in the soil, with a trend of 

NS or NW-SE. Their width reached 1 m. Numerous 

aftershocks were felt that number at least 300 

during the first 12 days. 

In Concepcion the position of the ruins suggests 

that the shock came from the southwest. The sound of 

the rumbling came from the same direction. On the 

tiny Santa Maria Island--which 1 ies southwest of 

Concepcion at a distance of about 50 km--the elevation of the coast amounted to 3 m, but near Concepcion 

the elevation was as small as 0.6-0.9 m only. From 

these facts one concludes that the epicenter of the 

tnain shock might have been situated southwest of 

'oncepcion, and thus south or southeast ofthe center 

of the ellipse of perceptibility. It should be added 

that the earthquake in question was almost certainly 

of shallow origin. We know only very few examples 

in which intermediate shocks (h = 71-300 km) are 

followed by tsunamis, a1 though some examples-- 

particularly those near Greece--are mentioned in our 

present volume. Deep (h >300 km) earthquakes are 

never accompanied by seismic sea waves. On the other 

hand, for the generation of a tsunami, dip-slip 

faulting is needed (Bolt et al. 1975); that is, dipslip displacement must occur within the hypocenter in 

the moment of the sudden release of the stored seismic 

energy. Strike-sl ip displ acements are never accompanied by seismic sea waves. 

Let us now consider the fact that within the 

oceanic trenches, the first motions have a tensional 

character; that is, not dip-slip (Stauder 1968). 

Owing to the subduction process, dip-sl ip earthquake 

mechanisms are to be expected within the belt lying 

between the conti nentalward slov the trench and 

the volcanic chain that is usually parallel to the 

strike of the oceanic trench. In case of such a displacement in the depth, uplift must occur along the 

oceanic shore, as was frequently observed in Chile 

after great earthquakes. 

Taking into account all the evidence summarized 

above, and--furthermore--considering that the real 

epicenter must be near the center of the area of 

perceptibility, we come to the conclusion that the 

most probable site of the epicenter of the main shock 

in the year of 1835 was a little southwest of Santa 

Maria Island but by no means within the deep oceanic 

trench or beyond (oceanward of) it. The epicenter 

most likely was between the continentalward slope of 

the trench and theore. 

Ue have a1 ready mentioned (see footnote) that, 

according to the data of Iida et al. (19721, the first 

tsunami has reached the coast of Santa Maria Island 

within a very short time--only about 4 min after the 

occurrence of the main shock. Using a depth contour 

map of the area southwest of Concepcion, we found 

that the median depth of the ocean water within the 

first kilometer distance measured from the southwestern point of Santa Maria in the direction of the 

southwest is only about 4 m. Taking the first two km 

distances together, we calculate an average depth of 

some 8.5 m. The velocity of propagation of tsunami 

waves can be expressed by the formula: 

v = (gH)lh* 

where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m 

s-~) and H the average depth of the water. 

Substitu ing now the value of H = 8.5 m, we get v = 

9.1 m 5-l. Accepting that the wave arrived during 240 

s from the source to the southwestern shore of the 

island and its median velocity was 9.1 m s-l, we find 

that the source might have been at a distance of about 

2.2 km from the edge of the island, and--considering 

Darwin's account on the direction--in the southwest, 

looking from the shore of the island. Thus the 

approximate coordinates of the epicenter that can be 

regarded to be identical with the source of the 

tsunami, are 37OOO'S, 73'40'W. This deduced location 

agrees with one that has been suggested by the 

Seismological Institute of Santiago (Kausel 19651, 

namely: 36.5"S, 73.0'W. The distance between these 

two points is not more than 130 km. 

We have the opportunity to further investigate 

the physical parameters of this great earthquake. 

Iida (1958, 1961) has pointed out that the following 

equation is valid for the relationship between earthquake magnitude and tsunami magnitude: 

m = 2.61 M - 18.44, 

where M is the Richter magnitude and m the tsunami 

magnitude. For the principal tsunami that is treated 

here m = 3 can be accepted (Iida et al. 1972). Hence 

M = 8.21. Using this value we can calculate the 

length of the front line of the tsunami, L: 

log L = 0.5 M - 1.8, 

from which L = 201.8 km. According to Iida (1958, 

1961), for the focal depth the following expression 

can be used: 

M - > 7.75 + 0.008 h, 

if the tsunami had a devastating force. From here the 

focal depth h < 57.5 km. Summarizing and rounding 

the vhlues received, we can accept 8.2 for M, 200 km 

for L, and 55-60 km for h. 

On the day of the earthquake three subaerial 

volcanoes and a submarine one as well began to erupt. 

For information about the submarine explosion, see the 

next item. According to Symons (1888) and Lamb (1970) 

the subaerial volcanoes were as follows: (a) 

Minchinmavida; (b) Osorno; and (c) Corcovado. 

Previous eruptions of these volcanoes were as follows: 

(a) 1742; 1834 November; 

(b) 1790 March 9-1791 December; 1834 

November 29; 

(c) 1834 November; no data are available 

about the activity of this volcano 

prior to 1834 

(Casertano 1963, 1963a). 

It is also interesting to note that all these 

volcanoes had been active prior to the great earthquake ?gain simul taneousl namely in November 1834. 

According to 4) avison from 1834 January 1 to 

1835 February 20 they were active; that is, until 

the day of the great earthquake, some shocks were felt 

in the Concepcion area, all feeble with the exception 

of one at the close of October 1834. It can be supposed that the three simultaneous eruptions in 

November 1834 were initiated (triggered) by this 

strong shock in October, the magnitude of which is 

unknown. 

Furthermore, it appears that on the day of the 

1835 February 20 earthquake these three volcanoes were 

again directly triggered by the shock (Hedervari 
1979). On the other hand, the tsunamis were also initiated by the earthquake. Thus the eruptions were 

indirectly correlated with the seismic sea waves; that 

is, the tsunamis were not of volcanic, but of tectonic 

origin--contrary to the opinion of Sapper, as a1 ready 

men ti oned. 

ttt" 

115. 1835 February 20--Submarine eruption in the 

group of Juan Fernandez Islands 

Earlier activity from this place is not known. 

The outbreak was accompanied by explosions, * dense 

columns of smoke that issued from the ocean, and 

"flames" that illuminated the whole island (Richard 

1962). This eruption was probably also triggered by 

the great Chilean shock on the same day (Hedervari 

1979), and thus it was also indirectly associated with 

the tsunamis as well. The coordinates of the eruption are 33"37'S, 78'47'W. Note: This unnamed underwater 

volcano was also mentioned by MacDonald (1972), who 

also indicated the occurrence of the seismic sea waves. 

E= 

116. 1835 April 23 - 26--Banua Wuhu, 

Sangi he Islands 

A 90-m high temporary island was created by 

submarine activity. In 1848 only a few rocks remained 

(Neumann van Padang 1941). 

117. 1836 January 25--Unnamed submarine volcano, 

equatorial At1 antic 

Location: Oo40'S, 20°10'W, approximately. A 

seaquake, lasting about 3 min, was observed at 9 

o'clock in the evening. Black volcanic ash was collected at 0°35'S, 15°501w (Neumann van Padang et 

al. 1967). 

?l 

118. 1838--Nameless submar 

Location: 66"15'N (?), 

doubtful (Berninghausen 1964) 

K? 

ne volcano, Iceland 

18'55'W (?I. A little 

119. 1839 February 12 - 13--Nameless submarine volcanic center, Islas Juan Fernandez 

Location: 33"34'-4O'S, 76'49'-51 'W. Supposedly, 

although not yet proved exactly, an ephemeral island 

probably of conical shape came into being. It was a rather large island, namely almost 5 km wide and a little less than 10 km in length. It appeared 

approximately 

- 

at the summit of the most easterly 

seamount in the vicinity of Islas Juan Fernandez 

(Richard 1962). Note: This alleged island is not 

indicated in AndrW great "Handatlas" (which was published in 1903). 

7T*? 

120. 1840 January 4--Merapi, Java 

A great earthquake was felt from Banjoemas to 

Kediri, Java, and a tsunami was observed at Patjitan 

(Visser 1922). Note: These events took place on January 4. Banjo= can be found in central Java, 

west of Merapi volcano; Patjitan is situated a little 

southeast of Merapi; and Kediri is east of Merapi. 

The Banjoemas-Merapi distance is almost equal to the 

distance between Merapi and Kediri. Thus it can be 

supposed that the epicenter was very near Merapi 

volcano and the shock directly triggered the volcano 

eruption. The day of the commencement of the eruption is not known, but the event took place in 

January. Therefore it seems to be a reasonable supposition that the tsunami and the eruption were 

indirectly correlated with one another. The tsunami, 

is not mentioned by Iida et al. (19721, nor by Heck 

( 1947 1. 

t" 

121. 1840 May 30--Kilauea, Hawaii 

An eruption took place from the east rift zone, 

accompani d by a submarine lava flow approximately 153 

ably in June, a collapse of the Kilauea caldera was noted. 

milllon m 3 (MacDonald 1955). After this event, prob122. 1843 February 17--Hameless submarine volcano near Marie Galante, West Indies 

In the Catalo ue of Active Volcanoes (Robson and 

Tomblin 19663*s a printer's error: The earthquake took place on 1843'February 8 and not on 1943 

February 8. The shock in question reached 9" on the 

12" scale of intensity. It occurred at Guadeloupe. A 

tsunami of a height of 1.2 m was observed as well as an interesting earthquake-fountain: Columns of water some 30 m high were ejected from fissures in the 

ground (Robson 1964). Note: This shock was, without 

any doubt, the triggering one for the submarine eruption that took place approximately half way between 

Guadeloupe and the eastern part of Maria Galante. A 

large column of black water rose in a succession of 

jets, and steam was emitted around the column at the 

sea surface. The outburst lasted fbr about half an 

hour only (Robson and Tomblin 1966). The coordinates 

of the volcano are 15"08'N, 61'17'W (approximate 

values). It must be noted that the latitude was erro- neously printed in the Catalo ue of Active Volcanoes as 16'08'N instead of &%idwerror was repeated by MacDonald (1972) as well. 

- 

19 
123. 1843 July--Near Arakan, Indian Ocean 

Neumann van Padang (1938) has reported the birth 

of a new island at 18'N, 93"30'E, $ear the shore of 

Arakan, Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean. 

E* 

124. 1845 June 18--Madrepore Bank (Phlegraean 

Fields of) Sicily Sea 

Emissions of sulfurous gases were noted and an 

earthquake was felt (Imgo 19651, which may suggest a 

submarine outbreak. The event, however, is 

questionable. 

T? 

125. 1846 October 4 - 5--Pinne Marine Bank, 

Sicily Sea 

An eruption occurred with ejection of internally 

incandescent fragments of volcanic material (Imbo 

1965). 

T 

126. 1850--Nameless submarine volcano between 

Taiwan and the Mariana Islands 

The location of the event was 20'56'N, 134'45'E. 

The outbreak caused a sudden commotion of the water, a 

rise of air temperature, and a smell of sulfur (Kuno 

1962). 

E 

127. 1850--Unnamed submarine eruptive center west 

of Ibugos, Islands North of Luzon, 

Philippine Islands 

Location: 20'20'N, 121'45'E. The eruption is 

doubtful, and no details are available (Neumann van 

Padang 1953). 

T? 

128. 1851 - 1852--Metis Shoal, Tonga Volcanic Group 

Smoke had been seen in 1851 and in 1852. A 

submarine eruption was reported (Richard 1962). 

E 

*The 1843 J uly eruption of near Arakan, Indian 

Ocean, as well as some further reported submarine outbursts, namely on 1881 December 31 and 1906 December 

15 (lasted probably until December 311, when a new 

island was formed, and those in 1908 (another new 

island came into being then) and 1914, were of mudvolcanic manifestations and not igneous volcanic ones 

(Sapper 1927, van Padang 1938). Disregarding these 

examples, mud-volcanoes generally are not treated in 

our Catalogue. 

129. 1852 July 17--Unnamed submarine volcano, 

equatori a1 At1 antic 

Latitude: 3'30'S, longitude: 24'30'W. A 

seaquake was observed, The water appeared to be 

agitated as if it had boiled. Water vapor rose. "A 

submarine volcano conceivably was active with such a 

violence that a column of water of more than 5,000 m 

was heated? Because of the great depth, however, this 

account probably should be considered questionable" 

(Neumann van Padang et al. 1967, p. 123). 

130. 1852 September 14--Nameless submarine eruptive 

White vapors and vaulting of the sea surface have 

Sapper doubted that this event was of volcenter, southern Atlantic 

been seen. 

canic origin (Neumann van Padang et al. 1967). 

x? 

131. 1852 November 26--Banda Api (?), 8anda Sea 

According to Heck (1947) an almost 8-m high wave 

reached Amboina. The tsunami with a magnitude of 

about 2 was observed in the Moluccas, and the 

generating area was in the Banda Sea (Iida et al. 

1972). Lamb (1970). on the basis of Russel (1888) has 

reported an eruption in the Moluccas and assigned it 

to Gunung Api, which is located at 6'35.5'S, 126'39'E. 

But the coordinates of the volcano in Lamb's paper 

were as follows: 4.5'S, 130'E. These coordinates, 

however, give the location data of another volcano, 

namely Banda Apt (4'31'E, 129'52'E, see: Neumann van 

Padang 1951). Rut neither Neumann van Padang nor 

Sapper (1927) have mentioned any eruption of Banda Api 

and Gunung Api in the year of 1852. Therefore the 

volcanic nature of the tsunami is more than doubtful. 

7" 

132. 1852--Home Reef, Tonga Volcanic Group 

Submarine activity and the appearance of a new 

island are reported (Richard 1962). 

Xt * 

133. 1853 October 29 - 1854 January--Submarine 

volcano near the eastern coast of Taiwan 

Position: 24'N, 121'50'E. Underwater activity 

has been reported, accompanied by ash and smoke. The 

sea was strongly agitated (Kuno 1962). Note: In 

MacDonald's book (1972) there is a printed error concerning this volcano: namely, 1853-1954 is indicated 

instead of 1853-1854. 

Kt 

134. 1854 January 15--Submarine eruptive center, 

There are some errors and confusions concerning 

the exact place of this submarine eruption point. 

MacDonald (1972) gives 21°50'N, 121'11'E and mentions 

only the year. Sapper (1927) gives the date of 

the location of which is very unclear 
eruption as 1854 January 15 and 20"56'N for the 

latitude as well as 134'45'E for the longitude, which 

is the site of the volcano assigned as 8.1-1 in the 

Catalogue of Active Volcanoes (Kuno 1962). This 

F$c-wevr?r,do;?- not-?oxcTde with Sapper's Plate 

XXXI, on which the eruption's (point is given as 

21°50'N, 121'11'E. This location is identical with 

the place of volcano 8.1-2 (Kuno 1962). In addition, 

an eruption is mentioned in the Ca_t_alogXe of Active 

Volcanoes (Neumann van Padang 1953 for tfie same day 

in tre-ase of volcano 7.4-5 that lies at 20'20'N, 

121'45'E. 

7- - 

X?? 

135. 1854--Raoul Island, Kermadec Volcanic Group 

The volcanic island that came into being in 1914 

disappeared in 1854 (see item 89, Richard 1962). 

i43 

136. 1856 March 2 - 17--Awu, Sangihe Islands 

An explosive eruption from the central crater and 

a tsunami with a magnitude of about 1 were noted 

(Iida et al. 1972). The Celebes Sea or Molucca 

Passage (Heck 1947, Berninghausen 1969) was the 

generating area. The seismic sea wave occurred on 

March 3; the eruption lasted until March 17. It may 

be that the tsunami was caused by nuees ardentes 

entering the sea. 

Of" 

137. 1856 July 22--Submarine eruption near Shaum 

Shu (Shumshu) Island, Kuril Volcanic Belt 

In referring to Perrey, Mercalli (1907), has mentioned a submarine eruption at the northernmost end of 

the Kuril Volcanic Belt, just south of the southernmost tip of Kamchatka. According to Mercalli, a 

Russian ship, "Dwina," reported floating pumice at 

50"53'N, 158'52'E. Note, however, that the longitude 

was measured from Paris and notlfrom Greenwich. Their 

difference in longitude is 2'02 . Calculating on this 

basis, one finds that the probable location of the 

event was 50"53'N, 160'54'E, though Sapper (1927) gave 

50"53'N, 161'12'E. The eruption is not mentioned in 

the Catalogue of Active Volcanoes of the World. 

x 

138. 1856 July 26--Submarine activity near Unimak 

Near southwest Unimak a gigantic water-co1u;n (base 

surge?) was first seen; later on smoke and flames" 

were observed, and ash and lapilli were thrown 

from the water. At the same time swirling of the 

water was observed (Sapper 1927). According to Cox et 

al. (1976), a submarine eruption in the Unimak Strait 

was the cause of the agitation of the ocean and 

possibly a small tsunami followed the outbreak. Iida 

et al. (19721, however, doubted the tsunami and attributed the waves to a seaquake. 

Island, Aleutian Islands 

139. 1856 September or October 10 - 1860 October(?) 

--Didicas Rocks, islands north of Luzon, 

Philippine Islands 

A submarine eruption occurred here (van Bemmel en 

1970). According to the Center for Short-lived 

Phenomena (Report No. 5061, "spines" were formed at 

first, and these were the subaerial expressions of a 

submarine volcanic edifice. Subsequent eruptions 

united these rocks into an islet now known as Didicas. 

KA * 

140. 1856 September--0-sima, Izu-Mariana Islands (?) 

A tsunami is indicated off the coast of 0-sima 

(?) and the report is written with spelling Oshima. 

The location may be Osima-0-Sima off Hokkaido and 

Iburi, as given in Heck (1947), but Iida et al. (1972) 

are of the opinion that the generating area was the 

Tokyo Bay and the place of observation was Tokyo and 

its vicinity; according to their view it was a storm 

surge. Lamb (1970) has mentioned the eruption of a 

Japanese volcano in September 1856. The volcanic 

nature of the tsunami, however, is as doubtful as the 

seismic nature of the waves; we accept the view of 

Iida et al. (1972) and do not regard this event to be 

of geophysical origin. 

--?? 

141. 1856 November 25--Unnamed subinari ne volcano, 

northern At1 antic 

Ebullition of the water was noticed. The phenmenon, which was accompanied by rising hot fumes, 

lasted about half an hour. Note that another report 

gave 1857 as the year of occurrence of the event. It 

is considered that this eruption is questionable 

unless it occurred in the shallower water to the west. 

Perrey gave the following coordinates: 39"57'N, 

25'50'W (Neumann van Padang et al. 1967). 

142. 1856--0nnimah Strait, near Cape Ommariey, 

northeastern Paci fic 

A submarine eruption was reported by the dhdler 

"A1 ize Frazer" (Gutenberg and Richter 1954). Note: 

This event is rather uncertain, as the point 567N, 

134.7"W is very far frm the volcanic belt. 

E? 

143. 1857 August 14--Unnamed submarine vol can0 near 

Cape of Good Hope 

Sapper (1927) has mentioned a submarine outbreak 

at 36'3O'S, 18"50'W, a point on the South Atlantic 

Ridge where a submarine eruption really is possible. 

However, his data for the longitude are clearly 

erroneous. The Catalogue of Active Volcanoes (Neumann 

van Padang et a~~?%~-&n~~?~ Ka-t--th--poi nt can 

be found at a distance of about 160 kii off the Cape 

of Good Hope, and thus its coordindtes dre 36"3O'S, 

18'50'E. Here the depth of the ocean is 3,655 m and 

observation of a submarine outbreak is not likely. On 

the other hand, this is not a volcanic area, The real 

21 
cause of the phenomenon (the sea suddenly became 

restless) was a strong seaquake and not an eruption 

(Neumann van Padang et al. 1967). 

T?? 

144. 1857--Camiguin de Babuyanes, islands north 

of Luzon, Philippine Islands 

A temporary island came into existence (van 

Bemmelen 1970). Eruption from a parasitic crater 

under the sea level and phreatic explosions occurred 

(Neumann van Padany 1953). 

ox+ * 

145. 1857--Home Reef, Tonga Volcanic irou,) 

This was probably a suhnarine erlr9tion accompanied 

by the birth of a new island (Neumann van Padang et 

al. 1967). 

E*? 

146. 1857--Unnamed submarine volcano, Azores 

Sapper (1927) has mentioned an eruption at 

39"57'N, 25'50'W. This event is not mentioned in the 

Catalogue cf- LcJjx Volcanoes; therefore, it is 

Tii6tm.- 

T? 

147. 1858--Metis Shoal, Tonga Volcanic Group 

Submarine activity occurred that led to the formation of a new island. The rock in question was a 

little less than 9 m high (Richard 1962). It reached 

the height of 9 m in 1875 and in 1878 an island with a 

length of 180 m and a height of 35 m was found (Sapper 

1927). The island was in a cloud of smoke. 

Tt * 

148. 1859 January 23--Mauna Loa, Hawaii 

Eruption was noted from the northern fla k and 

submarine lava flows of about 229 million m9 were 

observed (MacDonald 1955). 

@7 

149. 1859 (?)--Submarine eruptive center, 

equatorial At1 antic 

An outburst happened at O"12'N (?I, 19"W (Sapper 

1927). It is not mentioned in the Catalogye of Active 

Volcanoes; therefore, the event is uncertain. 

T? 

150. 1860 April 21--Near the coast of Peru at 

After an earthquake, a submarine outbreak was 

observed. The event is uncertain (Sapper 1927). NO 

San Lorenzo Island 

data on exact location are available. It is only 

known that the earthquake happened at Calles. 

151. 1861 August--Neai the coast of Peru between 

Coronel and Iquique 

A new island was seen in the company of a mighty 

column of smoke. Sapper (1927) thought the event 

uncertain. No data is known about exact location, and 

the event is not mentioned in other sources. 

T*? 

152. 1861 November--Unnamed volcano near Narage, 

Bismarck Archipelago 

Van Bemmelen (1970) gave the following data for 

its location: 4"28'S, 149"E; but Sapper (1927) mentioned 4"33'S, 149'07'E. Water sprung up to 45 m. 

This is accepted as a real submarine volcanic eruption. 

Tl 

153. 1863 August 12--Giulia-Ferdinandeo Bank, 

Sicily Sea 

A submarine eruption that led to the origin of a 

new, ephemeral island took place (Imbo 1965). 

7i* 

154. 1865 July 9--Unnamed submarine volcano, 

northern Atlantic 

The eruption took place at 33"45'N, 38"05'W. 

Scoriae, probably pumice, reached the rlirfdc.? of the 

water, where it formed a "floating mountain." There 

was a strong smell of sulfur, and rumblings were 

heard. By mistake, Sapper placed this outburst in the 

year 1867 (Neumann van Padang et al. 1967). 

T 

155. 1865--Falcon Island, Tonga Volcanic Group 

Submarine eruption, breaking reef (Richard 1962). 

?T 

156. 1866 January 26 - 1870 October 15--Santorini, 

Aegean Sea 

Long submarine activity occurred, in the course of 

which new islands have originated (for certain details 

see the following items as well). According to 

Sieberg the eruption commenced on 1866 February 1 and 

not on 1866 January 26. The former date is accepted 

by Galanopoulos (1960a) too, but the latter is mentioned by Georgalas (1962). There were three tectonic 

shocks in direct association with the start of the 

long eruption sequence. If the first day of the 

start of the activity was really 1866 February 1, the 

shock that occurred on 1866 January 31 can be regarded 

as the direct triggerins earth uake, which initiated 

the eruption immediately 1979, Komlos et 

al. 1978). Note that the shock in question occurred 
exactly underneath Santorini itself. The coordinates 

of the volcano are as follows: 36"24'13.31"N, 

25"23'46.9"E (Georgalas 1962), whereas the epicenters 

of the three shocks mentioned were in the following 

1 ocations: 

1866 Jan. 31: 36"24'N, 25'18'E (Io = 7"), 

1866 Feb. 2: 38"15'N, 26'15'E (Io = 8'1, 

1866 Feb. 6: 36" N, 23" E (Io = 8"), 

where Io means the epicentral intensity in terms of 

the 12"-scale of Mercalli and Sieberg. All of these 

shocks were of shallow (h < 70 km) origin. The above 

data are from Gal anopoul os (1960, 1960a), but Karnik 

(1971) has given 24"E instead of 23"E for the last 

item. The foreshock of the February 2 quake had taken 

place on 1866 January 19 (Galanopoulos 1960a). No 

data are available for a tsunami in association with 

the January 31 shock, but the other two were accompanied by seismic sea waves (Galanopoulos 1960, 

Ambraseys 1962). On February 2 a tsunami was observed 

in the Eastern Sporades, particularly a5Chios with an 

intensity of 111 on the Sieberg-scale. On February 

6 another tsunami was observed along the southern 

coasts of Peloponnesus and Kythera Island, respectively, with an intensity of IV. At Avlemonas the 

water rose to a height of at least 8 m or more. 

*ThisYale consists of six grades as follows 

(Ambraseys 1962, Karnik 1971): 

I. 

11. 

111. 

IV. 

V. 

Very light.. Wave so weak as to be perceptible 

only on tide-gauge records. 

Light. Wave noticed by those living along the 

shore and familiar with the sea. On very flat 

shores generally noticed. 

Rather strong. Generally noticed. Flooding of 

gently sloping coasts. Light sailing Vessels 

carried away on shore. Slight damage to light 

structures situated near the coast. In 

estuaries, reversal of the river flow for some 

distance upstream. 

Strong. Flooding of the shore to some depth. 

Light scouring on man-made ground. Embarkments 

and dikes damaged. Light structures near the 

coast damaged. Solid structures on the coast 

injured. Dig sailing vessels and small ships 

drifted inland or carried out to sea. Coasts 

1 ittered with floating debris. 

Very strong. General flooding of the shore to 

some depth. Quay-walls and sol id structures 

near the sea damaged. Light structures 

destroyed. Severe scouring of cultivated land 

and littering of the coast with floating items 

and sea animals. With the exception of big 

ships all other types of vessels carried inland 

or out to sea. Dig bores in estuary rivers. 

Harbor works damaged. People drowned. Wave 

accompanied by strong roar. 

Figure 156/1 .--Old engraving shows the 1866 eruption 

of Nea Kameni, Santorini. 

right peaks is exaggerated (compare with fig. 156/2. 

Height of central and 

Figure 156/2.--A historically significant early photo 

(taken by P. Desgranges) of the eruption of Nea 

Kameni, Santorini, in 1866. 

is active. After Mercalli. 

The Georgios crater 

Figure 156/3.--Another old engraving of the eruption of Nea Kameni volcano, Santorini, in 1866. 

VI. Disastrous. Partial or complete destruction of 

man-made structures for some distance from the 

shore. Flooding of coasts to great depth. Big 

ships severly damaged. Trees uprooted or broken. Many casual ties. 

23 
The earthquakes mentioned might have been related to 

the eruption--crustal deformations led to the occurrence of the shocks, and the same deformations 

compressed the magma chamber of Santorini at a depth 

of a few kilometers from the surface, resulting in the 

commencment of the outbreak. The earthquakes caused 

the two tsunamis. Therefore it can be claimed that 

these seismic sea waves were indirectly correlated 

with the eruption. For the physical relationship bet- ween tectonic earthquake; and volcanic eruotions see Nakamura (1971, 19751, Komlos et al. ' (19781, 

Hedervari (1975, 1976, 1976a, 19766, 1976c, 1977, 

1977a, 1977b, 1978, 1979). 

Note: It is remarkable that during the 

1866-lwperiod of activity of Santorini, another 

tsunami was also observed in the vicinity of this 

island-volcano, namely on 1867 September 20 at Crete, near Herakleion and along the south coast of 

Peloponnesus with an intensity of IV; furthermore in 

the region of the Ionian Islands with an intensity of 

111, and even along the southeast coast of Italy where an intensity of I1 was stated (Ambraseys 1962). 

Galanopoulos (1960, 1960a) has noted that the disturbance of the sea continued in Chania, Zante and 

Argostolis for 41h hours and the earthquake that produced the seismic sea wave had an epicentral intensity 

of 9". The epicenter was at 36"30'N, 22'15'E and the 

shock might have been an intermediate one. This statement is particularly interesting because--as was mentioned elsewhere in this catalog--intermediate (h > 

70 kml earthquakes generally do not cause tsunamis. 

157. 1866 February 4--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

After a submarine effusion of lava without any 

explosive phenomena, the dome of Georgios appeared 

above the sea (Georgalas 1962). " p -k 

158. 1866 February 12--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

Explosions began within the caldera that were a prelude to the emergence of a new dome from the sea --see item 159--(Georgalas 1962). 

t" 

159. 1866 February 13--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

A new island, called Afroessa, originated west of 

Georgios Island in the interior of the caldera (Georgalas 1962). 

t "FA* 

160. 1866 March 10--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

A very small island, called Reka, came into 

existence within the caldera. It had a diameter of some 35 m and a height of only 1.5 m. This dome was united with the lavas of Afroessa on 1866 March 4. but 

it was covered afterward by the lavas of Georgios 

Is1 and (Georgal as 1962). 

?i p * 

161. 1866 May--In the first part of the month, 

A fourth volcanic center has probably been active 

for a short time within the caldera, but--according 

to some authors--this feature was due to a submarine 

lava flow from Afroessa, and thus it was not the con- sequence of the activity of a fourth, independent 

Santorini, Aegean Sea 

volcanic center (Georgala; 1962). 

XT? 

162. 1866 May 17--Santorini 

The lava flow of Afroessa 

1962). 

163. 1866 June 17--Santorin 

The lava dome, known as Af 

fectly quiet (Georgalas 1962). 

n 

Aegean Sea 

stopped (Georgal as 

, Aegean Sea 

oessa, became per164. 1866 September 12 - November (to the middle 

of the month). Unnamed submarine volcano near Olosega Island, Samoa Volcanic Group 

There was explosive, underwater activity 

(Richard 1962). Coordinates of the event: 14"12'S, 

169"36'W. 

"t 

165. 1867 June 1 - 8--Santa Barbara 

(Terceira), Azores 

A huge explosion occurred under the sea that 

erllitted water jets, gases, and black cinder (Neumann van Padang et al. 1967). 

GT? 

166. 1867 October--Juan Fernandez Is1 ands 

After a seaquake many dead fishes appeared and 

the water became as white as snow at 34'55'S, 77'38'W. 

These phenomena suggest a submarine outburst; however, as the event is not mentioned in other sources we regard it as somewhat doubtful. The original data, 

cited above, are from Sapper (1927). The seaquake was not accompanied by a tsunami. 

X? 

167. 1867 (at the end of the year) and 1868 January 

There was definitely a submarine eruption off 

Tjornes, a short distance to the north of Manareyjar 

(Thorarinsson 1965). Berninghausen (1964) has noted a 

submarine outbreak in 1868 at 66'18" (?), 17"08'W 

--Unnamed submarine volcano, Iceland 

24 
(?I, but it is not clear whether these two eruptions 

are identical or not. 

7T 

168. 1867--Unnamed submarine vol can0 near the 

northern point of Taiwan, China Sea 

been reported (Kuno 1962, MacDonald 1972). 

data are available. 

A submarine eruption at 25"25'N, 122'20'E has 

No further 

71 

169. 1868 March 27--Mama Loa, Hawaii 

Eruption from the southwest rift zone, accompanied by lava flows beneath the surface of the ocean 

has been not d. The volume of lava is estimated to be 

76 million m 5 (MacDonald 1955). 

QGT 

170. 1868 April 2--Kilauea, Hawaii 

An eruption from Kilauea Iki crater (east rift 

zone), an earthquake (M = 7.0-7.751, and a very great 

tsunami with a maximum height of 20 m were reported. 

Ebb and flow of the ocean was observed thirteen times, 

with a 7- or 8-min interval between each flow. A 

15-min interval was noted at Honolulu. The village of 

Keauhou and the storehouse were swept away. Punaluu 

was also swept out of existence (Heck 1947). The tsunami magnitude was assigned as 4.1 (Iida et 1. 19721, 

which corresponds to an energy of 7.2 x 102j ergs, as 

cal cul ated by the expression 

log Ets = 21.4 t 0.6 m, 

where E is the tsunami energy and m the magnitude 

(Iida 1&8, 1961). Note that the seismic ergy was 

0.1995 x loz3 ergs if M = 7.0 or 2.661 x lo5? ergs if 

M = 7.75, calculated from the formula 

log E = 11.8 + 1.5 M, 

where E is the seismic energy and M the Richter magnitude. In both cases we calculate an energy smaller 

than that of the tsunami, which is physicallyimpossible. Therefore we conclude that either the Richter 

magnitude of the shock was greater than 7.75, or the 

tsunami magnitude was smaller than 4.1. A third 

possibility is that a great mud-flow (lahar) descending into the sea on the southeast flank of Mauna 

Loa volcano created the tsunami (Pararas-Carayannis 

and Calebaugh 1977). The slip. of the material 

involved was triggered by the earthquake. The shock, 

on the other hand, was probably related to an eruption 

of Mauna Loa that started 6 days earlier. The volume 

of the lava flow is estimated as 191,000 m3 (MacDonald 

1955) which represents a very small amount of thermal 

energy release, namely 0.07 x lOZ3 ergs (Hedervari 

1963). 

Concerning this devastating tsunami we have some 

additional data (Pararas-Carayannis et a1 . 1977). 

There was severe damage from Kahuku to Kapoho. The 

water receded horizontally 46 m. At south Puna and 

K.au, where the water rose to 18 m, the first wave was 

the most destructive, there were 108 houses destroyed, 

and 81 persons died. The coast of Puna and Kau subsided 2 m on the average, and small villages were submerged along the coast for 120 km. After the shock 

ended, the sea inundated inland areas and all 

buildings were swept away at Keauhou where the maximal 

elevation of the water reached 15 m. At Punaluu the 

6-m high waves destroyed everything: stone church, 

wooden houses, and almost all of the coconut trees 

were washed down. The shoreline was rearranged 

because land was lost from the beach. Kawa Bay and 

Ninole were completely destroyed, and at Honuapo-- 

where the waves reached 6 m in height--all houses were 

swept away except two that were standing on high lava 

ridges. 

The earthquake i tsel f was the largest historical 

one in Hawaii (Furumoto et al. 1973). The intensity 

of the shock over the southern part of Hawaii was lo", 

on the northern part 9", on southern Maui 8", on 

northern Maui and Lanai 7O, on Molokai 6", on Oahu 5", 

and on Kauai 3" and 2", respectively. It was preceded 

by 6 days of foreshock activity, and hundreds of 

aftershocks followed the principal one of April 2. 

As mentioned, the tsunami might have been caused by 

the mudflow, the slip of which resulted from the main 

quake. "A study of the records of the time indicated 

that both the volcanoes Kilauea and Mauna Loa were 

unprecedently active before the culminating shocks, 

and that Kilauea had been unusually active for several 

months before the quake. During and after the main 

shock, Kilauea overflowed lava and large portions of 

the crater walls tumbled down. A large portion of 

the floor caved in to a depth of about 500 feet (152 

m) covering an area 8,000 feet (915 - 1829 m) long and 

froin 3,000 to 6,000 feet wide. However, this earthquake was tectonic and not volcanic, although there 

was volcanic action" (Furumoto et al. 1973, p. 22). 

Thus the tsunami was indirectly correlated with the 

eruption of Kilauea Iki. The collapsed volume in the 

caldera of Kilauea is estimated as 188 300,000 m3, 

having a surface area of 3,060,000 m2 (MacDonald 

1955). 

0.9 !s 

171. 1868 November 8 - 9--Unnamed submarine volcano 

near St. Helena Island, southern Atlantic 

In the night the sea was disturbed and 

detonations were heard at 160401S, 4"W--some 190 km 

off St. Helena Island. The ship "Ephrosine" trembled 

and the compass was continuously disturbed. Fishes 

were thrown in the air. At the site of the phenomenon 

the depth of the water is 5,300 m; therefore, a 

submarine eruption affecting the surface is 

questionable. According to Neumann van Padang et ai. 

(1967), the event might have been the consequence of a 

seaquake. No tsunami was reported, however. 

T? 

172. 1869 May 6--Submarine eruptive center near 

Smith Rock, Izu-Mariana Islands 

An eruption has been reported at 31"00'N, 

139"02'E, but no details are known (Kuno 1962). 

7T 

173. 1870 May 11--Nameless submarine volcano near 

Another submarine eruptive center has been active 

Smith Rock, Izu-Mariana Is1 ands 

25 
at 31°35'N, 140"30'E, but no details are available 

(Kuno 1962). 

x 

174. 1870 July 6--Raoul Island, Kermadec Volcanic 

Group 

An eruption under the sea was reported. A parasitic crater has probably been active at 29"14'S, 177" 

55'W (Richard 1962). 

o?i 

175. 1870 October 15--Santorini, Aegean Sea 

The last explosions happened inside the caldera, 

after which only fumarolic activity has been observed 

and finally insignificant emanations of water vapors, 

CO2 and sulfur gases at the top of Georgios (Georgalas 

1962) marked the end of the long eruption-cycle that 

began on 1866 January 26. See item 156. 

t 

176. 1870--Submarine eruptive center southeast of 

Eruption of pumice at a point about 320 km 

southeast of 0-sima is mentioned by Sapper. The exact 

location is not given, but as this point lies to the 

east of the Japanese Trench, an eruption here is very 

unlikely. It can be supposed that it might have been 

a floating "raft" of pumice that originated far from 

this location at an unknown source (Kuno 1962). 

0-sima, Izu-Mariana Islands 

177. 1870--Submarine volcano near Smith Rock, 

Izu-Mariana Is1 ands 

An eruption occurred at a point 18 km southwest 

of the Smith Rock. The exact coordinates of the event 

are not available. An island 13 m high was formed and 

it was seen in 1923 (Kuno 1962). 

. ?i* 

178. 1871 March 2 - 14--Ruang, Sangihe Islands 

A strong explosive eruption from the central 

crater, devastation of arable lands, and casualties 

were reported. Three great tsunami-waves came from 

the sea, owing to the mighty landslide from the top of 

the mount; the soil and the rocks had rolled into the 

water. It 

penetrated 180 or 200 m inland on Palau Tahalandang at 

the town of Buhias. Three villages were completely 

destroyed and 460 persons lost their lives (Heck 1947, 

Berninghausen 1969). The tsunami magnitude was 

assigned as about 4 (Iida et al. 1972). This great 

tsunami took place on March 5 and accompanied one of 

the outbursts of Ruang. 

The first wave reached the height of 25 m! 

0 t-" 

179. 1871 March 29--Flear Bayonnaise Rock, 

The eruption of a nameless submarine volcanic 

Izu-Mariana Is1 ands 

center is inentioned by Sapper (1927) but he gives no 

details. The event is doubtful. No data were found in 

other sources. No coordinates are given; the event is 

located south-southwest of the Bayonnaise Rock. 

T? 

180. 1871 ADril--Near Tori-sima. Izu-Mariana 

I sl ands 

Submarine outbreak, no details. 

Tori-sima: 30"28'N, 140'14'E (Kuno 1962 

?i 

181. 1871--Submarine volcano near Sm 

Izu-Mariana Islands 

Location of 

th Rock, 

An outbreak froin the water has been reported at 

31"30'N, 139"30'E (Kuno 1962). No further details are 

known. 

?i 

182. 1871--Maurelle Islands, Tonga Volcanic Group 

Sapper (1927) has mentioned that in this year new 

islands came into being very near Metis Shoal (see 

i tems 128 and 147, respectively), but they disappeared 

later. For Metis Shoal itself he gave the following 

coordinates: 19"11'S, 174'51'W. 

K *A3 

183. 1872 August 10 - 1877 February--Mauna Loa, 

Hawa i i 

Continuous activity was observed from the summit 

caldera. On 1872 August 23 (or August 27?) a small 

tsunami was observed with a maximum height of 1.3 m 

and with a magnitude of 0 (Pararas-Carayannis and 

Calebaugh 19771, and the corresponding energy is some 

1.51 x 1021 ergs. Jagger suggested that the tsunami 

was caused by a local volcanic event and Sapper associated it with the eruption of Mauna Loa. Altogether 

14 diminishing oscillations were experienced and they 

lasted for 1.5 hours. According to Pararas-Carayannis 

and Calebaugh (1977) as well as Iida et al. (1972) 

this was a distant tsunami or perhaps a storm surge 

but not a true tsunami of volcanic origin, in contrast 

to Jaggar's and Sapper's opinions. 

184. 1872--Raoul Island, Kermadec Volcanic Group 

Submarine outburst that led to the formation of a 

new island that remained above the sea until 1877 

has been noted. Location: 29"12'S, 178"00'W, in the 

Denham Bay (Richard 1962). 

7T **3 

185. 1873 (?)--Submarine volcano near Smith Rock, 

Uncertain outbreak at 31°17'N, 139"55'E (Kuno 

Izu-Mariana Islands 
1962). Details are not available. 

186. 1874 April 30--Unnamed volcano between Hapai 

and Tonga, Tonga Volcanic Group 

No exact location is given by Sapper (1927) and 

no details are mentioned by Richard (1962). 

Uncertain. 

K? 

187. 1875 March 28 - May - June--Slatnet volcano and 

its vicinity, Java 

On March 28 a tsunami was observed at 8"16'S, 

110'40'E. At the end of May, the same year, an eruption of Slamet volcano began and lasted until the 

first days of June. Note that the coordinates of the 

volcano are 7"14'S, 109'12'E; that is, it lies rather 

near the point where, according to Visser (19221, the 

seismic sea wave was experienced two months prior to 

the commencement of the outburst. It can be supposed, 

therefore, that the tectonic shock that caused the 

tsunami triggered the volcano to erupt. If so, the 

tsunami and the eruption were indirect1 associated 

furthermore, that on 1875 March 28, a 4-m high tsunami 

with a magnitude of about 2 was observed in the 

Loyalty Islands, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia (Iida 

et al. 1972), but the coincidence of the occurrence of 

the shock that caused this tsunami with the commencement of Slamet's eruption is evidently only due to 

chance. 

with each other. It is interest + ng to note, 

"t 

188. 1876 April 16 - 1878--Metis Shoal, Tonga 

Volcanic Group 

Continuous activity, origin of a new island with 

a maximum diameter of 160 m and maximum height of 35 m 

(Neumann van Padang 1938). 

K* 

189. 1876 December 10--Nameless submarine volcano 

near Tiera del Fuego, Scotia Arc, Antarctica 

An underwater eruption at 6So15'S, 72'10'W was 

mentioned by Berninghausen and Neumann van Padang 

(1960). Allegedly an ephemeral island of conical 

shape came into being, but this is uncertain. Sapper 

(1927) mentioned an island with a height of 30 m, but 

this disappeared on the same day. The coordinates are 

given by Sapper as follows: 65" 15' S, 75O 12' w. 

MacDonald (1972) gave 56" 15' S, 72" 10' W. SImkin et 

al. in "Volcanoes of the World" (Smithsonian Instltution, 1981) give 56.25" S, 72.17' w. 

E* l*-3? 

190. 1877 February 2 (or February 24?)--Mauna Loa, 

Hawaii 

A tsunami was observed along the Kona Coast 

(southwestern part) of the Big Island of the Hawaiian 

archipelago. Mauna Loa began to erupt along its 

western slope on 1877 February 14--that is, if 1877 

February 2 is accepted--long after the occurrence of 

the tsunami. At the same time a submarine eruption 

55 m below sea level happened off Kealakekua Bay, on 

the west coast of Hawaii (MacDonald 1955). However, 

as it is explained by MacDonald, it is unlikely that 

such an underwater eruption would create a tsunami 

affecting the Kona Coast, and according to Iida et al. 

(1972) submarine eruptions along this coast are also 

very unlikely. Hence we can suppose that the tsunami 

originated from an unknown source far west of Hawaii 

and was not associated with the eruptions mentioned. 

Concerning the seismic sea wave itself, no further 

details can be found in the literature. 

GK?%?F 

191. 1877 May 4-Xilauea, Hawaii 

A tsunami of magnitude 1 was experienced at 

Hawaii (Pararas-Carayannis and Calebaugh 1977), but no 

details are available. Eruption from the caldera 

wall of Kilauea occurred on the same day (MacDonald 

1944). Note: In the east rift zone--more exactly, in 

the Keanmoi crater--another eruption took place on 

or about 1877 May 21. The tsunami of 1844 May 4 is not 

mentioned by Iida et al. (1972). 

09 5 

192. 1877 June 15--Pisagua, near the coast of Peru 

Mighty columns of smoke emerged from the ocean at 

Pisagua (Sapper 1927). No data on the exact location 

are known. Uncertain. 

K? 

193. 1877 December 1--Submarine eruption in the New 

at 

no 

Zealand volcanic zone 

According to Sapper (1927) an eruption took place 

38"S, 178"E. The event is uncertain, as 

data about it can be found elsewhere. 

T? 

194. 1877--Falcon Island, Tonga Volcanic Group 

Smoke was seen issuinq from the ocean (Richard 

1962). 

195. 1877--Raoul Island, Kermedec Volcanic Group 

The small islet in the Denham Bay that originated 

in 1872 disappeared (see item 184), but the so-called 

Wolferine Rock remained above the level of the water 

(Richard 1962). *3 

196. 1878 January 10--Tanna, New Hebrides Islands 

According to Heck (1947) at Port Resolution the 

sea rose 12 m, and this was accompanied by a maximum 

rise of 3.3 m of the ocean bottom. Sapper (1927) is 

of the opinion that the height of the tsunami reached 

17 m. Volcano Tanna (other names are Yasour or 

Yasowa, etc.) erupted on this day. A new crater 

opened on the volcano; the tsunami might have been 

caused by an earthquake (Iida et al. 1972). The tsunami magnitude is estimated to be ' about 3, the 

27 
corresponding energy of which is 1.58 x loz3 ergs. 

A second earthquake and eruption, with a smaller tsunami, occurred a month later. 

t" 

197. 1878 January 29--Name1 ess submarine volcano, 

equatorial Atlantic 

The sea was in great commotion, and large columns 

of water were thrown about 30 m into the air. There 

was a sound like distant thunder. The probability of 

an underwater outbreak is, however, questionable. The 

location of the event is 4"12'N, 21'27'W (Neumann van 

Padang et al. 1967). 

- C'iT? 

198. 1878 February 4--Raluan, New Britain 

Heck (1947) has mentioned two seismic sea waves 

in association with an eruption of Raluan (other names 

are Ghaie or Vulcan), which belongs to the Rabaul 

Volcanic Group. According to Iida et al. (1972, pages 

of items "1878. Jan. 10. ... 1878. Feb. 4."), two 

"flood waves" were observed--probably two waves of a 

tsunami and not tsunamis as interpreted by Heck. Heck 

gave February 4 as the date but Sapper said only that 

"the waves occurred during an eruption which lasted 4 

days starting Feb. 4." According to Fisher (1957) a 

very severe, explosive eruption took place from 

Raluan. A great mass of ash and pumice was thrown 

out. Vulcan Island was built up. Old charts show an 

island existed here long before the event, so other 

outbreaks had taken place from this center earlier. 

We have no data, however, about this earlier activity. 

Note: The first known outburst of the nearby Ilatupi 

began a day or so later than the eruption at Raluan. 

The two volcanological events were, without any doubt, 

physically correlated with one another. Tsunami magnitude was about 1. 

T*O t 5 

199. 1878 August 11--Tanna, New Hebrides Islands 

Eruption of the volcano, an earthquake and a tsunami with a magnit de of about 1 (corresponding to an 

energy of 1 x IO2! ergs) were reported (Iida et al. 

1972). t' 

200. 1878 February 29--Tu1 iskoi, Aleutian Islands 

A tsunami was observed near Unalaska Island. The 

town of Makushin was destroyed by both the earthquake 

and the seismic sea wave, and the magnitude of the 

latter was estimated to be about 1 (Iida et al. 1972). 

Note: It is not certain, but can be supposed, that 

theearthquake that caused the tsunami might have had 

a triggering effect on a nearby volcano--in all like1 ihood Tu1 iskoi--which exhibited a very strong ash 

eruption and on which a new crater developed in 1878 

(the date given in the heading of this item refers to 

the date of the tsunami; for the volcanic eruption 

only the year is given by Sapper 119271). We considered 

Tuliskoi because this volcano is to be found just in 

front of the Makuhsin Bay where the tsunami has been 

observed. The only other volcano that was active in 

1878 in this region is Vsevidof. But Vsevidof is much 

further from the Makushin Bay than Tuliskoi and therefore its effect is unlikely. In our opinion the tsunami was indirectly related to the eruption of 

Tu1 i skoi ; both were triggered by the earthquake mentioned. t"- 

201. 1878--Metis Shoal, Tonga volcanic group 

Submarine activity was noted. The new island, 

which was born in 1858 (see item 1881, was about 180 m 

long and 33 m high. It ejected great quantities of 

white smoke (Richard 1962). 

iT* 

202. 1879 May 30--Eldey, Iceland 

A submarine outburst was reported to have 

occurred on the same spot as in 1830 (see item 103). 

A small ash fall was also described (Berninghausen 

1964). 

xt 

203. 1879 December 31-1880 March (end of the 

month)--Lake Ilopango, Islas Quemadas, 

El Salvador 

At first we aive the summarv of the event in 

terms -of the Cataio ue of Active Volcanoes of the 

World (Mooser &5v,=en we sha'7rqux 

theoriginal text of a paper in Nature more than a 

century ago (Nature, 22, 10 June, 1-80). 

a) Severe earthquakes were the prelude of the 

eruption. The first shocks took place either on 

December 20 or 21, 1879. Lava extrusions began on 

December 31 in Lake Ilopango, an 11-km long and 8-km 

wide volcano-tectonic depression. The eruption caused 

a rise of the water level by 1..22 m. On January 20 

the lava reached the surface of the lake. Explosions 

occurred. At the end of January the island had a 

diameter of 150 m, and a height of 30-40 m; at the end 

of February its top reached about 50 m above the water 

1 evel. 

b) A Lacustrine Volcano. In a recent number of La 

Nature further details, furnished by the French Consx 

Salvador, M.J. Laferriere, are given concerning 

the recent volcanic phenomenon in Lake Ilopango in 

that State. The accompanying illustration, from a 

photograph, will show the nature of the crater which 

has risen in the midst of the lake. Earthquakes were 

felt in San Salvador in the first half of January of 

this year (1880--note by author), there were three 

strong shocks, less violent, however, than those of 

1876. These earthquakes had their center in the 

vicinity of Lake Ilopango, in the midst of which rose 

three volcanic openings connected with each other. 

This new crater, which, seen from a distance as in the 

illustration, appears a small islet, rises above the 

surface of the water, however, about twenty meters. 

An attempt was made to approach it in a boat, but the 

waters were all in a state of ebullition from contact 

with the burning rock, and gave off torrents of steam. 

An abundant column of smoke rose in the air, assuming 

the aspect of an immense cloud, which was seen from a 

great distance, and formed an imposing spectacle. 

The phenomenon was preceded by an exceptional 

rising of the lake, increased by the abundant 

28 
Taking into account the expression 

log v + 4.95 

M e =_-- , (Hedervari 1963) 

1 .5936957 

where M is the eruption magnitude and V the volume of 

tephra,ewe get 9.763 for the eruption magnituds6 from 

,,,hich the released thermal energy is 4.18 X 10 ergs. 

sulfide, H2S. 

NOTE: sulphohydric acid gas is probably hydrogen 

x'=7tn* 

Figure 20311.-- Aspect of the volcano in Lake Ilopango 

(after Nature). 

winter rains. According to an old tradition 

the Spaniards maintain that when the lake rises 

earthquakes are to be feared. Formerly, also, it was 

the custom to dig trenches to facilitate the escape of 

the waters. This practice was followed without 

intermission for a century, and volcanic phenomena did 

not appear during all that time. The present 

phenomena seems to justify this tradition. It is 

difficult to explain the fact it is still interesting 

to remember that a great number of volcanos are 

submarine, that others are found for the most part in 

islands or in maritime regions, and that water may be 

one of the feeders of volcanic fires. Lake Ilopango, 

also known as Lake Conjutepec, is, according to M. 

Laferriere, a sunk crater. It is in the volcanic 

line, and it is a general fact in Central America that 

lakes alternate with volcanic cones. The water of 

this lake is brackish, very bitter, and almost 

viscous. It gives off sometimes, here and there, 

bubbles of sulphohydric acid gas. The lake is about 

12 kilometers long and by 16 broad (? - question mark 

from author); the depth is unknown. It is about 12 

12 kilometers from the city of San Salvador. The 

Consul of France in Guatemala, M. de Thiersant, states 

that Lake Ilopango has now a temperature of 38°C on 

its shore, and is in complete ebullition around the 

volcano. All the fishes are cooked and float upon the 

surface, with a great number of shellfish and other 

aquatic animals. The volcano continues to rise, and 

the level of the lake is being gradually lowered. 

After the manuscript for this catalogue had been 

completed an interesting paper was published by P. D. 

Sheets, entitled "Volcanoes and the Maya" Natural 

discussed a particularly violent, earlier outurst from 

Lake Ilopango. The event took place about A.D. 260, 

near the northwestern shore of the lake. A new crater 

opened beneath the level of water from which a mighty 

mass of tephra was thrown out in two successive steps 

during a very short time, perhaps only a few days or 

even hours. In the Chalchuapa Valley, 72 km northwest 

of Lake Ilopango, the thickness of the ash reached 1 

m. The total volume of tephra might have been greater 

than 41 km3, which means that this eruption was one of 

the greatest during human history. The layer of ash 

at the shore of the lake had a thickness of 48-50 m. 

In all likelihood the eruption took place between May 

and November. This exceptionally powerful eruption 

caused the wandering of the Mayas toward the north, to 

a place that is now known as Maya Plain. 

I 

l 

History, August 1981, pp. 32-40), in which the C-Ti- aut or 

204. 1879. Georgiana, Ninety East Ridge, Indian Ocean 

Floating pumice has been seen at rjoS, 89OE 

(Sapper 1927, Neumann van Padang 1935, 1963). Note: 

The spot in question lies very far from thex-doceanic rift valley of the Indian Ocean and far from 

any other we1 1 -known volcanic area. Geographical ly 

and geophys-ically it belongs to the Indo-Australian 

Seismic Belt, which--probably--is a nascent midoceanic rift Val ley and ridge zone, characterized by 

rather vivid seismicity, high heat flux, and richness 

in seamounts but a very mild present-day volcanic 

activity (Hedervari 1978a). Floating pumice at and 

near this point was seen in other times as well. The 

known cases, when floating pumices .rere seen, are as 

fol lows : 

In fig. In fig. 

2041 1 20412 ~~ 

- Date -- Location 

1 a 1879 6" S, 89" E 

1 a 1883 July 11-12 6" S, 89" E 

1 a 1883 August 1 6" S, 89" E 

2 b 1883 August 11 6"23'S, 88"31'E 

3 C 1883 August 17 8"35'S, 91'53'E 

4 d 1883 August 18 9"41'S, 90"28'E 

5 e I883 August 19 11"08'S, 8Ro03'C 

According to Neurnann van Padang (1938, 1963), on 

1883 July 11 and 12, H.O. Forbes sailed through 

floating pumice; on 1883 August 1 Captain E. Ashdown 

sailed his ship "Siam" for 4 hours through fields of 

floating pumice, which ineans a distance of about 60-80 

km at the most. He had the opinion that a submarine 

eruption must have occurred there. He said, furthermore, that another outbreak had taken place at this 

point in 1879. All of the other reports, from 1883 

August 11 to 18 are from C. Moldrum. He had the opinion that the pumices he saw originated from Krakatau 

volcanoe (Sunda Strait), active since 1883 May 20. 

The author feels it reasonable and important to 

quote here some sentences from the original text of 

the work of Neumann van Padang (1938,iteiii No. 76): 

"76.6" S - 89' 0. Am 1. August 1883 fuhr das 

Schiff 'Siam' mit einer Geschwindigkeit von 11 

Knoten wahrend vier Studen durch 

Bimmssteinfelder (im Text steht Lava), die sich, 

so weit das Ruge reichte, ausstreckten. Der 

Biinsstein trieb in NW-SO gerichteten Strei fen. 

Da eine Stromung von 75--30 Meilen pro Tag in 

29 
Figure 204/1. The site of the occurrence of pumices floating on the water (1 - 5) and its environs. K: 

Krakatau volcano; A and D: oceanic currents; C: dividing line; D: the spot with the abnormally high 

value of heat flow (7.61 HFU); thin arrows: oceanic currents; thick arrows: winds during the sunwner 

in the Horthern Hexisphere. 

F a i r b r i d g e (1966) 

Currents and winds after Fairbridge (1966, 1967). Line C is also after 

ostlicher Richting herrschte, so meinte Kapitan 

Ashdown, das dieser Bimsstein nicht vom 

Krakatau, sondern von einem ortlichen 

Austruchspunkt im mhr als 3600 m tiefen Ozean 

starmnt. Er meldcte von diesem Platz auch einen 

Ausbruch im Jahre 1897. Die beobachteten 

Birnssteinstreifen waren etwa 1800 km vom 

Krakatau entfernt, der erdst am 26--28. August 

grosse Mengen Bimsstein gefordery hat, so dass 

die Annahme, dass ein starker Vulkanausbruch in 

gosser Tiefe stattgefunden hat, gerechfertig 

i st .'I 

As mentioned above, Moldrum has suggested that 

the pumice masses came from Krakatau. The present 

author argues against this supposition. The arguments 

are as follows: 

a. The initial activity of Krakatau was relatively rnild and the explosions were not particularly 

violent (Williams 1941. Bullard 1968, MacDonald 1972). 

The activity began after a 202-year long repose on 

1883 May 20. This initial activity continued with 

decreasing intensity for a little more than a week, 

and Krakatau then was in a calm state until 1883 June 

19. Weak to moderate eruptions followed after this 

day (MacDonald 1972) , at least intermittently, through 

July and the paroxysmal eruption began as late as 1883 

August 26. 

The products of the first 4 days of the activity 

formed a layer with a maximum thickness of 1 meter 

(Williams 1941). When the volcanic islands were 

visited for the last time before the paroxysmal stage 

on 1883 August 11, it was stated that only a little 

fragmental material had been addfed to the thin layer 

left by the activity of the first 4 days. Ninetyeight percent of the total ejecta was thrown out 

during the paroxysm from August 26 to 28. The total 

quantity of ejecta was estimated by Verbeek to be at 

least 18 cubic km. Two-thirds of this material fell 

within a radius of 15 km. As stated by Williams, only 

the finer particles of pumice were shot high into the 

air, and these were carried away by the winds for 

thousands of kilometers. 

Considering the facts that (1) prior to the 

paroxysm the activity had been weak to moderate only, 

and (2) that the quantity of the ejecta of this period 

was about two percent of the total, it is unlikely 

that betwen 1883 July 11 and 1883 August 19 a large 

quantity of pumice would have been scattered over an 

area of 600 x 900 km in extent, at a distance of some 

1700-2300 km from the volcano. Note that the area 

within which pumices were found is elliptical with a 

major axis of some 900 km and a minor axis of approximately 600 kilometers, and the distances between 

Krakatau and the eastern and western edges of this 

elliptical area are 1700 and 2300 km, respectively, 
b. As previously mentioned pumice was seen as 

early as in 1879 at 6'S, 89'E. These pumice-masses 

have evidently nothing to do with the activity of 

Krakatau k1883. Therefore another source of the 

pumices must beupposed. 

c. From the map of currents in the Indian Ocean 

(Fairbridge 1966, p. 384, Fig. 21), it is perfectly 

obvious that pumice ejected from Krakatau toward the 

south or southeast, somewhat beyond the mouth of the 

Sundra Strait, was carried further by the oceanic 

currents toward the east, parallel with the southern 

coast of Java. Floating objects in front of the Sunda 

Strait can not be transported toward the west, since 

along the southern entrance of the Sunda Strait the 

current flows from the northwest towards the southeast 

and east (see arrow A in Fig. 204.1. Between this 

current and another having the opposite direction (see arrow B), there is a dividing line (see dashed line 

C), which distinctly separates currents A and B from one another. Current cannot cross this line. In 

short: umice from Krakatau *never reach the 

el 1 i pt i cahymar west from thecano. 

It is very remarkable, furthermore, that there are no reports of the presence of pumice along the 

southern coast of Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands, or along the northwestern coast of Australia in the 

period that preceded the paroxysm of Krakatau. In the 

case of creation of great pumice inasses during the 

pre-paroxysmal stage, these pumices should have been 

observed first of all over the Java-Lesser 

Sundas-Austral i a area, because this region 1 i es in the 

way of the oceanic currents. In the lack of reports 

on the occurrence of floating pumices over this critical area, that is east and southeast of the mouth of 

the Sunda Strait, the, question arises: was the mass of pumice originated during the pre-paroxysmal period 

remarkable at all? If so, why was this pumice unobserved so near the source? If not, how could a remarkable mass of pumice (as mentioned, one of the 

floating masses might have had a diameter of some 60-80 km) reach a site very far from the source, and 

moreover west of it -- a direction just opposite to 

the direction of the oceanic currents? 

On the basis of these statements it can be 

declared with great certainty that the source of the 

pumice observed in the elliptical area was not 

Krakatau volcano. 

d. Considering now the wind system over the 

eastern part of the Indian Ocrean south of the Bengal 

Bay, during Northern Hemisphere summer (Fairbridge 

1967, p. 1148, Fig. 2), the conclusion is the same. 

It can be seen that during the period of 1883 July 11 

- August 19, the direction of the wind was clearly 

unfavorable to carry very fine pumice from Krakatau 

into the elliptical area within which the floating 

pumice was seen. In addition, and this is similarly 

evident, the explosive force active during the preparoxysmal period was not able to throw pumice to such a great distance. 

e. The paroxysmal eruption led to a great ashand pumice-fall, and an area of 827,000 square km was covered by these products (van Padang 1951). If the 

area is considered to be more or less circular, which 

is only an approximation, the radius of the circle is 

513 km. But the center of the elliptical area is 

about 2000 kin from Krakatau. During the relatively 

weak initial period of activity (1883 July 11 - August 

wthe pumice could not have reached such a great 

distance, which is roughly four times greater than the 

"theoretical" value (513 kilometers) that refers to 

paroxysmal eruption. 

It should be noted that the real area of volcanic ash had a triangle form; see Bullard (1968), Fig. 

8. on p. 82. It must be emphasized, however, that 

Sullard's map shows the areal distribution of and 

not that of As regards the latter, erupted 

pumice, flying t rough the air, never can reach the 

great distance froin the volcano than ash can. "If a strong wind is blowing at the time of the eruption, 

only the lumps of pumice will fall in the vicinity of 

the volcano, while the ash will be carried much 

further. ..'I (Rittmann 1960, p. 75.) 

Taking into consideration the wind directions at 

the time of the paroxysm, and considering this 

strongly asymmetrical distribution of ash relative to 

the site of Krakatau, one can suppose that this peculiar distribution might have been the consequence of 

directed blast or blasts. 

Based on the previous five aguments and particularly on point c., the author concludes that the 

pumice masses that occurred in the elliptical area at 

the central part of Ninety East Ridge cannot be the 

products of Krakatau volcano but originated in situ. 

That is, there must be a submarine volcano at this 

1 oca1 ity. 

It is often said that pumice can only forin in 

shallow water. We are aware of at least 2 examples, 

that contradict this statement. The author has asked 

the opinion on this problem of Dr. M. Neumann van Padang who kindly gave him the following information 

(Neumann van Padang, ulritten communicdtions, 1981 July 

4 and 1981 August 6, respectively): 

"Pumice originates when a glassy magma rich in 

silicic acid erupts. A.Brun described in his 

publication 'Recherches sur l'exhalaison 

volcanique,. 1911' that pumice \nay originate in 

the laboratory when obsidian is heated to its 

explosive point. That is why the origin of 

pumice is not dependent on its we or on a submarine eruption (italics mine: Hedervari) 

"In May 1761 an 'island of volcanic sand' was seen in the Atlantic Ocean at 0'23's and 

19'10'W. As this island never has been seen since, it probably was floating pumice 

(Catalogue of Active Volcanoes of the World, 

Part 21, p.-i?!1).-6 the map of the National 

Geographic Society of 1955, I found a submarine 

mountain rising from a depth of about 3660 m to 

1528 m in 0'43's and 20'30'W. Eruptions of this 

mountain are also known from December 1816 and 

January 1836. If the supposition that 'the 

i sl and of volcanic sand' i ndeed was floating 

pumice, eruptions at a depth of 1500 m ma- indeed form pumice" mfics mine: mr%d 

And: 'In mv ooinion oumice is formed when the 

eruDtinq mabna'risl iich in silica and still 

vitreoui iidependent of the place of the 

crater, which may be 1OOOmxve or below 

leveT," (italics mine: Hedervari) 

There is another example. A suhmarine volcano is 

known at 38'45". 38'05'W (Neumann van Padana et al. 

1967). 

1955, 

On the map of the National Geographic qagazine 

the ocean is about 4.200 m deep at this point. 

A topographic high of less- than 2,000 m is located 

about 74 km to the east. In 1865 July 9, a submarine 

eruption took place at 38"45'N, 38"05'W, or close to 

31 
A'\ 

0 1 km 'T 

Figure 204/2. Topographic contour map of the central 

part of Ninety East itirlge (after Sclater and Fisher 

(1374). Depths are given in kilomet'ers. Points a 

- e are sites of floating pumices (corresponding to 

1 - 5 in fig. 204/1). Alpha, beta, and gamma are 

points on which heat flow measurements have been 

carried out. Beta corresponds to point D in figure 

204/1. AB: section. 

it, as scoriae, probably pumice, reached the surface 

of the sea, where it formed a "floating mountain." A 

strong smell of Sulphur was perceptible and dull 

rtJmblings idere heard by the crew of the whaler 

"F i rmesa. " 

These two submarine eruptions are numbered 62 and 

154 in the present Catalog. 

Sclater and Fisher (1974) have published an 

excellent contour map of the Ninety East Ridge on 

which the surroundings of our elliptical area can be 

investigated in more detail. 

A part of this map, namely, the central region of 

the Ninety East Ridge, where our elliptical area can 

Figure 204/3. Profile along section AB, with great 

vertical exaggeration. Alpha, beta, and gamma are 

heat flow values; w.a. = world average of heat 

flow. 

also be found, is shown in Fig. 204/2. The numerals 

mean the depth of the water expressed in kilometers. 

One can see that a plateau-like elevation is to be 

found on the northern portion of the demonstrated part 

of the Ridge (shown by black contours). It has an 

average depth of 2.5 km below sea level and has an 

elongated form with a length of some 90-100 km, but 

its width is about 25-30 km. The profile of this 

feature, shown in Fig. 204/3, is rather misleading 

because of the strong vertical exaggeration of the 

drawing in question; in reality the feature is rmch 

flatter, similar in form to a shield volcano or a 

seamount. It is noteworthy that one of the sites on 

which pumice was seen on three occasions, denoted by 1 

in Fig. 204/1. and by d in Fig. 204/2, is to be found 

just at the western edge of the feature. Point 1. = b, 

another site of pumice. is situated west of the 

southern tip of this feature at a distance of some 60 

km. The author is of the opinion that this submarine 

elevation can be regarded as the inferred underwater 

volcano. South of this area there are two other 

submarine elevations denoted by greek delta and 

epsilon in Fig. 204/2, which can also be regarded to 

he volcanoes. Point 5 = g lies between them. The 

writer prefers, however, the northern elevation 

instead of those designated delta or epsilon, because 

in its near proximity pumice were observed altogether 

four times (as mentioned, 5 means three cases and an 

additional case), but Q represents only one 

o bse rva t i on. 

Fortunately, we have three data concerning the 

heat flow in the surroundings of the inferred submarine volcano, and - incidentally - the measurements 

have been made along a line, so to construct a profile 

showing the distribution of heat flow was possible 

easily. The trend of this line is denoted by A and E, 

while the three points over which heat flow measurements have been carried out are denoted by the greek 

:etters alpha, beta, and gamma, respectively. The 

measurements were made by the Lamont-Doherty 

Geological Observatory. The data were published in 

computerized form by the Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology. The date of issue of this list is not 

indicated in the publication in question. 

Froin this list one finds the following values: 

alpha: 4"46' S, 88"34' E: 2.55 HFU 

beta: 7"42' S, 90"02' E: 7.61 HFU 

gama: lO"37' S, 91"19' E: 1.12 HFU 

in heat flow units (HFU) 

32 
4.94 

eo 

Li1 

Figure 204/4. Points with measured heat flow values 

2 2.0 HFU. SL: Sri Lanka (Ceylon); M: 

Malaysia; S: Sumatra; N: Ninety East Ridge. Depth values given in kilometers. Belts I, 11, and 111 

(dotted) are linear zones of heat flow anomalies. 

Isv = inferred submarine volcano. Note that it can 

be found within belt I, the length of which is some 1100 km. 

Using all available data for heat flow (Lee and 

Clark 1966, Simmons and Horai 1968, as well as Lamont-Doherty list , mentioned above) the author has 

constructed the map of distribution of large heat flow 

anomalies in the Indian Ocean, in and around the 

Ninety East Ridge (Fig. 204/4). On this map only 

those points are indicated over which the heat flow 

reached or surpassed the value of 2.00 HFU, which is 

well above the world average. It can be stated that 

within the area investigated (73" E - 105" E, 10" N 

-Equator - 31'30' S), by far the greatest value is 

that one which was observed at point beta. In 

addition, as shown in Fig. 204/4, there are altogether 

three belts of heat flow anomalies in this part of the 

Indian Ocean; these are denoted as I, 11, and 111, 

respectively. Among them belt I is the longest; this 

contains the points alpha, beta, gamma, and two other 

points characterized again with high values, roughly 

double the world average. They are to be found at the 

southern end of belt I. This belt of high heat flow 

anomaly crosses the place of the inferred submarine 

volcano (ISV). Comparing this belt of heat flow ano- maly with the zones of active volcanoes in island 

arcs, it can be stated that more or less similar, 

1 i nearly devel oped belts of hi gh heat flow characterize the volcanic chains, too. Such belts may be 

the consequence of the existence of linearly a1 igned 

e 

Figure 204/5. Distribution of the epicenters of 

powerful tectonic shocks between January 1, 1904, 

and December 31, 1965. All known earthquakes are indicated; all were of shallow origin. Black 

circles: Richter magnitude less than 7.0. Black 

circles labeled with magnitudes denote earthquakes 

of Richter magnitude 7.0 or greater. Thermal ano- maly belts I, 11, and 111 are dotted. Isv = 

inferred submarine volcano. Note the correlation 

between seismicity and heat flow anomaly belts. 

The zone of -great earthquakes extends froin a 

through c. Belt I lies along the seismic zone axis 

between b and c. The northern part of Ninety East 

Ridge is active seismically; the southern part is 

practically aseismic. Earthquakes that occurred in 

the Andaman-Indonesia zone (striped) are not indicated. SL: Sri Lanka; N: Ninety East Ridge. 

(shallow) magma chambers that are to be founa relatively near the surface, at a depth of only a few 

kilometers. The presence of such a submarine anomalybelt with a length of some 1100 km, exactly crossing the critical isv-region, appears to strongly support 

the hypothesis that the isv-region is really the site 

of a submarine volcano. 

The tectonic importance of these three heat flow 

anomaly belts is emphasized by the seismic pattern. 

In Fig. 204/5 the author has indicated the distribution off epicenters of large earthquakes that took 

place from 1904 January I to 1965 December 31, using the data published by Gutenberg and Richter (1954), 

Rothe (1969) and Duda (1965). respectively. All 

shocks with a Richter-magnitude of M>d (where d means a value ranging from 5.3 to 5.9) are indicated by 

black circles. In the case of ML7.0 the corresponding 

magnitude values are also shown. All these shocks 

were of shallow (h<70 km) origin. 

33 
The most powerful earthquake, having a Richtermagnitude of 8.1 (Duda 1965) took place within belt 

111. As regards belt 11, it can be found in the 

northern part of a broader seismic zone (denoted as 

a-b-c) with a strong (M = 6.3) shock a little southward from its western edge. The most interesting is, 

however, belt I, which is to be found along the 

symmetry-axis of the southern part of this broad 

seismic zone. This southern part is denoted as b-c in 

Fig. 204.5. Near the celiter of belt I is a powerful 

earthquake with a magnitude of 7.1 took place. 

Inspecting the general pattern of seismicity we can state that the northern half of Ninety East Ridge is 

seismically very active, while the southern half of it 

is practically isv-region, the site of the suspected 

submarine volcano, occurs within the active segment of 

Ninety East Ridge, especially just on that point where 

the strike of the a-b-c seismic belt changes abruptly. 

Consequently: 

a. The existence of a broad and long seismic 

belt demonstrates the presence of a zone of weakness 

in the oceanic lithosphere; 

. b. the zone of weakness means a strip within 

which deep fractures can originate; the shocks are due 

to fracturings; 

c. the deep fractures give a possibility for the 

subcrustal rock melts to rise from the depth toward 

the surface and thus to create individual magma chambers within the crust, that are aligned linearly; 

d. such linear belts show themselves by the pre- sence presence of linear heat flow anomaly belts; 

e. volcanic activity therefore is likely within 

such broad seismic belts and particularly -within such 

heat flow anomaly belts. 

The order 3f ideas, from point a to e makes the 

supposition likely that the critical area denoted by 

isv in Figs. 204/4 and 204/5 is a submarine volcano. 

- In conclusion, the following statements can be 

inade : 

(1) The pumice masses that were observed at the 

central part of Ninety East Ridge could not have come 

from Krakatau volcano. Neither oceanic currents nor 

winds could carry these pumices from Krakatau to the 

sites where they were observed. 

(2) Consequently, it must be supposed that the 

pumices in question came into being in situ. 

(3) Laboratory experiments, carried out by Brun 

at the beginning of this century, demonstrated that 

the origin of pumice is independent of its place. 

Therefore pumice can originate not only in shallow, 

but in deep water, too. This is proved by two 

examples in the Atlantic Ocean, when pumice was observed over submarine eruptive centers, the depth of 

which in one case was some 1500 m and in the other case was at least 2000 m or even imuch more. 

(4) Near the point denoted by a in Fig. 204/2 

there is a submarine elevation the top of which is 

lying at a depth of about 2500 m. Point a is a place 

on which floating pumices were seen tTree times. 

Southwestward of it there is another point, symbolized 

by b, on which pumice was also observed. This flat 

submarine elevation is regarded to be the submarine 

volcano from which the pumices observed originated in 

1879 and 1883, in each case recedin the paroxysmal 

phase of the Krakatau eruption +T+ ote that during and 

after the paroxysm =floating pumices were seen on 

these sites. 

(5) The geographical coordinates of the center 

of the submarine elevation in question are: 6"05' S, 

89'10' E. It is located in the axis of the Ninety 

East Ridge near but a little northward of its central 

part. Strictly speaking, however, the submarine elevation belongs to the northern (active) segment of the 

Ridge. 

(6) The inferred submarine volcano is located 

within a belt of high heat flow anomaly. Southeast of 

it there is a particular "hot spot" with a value of 

7.61 HFU - the greatest heat flow anomaly within the area extending from 73' E to 105' E, and from 10" N to 

31.5' S. The zone in question (belt I) is the axis of 

the broad seismic belt, between points b and 5 (see in 

Fig. 204/5). The seismically active long and wide 

streak from point 2 through b as far as c is regarded as a zone of weakness. Th'Z shocks (an of shallow 

origin) are the consequences of fracturing processes 

within the oceanic lithosphere. 

(7) Within such a zone of weakness there is a 

possibility for the origin of deep fractures along 

with the rock-inelts can easily emerge from the depth 

towards the surface, creating thus a linear chain of 

(shallow) magma chambers (probably within the oceanic 

crust). 

(8) One of these magma chambers led to the submarine outbursts in 1879 and 1883, the surfical signs 

of which were the pumice masses observed. 

-- 

(9) There is a possibility for further submarine 

eruptions along the same belt of hemw anomaly, 

perhaps in the form of rather slow lava flows on the 

bottom of the ocean rather than violent, explosive 

eruptions; particularly at point beta, where the 

abnormally high heat flow value has been observed. 

Special references for item 204/. 

Bullard, F.M., 1968: Volcanoes in History, &ITheory, in Eruption. Austin,Texas 

Duda, S.J., 1965: Secular Seismic Energy Release in 

the Circum-Pacific Belt. Tectonophysics, V. 2, No. 5, 

409-452 

Fairbridge, R.W. (editor), 1966: The Encyclopedia of 

Oceanography, New York, N.Y. 

Fairbridge, R.W. (editor), 1967: The Encyclopedia of 

Atmospheric Sciences and Astrogeology, New York, N.Y. 

Gutenberg, 6. and C.F. Richter, 1954: Seismicity of 

the Earth, 2nd edition, Princeton, N.J. 

Hedervari, P., 1978a: Volcanism and Seismicity in the 

Indo-Austral ian Seismic Belt: Manifestations of 

Intraplate Tectonics, Annali di Geofisics, V. 31, No. 

1, 111-134, Italy. 

Hedervari, P., 1982: A Possible Submarine Volcano in 

the Central Part of Ninety East Ridge, Indian Ocean. 

Journ. of Volcanoloqy and Geother. Res., 13, 199-211. 

Lee, W.H.K. and S.P. Clark, Jr., 1966: Heat Flow and 

Volcanic Temperatures, Handbook of Physical Constants, 

- Geol. SOC. of Am. Mem., 97, 484-511. 

34 
Neumann van Padang, N. M., 1938: Uoer die Untersee 

vulkane der Erde. De Yijnigenieur, 1. 5, 5-6, 69-83, 

85-103. 

Neumann van Padang, N. M., 1951: Catalog _of_A~tJ,veVolcanoes of the World... Part I. Francesco Gianni e 

Pigli. Indonesia; Naples, Italy. 

Neumann van Padang, N. M., 1963: Catalog4fllc_t_itjd<g 

Volcanoes of the World.. . Part W!~f<bj-a--_a?d-tJ-eIndiann.---F-$a-ritesco Gianni e Figli. Naples, 

Italy.------ 

Neumann van Padang, N. M., 1967: Catalog of hctive 

Volcanoes of the World.. . Part XXI. Atlantic Ocean. 

Francesco Gianni e Figli. Naples, Italy. 

Neumann van Pa4ang. N. M., 1981: Personal 

communi cd t i on. 

Rittmann, A., 1960: 

York. N.Y. 

Volcanoes and their Activity, New 

Rothe, J.P., 1969: Seismicity of the Earth, 1953- 

-1965, Paris, France. 

Sapper, K., 1927: 

Sclater, J.G. and R.L. Fisher, 1974: Evolution of the 

East Central Indian Ocean, with Emphasis on the 

Tectonic Setting of the Ninety East Ridge. Geol. SOC. 

Am. Bulletin, V. 85, No. 5, 683-702. 

Simmons, G. and K. Horai, 1968: Heat Flow Data 2. 

Journ. Geophys. Res., V. 73. No. 20, 6608-6629. 

Vulkankunde. Stuttgart, FRG. 

Williams, H., 1941: Calderas and their Origin. Univ. 

Calif. Bull. Dept. Geol. Sci. V. 25, 239-346. 

E 

205. 1880 July--Unnamed submarine volcano, Azores 

Neumann van Padang (1938) has mentioned a 

submarine eruption and a new island with a diameter of 

155 m. No exact coordinates were given; it appeared 

at a distance of 9 km from Sao Jorge, the latter being 

at 38"30'N, 28"OO'W (Sapper 1927). 

7T* 

206. 1880--Veteran, Cochin China 

A submarine eruption probably occurred in this 

year (MacDonal d 1972) Underwater activity may result 

in the belief that a reef existed here (Neumann van 

Padang 1953). 

E?* 

208. 1881 -- Nameless submarine volcano, Melanesia 

A submarine eruptive center is reported at 

18°45'S, 169'11'E by MacDonald (1972), no further 

details are known. 

7T 

209. 1881 -- Sao Jorge, Azores 

New island that soon disappeared (Sapper 1927). 

T *A3 

210. 1882 -- BOgOS 

Steam was observed 

Rock (Latter 1979). 

of, Aleutian Islands 

from the sea, north of Ship 

7T 

211. 1883 March 28 -- Tuluman, Admiralty Group, 

Melanesia 

Fisher (1957) noted a submarine eruption. NO 

further activity was observed until 1953 June 27 when 

the first phase of a new cycle began. 

7T 

212. 1883 July Il-l2--Georgiana, Ninety East Ridge, 

Indian Ocean 

See item 204. 

7T 

213. 1883 August 1--Georgians, Ninety East Ridge, 

Indian Ocean 

See item 204. 

E 

214. 1883 August 11--Georgians, Ninety East Ridge, 

Indian Ocean 

See item 204. 

E 

215. 1883 August 17--Georgians, Ninety East Ridge, 

Indian Ocean 

See item 204. 

7T 

207. 1881 July -- Submarine volcano, Campi Flegrei 

del Mar di Sicilia 

West of Pantelleria a small island was created by 

submarine activity (van Padang 1938). Location: 

36"51'N, 11'55'E. 

216. 1883 August 18--Georgiana, Ninety East Ridge, 

Indian Ocean 

x* 

35 

See item 204. 

7l 
217. 1883 August 19--Georgians, Ninety East Ridge, 

Indian Ocean 

See item 204. 

x 

218. 1883 August 26 -- Krakatau, Sun& Strait 

(Fig. 218/1) 

The great and we1 1-known catastrophe that caused 

the deaths of 36,417 persons (Sapper 1927) is treated 

in very detailed form in almost every volcanological 

and geological tektbook. Therefore we do not wish to 

deal with theJvolcanologica1 events here in detail and 

shall confine ourselves primarily to the subject of 

tsunamis, quoting some authors, following the order of 

the year of publication of their works. A very vivid 

and interesting description on all of the events is to 

be found in Lane (1966). As a matter of fact, there 

was more than one tsunami: the first one on August 

26, the second on August 27, and after these further 

oscillations of the sea were observed. These latter 

phenomena were due to atmospheric pressure waves 

rather than the collapse of the volcanic lnount (Ewing 

and Press 1955). In the following we shall speak 

about the first and second tsunami as well as about 

further osc?lEions. Within one tsunami the number 

ofs was not necessarily only one. For instance: 

Heck 1947, p. 280): "Three waves following eruption of Krakatoa. On Java shore, height was estimated 

at from 100 to 135 feet at Mera, 50 feet at 

Tyringen, and 33 feet at Anjer. On Sumatra shore, 

height rose to 80 feet; at Telok Batong, 72 feet; at 

Batavia 17 feet." (Second tsunami). 

Berninghausen (1966, pp. 71-73): "1883. August 

26. Sunda Strait (Selat Sunda 6'00'S, 105'45'E). 

Several explosive eruptions of Krakatau generated 

waves which destroyed near shore houses at Tjaringin 

(6'21'S, 105'49'E) and Merak (5'44'S, 106'00'E) in 

Java and Telukbetung (5'27'5, 105'16'E) on Sumatra." 

(First tsunami). 

"August 27. Sunda Strait. Explosive eruptions 

of Krakatau at 0100, 0630 and 0730, local time, 

generated waves which destroyed or damaged Sirik 

(6'07'S, 105'53'E) and Anjerlor (6'05'S, 105'55'E) on 

Java and Telukbetung on Sumatra. At 1000 local time, 

0358 GMT, a fourth explosive eruption of Krakatau 

generated waves, with local heights up to 100 feet, 

which devastated the adjacent shores of Java and 

Sumatra. Waves were reported from South Africa, 

Arabian Peninsula, points on both sides of the Indian 

Peninsula, Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Australia, and 

various islands in the Indian Ocean as well as from 

locals in the Atlantic and Pacific. The table (see 

below) gives a summary of the reports on the tsunami 

in the Indian Ocean." (Second tsunami and further 

osci 1 lat ions). 

Herewith we are enclosing the original table from 

the above cited paper of Berninghausen (1966, p. 71): 

Table 218/1. Tsunami generated by the 27 August 1883 eruption of Krakatau 

Places Reporting the Wave 

Sunda Strait 

South coasts of Sumatra and 

Krakatau............. ....... Java 

Benqkunat Bay.............. 

Palabuhan Ratu (Wi jnkoops baai) .............. Teluk Sanbat............... 

Mana............,.......... 

Pino....................... 

Rengkulu.......... ......... Tjilatjap .................. Mukomuke................... 

Painan..................... 

Cocos (Kelling) Islands...... 

Andaman Is1 ands 

Port 61 ai rt.. .............. Southwest coast of Ceylon 

Galle...................... 

Colombo.................... 

East coast of Ceylon 

Arugam Bay. ................ Batticaloa................. 

Trincomalee................ 

Mullaittivu................ 

Point Pedro................ 

Padang ..................... 

Latitude 

06'06 S. 

05'37 S. 

07'05 S. 

04 ' 50 S . 04"28'S. 

03"48'S. 

07'44'5. 

02 '35 S . 01'21's. 

00'58's. 

12'00's. 

11'36". 

06'02 ' N. 

06'56 ' N. 

06'5 1 N. 

07'43 ' N. 

08'34". 

09'1 6' N. 

09'50' N. 

* 

Longitude 

105'25 E. 

104'18' E. 

106'2 7 ' E. 

103"ZO'E. 

102'54'E. 

102'1 5 ' E. 

109'01 E. 

101 '08 ' E. 

100'34'E. 

100'22'E. 

96'50 ' E. 

92'45'E. 

80'13 ' E. 

79'51 'E. 

81'50'E 

81'42' E. 

NO14 'E. 

80'14 ' E. 

* 

8n04gi~. 

Distance 

from 

Krakatau 

(Nautical 

Mi 1 es) 

90 

14 7 

160 

210 

21 5 

265 

330 

455 

490 

623 

1485 

1678 

1760 

370 

1694 

Time of 

Arrival of 

First 

Great 

Wave (GMT) 

0258 

0958 

0644 

0747 

0754 

0911 

0805 

Height of 

1st Great 

Wave 

(Inches) 

7 

Height of 

Maximum 

Wave 

(Inches) 

1,200 

S1 ight 

60 

72 

36 

84 

36 

72 

48 

108 

Noted 

50? 

48 

44 

Noted 

36? 

40? 

24? 

Noted 
Table 218/1. (continued) 

Places Reporting the Wave Latitude 

East Coast of India 

Negapatamt ................. Madrast.................... 

Visakhapatnam.. ............ False Pointt............... 

Dublatt.................... 

Diamond Harbort............ 

Kidderporet....... ......... Beyporet ................... Bombayt....... ............. 

Karachit................... 

Adent...................... 

Port Alfredt............... 

Port Elizabetht............ 

Mahe Island................ 

Avocaire Island............ 

Mathurin Bay..... .......... Port Louis................. 

Cossack.................... 

Geralton................... 

Ashburton River............ 

Rottnest Island............ 

In River Hoogly 

West Coast of India 

West Pakistan 

Arabian Peninsula 

South Africa 

Seychelles Islands 

Cargados Carajos 

Rodrigues Island 

Muri t i us 

West coast of Australia 

Location 

Krabatau 

Cape H 

Bahia Orange 

10'46' N. 

13'05" 

17'42". 

20" 18' N. * 

22'12 ' N. 

22'32". 

11'11'N. 

18'45' N. 

24'52 ' N. 

12'46'N. 

33'36's. 

33'58's. 

04 "40 ' S . 

16'36's. 

19'40 ' S. 

20'10 ' s. 

20'42' S. 

28'46's. 

21'40's. 

32'00'S. 

Lati tude 

06"06'S. 

55'32 IS. 

Lonqitude 

79'50'E. 

80'1 7' E. 

83'18'E 

86'48'E. * 

88'12'E. 

88" 19 ' E. 

75'49' E. 

72'50 ' E. 

67'03'E. 

45'01 ' E. 

26'54 ' E. 

25'35'E. 

55'28'E. 

59"38'E. 

63'25 ' E. 

57'30'E. 

117'12'E. 

114'38'E. 

114'56'E. 

115'30'E. 

Distance 

from 

Krakatau 

(Nautical 

Mi 1 es) 

1840 

1905 

2012 

2068 

2116 

2151 

2194 

2150 

2634 

3210 

3804 

4632 

4687 

2983 

2753 

2579 

2913 

1107 

1456 

1080 

1653 

Time of 

Arrival of 

First 

Great 

Wave (GMT) 

0920 

0912 

0949 

1049 

1204 

1414 

1619 

1046 

1359 

1412 

1449 

1522 

1610 

1218 

1101 

1006 

1025 

Height of 

1st Great 

Wave 

I 

(Inches) 

11 

4 

6 

8 

8 

8 

4 

8 

5 

10 

4 

17 

16 

*This cannot be located on available gazetteers, maps', and atlases. 

tRecords from tide gages. 

Berninghausen (1968, p. 32. and 43, respectively): "1883. Aug. 27 and 28. Atlantic Ocean, 

English Channel: 

eruDtionofatau in the Sunda Strait between Java 

Waves attributed to the expw 

and' Sumatra on the 26th were recorded on tide gages 

(gauges - note by Hedervari) throughout the world." 

The resume of the tide gage records in the Atlantic is 

given in the next table: 

Table 21812. Tide gage records of Krakatau Wave in the Atlantic 

Longitude 

105'25' E. 

68'01 ' W. 

Distance 

from 

Krakatau 

(N utical 

miles) 

... 

Paci f i c 

7,520 

via Indian 

7,818 

Commencement of 

disturbance 

G.M.T. 

(da ./hr/mi n ) 

27/02/58 

271 18/52 

Heiqht of 

Maximum 

Wave 

(Inches) 

12 

4 

6 

12 

8 

8 

4 

14 

7 

15 

5 

19 

30 

12 

Noted 

24 

18 

60 

72 

Noted 

18 

( i;F;.grej :::y:'i Height 

dav/h r/mi n (in.) 

above of max. 

normal Wave 

29/09/29 I 5 1 5 

37 
Table 218/2. (continued) 

Height 

above 

normal 

(in.) 

5 

Location La ti tude 

Hei ght 

of max. 

Wave 

,_ (in.) 

7 

South Georgia 

Port Moltke 

Panama 

Cnlon 

Europe 

Socoa 

Rochef ort 

Devonport 

Cherbourg 

35' 54' w . 

79'54 ' w. 

01'39' W. 

00'59' W. 

04'1 1 ' W. 

01'39'W. 

O2'26'W. 

00'08' E. 

54'31 ' S. 

09'22' N. 

43'24' N. 

45'56' N. 

50'22'N 

49'39' N. 

6,676 

11,470 

10,900 

10,900 

11,040 

11,096 

11,097 

11,160 

Port1 andLaHavre 

Distance Commence - 

Krakatau disturbance 

Longitude G.M.T. 

miles 

ment of 

50'33' N. 

49'30' N. 

27 f 16 f 27 

... 

27 f 05/52 

28/07/44 

28/06 f 20 

28/09/26 

281 1 I/ 33 

... 

First qrea 

Wave 

G.M.T. 

(dav f hrfmin) 

27 116 f 55 

27/21/50 

281 04 f 57 

28 f 09/24 

28 f 101 45 

281 09 f 26 

26 f 101 15 

28/11f 33 

Note that the data in this Table refers to the further oscillations. 

Berninghausen (1969, p. 292): "1883. Aug. 26. 

Indonesia, Java and Sumatra. Waves generated by the 

explosive eruption of Krakatoa in the Sunda Strait 

were reported from stations throughout the world. 

Waves estimated at from 30 to 40 meters (100 to 130 

feet) in height were reported from the Java shore of 

the strait while 24 meter (80 feet) waves were 

reported from the Sumatra shore. The following list 

gives information on waves which were noted along the 

northern coast of Java." 

Table 218/3. 

7 1 ... 

Distance from 

P1 ace Krakatoa Wave hei g ht 

Mi 1 es (meters) (feet) 

Bantam (06'03'S., 106'09'E.) 50 2.0 6.0 

Lontar (05'58'S., 106'18'E.) 55 2.3 7.5 

Kramat (06'16'S., 106'38'E.) 77 3.4 11.0 

Tjilintjing (06'06'S., 106'56'E.) 102 0.6 2.0 

Ta nd j ungp r i ok (06'06'S., 106'52'E.) 100 2.0 6.0 

Rambatan* 184 0.6 2.0 

Djapara (06'35'S., 110'39'E.) 310 0.5 1.5 

Udjung Pangkah (06'35'S., 112'23'E.) 440 0.02 0.6 

Surabaja (07'15'S., 112O45'E.) 465 0.02 0.6 

Karang K1 eta* 497 0.02 0.8 

(Evans and Wharton 1888, Heck 1947, Verbeek 1886) 

*Cannot be located in avai 1 ab1 e gazetters. 

These data refer to the second tsunami. Generating area: Sunda Strait. Place of observation: 

Indonesia, Sumatra-Telok Batong, Java-Merak, Anjer. 

For the first tsunami Iida et al. (1972) gave the Height: 1.5 (meter). Effects and remarks: camp 

following report: swept away." 

"1883. Aug. 26. 17:07 (local date and time of 

tsunami generation or, if source unknown, of observation 16.7'S, 105.4. Krakatoa volcano explosions. 

For the second tsunami and the further oscillations the datamven in the following Table: 

38 
Table 218/4. 

Date 

Aug. 26-27 

---------- 

Aug. 27 

01 : 42 

05 : 30 

06:44 

10:02 

Aug. 27 

02: 59 

Place of 

observation 

Japan, HonshuSagami, Shi kokuSatsuma 

Australia, Sydney 

New Zealand 

Hawaiian Islands, 

Oahu-Honolulu 

Alaska, Kodiak 

California, San 

Francisco 

Sumatra-Tel ok Batong , Java-Si ri k, JavaAnjer, Sumatra 

.......................... 

Suma t ra- Ta 1 o k Bat ong , Vlakke Hock 

Java, Tyringen 

Merak 

Batavia 

Surabaya 

Height 

(meters) 

very 

smal 1 

<0.1 

0.3 

0.24 

0.1 

22 

15 

15-20 

35 

2.4 

0.2 -------------- 

Effects and remarks 

The small waves observed in the Pacific, as well as in 

other oceans, were generated by atmospheric pressure 

waves resulting from the major Krakatoa explosion and do 

not represent the true tsunami observed in the vicinity 

of the Sunda Strait. Few authors have noted that more 

than one tsunami was connected with the Krakatoa 

explosion. No magnitudes have been assiqned to the 

Krakatoa tsunamis because this mode of generation was 

different from that assumed in the definition of tsunami 

magnitudes. 

Village submerged. Almost entirely swept away. Lower 

part of town (probablj Java-Anjer -- author) overwhelmed. 

Major explosion, 8 km of volcano blown away (accordinq 

to other sources, 18 km -- author). All towns and 

villaqes on Sunda Strait destroyed. Warship ("Berouw", a 

Dutch one -- author) carried 3 km inland to 10 m 

elevation. All towns and villages on Sunda Strait 

destroyed . 

........................................................... 

Table 218/4. has been compiled after Iida et al. (1972). 

.I 

Figure 218/1.-- Rakata Island after the 1883 eruption of Krakatau. Above: 

seen from the southeast; below: collapse of the northwest portion of the 

island has split the mountain. The main volcanic vent and even a shallow 

maqma chamber within the mountain itself are easily visible on this nearly 

vertical natural section. 

39 
F 219. 1883 September 27 -- Bogoslof, Aleutian Islands 

Birth of lava dome known as New Bogoslof, north 

of Ship Rock (Latter 1979). Submarine eruption, and 

as a consequence an andesitic lava dome came into 

being. Later on a subaerial crater was formed 

(Mercalli 1907). Appearance of a new tabular mass of 

lava from the sea. Grewingk = Fire = New Bogoslof. 

Explosions, bombs, and debris joined Shio Rock and 

Castle Rock to form a singlk, elongated island 

[Bull ard 1968). 

220. 1883 February 6 -- St. Augustine, Alaska 

Explosive eruption, accompanied by tsunami with 

a height of 9 m (Henning et a1 . 1976) or 10 m (Sapper 

1927), respectively. It was observed at Kenai 

Peninsula, Port Graham (Cox et a1 . 1976), and on the 

Aleutian Islands (Hech 1947) as well. The tsunami 

magnitude is assigned as 3? (Iida et al. 1972) which 

corresponds to an energy of 1.58*10z3 ergs. According 

to Sapper (1927), rumblings, pumice-fall, ash-fall, 

bombs, lapilli, and "flames" were observed, and "the 

mount split in two". The eruption has been designated 

very powerful and paroxysmal by Hantke (1979). E: 

Mercalli (1907) has called attention to the 

interesting fact that the great explosive outbreak of 

St. Augustine occurred almost simultaneously with the 

eruption of Bogoslof (see item 221). May it be that 

these two eruptions were really connected in an 

unknown way with each other? In our opinion a physical correlation between these two volcanoes is extremely unlikely; consider the very great distance 

Figure 218/2.-- Old painting about eruption of between these eruptive centers. Thus their almost 

Krakatau in 1883. After Mercalli. simultaneous activity is, in all probability, due to 

chance. 

t'" 

There are a few additional sources in two recent 

Accordingly: 

publication; of World Data Center A for Solid Earth 221. 1883 October 20 -- 3ogoslof, Aleutian Islands 

Geophysics, which should also be quoted. 

Place of observation: Alaska, Kodiak; height: 0.1 east (Latter 1979)- 

(meter); observation and remarks: small waves 

arriving 27 August sometime between 18:OO and 23:OO 

were generated by atmospheric pressure waves resul ting 

from the explosion of Krakatoa, and were not associated with the tsunami that caused destruction along 

shores of Sunda Strait." That is, this refers to the 

further osci 1 lations. Simi 1 arly (Pararas-Carayanni s and Calebaugh 1977, p. 14): "1883. Aug. 27. - Area of 

origin: Sunda Strait, Indonesia; place of observation: Hawaii, Oahu Island, Honolulu; height: 0.2 

(meter); observation and remarks: the waves were only 

detectable by tide gage and arrived at 00:31, Aug. 27. 

(The small tsunami recorded in Hawaii was generated by 

atmospheric pressure waves from the major Krakatoa 

eruption. The only true tsunamis were generated and 

observed in the vicinity of Sunda Strait.)" 

Finally, we mention that the speed of the second 

tsunami in the open water might have reached 700 krn/h. 

(See item 220 as well.) Violent explosive 

COX et ai. (1976, p. 13): "1883. 17. - outburst, ash-fall at Unalaska, some 100 km to the 

Kt 

,. ,: "\: ,\ -.> c .-/\ P . ;,.: ./:,. :.?, -*-i., 1. , > 

0 o,t %=l= 

Figure 221/1.-- The first appearance of Bogoslof in 1796 

(upper drawing) and an 1883 view (lower drawing). 1. 

Ship Rock; 2. Old Bogoslof; 3. New Bogoslof. 

w 
222. 1884 December 29--Unnamed submarine volcano, 

The water suddenly became boiling and seething over a region 8 to 10 km. The sea surface at places was thrown up to a height of 0.6 m above the normal 

level. It might have been a real eruption, because of 

the relative proximity of a seamount (van Padang et 

al. 1967). The coordinates of the seamount in question are 48' 17.5' N, 35" 22' W, and the event was observed 

at 49' 00' N, 34" 30' W. 

northern Atlantic 

x 

223. 1884 (?) -- Eldey, Iceland 

Submarine activity, no details (Berninghausen 

1964). 

224. 1885 October 11 (or October 14) - 1886 October 

-- Falcon Island, Tonga Volcanic Group 

New island appeared. In 1886 the volcano was still in eruption (Richard 1962). According to Sapper 

(1927) the new island came into being on October 14, 

and 4 days later submarine activity was observed 

again. Activity was noted in the next year also, when 

the island reached a length of 2600 m and a height of 

50. In 1887 it was 90 m high. Disappeared in 1898, 

but in 1900 cliffs appeared immediately below sea 1 eve1 ("backs of whal es") . K * f *3* 

225. 1886 March -- Unnamed volcano, Kermadec 

A submarine eruption has been reported at 

29'11'S, 177'52'W. A great mass of floating pumice, 

nearly 5 kin long and 2.5 km wide was seen, rising up 

froiii the depth and spreading out from the center of 

the mass (Richard 1962). 

Kermandec Volcanic Group 

226. 1886 June 10 -- Tarawera, New Zealand 

The great explosive eruption that originated 

from a regional fissure was - probably - accompanied 

by base surge (MacDonal d 1972). 

= t =?= 

227. 1886 August 17 -- Nameless submarine eruptive 

center, Central Mediterranean Sea 

At 35'54'N, 18'40'E a flame was seen, having had 

a height of 30 m and a width of 10. The phenomenon 

soon disappeared. Very doubtful event, mentioned only 

by Sapper (1927). The sea here is about 4000 m deep 

and the point mentioned is very far from the known 

volcanic belts of the Mediterranean Sea. 

K? 

228. 1886 August 27 -- Nameless submarine eruptive 

center, Central Mediterranean 

A really extraordinarily interesting correlation can be surmised between the submarine volcanic activity and the great earthquake; both took place on the same day. According to Sapper (1927) at midnight, not 

too inuch after the earthquake (see later) a dense, 

black cloud emerged froin the sea vertically. It had a reddish color. The location of the event was 36'17'N, 

21'27'E. 

For the earthquake, an erroneous location is 

given by Giorgetti and Iaccarino (1971). According to 

them event No. 1091 took place at Messenia: 38'18'N, 

15'36'E. The epicentral intensity was at least 10 

degrees or even more. It is clear, however, that the 

Greek town, Messenia, was confused with the Italian 

town, Messina. The coordinates given abovewould refer to the epicentral location) are, in fact, 

the coordinates of the Italian Messina (according to 

- The Prentice-Hall World Atlas, New Jersey, 1963: 

Messina: 38'11'N, 1WE;e Messini = Messenie: 

37'01'N, 22"OO'E). 

According to Galanoupoulos (1960, 1960a) the epicentral coordinates were as follows: 37'N, 21'25'E 

and the intensity of the shock at Messini (or Messinia 

= Philiatra) was 11 degrees. The shock occurred at 

about 21h 30111 GMT and it had an intermediate focus. 

In spite of this, a tsunami did occur. "A really 

great, probably intermediate shock with a very large 

meizoseismal area on the western coast of Messenia, was followed by a tsunami observable as far away as Smyrna." (Galanopoulos 1960, p. 378). The same data are repeated by Ambraseys (1962), as well as Karnik 

(1971). Three towns: Philiatra, Ligudistra, and 

Koroni and 123 villages were almost completely 

destroyed. Richter magnitude: 8.4. 

In all likelihood the submarine eruption was 

directly tri ered by this tremendous shock. Note 

volcanic phenomenon, can be found south of 

Peloponnesos, rather far from the known volcanic chain 

of the Greek archi pel ago. 

iT5 

that the + p ace mentioned as the probable site of the 

229. 1886 -- Metis Shoal, Tonga Volcanic Group 

Submarine activity. The rock that came above 

the level of the sea as a result of the underwater 

eruption in 1858 (see item 188), was 122 m high and it 

occasionally has been very active (Richard 1962). 

-nt * 

230. 1887 January 16 -- Mauna Loa, Hawaii 

Eruption from the southwest rift zone, accompanied by a submarine lava flow of some 153 million 

m3 (MacDonald 1955). 

231. 1887 April 1 -- Unnamed submarine volcano, 

An underwater eruption is mentioned by Sapper 

(1927) at 17'38'N, 46'34'W. No further information; 

doubtful. 

Northern Atlantic 

E? 

41 
232. 1887 -- Falcon Island, Tonga Volcanic Group which corresponds to an energy of 1022 ergs. The 

eruption was in progress when the tsunami took place. 

The new island (see item 224) has reached a The outbreak is doubtful, however, as it is not 

length of some 87 m and is evidently still in further mentioned by Neumann van Padang's Catalogue of Active 

- although slow - development (Richard 1962). (See Volcanoes of the World (1951)- It is noteworthy, 

1889 as well .) furthermore, that Heck (1947) also mentioned the event 

but erron-eously gave 1899 September 8 instead of 1889 

September 9 as the date. x 

T? 

233. 1887-1890 (between these years) -- Bogosl of, 

Aleutian Islands 

Disappearance of Ship Rock (Latter 1979). 

At3 

237. 1889 -- Kita-Iwo-zima, Izu-Mariana Islands 

The water was ejected to a height of 100 m; the 

activity stopped after the earthquake of that year. 

Black mud and ash were thrown up from the submarine 

eruptive center. Sapper (1927) has mentioned a submarine outbreak fran this area but without giving the 

date of the event's occurrence (Kuno 1962). 

xf r 

234. 1888 March 13 -- Ritter Islands off the 

Northeast Coast of New Guinea 

The eruption was somewhat similar to that of 

1889 -- Unnamed volcano, Tonga Volcanic Group Tambora in 1815 and Krakatau in 1883: on the dawn of 

March 13, most of the volcanic mount was disintegrated 

This submarine volcano is located between by a terrible explosion (Fisher 1957), that was 

the eruption it was a 'One some 'O0 high' but the 

nym for Falcon Island. No further data for the exact 

catastrophic event caused Of Of the site are given. Discolored water, containing volcanic subaerial portion of the mount, in all likelihood by a 

collapse-process (Center for Short-Lived Phenomena, 

Report No. 1507, 19F238. 

followed by a great and powerful tsunalni* Prior to Tongatapu and Fonua Fo'ou, the latter name is a synomatter 

(Richard 1g62). The event is a little doubtful, 

kind of fine particles) was reported 

T? 

Heck (1947) gave March 12 for the day of 

occurrence of the tsunami. Generally, however, March 

13 is accepted. The seismic sea wave engulfed the 239. 1889 -- Falcon Island, Tonga Volcanic Group 

north coast of New Guinea and it was observed in New 

Britain as well. It caused great damage and some loss In this year the island (see items 224 and 232, 

of life. Heck does not mention volcanic eruption. respectively) was 2 km long and 1.6 km wide, with a 

The tsunami magnitude was assigned as 2? by Iida et maximum height of almost 47 m at the southern end. It 

al. (1972); the corresponding energy amounts to consisted of loose ashes and cinders (Richard 1962). 

12 m. 

3.98*1022 ergs. The imaximum height of the waves was x 

Ot" 

235. 1889 September 6 (or September 9?)--Banua 

Wuhu, Sangi he Is1 ands 240. 1889 -- Metis Shoal, Tonga Volcanic Group 

Berninghausen (i969) gave the date of the event 

as September 6, but in other sources (Neumann van 

Padang 1951, van Bemmelen 1970) we find September 9. 

It is likely, however, that the two eruptions are the 

same. There is some confusion with the eruption of 

Ruang--see item 236. However, Ruang's outbreak is not 

mentioned by the Catalo ue of Active Volcanoes of the 

World (Neumann hang 1951 . According to 

gexnghausen (1969) the waves we:e relatively small 

ones, only 1.5 m in helght at Taroena on the Sangihe 

Islands. The waves washed up many dead fishes. 

Neumann van Padang (1938) has mentioned the birth of a 

new island, having had a height of 50 m at the most. 

The activity ended in 1895. On September 6 a shock 

was felt that was probably a tectonic one. 

TAT -k% 

The rock which came into existence in 1858 (see 

items 188, 201, and 229, respectively), in 1889 was 

about 90 m across and some 20 m high (Richard 1962). 

7T 

241. 1890 February -- Bogoslof, Aleutian Islands 

Submarine outbreak (Mercalli 1907). Ash on Fire 

Island, which was in a fumarolic stage until about 

1896 (Latter 1979). 

* 

Xf 

236. 1889 September 9--Ruang, Sangihe Islands 242. 1891 October 17 - October 25 - Foerstner 

(Phlegraen Fields of the), Sicily Sea 

As mentioned in item 235, this alleged eruption 

is often confused with the activity of Banua Wuhu. This submarine eruptlion point is also known as 

According to Iida et al. (1972) a tsunami accompanied "Bank NNW of Pantellaria . Explosive eruption with 

the eruption of Ruang. It had a maqnitude of l?, emission of gases and ejection of internally incan42 
...... 

1826 

Q3 

1884 

1895 

Figure 241/1.-- Development of the Bogoslof group. 1. 

Ship Rock; 2. Old Bogoslof; 3. New Bogoslof; 4. 

Strip of land that is dry at ebb-tide. (From Sapper) 

descent fragments along the northwest submarine slopes 

of the island. Earthquakes and upward motions of the 

island as a whole preceded and accompanied the event 

(Imbo 1965). 

xt 

243. 1891 December -- Unnamed volcano, Campi Flegrei 

Only uncertain references are available about a 

del Mar di Sicilia 

submarine eruption south of Pantelleria (Imbo 1965). 

T? 

244. 1892 June 7-8--AwuY Sangihe Islands 

A tsunami occurred with a magnitude of l? (Iida 

et al. 1972) as a result of the Awu erupt.ion, but no 

details are known. The eruption itself is assigned as 

a great one by the Catalogue of the Active Volcanoes 

of the World (Neumann van Padang 1951) . Sapper (1927) 

mentioned that 1,532 persons lost their lives. It is 

supposed that the tsunami was caused by nuees ardentes 

entering the sea. 

Q ,-La 4 

245. 1893 (more likely before this year)-- 

Emperor of China, Banda Sea 

Submarine explosions? The existence of this 

volcano, first mentioned in the Catalogue of Active 

Volcanoes of the World (Neumann van Padang 1951) was 

recently doubted by Jezek (1978) and debated by 

Neumann van Padang (1978). The situation is the same 

with Yersey (Lesser Sunda Islands), Nieuwerkerk (Banda 

Sea) as well as with a nameless submarine volcano in 

the region of the Sangihe Islands. The matter of the 

debate is very interesting and very pertinent to our 

subject; furthermore as the periodical "Berita" of the 

Indonesian Geological Survey (Direktorat Geologi ) is 

not available for all of the readers, it seems to be 

reasonable to give here a summary of the views of 

Jezek and Neumann van Padang. 

Neumann van Padang (Berita, lo, 17, pp. 198-199, 

1978) has written: 

In "Berita" v. 10 (1978), n. 13, p. 150, c.2. 

I read that Jezek doubts the existence of 

submarine volcanoes Nieuwerkerk and Emperor 

of China. But unfortunately the motives of 

his doubts were not mentioned. 

I am of the opinion that Roerema's way of 

this thinking was logical and therefore 

correct. He wrote (1929, p. 919): "On the 

sea chart of islands and channels East of 

Java 1:1,000,000, edited in 1893 three coral 

reefs were inserted with the names: 

Nieuwerkerk reef.. ....... .124"43'E, 6'39's 

Emperor of China reef. .... 124'17'E, 6'44's 

and 

Yersey reef. ............. .123'57'E, 7'32'5" 

Krusinga (1938, p. 955) communicated that 

according to J.C.H. Luijmes, Chief of the 

Department of Hydrography, Nieuwerkerk was a 

ship wrecked in 1742 about 60 km northerly, 

and Emperor of China another ship wrecked at 

about the same place in 1852. 

On September 24, 1925, a ship sailing at 

6'40's and 124'41'E observed at a distance of 

about 2 km turbulent water. The extension of 

the surf was estimated to be half a mile. 

The place was considered to be the same as 

that of the Nieuwerkerk reef. The disturbance of the water was the same as may be 

seen on reefs during calm weather and light 

swell. This report induced the Marine 

Department of the Netherlands Indies to make 

rewarm 1 nto tnat reg1 on. 

Soundings were done by the surveying vessel H. M. 

Tydeman and the submarine K. 111. in May and by the 

submarine K. X in November 1926. However none of the 

vessels found a depth less than 2300 m. Therefore the 

reefs were expunged on the sea chart edition of 1927. 

By inserting the different tracks on tracing cloth it 

became clear that a 1000 m high mountain ridge rose on 

the sea bottom with a depth of 4200 m. The summit 

with rather steep slopes had a height of 2000 m. The 

configuration of the sea bottom made it sure that surf 

on a coral reef was impossible and that the 

disturbance of the sea water observed on this spot 

could only be caused by the activity of a submarine 

volcano. This elucidated also that surveying vessels 

could not localize the supposed surf when the activity had subsided. 

There was still another indication that we had to do 

with a submarine volcano. In February and March 1927 

thousands of fishes, turtles etc. were washed ashore 

on the Islands of Alor and Lomblen situated at about 

100 miles south and southeast of Nieuwerkerk. This 

phenomenon could only be caused by a submarine 

eruption. 

43 
W E 

Figure 245/1.-- Left: Section across Emperor of China. Right: sections across 

Nieuwerkerk (after Neuman van Padang). 

a 

0 40 20 

Figure 245/2.-- Sections across some volcanoes (after Menard). a: Guyot, 290' 

N, 155' E; b: Ganung Api, Eastern Indonesia; c: Jasper seamount; d: Mauna 

Loa with its top-caldera (NE-SW section). 

The soundings also gave indication of a submarine Stehn, Ch. E., 1929: A new undersea volcano, 

mountain of 18UU m height at the place of the "Emperor Netherl. Ind. Volcanol. Survey Bull., Nov., pp. 

of China" reef. 147-1 49. 

In November 1929 Stehn (1929, p. 149) gave the volcano Neumann van Padang, M., 1938: IJeber die 

Nieuwerkerk the number 107, and Emperor of China the Unterseevulkane der Erde, De Ingenieur in Nederl. 

number 108. -- Ind.,v. 5, n. 4, p. 80. 

That we have to do with submarine volcanoes was 

affirmed by the soundings of the Snellius Expedition. 

Van Riel (1934, on plate 9) showed that Emperor of 

China was a submarine mountain rising nearly 1500 m 

above its surroundings, having a summit which was 2850 

m below sea level. Nieuwerkerk was a NNW - SSE 

stretching submarine mountain with two tops at a 

mutual distance of more than 7 km, rising about 1800 m 

and 1900 m above the bottom of the sea. The NW summit 

1 at 6"36'S and 124'40'E was 2285 m, the SE summit I1 

at 6'39's and 124'43'E was 2325 m below the level of 

the sea. They were separated by a 600 m deep saddle. 

Neumann van Padang (1938, p. 80 fig. 4. and 5.) 

published the chart that van Riel made of this part of 

the Banda Sea and cross sections through these two 

mountains. The place of the southern top corresponded 

with that of the so called Nieuwerkerk reef on the 

chart of 1893. (See also Neumann van Padang 1951, pp. 

212-216.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Boerema. J.. 1929: A new undersea volcano, 

Physical Papers, Proc. IV. Pacific Sci. Congr., v. 2. 

By p. 919. 

Kruizinga, P. and M. Neumann van Padang. 1935: 

Ueber die Unterseevul kane der Erde, Koninkl. Nederl. 

Aardrifksk. Genoot. Tijdschr., 11, v. 55, p. 955. 

Neumann van Padang, M., 1951: Cataue of the 

Active Volcanoes of the World, ParrI. Indonesia, 

Napoli , pp. 212-216. 

van Riel, P.M., 1934: The bottom configuration 

in relation to the flow of the bottom water. The 

~- Snellius Expedition, v. 2, Pt. 2, Plate 9. -- 

This paper of Neumann van Padang, which was described here fully and literally, was supplemented by a 

note from the editor (K. Kusumadinata) as follows: 

"Note from the Editor: Jezek doubts the 

exi steFofthesubmarinecanoes in the Banda Sea 

as the data were not very reliable. We do agree with 

him in this case. In our opinion if both volcanoes 

exist -- they must receive their magma supply from a 

very great depth, since the primary magma chamber must 

be lying imre than 500 kilometres beneath the surface. 

This value seems to be very improbable." 

We do not share the opinion expressed by the 

editor. At first, the profiles of the oceanic bottom 

(see Fig. 245/1) -provide unquestionable proof for the 

assertion of van Padang. According to him we have 

here typical volcanic forms. These features resemble 

very much volcanic shields with a top-crater or 

caldera, similar to -example - Mauna Loa of 

Hawaii (see Fig. 245/2). Secondly: we are familiar 
with volcanic regions in the case of which the depth 

of primary magma chambers is surprisingly high. E.g., 

we found some 330 km for Vesuvius, 380 km for the 

Phlegraean Fields and 405 km for Ischia (Hedervari 

1974-75); furthermore, as pointed out by Ninkovich and 

Hays (1971), the Indonesian volcanoes Batu Tara (north 

of Flores) and Muriah (on the northern coast of Java), 

which were active in the Pleistocene, are 300-400 km 

above the Benioff zone, and the volcano Ullung-do from 

the Sea of Japan and some plateau basalts froin Korea 

and Manchuria are about GO0 km above the seismic zone. In terms of the accepted model for the deep structure 

of island arcs (Minear and Taksoz 1970, Toksoz et al. 

1971), local inelting just beneath the active volcanos 

begins along the upper surface of the downgoing, 

usually oceanic lithospheric slab, and hence, primary 

magma chambers are formed at the upper edge of the 

seismic zone known also as Benioff zone which shows 

the position of the downgoing slab. Therefor, we cannot accept the counter-argument, mentioned above, 

according to which "if both volcanos exist -- they 

must receive their magma-supply from a very great 

depth, 500 krn or more which appears to be improbably w." In the light of the examples, suininarized 

above, such a great depth is not improbable at all. 

In his answer to Neumann van Padang's paper, 

cited above, Jezek has written as follows (Berita lJ, 

"Following is a discussion of observations used 

in classifying the submarine volcanoes: 

"1. Disturbed sea water--Neuinan van Padang et 

al. (1967) placed this type of observation in the 

'Doubtful ' category. 

"2. Massive kill of fishes, turtles, etc.--known 

to occur in areas without any volcanic activity (e;g. 

'red tide' occurring off the east U.S. coast; E1 

Nino' occurring off the west coast of South America-- 

both known to be caused by biological or hydrological 

factors) therefore does not document volcanic 

activity. Due to our poor knowledge of ocean currents 

in Eastern Indonesian waters in general it is even uncertain where these dead fishes and turtles, found 

on Alor and Lomblen, came from. 

"3. Shipwrecks--without observations of volcanic 

phenomena made concurrently, in illy opinion do not 

document submarine activity. It is unlikely that s 

submarine eruption at a depth greater than 2000 m 

would cause a shipwreck unless it was an exceptionally 

violent one which would then probably cause large tsunamis etc. recorded over a large area. It is very 

unlikely that two ships at two different times would 

be located exactly above the volcano just as the eruption was beginning because if a violent eruption was in progress the ships would avoid the area. 

"4. Bottom features--the bathymetry of the 

southern Banda Sea shows some relief and although 

volcanic features may be present the lack of bottom 

samples and/or photographs prohibit unambi gous (sic) 

classification of these features. 

"In the Celebes Sea no relief is found in the area of the proposed submarine volcano and approximately 5000 m deep sea floor is present." 

I complete this interesting discussion, "Beri ta" 

I= Newsletter) has published a note in the November 

1978 issue (IO, 21, pp. 260-2611, in which we can read 

the followinjT 

In his letter of October 17, 1978, Dr. M. 

20, pp. 254-256, 1978): 

keuinann van Padang . . . writes that Jezek is 

of course right that disturbed sea water is 

not always due to an volcanic eruption below sea level. . . . When on September 24, 1925, 

broken water was siahted bv the steamer 

the map of 1893 was rediscovered. At the 

very time nobody was thinking on the possibility of a submarine volcanical outburst. 

The 'reefs' Nieuwerkerk, Emperor of China and 

Yersey (see map 1893) of course were named 

after the ships which observed phenomena such as breakers of coral reefs. Neumann van Padang regrets not to be aware when it was carried out and by whom. Only at the time 

soundings were conducted at this place in 

1926 depths of more than 2300 rn were discovered. Boerema only then arrive to the 

thought that the 'disturbance of the sea water' must be due to a volcanic outburst. 

The thousands of fishes washed ashore might 

be a proof of Boerema's correct sight. In no 

case it is contrary to it. 

The 'reefs' Nieuwerkerk and Emperor of China 

were drawn on the map of 1893. In 1930, 

exactly 37 years later the bottom of the sea was mapped by the Snellius Expedition and 

only then it appears there were undersea 

mountains of 1500 and 1900 m in height, their 

summits were situating on the places of the 

reefs on the old sea chart . . . This is not 

quite an accident and according to Neumann van Padang a strong indication proofing 

Boerema's opinion. In his article in 1938 

Neumann van Padang draw transverse sections 

through these muntains. It became evident 

that Emperor of China is a singular cone, 

Nieuwerkerk a double one. These 'reefs' had 

to be named. According to J. C. H. Luijmes, 

Chief of the Department of Hydroloqy, the names of the ships were selected which Mere 

wrecked in their surroundings, perhaps 

stranded on reefs somewhere south of 

Sulawesi. Nieuwerkerk was the name of a ship 

wrecked in 1742 about 60 kin north of the 

above mentioned place and tmperor of China was another ship wrecked in 1852. It is evident that these ships have nothing to do with 

submarine outbursts. The ships were only 

considered to give the 'reefs' a name. Thus 

it is clear that Jezek misunderstooa. 

Concerning the submarine volcano I. 84. or 6,7-5 (the first symbol is the serial number 

of the volcano in the old catalogue, used by 

the Volcanological Survey of the Dutch East 

Indies; the second symbol is the serial 

number of the volcano in the Catalogue of 

Active Volcanoes of the World -- note by P. 

H.) in the Sulawesi Sea, Neumann van Padang 

writes that he refers to this submarine 

volcano in 1938 as well as in his Catalogue 

in 1951, as the Catalogue only aims to mention known data, on yolcanos concerning "amy 

and location, Form and structure, 

'Eruptive activity,' 'Petrography,' as well as 'Bibliography.' It was then not aimed to 

make critical remarks." 

45 
Note: The coordinates of this doubtful submarine 

volcaToTre 3"58'N, 124'10'E (or 124"12E) (Neumann van 

Padang 1938). 

In conclusion: The present author accepts the 

possibility of the existence of Nieuwerkerk and 

Emperor of China, as submarine volcanos, because the 

profiles of the oceanic bottom show typical volcanic 

(shield-volcanic) features. Thus in this case we 

share the opinion of Neumann van Padang. But the 

existence of the Yersey volcano is not proven by 

depth-measurements in so definite a way. According to 

Neumann van Padang (1951). the Snellius expedition in 

1929 established a depth of more than 3,800 m and 

found a submarine ridge that rises about 600 m from 

the flat floor of the Banda Sea. This submarine ridge 

carries two active volcanos: Batu Tara and Api (van 

Bemmelen 1970). Therefore--states the Catalogue of 

Active Volcanoes of the World--the conception of the 

existence of a reef =have been caused by a submarine eruption, the date of which is unknown. That 

i s, a1 though the existence of the submarine vol can0 

known as Yersey is not excluded, it is not proven. 

Concerning this feature, we are inclined to accept 

Jezek's opinion. Similarly, the existence of the submarine volcano 6,7-5 is very doubtful. The number 

"6,7-5" is the serial number of a supposed submarine 

volcano at 3'58". 124"lO'E (from the Indonesian 

volume of the Cataiogue of Active Volcanoes of the 

World). ____________ ---_-____ 

246. 1894 April -- Falcon Island, Tonga Volcanic 

Group 

It is estimated that about two-thirds of the new 

island (see items 224, 232, and 239, respectively) was 

washed away since 1885, the year of its origin. In 

1894 only a low streak of black rocks was present 

(Richard 1962). 

247. 1894 July--Banua Wuhu, Sangihe Islands 

new island? Uncertain (Neumann van Padang 1953). 

A 50-m high strip of land was seen--perhaps a 

T?*? 

248. 1894 November 21--Unnamed submarine volcano, 

According to Berni nghausen (1968, p. 33 1, "1 arge 

waves, possibly caused by submarine volcanic activity 

in the vicinity of 49"001N, 34'3O'W, were reported 

from several locales in the Atlantic. Off the west 

coast of Ireland at 53'09'N, 09"52'W, the ship S.S. 

Diamond lying-to awaiting daylight to enter port, 

reported that the wave was heard some time before it 

was seen and then seemed to be about 40 feet high. 

The vessel never rose to it but was literally 

submerged for a time." Note: We regard the submarine 

activity to be a little doubtful. The place mentioned 

as the site of the submarine eruptive center lies on 

the northern part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where, of 

course, submarine volcanic activity is possible. 

However. such basaltic lava flows that are frequent 

along the rift valley are never accompanied by 

tsunamis. It amears to be more likely that the 

observed waves were either due to a strong storm or to 

northern Atlantic 

a seaquake, rather than to a submarine volcanic 

eruption. Let us remember that neither the birth of 

Fayal (Azores, 1957 September 17) nor that of Surtsey 

(Iceland, 1963 November 14) was accompanied by 

tsunamis, although both eruptions were extraordinarily 

strong ones and were accompanied by base surges. It 

is, therefore, hard to believe that a tsunami would 

have been associated with a slow, normally 

explosionless, basaltic lava effusion on the bottom or 

along the inner slope of the rift valley, when a new 

island did not come into being. 

*?" 

249. 1894 December -- Falcon Island, Tonga Volcanic 

Group 

Submarine activity. The island (last mentioned 

under itern 246) 'was 15 m high again; consequently it 

had grown since 1894 April (Richard 1962). 

x*t 

250. 1894 -- Metish Shoal, Tonga Volcanic Group 

under item 240) has been active again (Richard 1962). 

The rock that was born in 1858 (last mentioned 

*t 

251. 1895 (end of the year) -- Banua Wuhu, Sangihe 

I sl ands 

A temporary island came into existence (van 

Bemmel en 1970). 

x* 

252. 1895 -- Falcon Island, Tonga Volcanic Group 

Submarine activity has been reported by Neumann 

van Padang (1938). 

x 

253. 1895 or 1896 -- Thompson Island, Southern 

At1 antic 

In the following we list a sumnary of the 

supposed events given by Baker (1967) and Lamb (1967, 

1970, 19711, and an explanation for the lack of 

tsunami data as well as for the mode of the 

annihilation of the island (Hedervari 1981b). 

The existence of Thompson Island was first 

claimed by Captain George Norris (vessel Sprightly) as 

early as 1825. He gave the coordinates as 53'56'5. 

5"30'E. This site can be found on the southernmost 

part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, southwest of the Cape 

of Good Hope, between the Cape Basin and the 

Atlantic-Indian-Arctic Basin in a part of the Southern 

Atlantic south of the northern limit of permanent sea 

ice. According to Baker (1967) this land might have 

been destroyed as a result of either a caldera 
subsidence or an explosive eruption. The sketch, made 

by Norris, showed an island that has a gently domed 

form and a single sharp peak. A small hill on the 

island appeared to be a volcanic cone. 

Many decades later, in 1893, Thompson Island was 

seen again, in this instance by Captain Joseph Fuller 

(vessel Francis Allyn) and was located "northeast of 

Bouvet" (Bouvetoya). The distance between these two 

islands might have been about 72 km. The German Deep 

Sea Expedition in the year of 1898 was unable to find 

Thompson Island. Therefore it is generally assumed 

that the island in question disappeared between 1893 

and 1898. 

Lamb (1967, 1970, 1971) is of the opinion that a 

very powerful , Krakatau-like explosive eruption 

provides the most reasonable explanation for the 

disappearance of this island. On the basis of 

climatological data he has put the date of the 

eruption as either 1895 or 1896. Also according to 

his opinion, the original island might have had a 

conical shape with a radius of 1 (or 21) ky at sea 

level (Baker has mentioned that from Norris sketch 

map it appears to have been a very small island 

measuring 1 kin by 2 km). Lamb supposed, furthermore, 

that the peak was about 0.5 km high and had a base 

about 1.5 km below sea level. His calculations gave 

35 km3 for the quantity of material dispersed during 

the catastrophe, and one-tenth to one-fifth of this 

could have been dispersed in the form of fine dust. 

Note that the generally accepted value for the 

dispersed total volume in the case of Krakatau in 1883 

is only 18 km3, and in the case of Tambora in 1815 is 

30 km3. (The latter value is from Neumann van Padang, 

personal communication, during the First International 

Scientific Congress on the Volcano of Thera, Athens, 

1969). Accordi ngly , the expl osi on and the cal deracollapse process at Thompson Island that led to the 

complete destruction and disappearance of this land 

might have been really a particularly powerful one. 

We fully accept the statement according to which 

large volcanic eruptions can influence the Earth's 

climate for 1-5 years or more, as this has been 

partly suggested by meteorological reasearch, carried 

out by Humphreys in 1940 and more recently by Budyko, 

Mitchell, Lamb, and other authors. On this basis it 

is perfectly true that using climatological data it is 

possible to deduce (unknown or unobserved) volcanic 

eruptions. 

Concerning Thompson Island, there are two 

unsolved problems. First: if such a very great 

outbreak occurs in the open ocean, the event should be 

followed by one or more tsunami (s). Let us remember, 

for example, Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883) or Ritter 

(1888), respectively (see items 92, 218, and 234). 

Nevertheless, we have no data on seismic sea waves 

associated with the Thompson-event. The reason for 

the lack of tsunami data may be threefold. 

a) This part of the Southern Atlantic, as mentioned above, is south of the northern limit of permanent sea ice (see the map of Atlantic Ocean, Atlas 

Plate 62, June 1968). compiled by the National 

Geographic Society - of the USA). Hence, under such 

circumstances, a "normal-" tsunami wast able to 

devel op. 

b) The respective, very remote part of the 

Southern Atlantic was not visited by ships too frequently in the last decade of the 19th Century, 

because of its very severe weather and the danger of 

drifting sea ice. Therefore, there were no witnesses 

of the events including the rather strange and unusual 

version of the tsunami, when the waves developed 

beneath and among very large ice-floes. 

c) Buovetoya and Thompson Islands and vicinity 

are practically uninhabited. The distance between the 

site of Thompson Island and Gough Island is roughly 

2000 km. The latter might have been an inhabited area 

(although surely not too densely populated) in the 

last decade of the 19th Century. Let us disregard now 

the presence and unknown effect of the sea ice, and 

let us suppose that the tsunami at its source was comparable to that of Krakatau. The height of the 

Thompson tsunami at its source is supposed thus to be 

36 m. Plotting the observed heights against the 

distance between the source and the places of 

observations, we find that at a distance of 2000 km 

froln Krakatau, the maximum height of the waves was 

only about 1.5 m. On this basis a similar value can 

be suggested for the Thompson tsunami at Gough Island. 

But normal sea waves with the same height are produced 

by a wind, the intensity of which on the Beaufort 

scale is 3 (the corresponding speed of the wind is 

12-19 km per hour). On the Douglas Sea Scale this 

corresponds to 3 degrees, which means a wave height of 

0.9-1.5 m. When it is supposed that the tsunami at 

its source was two times greater than that of 

Krakatau, the values atastance of 2000 km wil be 

as follows: probably maximum tsunami height: 3 m; 

and such great normal sea waves are produced by winds 

the intensity of which is 7 or 8 degrees on Beaufort's 

scale (50-74 km per hour). On the Douglas Sea Scale 

these values correspond to 5 degrees, where the height 

of the sea waves varies from 2.4 m to 3.6 m. 

Considering now that Gouth Island is lying in the open 

ocean where such winds, having 7 or 8 degrees intensity on the Beaufort scale are very frequent 

phenomena, we can state that the waves due to the 

Thompson tsunami, were not_ Eernible from 

frequent, normal waves of the water that are due to 

- winds, particularly ai the time of storms. 

The second unsol ved problem regardi ng Thompson 

Island is the fact that the soundings, carried out by 

the South African Navy, in the region 72 km northeast 

of Bouvetoya, did not reveal any submarine features , such as a shoal or a seamount at the former site of 

the alleged island (Baker, 1967). At the point in 

question a depth of 1645 m was established. 

The lack of traces -- again in our opinion -- can 

be understood if one takes into consideration the tectonic osition of the island, for the site of whicfie -+-- accept t e coordinates given by Captain Norris. 

Figure 253/1 shows the 2000-fathom depth-contour, 

the submarine base of Buovetoya, the location of 

Thompson Island, and the northern limit of sea ice. 

Using the chart of deep-oceanic relief (Atlantic Ocean 

Floor, 1968, published by the National Geographic 

Society of USA) it can be stated that Thompson Island 

was located exactly at the edge of a transform fault 

(see TH and TR F in * Fig. 253/2). If the soundings 

were made only a few kilometers east of the real site 

of the island in question, it is quite clear that the 

result was a great depth. And, at the same time, it 

is evident that no shoal or seamount could be found 

here, because if a strong eruption of the Krakatautype had taken place in such a critical area, not only 

explosions had to occur but at the same time submarine slumps! rock- and mud-avalanches and slides 

also.com anied the event. By other words, subenioga-ng was associated withthe ~~ 

eruption. At the time of paroxysm, the island, as a 

47 
....... 

AP 

Figure 253/1.-- The position of Bouvetoya (B) and the site of Thompson 

Island (TH). 

lines are depth contours in fathoms. 

also shown. 

A: Africa; AP: Agulhas Plateau; Loi: limit of ice. Labelled 

The submarine base of Buovetoya is 

Figure 253/2.-- Tectonic setting of Thompson Island (TH). Symbols 

used: A: Africa; RV: Rift Valley; B: Bouvetoya; TR F: transform fault. 

indicated, on the basis of a recent map of submarine features 

in the southern Atlantic. Vertical relief is strongly exaggerated. 

Only the near environs of Thompson Island are L 
whole, subrnerged suddenly and its dispersing material, 

including both the subaerial part and the submarine 

base alike, slid or collapsed into the depth, represented by the transform fault in question. The 

Thompson Island was literally swallowed by the ocean. 

Our concluding remarks are as follows: 

1. As the Bouvetoya Island has lavas that are 

rather siliceous in character (Baker 1967), we can 

suppose that its sister-island, Thompson, at a 

distance of only 72 km, might have had a similarly 

siliceous lava. Therefore an eruption of the Krakatau 

type, characterized by extraordinarily powerful 

explosions, seems to be quite probable and possible in 

the case of Thompson Island. 

2. The tsunami that accompanied the explosions 

and the sudden submergence of the island was not 

observed, because (1) no ships were near the site of 

the event and therefore there were no witnesses; (2) 

no ships were nearby due to the presence of very large 

ice floes (or a permanent covering of ice) in the 

vicinity of Thompson Island, and the tsunami had a 

peculiar and perfectly unusual character, very 

different from that of the "normal" ones; (3) the 

nearest (probably) inhabited island (Gough) lies some 

2000 km from Thompson Island, and at such a great 

distance the tsunami waves (if they could form at all 

among the floating ice floes)--having a height of 1 or 

2 m or else 3 m at the utmost--were not discernible 

from the normal waves of the water due to winds and 

storms, respectively. 

3. On, or very near, the site of the former 

island a rather great depth can now be iwasured, 

amounting to 1645 m, but no shoals or seamounts have 

been discovered. This is explained by the supposition 

that the island as a whole slid or collapsed into the 

depth represented by the neighbouring transform fault. 

Considering and accepting the coordinates given by 

Captain Norris, we can state that the island had been 

situated Just at the edge of the western wall of this 

feature. At the time of the paroxysm a great deal of 

material from the island was dispersed and 

disintegrated, partly as a consequence of the 

explosions and partly as a result of the sliding or 

collapsing displacement toward the depth. 

4. The former existence of the island in 

question is known without any doubt, not only because 

it was seen at two different times by the crew of two 

different ships, but, in addition, because the 

climatic anomaly of the southern hemisphere in the 

last decade of the nineteenth cenury can be explained 

by the direct effect of a particularly powerful 

eruption in the southern hemisphere (Lamb 1967, 1970, 

1971). 

?*3.'" 1 

254. 1896 September -- Unnamed submarine volcano, 

Iceland 

Probable location of the event: 63'20" (?), 

20'15'W (?). Submarine eruption reportedly 

acc.ompanied earthquake in southern Iceland. Report of 

doubtful re1 iabi lity (Berninghausen 1964). 

T? 

255. 1896 -- Bayonnaise Rocks, Izu-Mariana Islands 

Subi:iarine activity 14 kin north of Rayonnaise 

Rocks. Approxiinate location of the Rocks: 31"SS'N, 

139"5S'E. The outburst produced a reef projecting 

above sea level (Kuno 1962). 

T* 

25G. lug/ Scplciiibei' 21 -- Jolo, Sulu Ai-cliipclayo 

is suppo:ed (Neumann van Pacldng 1953). AI tliuuyh Iida 

et al. (1972) gave no .inforniaLiori about llie submarine 

activity, they discussed lhe tsui1aiii.i as follows. Its 

generating area was llie Sulu Sea or lhe Celebes Sea 

near the Sulu Islands. The niaynitucle is assigned as 

l?; the iniaxiinuni heiglit reached by the waves was 0 m at 

Solo, Sulu Islands. It was lhe greatest tsunami in 

the histoiry of the Phi Iippine Islands. Two strong 

waves were observed. About 25 building; were demolislied and soiite people lost tlieir lives. 

Jolo volcano itself is characlerized by Neumann 

van Padang (1953) to be eilher an island 01' a subiiiarine volcano. ltie islalid i: localed at 5" 55' N, 

121" 10' E, aiid is alitiost eiilirely blankeled with 

volcanic malerials. An eruption 1041 January 4, is 

incntioned by the Catalogue of Active Volcanoes of the 

World, but its subiiiarine or subaerial character is not 

stated . 

T'?" 

257. 1897-1901 -- Karua, New Hebrides Islands 

At the end 

of the cycle a new island emerged from the sea in 

1901, having had a length of 1 km and a height of 15 

m. After half a year it gradually disappeared (Fisher 

1957). 

K **3 

An eruption-cycle commenced in 1897. 

258. 1898 -- Falcon Island, Tonga Volcanic Group 

The new island that came into being in 1885 (see 

item 224) disappeared. In this year only a shoal 

remained, about 90 m in extent (Richard 1962). 

*3 

259. 1899 September 8 -- Ruang, Sangihe Islands 

Likely a printed error in Heck's paper (1947). 

Correct version: see item 236. 

? 

49 
C. SUPPLEMENTS AND A LIST OF EVENTS OF UNKNOWN 

DATE AND/OR UNKNOWN LOCATION 

260. 215 B.C. -- Vulcano Lipari Islands 

Submarine activity (Sapper 1927). Not sure. 

E? 

261. 126 6.C. -- Vulcano, Lipari Islands 

Submarine activity near Vulcano (Sapper 1927). 

Doubtful. 

T? 

262. 708 A.D. -- Sakura-zima, Kyushu 

Submarine eruption, new island? (Sapper 1927). 

T*? 

263. 764 December -- Kamuzukuri (Kamizukurishima), 

Kyusyu 

Near Sakura-ziaa a submarine eruption took place 

that was followed by the birth of a mall group of 

islands. The activity cminenced probably in,December 

764 and lasted a few years. Location of the eruption: 

31°40'N, 130°43'E (Neumann van Padang 1938). 

iT* 

264. 872 -- 0-sirna, Izu-Mariana Islands 

Accompanied by rumblings, a new island came into 

beinq near 0-sima (Sapper 1927). Doubtful; it is not 

mentioned in the Catalogue of Active Volcanoes of the 

- World (Kuno 1962). 

265. 1050 -- Santorini, Aegean Sea. Supplement 

to item 16 

According to Ambraseys (1962), the date is most 

probably erroneous; 1650 is the probable date. 

S 

266. 1185-1190 -- Sakura-zima, Kyushu 

Sapper (1927) has mentioned two new i sl ands. 

Doubtful, not mentioned by Kuno (1962). 

267. 1211 -- Eldey, Iceland 

Submarine eruption on the Reykjanes Ridge, coinciding with great earthquakes. A new island came into existence--Eldeyjar, Island of Fire--while the 

old islands disappeared from the spot where they had 

always been. This indicates that there was volcanic 

activity in the area long before 1211 (Thorarinsson 

1965). Sapper (1927) also mentioned this eruption and a new island at 63"45'N, 23"W. The event is briefly 

discussed by Neumann van Padang (1938) as well. 

*7iT * 

268. 1332 -- Unnamed submarine volcano, Iceland. 

Supplement to item 21 

From a contemporary annal : 'I.. .from the F1 jat 

and from many other districts in the North of Iceland a new island was seen to have emerged to the northwest 

of Grimsey." (Thorarinsson 1965). 

ST* 

269. 1340 (about this year) -- Eldey (the near envi rons of Ice1 and) 

Southwest of Reykjanes (near or in the place of 

Eldey), possibly submarine eruption (Thorarinsson 

1965). 

T? 

270. 1456 -- Unnamed submarine volcano, Iceland. 

Supplement to item 25 

According to Thorari nsson (1965, p. 74) "Jan 

Mayen may possibly be the island referred to." 

S 

271. 

Eruption from a parasitic crater, explosions and 

lava flows (Kuno 1962). Some old Japanese sources 

have mentioned a simultaneous submarine outbreak, 

accompanted by the birth of a new island as well as 

seismic sea waves. The submarine activity and their 

consequences are, however, doubtful. 

1476 October 9 -- Sakura-zima, Kyushu 

oDt9iT 7 *? 57 

272. 1541 September 10 -- Agua, Guatemala 

A rather strange event - namely a "water-eruption" - is mentioned by Sapper (1927). According to 

his opinion, however, the phenomenon might have been a - lahar. Another possibility is the draining of the 

crater lake (Mooser et al. 1958). Except for this 

case, lahars are not treated in the present catalog. 

nf ? 
273. 1605. Nameless submarine eruptive point, 

Southern At 1 anti c 

Sapper (1927) has mentioned an eruption "far from 

(Fernando de) Noronha at 7"s and 3'"--but neither West 

nor east is indicated for the second coordinate. It 

must he emphasized that along the 7"s latitude neither 

3OW, nor 3"E is a volcanic region, although the point 

at 7'S, 3" E can be found in the continuation of the 

Cameron-Sao Tome volcanic chain. The event is 

regarded as very doubtful. No further data are 

available in other sources. 

K?? 

274. 1613 -- Unnamed submarine volcano, Iceland 

"On Bishop Thorlaksson's map of the North 

Atlantic of 1669 there is an island located quite a 

long way to the southwest of Iceland and this island 

is said to have been seen by Spanish sailors in 1613. 

We have no other knowledge of this island. It may 

have been on the Reykjanes ridge." (Thorarinsson 

1965, p. 74.) 

K?*? 

275. 1755 November 18 -- Nameless submarine eruptive 

Sapper (1927) has explained that the eruption in 

question is doubtful. We share his view, 

considering twthe point at 42'38'N, 65"57'W is 

lying south of Nova Scotia, which is not a volcanic 

region at all. 

center, Northern Atlantic 

K?? 

276. 1755 -- Nameless submarine volcano, Iceland 

In this year there seems to have been an 

eruption somewhere north of Iceland, but the position 

is unknown and it may possibly have been Jan Mayen 

(Thorarinsson 1965). 

K? 

277. 1781 April 11 -- Sakura-zima, Kyushu. 

Supplement to item 71 

A new island came into being (Sapper 1927). 

mentioned el sewhere, theref ore doubted. 

SK*? 

Not 

278. 1782 -- Sakura-zima, Kyushu 

Submarine activity, no further data (Sapper 

1927). Doubtful. 

X? 

279. 1783 May 3 -- Eldey, Iceland. Supplement to 

item 73 

The new island (Noyoe, Nyey, or Nyoe) was first 

observed and sketched on May 3 by Captain "lndelberg 

and crew of the Danish brig "Roesand." The island 

reached a diameter of at least 900 m. "The Danish 

Government showed a great interest in this island 

which received the name Nyey (Nyoe) = New Island. A 

royal decree was issued to the effect that an 

expedition should be sent to the island to hoist the 

Danish flag and set up a 3 ells high stone inscribed 

with the royal insignia. The stone never found its 

way to the island simply because the island could not 

be found in the autumn of 1793." (Thorarinsson 1965, 

s K* 

p. 74.) 

280. 1806 -- Unnamed undersea volcano, Equatorial 

Atlantic 

According to Sapper (1927), a submarine eruption 

took place at 2"43'S, 22"55'W. Doubtful, as it is not 

mentioned by other authors. 

281. 1814 -- Nameless submarine eruptive point, 

K amchat k a 

A submarine eruption is mentioned, without any 

f.urther details, by Russel (1888). Uncertain. 

K? 

282. 1815 April 5-12 -- Tambora, Lesser Sunda 

Islands. Supplement to item 92 

Neuinariii vdii Paildiiy (lY71) lids discussed some 

important further facts coriccrning the great eruption 

of Tamboi-a 'in 1815. As the direct result of the outburst, 10,000 persons lost their lives on Sumbawa and 

the neighboring islands. Due to epidemics and famine, 

as indirect effects Or the eruption, a further 38,000 

people died on Sumbawa and 44,000 on Lombok. Considering these data, the Tambora-eruption is regarded 

to be the most destriicl.ive outburst during the present 

milleiiniurn. 

Although the Tambora eruption was greater in 

intensity than that of Krakatau in 1883, its tsunami 

was much less powerful. This fact can be explained by 

considering that the collapse of the mount happened 

largely well above the sea level, and not partly below 

the sea level as in the cases of Krakatau and of 

Santorini, where the newly formed caldera was inundated immediately by the water. The height of the 

tsunami on April 10 at the coast of Sumbawa was 4 m, 

at any rate much smaller than the height of the tsunami at JavaxSumatra, on opposite sides of Sunda 

Strait after the paroxysm of Krakatau. At a distance 

of 85 km from Tambora, at Bima, the tsunami was strong 

enough to tear ships off their chains and after this 

the water run among the houses along the port. At 

_____ 
Besuki, lying at a distance of 450 km from Tamboras 

the height of the wave was 180 cm. 

do with the light-phenomenon. The distance between 

the Bahama Bank and Martinique is too great. 

St' X?? 

283. 1827 -- Unnamed submarine volcano, Azores 

287. 1839 -- Unnamed undersea volcano, Northern 

East of the islands floating pumice was found Atlantic 

(Sapper 1927). Although it is not mentioned by other 

sources and the location is unknown, the event is an A submarine eruption is reported by Sapper (1927) 

accepted one. at 31'42'N, 42'30'W. As no further details are given 

iT and the event is not mentioned by other authors, the 

eruption is regarded to be doubtful. 

T? 

284. 1831 August -- Nameless submarine volcano, 288. 1844 -- Nameless submarine volcano, Azores Lesser Antilles 

Near Barbados a Rhythmic murmur was heard. No exact location is submarine eruption might have 

happened. Ash fall was observed in 20 villages on the given (Sapper The !Iature Of the event 

Lesser Antilles (Sapper 1927). Note: On 11 August is 9 

Martinique, but only one was strong (Robson 1964). 

Maybe these shocks were associated with the submarine 

activity that is accepted as valid. 

iT 

1831, at night, five or six shocks were felt at K?? 

289. 1845 February 8 -- Soputan, Celebes. 

285. 1836 -- Nameless submarine volcano, Equatorial 

Atlantic. Supplement to item 117 

For the year 1836 two submarine eruptions are 

reported (Sapper 1Y27), but no further data are given. 

The locations were as follows: 

1"35'S, 2Oo45'W, and Oo35'S, 15'50'W, 

respectively. The second was mentioned in item 117 as 

the site where black ash of volcanic origin has been 

collected, hut the unnamed submarine volcano that 

erupted on 1836 January 25 is located at Oo40'S, 

20°10'W. Although there are certain diyferences among 

the coordinates, it can be supposed that the submarine 

volcano at 0°40'S, 20"lO'W may be identical with one 

of the two volcanos that are mentioned by Sapper. 

ST 

Normal explosions from the central crater took 

place. A tectonic earthquake occurred and a tsunami 

with a magnitude of 0 (?) was observed at Manado (Lida 

et al., 1972). The tsunami was due to this shock. 

Only an indirect relation with the eruption can be 

supposed. 

T? 

290. 1852 -- Submarine eruptive center, Equatorial 

Atlantic 

Undersea activity is mentioned by Sapper (1927) 

at O"12' N (?), 19' W. No further data are available; 

uncertain. 

Note: In what follows events Will be summarized for 

which the date of occurrence is unknown. Therefore it 

may be that some of the phenomena took place after 

1900 January 1. Other events that occurred after this 

date will be treated in the second volume. 

- 

T? 

286. 1837 November 25 -- Unnamed undersea volcanic 

center, Bahama Bank 

A remarkable li ght-phenomenon was seen, but its 

volcanic nature is doubtful (Sapper 1927). Note: Although no exact location is given, no volcanic The event perhaps took place in the 1880s. 

manifestation can be supposed if one considers that the Year is unknown, Sapper (1927) gave the 

the Bahama Bank is not a volcanic region. The event month and day as July 12. Rumblings every 15 minutes. 

is not mentioned in other sources; therefore, we share The volcanic nature of the phenomenon is uncertain. 

phenomenon. As an interesting coincidence of events 

it is worth mentioning that 5 days later a severe 

earthquake was observed on Martinique (Robson 1964). 

We are sure, however, that this shock had nothing to 

291. ... ?... Submarine eruptive center, Kurile 

I sl ands 

Sapper's opinion about the uncertainty of the T? 

52 
292. ... ?... Subiilarine eruption point, Juan 

Fernandez Is1 ands 

Location (Sapper 1927): 33"20'N, 78'20'W. 

Questionable. The latitude is erroneous; 33'2U'S 

should he read instead of 33'20". 

K? 

293. .. ?... Underwater eruptive center, Tonga 

Volcanic Group 

More than one submarine eruption was reported 

"not too far from Late" or Lette (Sapper 1927), near 

the Home Shoal Deep at 19'17'S, 174"45'W. Uncertain. 

K? 

imagined that the activity--if any--would have been 

observed on the surface. Incidently, the place 

mentioned is far west of the rift valley of the Mid-- 

Atlantic Ridge. 

K?? 

298. . . .?. . Nameless submarine volcano, Southern 

At 1 antic 

The eruption was reported at 12"45'S, 21'45'W. 

This event is also LeLx doubtful, similar to item 296, 

as the depth of the ocean here is 5300 m (Neumann van 

Padang 1963). 

x?. 

299. ... ?... Nameless submarine volcano, Southern 

At1 antic 294. . . .?. . Yersey, Lesser Sunda Islands 

The submarine outbreak at 3Oo50'S, 3Oo48'W has 

The date Of its eruption is unknown; the not been proven, therefore it is problematical esistence of the submarine volcano is doubted (see van 1963). 

item 245). 

295. ... ?... Submarine eruptive center, Gulf of 

Aden 300 ... ?... IJnnamed submarine eruption center, 

Boni n Islands 

Sapper (1927) has mentioned an outburst at A submarine volcano is inentioned at 12"15'N, 

45"00'E, but it is regarded as problematical by 250201N, 1410201E. Questionable. 

Neumann van Padang (1963). 

? 

296. ... ?... Omus Islands, Gulf of Oman 

The Ormus Islands in the Gulf of man, between 

the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea, are of volcanic 

origin. These islands still have well-shaped craters 

and lava flows. Sapper mentioned lava effusions in 

the Strait of Oman that must have had taken place in 

the Middle Ages (in the historical, not in the 

geological meaning). All these data give the 

impression that volcanic activity has not yet fully 

died in this reqion (Neumann van Padanq 1963). 

Accepting this posiibility, only the submarine nature 

of the activity is questionecK?? 

297. . . .?. ,. Nameless submarine volcano, Southern 

At 1 antic 

An underwater outbreak was reported at 15°30'S, 

21'45'W. The event is very_ doubtful because at this 

point the depth of the Atlantic Ocean is 5300 m 

(Neumann van Padang 1963). and thus it can hardly be 

301. .. .?. .. IJnnamed submarine volcano, Luzon 

Strait, Phi 1 ippi ne Islands 

In Sapper's book (1927) a submarine outbreak is 

mentioned at 20'20'N, 121'45'E in the Luzon Strait, 

northwest of Babuyan Islands. No further data are 

available; the event is regarded as doubtful. 

302. ... ?... Nameless submarine eruption site, 

Flores Sea 

Sapper (1927) has inentioned an eruption at the 

point located at 7"30'S, 119'30'E. The event is 

problematical and an eruption far north of the 

Indonesian volcanic belt is unlikely. 

T? 

53 
Blank page retained for pagination 
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Georgalas, G. C., 1962: Catalogue...XII. Greece. Napoli, Italy. 

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56 
REFERENCES (Continued) 

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57 
REFERENCES (Continued) 

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58 
REFERENCES (Continued) 

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Latter. This may be regarded as a personal communfcation. 

(In preparation. To 

The manuscript copy was given to us by Or. 

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59 
REFERENCES (Continued) 

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Neumann van Padang, M., 1953: 

China. Napoli, Italy. 

Neurnann van Padang, M., 1963: 

Napoli, Italy. 

Mi jningenieur, V, Djakarta, 

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60 
REFERENCES (Conti nued) 

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61 
REFERENCES (Continued) 

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Continental Asia. Napoli , Italy. 

Williams, H., 1941: Calderas and Their Origin. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bull., Dept. 

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Yokoyama, I., 1978: 

Thera and the Aegean World, V. I., Thera and the Aegean World Publishers, 

London, U.K., pp. 277 - 283. 

The Tsunami Caused by the Prehistoric Eruption of Thera. 

62 
LIST OF SUBMARINE VOLCANO LOCATIONS 

Events marked * are associated with tsunamis 

Name and serial number Latitude Longitude Catalog Event Number 01 0, 

AtiUA, Guatemala, 1402-10 

AMBOINA, Moluccas 

ANTARCTICA, Scotia Arc, nameless submarine volcano near 

Tierra del Fuego, 1Yc 1900-027 

ARAKAN, Indian Ocean, submarine (mud) volcano, 0305 

ASSONGSONG, Izu-Mariana Islands, 0804-15 

ATITLAN, tiuatemala, 1402-06 

AUGUSTINE, Alaska (see St. Augustine, Alaska) 

AVACHINSKY, Kamchatka, 1000-10 

AWU, Sanyihe Islands, 0607-04 

AZUHES, Unnamed submarine volcanoes, 1802-8a 

1802-3a 

BAHAMA BANK, Unnamed submarine volcano 

BANDA API, Banda Sea, 0605-09 

BANK NNW OF PANTELLARIA, Sicily Sea (see Foerstner, 

Phlegraean Fields of the) 

BANUA WUHU, Sangihe Islands, 060743 

BAYUNNAISE ROCKS, Izu-Mariana Islands, nameless 

submarine volcanoes (see also Myojin Sho), 0804-07 

near Narage, 0502-02 

BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO, unnamed submarine volcano 

BOGOSLOF, Aleutian Islands, 1101-30 

BONIN ISLANDS, unnamed submarine volcano, 0804-10 

BRIMESTONE ISLAND, Kermadec Volcanic Group, 0402-02 

CAMIGUIN DE BABUYANES, Islands north of Luzon, 

CAMPI FLEGREI DEL MAR UI SICILIA (see also names of 

Philippines, 0704-01 

individual volcanoes , 0101-07 

CAPE COLUMBO (Santorini , Aegean Sea 

CAPE OF ti000 HOPE, unnamed submarine volcano nearby 

CARABALLOS, north of Luzon, Philippines, 

14 28.0 N 90 44.5 W 

03 41 S 128 10 E 

56 15 S 72 10 W 

or 65 15 S 

18 00 N 

19 40 N 

14 35 N 

53 13 N 

03 40 N 

37 52 N 

38 30 N 

39 57 N 

38 30 N 

93 30 E 

145 24 E 

91 11 w 

159 00 E 

125 30 E 

25 43 W 

27 25 W 

25 50 W 

28 00 W 

? 

? 

04 31 S 129 52 E 

03 08 N 

31 55 N 

04 33 S 

53 56 N 

26 00 N 

30 13 S 

18 55 N 

37 06 N 

36 24 N 

125 29 E 

139 55 E 

149 07 E 

168 02 W 

140 46 E 

178 55 W 

121 52 E 

12 42 E 

25 23 E 

( a p p r oxi mat e ) 

uncertain 

uncertain 

272 

40* 

189 

123 

96* 

113* 

54*, 101* 

136*, 244* 

33, 41, 48, 86, 87 

82 

146 

205 

59, 283, 288 

286 

131* 

116, 235*, 247, 251 

179, 255 

152 

64, 81, 83, 85, 90, 97, 210 

219, 220, 221, 233, 241 

299 

100 

144 

3, 32, 43, 104, 105, 106, 

107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 

112, 124, 153, 207, 242, 

243 

35* 

143 

31* 

A1 
LIST OF SUBMARINE VOLCANO LOCATIONS (Continued) 

Events marked * are associated with tsunami-; 

Name and serial number Latitude Longitude Catalog Event Number DI om 

CENTRAL MEDITERRANEAN SEA, nameless submarine eruptive 

centers 

CHINA SEA, unnamed submarine volcano, 0801-04 

CORCOVADO, Chi le, 1508-05 

CRATER LAKE, Oregon, 1202-16 

DIDICAS ROCKS, Islands north of Luzon, Phili 

0704-02 

DON JOAO DE CASTRO BANK, Azores, 1802-07 

ELDEY, Iceland, unnamed submarine volcanoes 

Iceland and vicinity, 1701-02 

pines, 

see also 

EMPEROR OF CHINA, Banda Sea, 0605-01 

EQUATORIAL ATLANTIC, unnamed submarine volcano, 

1805-01, 02, 03, 04 

FALCON ISLAND,Tonga Volcanic Group, 0403-05 

FLORES SEA, nameless submarine eruption site 

FOERSTNER, Phlegraean Fields of the Sicily Sea, 

0101-07a 

FONUA FO'OU, Tonga Volcanic Group (see Falcon Island) 

FUJI-YAMA, Honsyu, 0803-03 

GAMKONORA, Halmahara, 0608-04 

GEORGIANA, Indian Ocean (see also Indian Ocean 

or Ninety East Ridge) 

GIULIA FERDINANDEO BANK, Phlegraean Fields of the 

Sicily Sea (often called Graham Island), 0101-07b 

GRAHAM ISLAND, Phlegraean Fields of the Sicily Sea 

GULF OF AUEN, submarine eruptive center, 0302-12 

HATIZYO-ZIMA NISI -YAMA, Izu-Mari ana Is 1 ands , 0804-05 

HEKLA, Iceland, 1702-07 

HOME REEF, Tonga Volcanic Group, 

IBUGOS, Islands north of Luzon, Philippines, submarine 

ICELAND, unnamed submarine volcanoes (see also Eldey), 

(see tiiulia Ferdinandeo Bank) 

0403-08 

volcanoes to the west, 0704-05 

1703-18 

uncertain 

25 25 N 122 20 E 

43 11 s 72 48 w 

42 56 N 122 07 W 

19 04 N 122 10 E 

38 13 N 26 37 W 

63 45 N 22 55 W 

06 37 S 124 13 E 

see text for locations 

20 19 s 

07 30 S 

36 48 N 

35 21 N 

01 22 N 

06 05 S 

37 12 N 

12 15 N 

33 07 N 

63 58 N 

18 59 S 

20 1Y N 

67 07 N 

175 25 W 

119 30 E 

11 54 E 

138 43 E 

127 31 E 

89 10 E 

12 42 E 

45 00 E 

139 46 E 

19 42 w 

174 46 W 

121 45 E 

18 36 W 

227, 228* 

168 

114* 

15 

66, 139 

52 

17, 18, 19, 20, 24, 28, 

73, 103, 202, 223, 267, 

269, 279 

245 

62, 94, 99, 117, 129, 149 

197, 280, 285, 289 

72, 155, 194, 224, 232, 

239, 246, 249, 252, 258 

301 

242 

46* 

38* 

204, 212, 213, 214, 215, 

216, 217 

32, 43, 104, 105, 106, 

107, 108, 109, 110, 111 

112, 153 

294 

30* 

42* 

132, 145 

65, 127 

21, 22, 25, 74, 75, 119 

167, 254, 268, 274, 276 

A2 
LIST OF SUBMARINE VOLCANO LOCATIONS (continued) 

Events marked * are associated with tsunamis 

Name and serial number Latitude Longitude Catalog Event Number "I 0, 

INUIAN OCEAN, possible submarine volcano (see also 

Georgiana) 

JOLO, Sulu Archipelago, 0700-01 

JUAN FERNANDEZ Islands, submarine volcanoes, 1506-03 

and two others at 34" 55'S, 77" 38'W and 33" 20'S, 

78" 20'W. respectively 

KAMCHATKA, nameless submarine eruptive points, 1000-36 

KAMUZUKURI, Kyusyu 

KAHUA, New Hebrides Islands, 0507-07 

KERMAOEC VOLCANIC GROUP, unnamed volcano, 0402-04 

KILAUEA, Hawaii, 1302-01 

KITA-IWO-ZIMA, Izu-Mariana Islands, submarine volcanoes 

KOMAGA-TAKE, Hokkaido, 0805-02 

KUNA-COAST, Hawaii 

KONIUSHI, Aleutian Islands, 1101-14 

near or to the northwest, 0804-11 

KRAKATAU, SUNDA STRAIT, 0602-00 

KRAKATAU, SUNDA STRAIT, activity 1883/May 20 - Aug. 26, 

0602-00 

KURILE ISLANDS, submarine eruptive center 

LAKE ILOPANGO, Islas Quemadas, El Salvador, 1403-06 

LESSER ANTILLES, nameless submarine volcano, 

LUZON STRAIT, Philippine Islands, unnamed submarine 

MADREPOE BANK, Phlegraean Fields of Sicily Sea, 

just before the great eruption, 

volcano, 0704-05 

0101-07d 

MARIE GALANTE, West Indies, nearby submarine volcano, 

1600-07 

MAUNA LOA, Hawaii, 1302-02 

MAURELLE ISLANDS, Tonga Volcanic Group, 0403-07 

MELANESIA, nameless submarine volcano, 0507-09 

MERAPI, Java, 0603-25 

METIS SHOAL, Tonga Volcanic Group (see Maurelle Island 

also) 0403-07 

MINCHINAMAVIDA, Chile, 1508-04 

06 05 S 89 10 E 204, 212, 213, 214, 215, 

216, 217 

05 55 N 121 10 E 256* 

33 37 S 78 47 W 115*, 166, 291 

57 25 N 160 24 E 88, 281 

uncertain 

31 40 N 130 43 E 263 

16 49 S 168 32 E 257 

29 11 S 177 52 W 225 

19 25 N 155 16 W 77, 98, 121, 170, 191* 

25 25 N 141 13 E 26, 70, 237 

42 04 N 140 40 E 34* 

88* 

52 13 N 175 07 W 60 

06 06 S 105 25 E 12*, 218* 

06 06 S 105 25 E 204 

? 290 

13 40 N 89 03 W 203 

? 284 

20 20 N 121 45 E 300 

36 42 N 13 42 E 124 

15 08 N 61 17 W 122 

19 28 N 155 36 W 148, 169, 183*, 190*, 230 

19 11 S 174 51 W 182 

18 45 S 169 11 E 208 

07 32 S 110 26 E 120* 

19 11 S 174 51 W 

128, 147, 182, 188, 201, 

229, 240, 250 

42 47 S 72 26 W 114* 

A3 
LIST OF SUBMARINE VOLCANO LOCATIONS (continued) 

Events marked * are associated with tsunamis 

Name and serial number Latitude Longitude Catalog Event Number 

MOSCHYLOS, Aegean Sea 

MYOJIN SHO, Izu-Marian Islands (can be found under the 

NEW ZEALAND VOLCANIC ZONE, submarine eruption 

NIEUWERKERK, Banda Sea, 0605-02 

NINETY EAST RIDGE, Indian Ocean (see also Indian Ocean, 

name, Bayonnaise Rocks, also), 0804-07 

possible submarine volcano, and Georgiana) 

NISHI-YAMA, Izu-Mariana Islands, 0804-05 

NORTHERN ATLANTIC, unnamed submarine volcanoes, 

1801-01, 02, 03, 04 

NOYOE (NYEY, NYO, NYOE), Iceland, 1701-01 

OKINAWA-TORI-SHIMA (RYUKYU-TORISIMA), Ryukyu Islands, 

0802-02 

ONNIMAH STRAIT, near Cape Ommanen, northeastern Pacific 

ORMUS ISLANDS, Gulf of Oman, 0302-14 

OSIMA-0-SIMA, Hokkaido, 0805-01 

0-SIMA, Izu-Mariana Islands and 0-Sima vicin 

OSORNO, Chile, 1508-01 

PEAK OF TERNATE, Halmahera (see Ternate Peak 

PERU, coast between Coronal and Iquique 

PERU, near the coast of San Lorenzo Island 

PERU, coast at Pisayua 

PHLEGRAEAN FIELDS of the Sicily Sea (see the 

ty, 0804-01 

individual 

volcanoes and Campi Flegri del Mar di Sicilia) 

PIC0, Azores, 1802-02 

PINNE MARINE BANK, Sicily Sea, 0101-07c 

PONDICHERRY, north of Ceylon, submarine volcano in 

Indian Ocean, 0305-01 

PHIBILOF ISLANDS, Bering Sea 

RALUAN, New Britain, 0502-14 

RAOUL ISLAND, Kermadec Volcanic Group, 0402-03 

RITTER ISLAND, off northeast coast of New Guinea, 

RUANG, Sangihe Islands, 0607-01 

0501-07 

? 2* 

31 55 N 139 55 E 179, 255 

38 00 S 178 00 E 193 

06 39 S 124 43 E 245 

06 05 S 89 10 E 204, 212, 213, 214, 215, 

216, 217 

33 08 N 139 46 E 47 

See text for locations 

141*, 154, 222, 231, 248*, 

275, 287 

63 28 N 

27 52 N 

56 01 N 

26 00 N 

41 30 N 

34 43 N 

41 06 S 

38 28 N 

36 54 N 

11 45 N 

56 41 N 

04 16 S 

29 16 S 

05 31 S 

02 16 N 

23 46 W 73. 279 

128 15 E 36* 

134 04 W 142 

57 00 E 295 

139 22 E 55* 

139 22 E 23, 44*, 50*, 141, 176, 264 

72 30 W 114* 

151 

150 

192 

28 24 W 51 

13 00 E 125 

80 45 E 58 

169 07 W 93 

152 10 E 1Y8* 

177 55 W 89, 135, 174, 184, 195 

148 07 E 234" 

125 25 E 178*, 236 , 
LIST OF SUBMARINE VOLCANO LOCATIONS (continued) 

Events marked * are associated with tsunamis 

Name and serial number Latitude Longitude Catalog Event Number Dl OI 

RYUKY U-TOR ISIMA, Ryu kyu Is 1 ands (see Oki nawa-Tori -shima ) 

SABRINA, Azores, ephemeral island (see also Azores, 

unnamed submarine volcanoes), 1802-03 

SAKURA-ZIMA, KyuShu, 0802-08 

SAMOA VOLCANIC GROUP, unnamed submarine volcano near 

SANGIHE ISLANDS, nameless submarine volcano, 0607-05 

SANTA BARBARA (Terceira), Azores, 1802-05 

SANTORINI, Aegean Sea, 01U2-04 

Olosega Island, 0404-01 

SAO JURtiE, Azores, 1802-03 

SEMERU, Java, 0603-30 

SHUAM SHU (SHUAMSHU) ISLAND, Kurile volcanic belt 

SICILY SEA (see names of individual volcanoes and Campi 

SLAMET, Java, 0603-18 

SMITH ROCK(S), nearby submarine volcanoes, Izu-Mariana 

Islands, 0804-08 

Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia) 

SOUTHERN ATLANTIC, nameless submarine eruptive centers 

ST. AUGUSTINE, Alaska, 1103-01 

TAAL, Philippine Islands, 0703-07 

TAIWAN, nameless submarine volcano between Taiwan and 

the Mariana Islands, U801 

TAIWAN, submarine volcano near the eastern coast, 

TAMBORA, Lesser Sunda Islands, 0604-04 

TANNA, New Hebrides Islands, 0507-10 

TARAWEKA, New Zealand, 0401-06 

0801-3 

38 30 N 

31 34 N 

14 12 S 

03 58 N 

38 43 N 

36 24 N 

38 39 N 

08 07 S 

50 53 N 

07 14 S 

31 16 N 

27 25 W 

130 40 E 

169 36 W 

124 13 E 

27 19 W 

25 23 E 

28 04 W 

112 55 E 

161 12 E 

109 12 E 

139 46 E 

see text for locations 

59 22 N 

14 00 N 

20 56 N 

24 00 N 

08 15 S 

19 31 S 

38 13 S 

TAUPO VOLCANIC CENTRE, Central North Island, New Zealand, 

TERCEIRA, Azores (see Santa Barbara) 

0401-07 38 46 S 

153 25 W 

121 00 E 

134 45 E 

121 50 E 

118 00 E 

169 25 E 

176 30 E 

176 07 E 

a7 

14*, 67*, 68*, 69*, 71*, 262, 

266, 271*, 277, 278 

164 

245 

61, 165 

1*, 4, 5, 9, lo*, 13, 16*, 27, 

35*, 45, 156*, 157, 158, 159, 

160, 161, 162, 163, 175, 

265 

205, 209 

95* 

137 

187* 

37, 172, 173, 177, 181 

185 

130, 171, 273, 296, 297, 

298 

76*, 220* 

49, 53, 56*, 57* 

126 

133 

92*, 282* 

196*, 19Y* 

226 

7 
LIST OF SUBMARINE VOLCANO LOCATIONS (continued) 

Events marked * are associated with tsunamis 

Name and serial number Latitude Longitude Catalog Event Number VI 

TERNATE PEAK, Halmahera, 0608-06 

THOMPSON ISLAND, Southern Atlantic, 1806-03 

00 48 N 127 19 E 39*, 63* 

53 56 S 05 30 E 253" 

TONGA VOLCANIC GROUP, unnamed underwater volcanoes, 

TORI-SIMA, Izu-Mariana Islands, nameless submarine 

0403-05 (item 72; rest unnumbered) See text for locations 72, 186, 238, 292 

volcano, 0804-09 30 28 N 140 14 E 180 

TULISKOI (or TULIK), Aleutian Islands, 1101-29 53 25 N 168 08 W 200 

TULUMAN, Admiralty Group, Melanesia, 0500-01 

TURUMI, KYUSYU, 0802-13 

02 26 S 147 19 E 21 1 

33 16 N 131 25 E 29 

UMNAK ISLAND, Aleutian Islands, nearby submarine volcano ? 84 

UNALASKA ISLAND, Aleutian Islands, submarine volcano 

southeast and nearby ? 80, 91 

UNIMAK ISLAND, Aleutian Islands, submarine volcanoes 

nearby ? 79*, 102*, 138* 

UNZEN, KYUSYU, 0802-10 32 45 N 130 18 E 78" 

VUSUVIUS, Italy, 0101-02 40 49 N 014 25 E 11* 

VETERAN, Cochin China, 0705-01 09 49 N 109 03 E 206 

VULCANELLO, Lipari Islands, 0101-05 

VULCANO, Lipari Islands, 0101-05 

38 24 N 14 57 E 6, 8 

38 24 N 14 57 E 8, 260, 261 

YERSEY, Lesser Sunda Islands, 0604-28 07 31 S 123 57 E 245, 293 

A6 
30' 

N 

20' 

MAPS OF EVENT LOCATIONS 

(WHEN VOLCANO IS DISCUSSED IN MORE THAN ONE EVENT, 

THE NUMBER OF THE FIRST EVENT IS GIVEN) I\ 

O'9" 

100' E 120' 

30' 

I 

20' 

374 

- 

130' E 

B1 

JAPAN i 

D, 47 

179 

MO 

0299 

026 
JL 

HAWA I I 

%@77,146 .. Oip" 

CANADA 

P 
" AMERICA 

0 90' w 60' 

30' 

S 

40' 

\ 

JUAN FERNANDEZ 

ISLANDS 

0115 

SOUTH 

AMERICA 
30 

NEW b 

HEBRIDES dO2! 

*I 

'c 

cs 

0 l;:, 1; FIJI ' 

ISLANDS 

.. 72 

1 089,225 

TT 

TONGA 

ISLANDS 

MADEC 

,ANDs i 

500 

O-&- 

180' 1 110' 

B?\ 
IO' . W 

I IO' E 120' 

0178 

3 NEW 

GUINEA, 

Q!! 

0 

I 1 

I 1 

125' E 130' 

E5 
20' 

II 

0 

AFRICA I 

30' E 

0253 0 

2044 

PRINCE 

EDWARD 

ISLAND 

0 800 

__ 5i+ 

30a E 
65 

61 

4 5' 

N 

36 

4 

b 

AZORES 

0146 

d2d3 

82,81 

_- 500 

0 OW 

0 500 

I I KM 

- 

I 

W 0 

50' 

4 0' 

I 

35 

a AFRICA 

100 

O-7- 
SOLID EARTH (SE) DATA REPORT SERIES 

Listed below are data reports published in the Solid Earth (SE) series of World Data Center A for Solid Earth 

Geophysics, NOAA/NGDC, Boulder, Colo. 80303, USA. 

Geophysical Data Center is available in the following publications: 

(KGRD-15); Marine Geology and Geophysics Data Services and Publications (KGRD-14); and Terrestrial Geophysics Data 

Services and Publications (KGRD-19). 

Additional information on the services of the National 

Earthquake Data Services and Publications 

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SE-2 

SE-3 

SE-4 

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SE-7 

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SE-10 

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SE-24 

SE-25 

SE-26 

SE-27 

SE-28 

SE-29 

SE-30 

SE-31 

SE-32 

SE-33 

SE-34 

SE-35 

Catalog of Tsunamis in Alaska 

Geodynamics International-9 

Sumnary of Earthquake Focal Mechanisms for the Western Pacific-Indonesian Regon, 1929-1973 

Catalog of Tsunamis in Hawaii 

Geodynamics International-10 

Catalog of Sei smograms and Strong-Moti on Records 

Directory of Seismograph Stations 

Survey of Practice in Determining Magnitudes of Near Earthquakes, Part 2: Europe, Asia, Africa, 

Survey of Practice in Determining Magnitudes of Near Earthquakes, Part 1: North, Central, and 

Geodynamics International -11 

The Information Explosion and Its Consequences for Data Acquisition, Documentation, and Processing: 

Geodynamics International -12 

Bibliography of Statistical Aspects of Seismicity 

Directory of U.S. Data Repositories Supporting the International Geodynamics Project 

Geodynamics International-13 

Geodynamics International -14 

Annual Mean Values of Geomagnetic Components for Selected Observatories, 1940-73 

Homogeneous Magnitude System of the Eurasian Continent: 

Geodynamics International -15 

Manual of Seismological Observatory Practice 

Geomagnetic Observatories, ,1978 

Historical Seismogram Filming Project: 

Geodynamics International -16 

Historical Seismogram Filming Project: 

Directory of World Seismograph Stations, Volume I. 

Geodynamics International-17 - Final Report 

Catalog of Significant Earthquakes, 2000 B.C.-1979 

Historical Seismogram Filming Project: 

Strong-Motion Data from Japanese Earthquakes 

Progress Report on Selected Geophysical Activities of the United States, 1977-1981 

New Catalog of Strong Earthquakes in the U.S.S.R. from Ancient Times Through 1977 

Directory of World Digital Seismic Stations 

Historical Seismogram Filming Project: 

Homogeneous Magnitude System of the Eurasian Continent: 

Documentation of Earthquake Algorithms 

Australia, the Pacific 

South America 

An Additional Aspect of the Limits to Growth 

P-Waves 

First Progress Report 

Second Progress Report 

The Americas - Part 1. United States, 

Canada, Bermuda 

Third Progress Report 

Fourth Progress Report 

S and L Waves 

Cr U S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1984-776-034/10.001 REGION NO 8 
WORLD DATA CENTER A 

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