Barrows, F. T. and W. A. Lellis. 1996. Diet and nutrition. Pages 315-321 in R. C. Summerfelt, 

editor. Walleye culture manual. NCRAC Culture Series 101. North Central Regional Aquaculture 

Center Publications Office, Iowa State University, Ames. 

Diet and Nutrition 

Frederic T: Barrows, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish Technology Center, 4050 Bridger Canyon Road, 

Bozernan, Montana 5971 5, and William A. Lellis, National Biological Service, Research 6: Development 

Laboratory, R.D. 4, Box 63, Wellsboro, Pennsylvania 16901 

Introduction 

The first reported feeding of manufactured diets to 

walleye occurred in the late 1960s (McCauley 1970). 

Prior to that, walleye were either released as fry 

immediately after hatching or raised to fingerlings in 

fertilized ponds that contained zooplankton as the food 

source (Smith and Moyle 1943; Dobie 1956). If 

zooplankton production in the ponds was inadequate to 

support the desired growth, the fish were either released 

early or fed live minnows to reduce loss from cannibalism. The high labor costs and unpredictability of 

culturing minnows spurred interest in developing 

pelleted dets for the production of fingerling walleyes 

(Cheshire and Steele 1972). 

Initial experiments at converting pond-reared walleye 

from live feeds to formulated diets were hindered by 

low feed consumption, hgh cannibalism, and dnease 

(Nagel 1976). Cheshire and Steele (1972) were successful in growing fingerlings to 100 mm with 18% survival 

using Canadian formula PR6 trout granules. Granules 

that had been stored for a year were found to be more 

acceptable than “fresh granules,” perhaps due to a 

change in pellet texture. Although originally developed 

for Pacific salmon, Oregon moist pellets and the 

Abernathy &et were also found to support reasonable 

growth and survival during early trials (Nagel 1974, 

1976). 

During the 1970’s, larger-scale fingerling production 

began at several national and state fish hatcheries, using 

dets formulated for coolwater fish by researchers at the 

USFWS Spearfish Fish Technology Center (Beyerle 

1975). These diets, referred to as the “W” series, were 

composed primarily of herring and blood meal, soy 

flour, and fish oil, and were high in both protein (60%) 

and metabolizable energy (4,200 Kcalkg). The W- 16 

formulation became the most commonly fed walleye 

diet at that time (Nickum 1978). 

Diet development for walleye intensified in the late 

1980s at the USFWS Fish Technology Center in 

Bozeman, Montana, as part of a multi-state Cooperative 

Federal Aid Project. Participating members included 

fishery personnel from Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, 

Nebraska, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and later Arkansas 

and North Dakota (Barrows 1990, 1995). Feeds were 

developed and tested during a 5-year period for several 

specific life phases, includmg: intensively cultured fry 

(starter dets); pond-cultured fingerings undergoing 

habituation to intensive culture (conversion dets); 

fingerlings acclimated to pelleted diets being cultured to 

a larger size (grower diets); and fry converting from a 

starter feed to a grower formulation (transition diets). 

Factors considered during &et development included 

the primary objectives of the particular feedmg program; the nutrient requirements and feeQng habits of 

the targeted life stage of the fish; manufacturing 

technology as it relates to form and behavior of the feed 

in the intended culture system; and ingredient cost, 

availability, and functional role in the diet. 

Diet develop men t 

Starter diets 

Starter diets are defined as “those feeds intended to be 

the first solid food consumed by a fish after hatching.” 

The primary considerations in the manufacture of 

starter &ets are: the feed be readdy consumed by the 

fish; be highly digestible to accommodate a developing, 

and often not fully functional digestive tract; and have 

high water stability to reduce bacterial contamination of 

the culture system and preserve water quality. Consumption can be influenced by feed particle size, shape, 

color, texture, taste, smell, density, and buoyancy. Cost 

NCRAC Culture Series 101 - Walleye Culture Manual 31 5 
should not usually be a major consideration when 

selecting starter &ets because only a relatively small 

quantity will be used, and maximum survival and fish 

health are of paramount importance during this phase of 

the culture program. 

The first attempts at culturing walleye fry using starter 

feeds as the sole source of nutrition were largely 

unsuccessful, with survival rates typically e 10% 

(Beyerle 1975; Nickum 1978; Colesante et al. 1986; 

Barrows et al. 1988). By comparison, intensive culture 

of fry using live feeds produced survival rates as hgh as 

87% through 21 days post hatch (Howey et al. 1980; 

Hokanson and Lien 1986). Greater success was 

obtained by first starting fry on live organisms, then 

converting the fish to formulated diets after the fish 

were actively feeding (Krise and Meade 1986). Failure 

of the formulated dets to support adequate growth and 

survival of the fry was attributed to either rejection of 

the feed particles, high cannibalism, lack of swim 

bladder inflation, or excessive tank fouling. 

Several technological advances in the late 1980s 

allowed for significant progress in the development of 

starter dets for walleye fry. The first was the design of 

culture systems that minimized cannibalism and water 

fouling and enabled fry to fully inflate their air bladders 

(Colesante et al. 1986; Barrows et al. 1988, 1993; 

Loadman et al. 1989). These designs provided nutritionists the opportunity to present diets to healthy fish and 

thus concentrate research on formulation, ingrehent 

processing, and particle formation. 

The second advance was the development of feed 

manufacturing techniques that produced small-particle 

diets that were not only acceptable to fry but also 

minimized nutrient leaching to the water. Notable 

among these hets was a series of three closed-formulation feeds referred to as Fry Feed Kyowa (FFK) A, €3, 

and C (Biokyowa Inc., Chestefiield, Missouri)’ which 

successfully replaced live feeds for numerous aquatic 

species. Formulation A was designed as a replacement 

for rotifers, was the most expensive, and comes in the 

smallest particle sizes. The B formulation was intended 

to replace artemia, and the C formula was intended to 

replace minced fish. While the production method for 

the diets is proprietary, the particles are readily consumed by walleye fry, and the uneaten feed is stable in 

Use of trade or manufacturer’s name does not imply 

endorsement. 

water for at least 12 hours. Initial tests with fry produced survivals of 28% (Loadman et al. 1989) and 47% 

(Barrows 1990) to 30 days post hatch. Since 1990, a 

feeding regimen of FFK-B for 7 days followed by FFKC for 21 days has become the standard reference for the 

evaluation of starter dets by the USFWS. 

Using FFK dets as controls, an open-formulation 

starter feed (WS-9112) was developed that produced 

similar survival as FFK, but growth was slightly slower 

(Barrows 1991). This feed was composed of krill meal 

(42%), spray-dried whole egg (25%), ground trout fry 

and eggs (IO%), cod liver oil (7%), liver and yeast 

extracts (6%), binders, vitamins, and minerals. The &et 

contained 51 % protein and 24% lipid and was processed into spheres using an agglomeration technique 

known as “marumerization.” This technique produces 

particles that are smoother and more uniform, and there 

are fewer fines than with standard granules. Subsequent 

testing revealed that while a portion of the hll meal 

could be replaced with low-temperature herring meal, 

fish meal hydrozylates seemed unpalatable to the fry 

(Barrows 1994). The cost of the diet was reduced by 

replacing spray-dned egg with commercial grade egg 

solids, and preparation time was reduced by replacing 

liver extract with liver meal. The result of those 

development studies is the WS-9501 formulation (Table 

1). Feeding this diet can result in about 45% survival 

from hatching to 30 days with 95% swim bladder 

inflation when fed at a particle size of 250-410 urn for 

the first 7 days and 410-725 um thereafter, in cylindncal tanks with a surface spray (Barrows, 1996). 

Conversion diets 

Conversion diets are defined as “feeds used to transition 

a fingerling from consuming live zooplankton in a pond 

environment to consuming manufactured pellets in a 

tank or raceway environment.” The basic assumptions 

behind a conversion diet are that the stress of habituation is elevated by the radical change in dietary taste 

and texture, and that a feed intermediate in properties 

between live and manufactured diets will increase 

survival. This theory was substantiated by a trial in 

which survival was increased from 23 to 62% by 

feeding a commercial starter feed (FFK-C) versus a 

standard grower diet (W-16) for the first 10 days after 

pond harvest (Barrows 1990). Diet has been shown to 

be a major factoring affecting the survival of pondreared fingerlings to formulated feed, but the importance of strong, healthy fingerlings must be considered. 

31 6 NCRAC Culture Series 101- Walleye Culture Manual 
No matter what feed is 

offered to the fish, if they 

are too skinny due to a lack 

of food in the pond, 

survival will be low. 

Similar to a starter feed, the 

primary considerations in 

selection of a conversion 

diet are: the feed be highly 

palatable; must produce low 

levels of water pollution; 

and must contain additional 

energy to compensate for 

interrupted feeding. 

However, unlike a starter 

feed, the diets may contain 

less dgestible feed ingredents due to the maturity of 

the gastrointestinal tract, 

and cost is more important 

due to the larger quantities 

of feed required. 

The first conversion &ets 

were formulated using 

herring meal (44%), 

soybean meal (1 2%), alfalfa 

meal (lo%), and fish oil 

(9%) as the primary 

ingredients (Barrows 1990). 

Survival rate using ths diet 

(53%) was intermediate 

between that obtained with 

Table 1. Percentage composition of selected USFWS walleye diet 

formulations. 

Ingredient 

Starter Co nve rs ion Grower 

WS-9501 WC-9504 WG-9206a 

Krill meal 

Herring meal (low temp) 

Anchovy meal 

Egg solid 

Artemia meal 

Liver meal 

Blood meal 

Soybean meal 

Corn gluten meal 

Wheat flour 

Fish oil 

Binder (TIC-51 5) 

Binder (CMC) 

Soy lecithin 

Yeast extract 

Vitamin mix-30b 

Betaine 

Ascorbic acid 

Mineral mi~-3~ 

I n osito I 

Choline chloride (70%) 

36.0 

13.4 

20.0 

8.0 

7.0 

4.0 

3.0 

2.0 

2.0 

3.0 

1 .o 

0.1 

0.1 

0.4 

15.0 

37.0 

4.5 

12.0 

8.0 

5.0 

8.0 

3.0 

2.0 

2.0 

2.0 

1 .o 

0.1 

0.4 

49.50 

4.75 

12.00 

8.25 

10.00 

11.75 

2.50 

0.60 

0.1 5 

0.05 

0.45 

a Currently commercially available. 

Contributed per kg of diet: vit. A, 10000 IU; vit. D3, 720 IU; vit. E, 530 IU; vit 812, 30 ug; calcium 

pantothenate, 160 mg; riboflavin, 80 mg; thiamin mononitrate, 50 mg; pyridoxine hydrochloride, 45 

mg; folacin, 13 mg; menadione sodium bisulfate, 25 mg; biotin, 1 mg; niacin, 330 mg. 

Contributed in mg/kg diet: zinc, 100; manganese, 70; iron, 3; copper, 2; iodine, 1. 

a starter diet (71 %) and a grower diet (29%). Survival 

was also increased by incorporation of a feeding 

stimulant (a substance designed to increase palatability 

of the feed, Berkley Cop, Spirit Lake, Iowa) at 5% of 

the total diet. Weight gain during the conversion period 

was greater when the test diet was marumerized into 

spheres, as opposed to crumbles formed from pellets, 

perhaps due to less pollution of the culture tanks or to 

decreased pellet hardness. The use of propylene glycol 

as a pellet softening agent had no influence on survival 

in the marumerized feeds, but it decreased weight gain. 

Survival was equal whether lighting was continuous or 

set at 14L:lOD. 

Formulated with the goal to increase survival, a second 

series of diets which were higher in palatability was 

formulated using krill meal, spray dried egg, and cod 

liver oil as the major ingredients (Barrows et al. 1992). 

Feeding these dets resulted in survival rates >95% 

during the 21-day conversion period from live to dry 

feed, but mortality was unacceptably high during the 

subsequent transition to grower diets. Feeding smaller 

particle sizes (500 vs 800 um) or increasing moisture 

levels (25% vs 10%) increased survival during conversion, but incorporation of binding agents that produce 

soft, flexible pellets (Qulai Tech Inc., Chaska, Minnesota) did not (Barrows 1994). 

This led to a third series of diets which utilized either 

hll, freeze dned artemia, or low-temperature herring 

meal as the primary source of protein (Barrows 1995). 

These diets were fed either dry (9% moisture) or wet 

NCRAC Culture Series 101 - Walleye Culture Manual 31 7 
(27% moisture) for 21 days, at which time the fish were 

gradually converted to a standard grower &et. Final 46- 

day survival was highest for fish that were fed diets 

supplemented with freeze dried artemia (86%), followed by krill meal (77%), herring meal (65%), and 

FFK-C (61%). There was no real advantage to fee&ng 

the dets wet, except for a slight improvement in 

survival among fish fed the hll-based &et. These 

results indicate that feeding a dry diet supplemented 

with artemia, or a wet krill-based diet (WC-9404, Table 

1) for 21 days following pond harvest will result in 

survival rates >75% through conversion to grower &ets. 

Transition diets 

A modified form of the conversion diet, referred to as 

the “transition diet,” is being developed to assist 

intensively cultured walleye fry convert from starter 

feeds to grower feeds. This was prompted by the 

repeated observation that a significant portion (up to 

40%) of fry that had been consuming very palatable 

starter feeds would starve rather than switch to a grower 

diet. This mortality may be avoided by offering feeds 

intermediate in composition to the starter and grower 

&ets during the transition period. However, there seem 

to be other factors involved in how well the fish will 

switch to the grower &ets. Transition &ets may be 

unnecessary in situations where: water temperature is 

about 21°C; fish are not stressed; fish are consuming 

the starter diet well and are in good condition; and 

pathogens are not prevalent. Further research is 

continuing to determine under which condtions 

survival can be improved through use of transition diets. 

Grower diets 

A grower diet is defined as “a feed used to increase the 

size of a fish that has completed the early developmental phase of life, has a fully matured dgestive system, 

and is rea&ly consuming manufactured diets.” Because 

the greatest quantity of feed used during an entire 

production cycle will be a grower diet, feed cost, fish 

growth rate, and feed conversion ratio become the 

primary factors that must be considered during formulation. As such, an effective measure of grower feed 

performance is the cost per lulogram of fish produced, 

which is an indicator of the overall effectiveness of the 

feed in a hatchery operation. 

The initial focus of the &et development program of the 

USFWS was to produce a grower feed that equals the 

survival and growth of W-16 but is less costly to 

manufacture. An initial experimental diet (WG-890 1) 

was formulated to contain 44% herring meal, 12% 

soybean meal, 10% alfalfa meal, 9% fish oil, and 8% 

corn gluten feed as the primary ingredients (Barrows 

1990). This diet contained an amino acid profile similar 

to that of unfertilized walleye eggs, but had less total 

protein (50% vs 61%) and energy (3,500 vs 4,200 Kcal 

ME/kg) than W-16. During the 1989 and 1990 trials, the 

diet produced equal or better survival and growth as W16, with a projected cost savings of about 20% (Barrows 1990,1991). 

Subsequent trials indcated that: menhaden fish oil and 

cod liver oil served equally well as a lipid source; 

anchovy fish meal could replace herring fish meal; 

replacement of alfalfa meal with wheat flour increased 

growth; and the texturizing agent propylene glycol had 

a negative effect on weight gain (Barrows 1994, 1995). 

The resulting &et (WG-9206, Table 1) contains 48% 

protein and 3,500 Kcal MEkg and it has been commercially produced and fed at numerous walleye hatcheries 

in the US for several years. Although it is still more 

expensive than traditional trout feeds, it is significantly 

less expensive than W-16. However, it is anticipated 

that a decrease in grower &et cost will occur as 

commercial walleye production expands and greater 

quantities of walleye feed are needed. 

Brood stock diets 

Presently, there are no diets formulated specifically for 

reproductively active walleye, nor is there a demand for 

such dets because brood stock are commonly obtained 

from the wild immediately prior to spawning. Research 

on the nutritional requirements of brood stock is both 

expensive and time consuming, so the knowledge base 

for the most commercially important fish species is 

fairly limited. There are several laboratories preparing 

for long-term stu&es on the nutritional requirements of 

sexually mature salmonids, and this information may be 

applicable to walleye. 

Nutritional requirements 

To date, very little quantitative research has been 

published on the nutritional requirements of walleye. 

Barrows (1987) conducted two experiments to determine the protein and energy needs of fingerlings. In the 

first trial, protein levels of 50% and 42% produced the 

greatest growth among 8-g and 50-g fish, respectively, 

using isocaloric diets (3,470 Kcal ME/kg) that con31 8 NCRAC Culture Series 101- Walleye Culture Manual 
tained herring meal as the primary protein source. 

Energy density of these feeds was 6.9 Kcal ME/g 

protein for the small fish and 8.3 Kcal ME/g protein for 

the larger fingerlings. Carcass fat decreased as dietary 

protein increased, but carcass protein was unaffected. In 

the second experiment, a factorial arrangement of 

&etary protein and energy indicated that a feed containing 51% protein and 3,530 Kcal MEkg (6.9 Kcal ME/g 

protein) would produce maximum weight gain in 14-g 

fingerlings. In a subsequent factorial experiment with 

45-g walleye (Barrows 1990), fish fed a dietary 

combination of 42% protein and 3,600 Kcal MEkg (8.6 

Kcal ME/g protein) had the greatest weight gain and 

carcass lipid deposition. 

Barrows (1 987) reported that supplementation of 

anchovy fish meal-based diets with synthetic amino 

acids to match the amino acid profile of unfertilized 

walleye eggs improved growth of 6-g walleye. Diets 

balanced to mimic the amino acid pattern of whole 

walleye body gave equal performance, but at a lower 

feed cost than those that mimiced the egg (Barrows 

1991). Other studies indicated that 8 mgkg folic acid, 

15 mgkg pantothenic acid, and 96 mgkg vitamin C 

were adequate for normal growth and prevention of 

vitamin deficiency symptoms (Barrows 1991). 

Feed manufacturing tech no logy 

The delivery of manufactured feeds to an animal 

within an aquatic environment offers unique problems 

not encountered by the terrestrial animal industry. In a 

terrestrial environment, uneaten feed remains relatively 

nutritionally stable with time; however, in an aquatic 

environment feed rapidly deteriorates, losing nutritional 

value and polluting the culture system. This is an 

especially severe problem with starter feeds due to their 

small particle size and high porosity. The process of 

pelletization is a technique used to overcome some of 

the difficulties of feeding aquatic animals by packaging 

a combination of dietary ingredients into a form that 

can be delivered, consumed, and effectively utilized. 

The interaction between the manufacturing method and 

the ingredient characteristics has a significant and 

varying effect on the final cost, stability, consistency, 

and acceptability of the diet. 

Because walleye remain essentially genetically wild 

(undomesticated), they often exhibit a reluctance to 

consume formulated feeds. Until the late 1980s, walleye 

diets were manufactured primarily using steam 

pelleting and cold extrusion technology developed for 

the salmonid industry. Presently, technologies borrowed 

from the terrestrial animal and pharmaceutical industries are making significant impacts on walleye culture. 

These technologies include coolung extrusion and the 

extrusion/marumerization process. However, no one 

production method can produce an optimal feed for all 

life stages of walleye. Understanding the effects of 

manufacturing technique on feed performance will help 

the producer select the feed best suited for a particular 

culture situation. 

Steam pe//e ting 

Steam pelleting refers to a process by which a mixture 

of dry or moist ingredients are mixed with a binder, 

exposed to steam to activate the binder, then passed 

through a circular rotating &e under pressure to form a 

solid pellet. Binders usually consist of an indigestible 

material, often a wood processing by-product such as 

carboxy-methylcellulose or lignin sulphonate, incorporated at 2 to 4% of the formula weight. No cooking of 

the carbohydrate fraction occurs during the process, 

which produces a dense, sinlung particle. Feeds for 

smaller fish can be produced by crumbling and sifting 

the larger pellets. 

Steam pelleting has been used to produce commercial 

fish feeds for a longer time period than any other 

manufacturing technique. The primary advantage of this 

method is that it adds the least cost to the final feed. 

Disadvantages include the breakage of pellets during 

shipping which results in wasted fines, and the release 

of binders with subsequent pellet disintegration after 

soaking in water. Crumbled starter feeds also have a 

very hard texture and sharp edges, qualities that may 

cause feed rejection by larval or pond-reared walleye. 

This is still a cost-effective method of feed manufacture, and can provide benefits over other processing 

methods in some instances. 

Cold extrusion 

Cold extrusion refers to a manufacturing process used 

widely throughout the food, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries in which no additional heat is added to the 

ingredient mixture during pelletization. Advantages of 

cold extrusion over steam pelleting are that smaller 

intact particles can be formed without crumbling or 

sifting, and greater amounts of wet ingredients can be 

incorporated directly into the diets. The lower processNCRAC Culture Series 101 - Walleye Culture Manual 31 9 
ing temperatures also eliminate the degradation of some 

nutrients that can occur with techniques that require 

heat for pelletization. 

The first cold extruders used for fish feeds were 

probably “pasta-type” machines such as those used to 

manufacture Oregon Moist Pellets. These machines 

consist of one or two screws that move a wet mash 

down a barrel and through a flat plate, producing a 

noodle which is then cut to form pellets. This type of 

extruder can generate a pellet as small as 1.0 to 1.5 mm 

in diameter, depending upon the characteristics and 

particle size of the ingredients used. Cold extruders can 

also be designed to discharge from the side of the barrel 

(called “radial hscharge extruders”) or through a twindomed screen (LCI Inc., Charlotte, North Carolina) to 

produce noodles as thin as 0.5 and 0.3 mm in hameter, 

respectively. 

A two-step pelleting technique known as “extrusion/ 

marumerization” has been adapted from the pharmaceutical industry at the Bozeman Fish Technology Center 

for the production of small dameter aquatic feeds. Thin 

noodles produced through cold extrusion are placed 

into a rotating cylinder (the marumerizer) that contains 

a variable-speed grooved plate on the bottom. As the 

plate spins the noodles are broken into rods with a 

length roughly equivalent to the diameter, and the 

particles are then rounded through impact with each 

other and the plate groves. The exact shape of the final 

particle is dependent upon the diet formulation and 

moisture content. Spheres can be produced, but an 

elongated egg shape is more common. Centrifugal 

forces acting upon the feed during marumerization 

causes a migration of water and finer ingredients to the 

particle exterior, resulting in surface densification. This 

imparts a smooth texture and high water stability to the 

diet, characteristics that seem beneficial in fry feeds. 

Cooking extrusion 

Cooking extrusion, also referred to as “high-temperature, short-time extrusion,” has been used to manufacture breakfast cereals and pet foods for many years. The 

predominant feature of a cooking extruder is a chamber 

in which feed is subjected to heat under high pressure. 

A sudden release in pressure occurs as feed exits the 

chamber, causing detary carbohydrate to expand into a 

tight matrix that traps air. If enough carbohydrate is 

incorporated into the feed, the resulting pellet will float. 

Although equipment used in cooking extrusion is 

expensive when compared to steam-pelleting or coldextrusion, the added sophistication allows for the 

production of diets with many physical characteristics 

which are not possible with other pelleting methods. 

Coolung extrusion can be used to produce feeds that 

absorb and retain oils very effectively, even as great as 

45 to 50% of the diet. These high-energy dets are used 

in salmonid hatcheries and net-pen operations to reduce 

total feed intake and thus lower solid waste discharge 

from the facility. Energy dense low-pollution diets may 

have advantages in some walleye culture operations, but 

the effects of high detary fat on walleye performance 

has yet to be investigated. 

The high temperatures and pressures employed during 

cooking extrusion will also increase digestibility of 

carbohydrates to carnivorous fish (Hilton et al. 1981). 

This has the advantage of increasing total energy 

available to the fish, yet it may lead to excess accumulation of glycogen in the livers of some coldwater species 

(Hilton et al. 1981). It is not known how walleye will 

react to high levels of digestible carbohydrate in the 

diet. 

Conclusions 

In conclusion, three factors should be considered when 

selecting a feed for walleye. First, does the feed contain 

the nutrients necessary for optimal growth and survival 

of the life stage under culture? Second, is the method of 

feed manufacture consistent with the goals of that phase 

of production? Third, will the selected feed function in 

the culture system that is used? By considering each of 

these topics, the culturist will be able to optimize their 

feeding program to fit their specific needs. 

References 

Barrows, F. T. 1987. Nutrient requirements of walleye. 

Doctoral dissertation. Iowa State University, Ames. 

Barrows, F. T. 1990. Walleye research summary; 1989 

season. Annual Progress Report: Year1 . Fisheries 

and Federal Aid Project 81, USFWS, Denver, 

Colorado. 

Barrows, F. T. 1991. Walleye research summary; 1990 

season. Annual Progress Report: Year 2. Fisheries 

and Federal Aid Project 81, USFWS, Denver, 

Colorado. 

320 NCRAC Culture Series 101- Walleye Culture Manual 
Barrows, F. T. 1994. Walleye research summary; 1993 

season. Annual Progress Report: Fisheries and 

Federal Aid Project, USFWS, Denver, Colorado. 

Barrows, F. T. 1995. Walleye research summary; 1994 

season. Annual Progress Report: Fisheries and 

Federal Aid Project, USFWS, Denver, Colorado. 

Barrows, F. T. 1996. Walleye research summary; 1995 

season. Annual Progress Report: Fisheries and 

Federal Aid Project, USFWS, Denver, Colorado. 

Barrows, F. T., W. A. Lellis, and J. G. Nickum. 1988. 

Intensive culture of larval walleyes with dry or 

formulated feed: note on swim bladder inflation. 

Progressive Fish-Culturist 50:160-166. 

Barrows, F. T., G. A. Kindschi, R. E. Zitzow, and C. E. 

Smith. 1992. Walleye research summary; 1991 

season. Annual Progress Report: Year 3. Fisheries 

and Federal Aid Project 81, 52 pp. 

Barrows, F. T., R. E. Zitzow, and G. A. Kindschi. 1993. 

Effects of surface water spray, diet, and phase 

feeding on swim bladder inflation, survival, and cost 

of production of intensively reared larval walleyes. 

Progressive Fish-Culturist 55224-228. 

Beyerle, G. 6. 1975. Summary of attempts to raise 

walleye fry and fingerlings on artificial diets, with 

suggestions on needed research and procedures to 

be used in future tests. Progressive Fish-Culturist 

37: 1 03-1 05. 

Cheshire, W. F., and K. L. Steele. 1972. Hatchery 

rearing of walleye using artificial food. Progressive 

Fish-Culturist 34:96-99. 

Colesante, R. T., N. B. Youmans, and B. Ziolkoski. 1986. 

Intensive culture of walleye fry with live food and 

formulated diets. Progressive Fish-Culturist 48:33-37 

Dobie, J. 1956. Walleye pond management in Minnesota. Progressive Fish-Culturist 18:51-57. 

Hilton, J.W., C.Y. Cho, and S.J. Slinger. 1981. Effect of 

extrusion processing and steam pelleting diets on 

pellet durability, pellet water absorption and the 

physiological response of rainbow trout (Salmo 

gairdneri R.). Aquaculture 25:185-194. 

Hokanson,K. E. E, and G. J. Lien. 1986. Effects of diet 

on growth and survival of larval walleyes. Progressive 

Fish-Culturist 48:250-258. 

Howey, R. G., G. L. Theis, and I? B. Haines. 1980. 

Intensive culture of walleye (Stizostedion vitreum 

vitreum). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lamar Fish 

Cultural Development Center, Information Leaflet 80- 

05, Lamar, Pennsylvania. 

Krise, W. F., and J. W. Meade. 1986. Review of the 

intensive culture of walleye fry. Progressive FishCulturist 48:81-89. 

Loadman, N. L., J. A. Mathias, and G. E. E. Moodie. 

1989. Method for intensive culture of walleye. 

Progressive Fish-Culturist 51 : 1-9. 

McCauley, R. W. 1970. Automatic food pellet dispenser 

for walleyes. Progressive Fish-Culturist 32:42. 

Nagel, T. 1974. Rearing of walleye fingerlings in an 

intensive culture using Oregon moist pellets as an 

artificial feed. Progressive Fish-Culturist 36:59. 

Nagel, T. 1976. Intensive culture of fingerling walleyes 

on formulated feeds. Progressive Fish-Culturist 

38:90-91. 

Nickum, J. G. 1978. Intensive culture of walleyes: The 

state of the art. Special Publication 11. American 

Fisheries Society, Washington, D.C. 

Smith, L. L., Jr., and J. B. Moyle. 1943. Factors influencing production of yellow pike-perch Stizostedion 

vitreum vitreum, in Minnesota rearing ponds. 

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 

73:243-261. 

NCRAC Culture Series 101 - Walleye Culture Manual 321 
322 NCRAC Culture Series 101- Walleye Culture Manual