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[Congressional Bills 118th Congress]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office]
[H.R. 8130 Introduced in House (IH)]

<DOC>

118th CONGRESS
  2d Session
                                H. R. 8130

 To establish a commission to address the fundamental repercussions of 
  misguided interventions by the United States in multiple sovereign 
 Western Hemisphere nations over the course of the twentieth century, 
   including to study and consider an apology and proposals for the 
  repairment of relations and reconciliation with the peoples of said 
                    nations, and for other purposes.

_______________________________________________________________________

                    IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

                             April 26, 2024

  Mr. Espaillat (for himself and Ms. Tlaib) introduced the following 
      bill; which was referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs

_______________________________________________________________________

                                 A BILL

 
 To establish a commission to address the fundamental repercussions of 
  misguided interventions by the United States in multiple sovereign 
 Western Hemisphere nations over the course of the twentieth century, 
   including to study and consider an apology and proposals for the 
  repairment of relations and reconciliation with the peoples of said 
                    nations, and for other purposes.

    Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
United States of America in Congress assembled,

SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE.

    This Act may be cited as the ``Commission on the United States 
Occupations in the Americas Act'' or the ``La Comision de las 
Ocupaciones Americanos Act''.

SEC. 2. FINDINGS.

    Congress finds the following as it relates to misguided United 
States military interventions in the following nations:
            (1) First occupation of nicaragua.--On November 18, 1909, 
        President William Howard Taft sent warships off the coast of 
        Nicaragua to signal United States support for an uprising 
        against Nicaraguan President Jose Santos Zelaya, whose 
        Presidency was viewed as unfavorable to the interests of United 
        States businesses operating in Nicaragua. While United States 
        forces were not ordered to intervene directly, a small group of 
        United States Marines nevertheless made landfall on the 
        Nicaraguan coast and assisted in the successful rebellion 
        against President Zelaya, who resigned on December 14, 1909, 
        and later fled the country. A new pro-United States President 
        of Nicaragua, Juan Estrada, was later installed in August 1910, 
        due in large part to the pressure imposed by the continual 
        presence of United States warships off the Nicaraguan coast. 
        President Estrada's pro-United States stances proved unpopular, 
        and he was forced to resign in May of 1911 by the Nicaraguan 
        Minister of War, Luis Mena. President Estrada was replaced by 
        his Vice President, Adolfo Diaz. Nevertheless, Diaz's close 
        connections to the United States also made him unpopular, and 
        in mid-1912, Nicaragua's Constituent Assembly appointed Mena as 
        the successor to the Presidency over Diaz. When the United 
        States refused to recognize Mena's Presidency as legitimate, 
        Mena's and Diaz's forces clashed in July of 1912 in a full-
        scale civil war. Diaz requested the United States support in 
        the war. Beginning on August 4, 1912, multiple contingents of 
        United States Bluejackets and Marines arrived in Nicaragua and 
        assisted Diaz's forces, resulting in Diaz's victory on October 
        6, 1912, when his forces captured the city of Leon, Nicaragua. 
        Although only 7 members of the United States military died in 
        the conflict, the war nevertheless resulted in approximately 
        2,000 total casualties. The United States withdrew most of its 
        forces toward the end of October 1912. However, a smaller 
        contingent of approximately 100 Marines would remain in 
        Nicaragua's capital city of Managua for over a decade before 
        eventually withdrawing in August 1925.
            (2) First occupation of mexico.--On April 21, 1914, at the 
        order of President Woodrow Wilson, 500 Marines and 300 Navy 
        personnel invaded the port city of Veracruz, Mexico, to seize 
        control of the city. President Wilson's pretext for this 
        operation was to enforce a United States arms embargo against 
        Mexico and prevent the arrival of an arms shipment in Veracruz 
        that had been ordered by Mexican President Victoriano Huerta, 
        who was viewed as an enemy of the United States at that time. 
        The ensuing fighting saw United States forces destroy most of 
        the Mexican Naval Academy in Veracruz. The United States 
        military was eventually able to take full control of Veracruz 
        by April 24, 1914, beginning a 6-month occupation by the United 
        States of the city. The United States military suffered just 
        shy of 100 casualties while approximately 550 Mexican soldiers 
        and civilians died while defending the city. United States 
        forces eventually withdrew from Veracruz on November 23, 1914. 
        The United States occupation of Veracruz had broad negative 
        consequences for the favorability of the United States amongst 
        Mexican citizens and increased anti-American sentiment 
        throughout Mexico and Latin America for decades to come.
            (3) Second occupation of mexico.--From March 16, 1916, 
        through February 14, 1917, an expeditionary force of more than 
        14,000 United States Army troops was sent into northern Mexico. 
        These forces were instructed to engage in the singular pursuit 
        of capturing Mexican revolutionary Francisco ``Pancho'' Villa. 
        President Woodrow Wilson ordered this expedition in response to 
        Villa's army's raid of Colombus, New Mexico, on March 9, 1916, 
        which killed 17 United States citizens. Over the course of the 
        next 11 months, multiple battles occurred in Mexico between 
        Pancho Villa's forces and United States forces, leaving a total 
        15 United States citizens and 251 Mexicans dead. Mexican 
        President Venustiano Carranza viewed the United States 
        expedition in pursuit of Villa as a clear violation of Mexican 
        sovereignty. The expedition ended before Villa was ever 
        captured, and United States forces eventually withdrew from 
        Mexico on February 14, 1917, in order to consolidate forces to 
        fight in World War I in Europe.
            (4) First occupation of the dominican republic.--On May 13, 
        1916, a contingent of the United States Marine Corps landed on 
        the shores of the Dominican Republic with the goal of 
        militarily occupying the island nation due to concerns about 
        the possible German use of the Dominican Republic as a base for 
        attacks on the United States during World War I. After 2 months 
        of fighting, the United States military took control of the 
        nation, established a government, and continued to occupy the 
        island for 8 years before withdrawing on September 18, 1924. By 
        the time United States forces withdrew, 144 marines had died 
        and 50 were injured. The 8-year occupation also resulted in 950 
        Dominican casualties between those who died and those who were 
        injured in the conflict.
            (5) Second occupation of nicaragua.--On January 24, 1927, 
        when Nicaragua was embroiled in another civil war that 
        threatened United States business and diplomatic interests in 
        the region, 3,000 United States Marines were deployed to 
        Nicaragua by President Calvin Coolidge with the goal of 
        disarming rebel groups, supervising the highly contentious 1928 
        Presidential election, and developing and training the Guardia 
        Nacional de Nicaragua (Nicaraguan National Guard). While the 
        Marines were successful in disarming various rebel groups 
        throughout the country, Nicaraguan rebel leader Cesar Augusto 
        Sandino and his forces resisted due to Sandino's ideological 
        opposition to United States interventionism in his country. 
        Sandino's army and the United States Marines engaged in a 6-
        year-long military conflict through 1933. A total 136 Marines 
        died and estimates of Nicaraguan casualties, although 
        imprecise, were even larger. Sandino's willingness to stand up 
        to United States forces attracted sympathy and galvanized anti-
        American sentiment both in Nicaragua and throughout the Western 
        Hemisphere. Despite Sandino's resistance, the United States 
        successfully supervised Nicaragua's November 1928 elections, 
        which saw President Jose Maria Moncada ascend to power. After 
        the election, President Herbert Hoover, slowly withdrew troops 
        from Nicaragua until the last Marines left Nicaragua on January 
        2, 1933. Sandino's rebel forces continued to engage in periodic 
        guerilla warfare against United States troops until these last 
        Marines were evacuated. Today, Sandino is a popular folk hero 
        amongst the Nicaraguan political left and his name provides the 
        inspiration for the modern-day ``Sandinista'' political party 
        that rules Nicaragua.
            (6) Guatemala air occupation.--On June 18, 1954, through 
        June 27, 1954, as part of ``Operation PBSuccess'', the United 
        States Central Intelligence Agency (``CIA'') planned, designed, 
        and led a successful coup in Guatemala, overthrowing the 
        predominantly capitalist government of President Jacobo Arbenz, 
        coinciding in time with President Arbenz's plans to 
        redistribute land owned by the United Fruit Company, a 
        prosperous United States-based fruit company which controlled 
        42 percent of all land in Guatemala at that time. In 
        justification for Operation PBSuccess, the United States 
        spuriously alleged that President Arbenz's government had been 
        infiltrated by anti-American communists. The CIA provided both 
        supplies and a small fleet of combat troops for the rebellion, 
        during which United States pilots bombed fortresses and other 
        areas of Guatemala City. Operation PBSuccess was successful, 
        and on June 27, 1954, President Arbenz fled Guatemala. The 1954 
        coup is widely viewed by historians as ushering in an 
        unprecedented era of civil war in Guatemala that lasted until 
        1996 and claimed the lives of over 200,000 Guatemalans, many of 
        which were lost in connection with various additional covert 
        CIA operations that operated in the nation during this time 
        period.
            (7) Second occupation of the dominican republic.--On April 
        28, 1965, the second intervention and occupation of the 
        Dominican Republic by the United States Armed Forces, called 
        ``Operation Power Pack'', commenced and provided United States 
        air and ground troops to assist future Dominican President 
        Donal Reid Cabral's army in the Dominican 1965 civil war. 
        Operation Power Pack took place between 1965 and 1966, after a 
        period of political instability and military coup following the 
        assassination of former Dominican dictator Rafael Leonidas 
        Trujillo in 1961. In 1962, socialist politician Juan Bosch 
        became the elected President of the Dominican Republic before 
        being overthrown in a separate coup in 1963. From 1963 through 
        April 1965, a 3-man military junta of General Antonio Imbert 
        Barrera, General Luis Amiamo Tio, and General Victor Elby Vinas 
        Roman held power before growing dissatisfaction led to another 
        rebellion on April 24, 1965. Four days later, President Lyndon 
        Johnson sent a total of 42,000 United States troops from 
        multiple branches of the military to the island, supplemented 
        by an Inter-American Peace Force of 2,000 troops, to assist 
        rebels led by Donald Reid Cabral. In what is now known as the 
        1965 Dominican Civil War or ``La Revolucion del 65'' Cabral's 
        forces prevailed due to the United States military backing. 
        Shortly after the war ended, on July 1, 1966, democratically 
        questionable elections were held in the Dominican Republic 
        which resulted in the election of Joaquin Balaguer as 
        President. United States troops withdrew from the island nation 
        thereafter on September 21, 1966. In total, 44 United States 
        combatants were killed in the conflict, alongside over 2,000 
        Dominicans, roughly half of whom were civilians. Following the 
        withdrawal of United States troops, President Balaguer, a 
        previous member of the Trujillo-led government, ruled the 
        Dominican Republic for a 12-year period characterized by 
        turmoil, the disappearances of Balaguer's political opponents, 
        and the deaths of hundreds of young political and social 
        activists. In this manner, the United States intervention 
        during Operation Power Pack played a key role in depriving 
        Dominican citizens of a free and sovereign government for at 
        least 12 additional years through 1978.
            (8) Grenada occupation.--From October 25, 1983, through 
        October 29, 1983, the United States conducted ``Operation 
        Urgent Fury'', a full-scale military invasion of Grenada in 
        which thousands of troops from the United States Army, Marines, 
        Navy, and Air Force were deployed to Grenada and participated 
        in active combat against native Grenadians and Cuban fighters. 
        The United States invasion was authorized by President Ronald 
        Reagan based on the asserted need to prevent a military coup 
        and communist takeover of the small island nation, in addition 
        to the need to protect the approximately 1,000 United States 
        citizens who resided on the island at that time. United States 
        forces achieved a swift victory in just 4 days, but the 
        fighting resulted in the deaths of 45 Grenadian combatants, 25 
        Cuban combatants, and 19 United States combatants. The last 
        United States troops eventually exited Grenada on June 13, 
        1985.
            (9) Panama occupation.--On December 20, 1989, approximately 
        27,000 United States troops invaded Panama at the order of 
        President George Bush under the ignominiously named ``Operation 
        Just Cause''. The purpose of Operation Just Cause was to remove 
        General Manuel Noriega, the country's dictatorial ruler, from 
        power and secure his extradition to the United States, where 
        Noriega was wanted on charges of drug trafficking and money 
        laundering (he was later found guilty on these charges upon his 
        successful extradition). Relations between the United States 
        and Panama's Government soured over the course of 1988 and 1989 
        due to Noriega's antidemocratic behavior and monopolization of 
        power, Noriega's 1988 indictment in the United States on drug 
        smuggling charges, notably escalating tensions between 
        Panamanian troops and United States troops stationed in the 
        Panama Canal Zone, and United States concerns about maintaining 
        physical control of the Panama Canal Zone. Tensions boiled over 
        on December 15, 1989, when the Noriega-led Panamanian Assembly 
        declared Panama to be in a ``state of war'' with the United 
        States. On December 16, an off-duty United States Marine was 
        shot and killed by Panamanian soldiers, prompting President 
        George Bush to order Operation Just Cause in the aftermath of 
        this incident. The United States would win the ensuing ground 
        conflict, gain control of the Panama Canal, and force Noriega's 
        surrender on January 3, 1990. However, this operation came at a 
        great cost, as according to the Pentagon's official tally, 23 
        United States soldiers, 300 Panamanian soldiers, and 214 
        Panamanian civilians were killed during the United States 
        invasion. Some human rights groups also estimate the death toll 
        amongst Panamanian civilians to be far higher. Furthermore, the 
        United States repeated bombing of the impoverished Panama City 
        neighborhood ``El Churillo'' during Operation Just Cause 
        destroyed approximately 4,000 homes and displaced thousands 
        more civilians, resulting in Panamanians nicknaming the 
        neighborhood ``Little Hiroshima'' following the war.

SEC. 3. ESTABLISHMENT AND DUTIES.

    (a) Establishment.--There is established a Commission to Study and 
Develop Reconciliation Proposals for Misguided Interventions in the 
Americas (in this Act referred to as the ``Commission'').
    (b) Duties.--The Commission shall be responsible for the following 
duties:
            (1) Identifying, documenting, examining, compiling, and 
        synthesizing the relevant body of evidentiary documentation 
        relating to the United States interest in intervening in--
                    (A) the 9 conflicts in Nicaragua, Mexico, the 
                Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Grenada, and Panama 
                discussed in section 2 of this Act; and
                    (B) any additional United States military 
                involvement in nations in the Caribbean, Latin America, 
                or South America that the Commission, via a majority 
                vote at any meeting of the Commission containing a 
                quorum, identifies as misguided and believes merits 
                investigation and action by the Commission.
            (2) Identifying, documenting, examining, compiling, and 
        synthesizing the relevant corpus of evidentiary documentation 
        relating to the United States military occupations identified 
        in paragraph (1) of this subsection, as it pertains to--
                    (A) the United States involvement in these nations 
                internal affairs and its financial and military support 
                to different rebellions and regime changes in these 
                nations;
                    (B) the treatment of the native persons by both the 
                United States military and under the regimes ushered in 
                a result of United States military action, including 
                any repressions of basic rights and freedoms by United 
                States-supported governments; and
                    (C) the lingering negative effects of these United 
                States-supported regimes on each individual nation's 
                citizens, collective psyche, and society.
            (3) Recommending appropriate ways to educate the United 
        States public on the Commission's findings.
            (4) Recommending appropriate remedies in consideration of 
        the Commission's findings on the different United States 
        military occupations described in paragraphs (1) and (2) of 
        this subsection. In making such recommendations, the Commission 
        shall address among other issues, the following questions:
                    (A) How such recommendations comport with 
                international standards of remedy for wrongs and 
                injuries caused by the United States Government, 
                including repair and reconciliation efforts, as 
                understood by various relevant international protocols, 
                laws, and findings.
                    (B) How the United States Government may offer a 
                formal apology on behalf of the people of the United 
                States for the invasions and occupations studied by the 
                Commission for those occupations which the Commission 
                deems worthy of an apology.
                    (C) How the repercussions resulting from matters 
                described in paragraphs (1) and (2) of this subsection 
                may be reversed and provide appropriate policies, 
                programs, projects, and recommendations for the purpose 
                of reversing the effects of the invasions and 
                occupations.
    (c) Report to Congress.--Not later than 4 years after the date of 
enactment of this Act, the Commission shall submit to Congress a 
written report of its findings and recommendations under this section.
    (d) Membership.--
            (1) In general.--
                    (A) Stated members.--The following shall be members 
                of the Commission:
                            (i) The Under Secretary for Western 
                        Hemisphere Affairs of the Department of State.
                            (ii) The current United States Ambassadors 
                        to each of the sovereign nations studied by the 
                        Commission.
                    (B) Appointed members.--Not later than 90 days 
                after the date of enactment of this Act, the following 
                shall be members of the Commission, appointed as 
                follows:
                            (i) One member shall be appointed by the 
                        President of the United States.
                            (ii) Two members shall be appointed by the 
                        Speaker of the House of Representatives, in 
                        consultation with the minority leader.
                            (iii) Two members shall be appointed by the 
                        majority leader of the Senate, in consultation 
                        with the minority leader.
                    (C) Members under international cooperation.--The 
                President shall seek to negotiate with the governments 
                of previously occupied nations to seek, to the extent 
                practicable, the following as members of the 
                Commission:
                            (i) The Ambassador to the United States for 
                        each sovereign nation being studied by the 
                        Commission pursuant to subsection (b)(1).
                            (ii) The Ambassador, Permanent 
                        Representative to the Organization of American 
                        States for each sovereign nation being studied 
                        by the Commission pursuant to subsection 
                        (b)(1).
            (2) Qualifications.--All members of the Commission shall be 
        persons who are especially qualified to serve on the Commission 
        by virtue of their education, training, activism, or 
        experience, particularly in the fields of Western Hemisphere 
        relations or reparatory justice.
            (3) Terms.--The term of office for members shall be for the 
        life of the Commission. A vacancy in the Commission shall not 
        affect the powers of the Commission and shall be filled in the 
        same manner in which the original appointment was made.
            (4) Meetings.--The Commission shall conduct its initial 
        meeting not later than 365 days after the date of enactment of 
        this Act. The Commission shall establish rules of procedure at 
        such meeting. All meetings of the Commission shall be public. 
        The Commission should meet not less often than 4 times per 
        year, including virtual meetings called to order by either the 
        entire Commission or any member thereof.
            (5) Quorum.--More than half of the total members of the 
        Commission shall constitute a quorum for the purposes of 
        holding a meeting in compliance with subsection (d)(4), but a 
        lesser number may hold hearings.
            (6) Chair and vice chair.--The Commission shall elect a 
        Chair and Vice Chair from among its members. The term of office 
        of each shall be for the life of the Commission.
            (7) Compensation.--Each member of the Commission who is not 
        an officer or employee of the Federal Government shall be 
        compensated at a rate equal to the daily equivalent of the 
        annual rate of basic pay prescribed for level IV of the 
        Executive Schedule under section 5315 of title 5, United States 
        Code, for each day (including travel time) during which such 
        member is engaged in the performance of the duties of the 
        Commission. All members of the Commission who are officers or 
        employees of the United States shall serve without compensation 
        in addition to that received for their services as officers or 
        employees of the United States.
            (8) Travel expenses.--The members of the Commission shall 
        be allowed travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of 
        subsistence, at rates authorized for employees of agencies 
        under subchapter I of chapter 57 of title 5, United States 
        Code, while away from their homes or regular places of business 
        in the performance of the duties of the Commission.
    (e) Powers of the Commission.--
            (1) Hearings and sessions.--The Commission may, for the 
        purpose of carrying out the provisions of this section, hold 
        such hearings and sit and act at such times and at such places 
        in the United States, and request the attendance and testimony 
        of such witnesses and the production of such books, records, 
        correspondence, memoranda, papers, and documents, as the 
        Commission considers appropriate. The Commission may invoke the 
        aid of an appropriate United States district court to require, 
        by subpoena or otherwise, such attendance, testimony, or 
        production.
            (2) Powers of members.--Any member of the Commission may, 
        if authorized by the Commission, take any action which the 
        Commission is authorized to take by this subsection.
            (3) Obtaining official data.--The Commission may acquire 
        directly from the head of any department, agency, or 
        instrumentality of the executive branch of the United States 
        Government, available information which the Commission 
        considers useful in the discharge of its duties. All 
        departments, agencies, and instrumentalities of the executive 
        branch of the United States Government shall cooperate with the 
        Commission with respect to such information and shall furnish 
        all information requested by the Commission to the extent 
        permitted by law.
    (f) Termination.--The Commission shall terminate 90 days after the 
date on which the Commission submits its report to Congress under 
subsection (c).
    (g) Authorization of Appropriations.--
            (1) In general.--There is authorized to be appropriated 
        $20,000,000 to carry out this Act.
            (2) Availability.--Amounts appropriated pursuant to the 
        authorization under paragraph (1) are authorized to remain 
        available until the termination of the Commission in accordance 
        with subsection (f).
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