U.S. MERCHANT 

MARINE

Maritime 

Administration Should 

Assess Potential 

Mariner-Training 

Needs

Report to Congressional Committees

January 2014

GAO-14-212

United States Government Accountability Office
United States Government Accountability Office

Highlights of GAO-14-212, a report to

congressional committees.

January 2014

U.S. MERCHANT MARINE

Maritime Administration Should Assess Potential 

Mariner-Training Needs

Why GAO Did This Study

The U.S. merchant marine—the 

nation’s domestic and oceangoing 

commercial ships and mariners—

supports both U.S. commerce and 

national defense. MARAD, an agency 

within the Department of 

Transportation, is responsible for 

fostering, promoting, and developing 

the maritime industry; providing for the 

education and training of U.S. 

mariners; and studying all problems 

related to merchant-marine commerce 

and national-defense policies. Proper 

education and training of mariners is 

important to the success of the 

merchant marine. 

The Coast Guard and Maritime 

Transportation Act of 2012 mandated 

that GAO review mariner training. This 

report examines (1) the availability of 

maritime training, (2) the availability of 

financial assistance for maritime

training, and (3) MARAD’s actions to 

ensure mariners meet commerce and 

defense needs and industry 

stakeholder views on those actions. 

GAO analyzed documents and 

interviewed officials from MARAD, the 

Coast Guard, the Department of 

Defense, maritime-training providers, 

unions, and companies.

What GAO Recommends

GAO recommends that MARAD study 

and identify potential problems in 

ensuring that U.S. mariners are 

adequately trained to meet the needs 

of the entire maritime industry. The 

Department of Transportation did not 

agree or disagree with the 

recommendation.

What GAO Found

Maritime training—for domestic waterway and oceangoing operations—is 

available through many public and private entities. These entities include the 

U.S. Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA), state maritime academies, 

community colleges, union-affiliated schools, and about 230 private sector 

schools. Private companies also provide training to their mariner employees, 

including training to operate the vessels in their domestic and oceangoing fleets.

A broad array of federal and non-federal financial assistance programs are 

available to help pay for maritime training. The Maritime Administration (MARAD) 

provides financial aid to academy students, GI Bill assistance is available to 

veterans, and the Department of Education provides loans and grants to college 

students. Maritime unions also provide assistance to their members, and 

maritime companies can provide assistance to their employees. Several industry 

stakeholders GAO interviewed stated that some prospective and current 

mariners could lack access to financial assistance. However, MARAD’s 

responsibility towards paying for training mainly extends to students at the 

USMMA and at the state maritime academies who receive student incentivepayment-program funds. 

MARAD primarily supports the oceangoing maritime industry and its training 

needs. MARAD directly supports the oceangoing industry through subsidies for 

ships available for defense purposes and provides funding to the federal and 

state maritime academies. MARAD officials stated that they have not focused as 

much on the domestic commercial sector because they consider efforts to 

support military sealift requirements a higher priority for available budgetary 

resources. MARAD officials stated that they intend to conduct analyses of the 

domestic commercial maritime industry; however, the officials have not yet 

devoted the staff resources necessary to complete this effort and did not

establish a time frame for completing this effort. 

Some stakeholders GAO interviewed expressed concerns about MARAD’s focus 

on the oceangoing sector, especially as the maritime industry has evolved to 

predominantly serve domestic waterways. For example, officials from three 

maritime academies expressed the need for more information to develop courses 

to meet domestic industry requirements, and several company stakeholders 

expressed similar concerns about the academies’ lack of curriculums specifically 

tailored for the domestic sector. MARAD officials acknowledge that many 

mariners now prefer to work domestically and that this shift in preference, 

combined with the decline in the number of U.S. oceangoing ships, has resulted 

in fewer qualified mariners to meet U.S. oceangoing requirements. To address 

maritime industry issues, MARAD announced in September 2013 that it is 

developing a national maritime strategy. MARAD is also currently helping the 

Department of Transportation develop a national freight strategic plan, of which 

the maritime industry is a vital part. Studying potential training problems affecting 

the merchant marine’s ability to carry out specified national commerce and 

defense objectives to ensure economic growth and sealift support in times of war 

could provide information to maritime stakeholders and help MARAD meet its 

responsibilities.

View GAO-14-212. For more information, 

contact Lorelei St. James at (202) 512-2834 or 

StJamesL@gao.gov.
Page i GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Letter 1

Background 4

Maritime Training Is Available through Many Public and Private 

Entities 13

Federal and Private Financial Assistance Is Available for Maritime 

Training, but Some Mariners Could Lack Access to Assistance 19

MARAD Primarily Supports the Needs of the Oceangoing 

Maritime Industry, Raising Concerns among Stakeholders 

about Training Implications for the Domestic Maritime Industry 25

Conclusions 30

Recommendation for Executive Action 31

Agency Comments 32

Appendix I Scope and Methodology 33

Appendix II GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 37

Table

Table 1: Maritime Union-Affiliated Training Schools 15

Figures

Figure 1: Examples of Vessel Types 6

Figure 2: Roles Performed by U.S. Mariners 8

Figure 3: Areas of Operation for U.S. Mariners 10

Figure 4: Locations of Public and Private Maritime-Training 

Providers as of December 2012 18

Figure 5: Examples of Financial Assistance Available to Mariners 

for Training 24

Contents
Page ii GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Abbreviations

AMO American Maritime Officers

BLS Bureau of Labor Statistics

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

DOD Department of Defense

DOT Department of Transportation

GAO Government Accountability Office

IMO International Maritime Organization

IOMMP International Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots

Labor Department of Labor

MAP-21 The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century 

Act of 2012

MARAD Maritime Administration

MMC Merchant Mariner Credential

MSC Military Sealift Command

MSP Maritime Security Program

NMC National Maritime Center

Panel The Panel on 21st Century Freight Transportation

SIP Student Incentive Payment

STCW International Convention on Standards of Training,

Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, 

as amended

TWIC Transportation Worker Identification Card

USC United States Code

USMMA United States Merchant Marine Academy

VA Department of Veterans Affairs

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Page 1 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

441 G St. N.W.

Washington, DC 20548

January 31, 2014 

The Honorable John D. Rockefeller IV 

Chairman 

The Honorable John Thune 

Ranking Member 

Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation 

United States Senate 

The Honorable Bill Shuster 

Chairman 

The Honorable Nick J. Rahall, II 

Ranking Member

Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure 

House of Representatives 

The U.S. merchant marine—the commercial ships of the United States 

and the mariners who operate them—contribute substantially to the U.S. 

economy. The maritime industry is a critical component of the U.S. freight 

transportation sector and contributes billions of dollars to the country’s 

national output. The merchant marine is also important for supporting 

national defense by providing ships and mariners to the U.S. military in 

times of national emergency and war. Proper education and training of 

mariners is important to the success of the merchant marine. 

The statutory mission of the Maritime Administration (MARAD), within the 

Department of Transportation (DOT), is to foster, promote, and develop 

the merchant maritime industry of the United States.1

 The Secretary of 

Transportation’s general statutory authority relating to the U.S. merchant 

marine, delegated to MARAD, includes providing for the education and 

training of U.S. citizens for the safe and efficient operation of the U.S. 

merchant marine and ensuring that there is a sufficient pool of U.S. 

mariners to meet certain objectives relating to domestic and foreign 

commerce, national defense, and training, among other things.2

 The 

commerce objectives state that the U.S. should have a merchant marine 

sufficient to carry both the U.S. waterborne domestic commerce and a 

 

1

46 U.S.C. § 109(a). 

2

46 U.S.C. §§ 50101, 51103(a). 
Page 2 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

substantial part of the waterborne export and import foreign commerce of 

the United States.3 The national defense objectives state that the U.S. 

merchant marine should be capable of serving as a naval and military 

auxiliary in time of war or national emergency.4 The training objectives 

provide, in part, that highly trained citizens of the United States should 

operate merchant marine vessels of the United States.5 MARAD has also 

been delegated the Secretary’s statutory requirement to study all 

maritime problems arising in carrying out the merchant marine policies for 

commerce and national defense.6 The Coast Guard also plays a role in 

merchant marine training by regulating the training infrastructure; 

developing training standards; approving maritime schools, courses and 

instructors; and issuing credentials to mariners serving on merchant 

vessels of the United States.

The Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation Act of 20127 mandated 

that GAO review mariner training. This report addresses the following 

objectives:

1. What is the availability of government (federal, state, and local) and 

private-sector entities that currently provide training to U.S. mariners?

2. What federal and non-federal financial assistance is available to 

mariners to help them meet training requirements?

3. What actions has MARAD taken to ensure there are trained mariners 

to meet commerce and national-defense needs, and what are the 

views of merchant marine stakeholders on these actions and on 

current and potential training issues?

To answer these objectives, we analyzed information about training 

requirements for U.S. mariners, including current regulations governing 

training for mariners working on both oceangoing and domestic 

commercial waterways. More specifically title 46 (Shipping) of the Code of 

 

3

46 U.S.C. § 50101(a)(1). 

4

46 U.S.C. § 50101(a)(2). 

5

46 U.S.C. §§ 50101(a)(4). 51101. 

6

46 U.S.C. §§ 50101, 50104. 

7Pub. L. No. 112-113, § 414, 126 Stat. 1540, 1573. 
Page 3 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Federal Regulations (CFR) contains the Coast Guard’s training-related 

requirements for both oceangoing and domestic waterways.8 Oceangoing 

regulations include the implementation of the International Maritime 

Organization’s (IMO) International Convention on Standards of Training, 

Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, as amended 

(STCW). The Coast Guard published the final rule incorporating the 

IMO’s 2010 amendments into its regulations on December 24, 2013.

9 The 

rule was not published in time for our review.

We also reviewed information and data and interviewed officials from 

MARAD, the Coast Guard (part of the Department of Homeland Security), 

and the Military Sealift Command of the Department of Defense (DOD) 

about how training requirements are met and associated issues. We 

determined that the data were sufficiently reliable for our use. We used 

data for fiscal year 2012 from the Coast Guard on training providers and 

the number of course completions per year. We also used MARAD 

supplied data for fiscal years 2008–2012 on the number of academy 

graduates. For both data sets, we interviewed the responsible officials 

and discussed how they collect and process the data. We interviewed a 

range of knowledgeable stakeholders from a non-probability sample of 

U.S. maritime industry stakeholders, including 5 unions; 4 associations 

representing the maritime industry; and 21 training providers (these 

included 6 maritime academies, 4 union-affiliated schools, 5 maritime 

companies that provide training to their employees, and 4 for-profit and 2 

non-profit training providers). We also interviewed 7 members of the 

Merchant Mariner Personnel Advisory Committee, which advises the 

Coast Guard on merchant marine personnel issues, such as training, 

qualifications, certification, and other issues. We selected these 

stakeholders because of their wide knowledge of, and roles in, multiple 

aspects of the maritime industry. We also conducted site visits to 

maritime industry facilities and training providers in the New York City and 

Houston, Texas, areas, which we selected based on the diversity and 

concentration of facilities and providers. The information from our site 

visits and interviews is illustrative and cannot be generalized to the 

 

8See 46 C.F.R., Part 10 Merchant Mariner Credential, Part 11 Requirements for Officer 

Endorsements, Part 12 Requirements for Rating Endorsements, Part 13 Certification of 

Tankermen, and Part 310 Merchant Mariner Training. 

9

Implementation of the Amendments to the International Convention on Standards of 

Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, and Changes to National 

Endorsements; Final rule; 78 Fed. Reg. 77796 (Dec. 24, 2013).
Page 4 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

maritime industry and training providers. We also analyzed information 

provided by the federal agencies and industry stakeholders covering the 

past 5 years.

We conducted this performance audit from March 2013 through January 

2014 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing 

standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to 

obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for 

our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe 

that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings 

and conclusions based on our audit objectives. Appendix I contains a 

detailed description of our scope and methodology.

The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21), 

enacted in 2012, established, among other things, a policy framework to 

improve the condition and performance of the national freight network to 

ensure that it provides the foundation for the United States to compete in 

the global economy.10 MAP-21 directed DOT to develop a national freight 

network and a National Freight Strategic Plan. In October 2013, the 

House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure published the 

results of a panel it had created to examine the current state of U.S. 

freight transportation and how improving freight transportation can 

strengthen the U.S. economy.11 The Panel on 21st Century Freight 

Transportation (the Panel) found that by optimizing the movement of 

freight across all modes of transportation, the freight industry helps 

ensure the health of the United States economy and the future of the 

nation’s global competitiveness. The U.S. merchant marine plays a vital 

role in this network, and MARAD, the merchant marine’s advocate in the 

 

10Pub. L. No. 112-141, § 167, 126 Stat. 405, 468-472 (2012). 

11See Improving the Nation’s Freight Transportation System: Findings and 

Recommendations of the Special Panel on 21ST Century Freight Transportation, House 

Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, October 2013. The House Committee 

created the panel in April 2013. 

Background

The Merchant Marine Is a 

Vital Part of the U.S. 

Freight Network
Page 5 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

federal government, is to assist DOT in developing the National Freight 

Strategic Plan. According to the Panel’s report, over 75 percent of all U.S. 

international freight, by weight, moves by water. The inland waterways, 

moreover, transport more than 60 percent of U.S. grain exports, about 22 

percent of domestic petroleum products, and 20 percent of the coal used 

to generate electricity. On the other hand, according to DOT, the U.S.-

flag12 fleet of 89 privately owned oceangoing vessels that are primarily or 

exclusively engaged in foreign trade now carries less than 2 percent of 

U.S. exports and imports. As a result, most U.S. international freight that 

moves by water is carried by foreign-flag vessels. To support the 

establishment of a national freight network and strategic plan, MAP-21 

directs DOT to collect and analyze certain basic freight movement data, 

including freight moved through maritime ports of entry. Prior to the 

publication of the Panel’s findings, MARAD announced in September 

2013 plans to create a national maritime strategy. According to MARAD, 

the national maritime strategy will address issues related to the number 

and quality of U.S.-flag ships engaged in commerce internationally and 

domestically and the number of qualified U.S. mariners, among other 

things.

The U.S. maritime industry is diverse. As shown in figure 1, U.S. vessels 

and mariners operate in the world’s oceans and U.S. domestic 

waterways13 and include many vessel types and sizes.14 Large 

oceangoing vessels operate between U.S. and international ports, while 

smaller vessels operate in inland waters. Vessels can be specialized—

such as ships for carrying petroleum, chemicals, and liquefied gases; tug 

 

12A U.S.-flag vessel is a commercial vessel, registered and operated under the laws of the 

U.S., owned and operated by U.S. citizens, and used in commercial trade of the United 

States. U.S.-flag vessels are registered in the United States and subject to additional U.S. 

laws and regulations to which foreign-flag vessels are not subject.

13In this report, we divide the commercial areas of maritime operation between 

oceangoing and domestic waterways because this is primarily how the different segments 

of the maritime industry and the federal agencies involved generally divide the commercial 

areas of maritime operation. 

14The domestic waterways include the Great Lakes, inland waters, and western rivers. 

The term ―western rivers‖ refers to the Mississippi River, its tributaries, South Pass, 

Southwest Pass, and other specified waterways and rivers. The term ―inland waters‖

refers to navigable waters shoreward of the Boundary Lines as described in 46 C.F.R. 

Part 7 with certain exclusions such as the Great Lakes. 

The Merchant Marine 

Serves the Domestic and 

Oceangoing Commercial 

Needs of the Maritime 

Industry
Page 6 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

and towboats for towing or pushing barges containing grain and other 

bulk goods; or ferries for moving people and vehicles.

Figure 1: Examples of Vessel Types

Almost all of the U.S.-flag vessels operate in domestic waterways. 

According to the most recently available information from DOT, of the 

38,700 privately owned U.S.-flag vessels available in 2011, 99.7 percent 

were registered to operate in the domestic waterways. In 2013, there 

were 89 U.S.-flag oceangoing vessels primarily or exclusively operating in 

foreign trade.
Page 7 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

As demonstrated in figure 2 below, U.S. mariners perform a variety of 

roles in the maritime industry. During times of war and national 

emergency, the U.S. merchant marine serves as an auxiliary, transporting 

goods or material needed by the armed forces. Sealift is the process of 

transporting Department of Defense (DOD)15 and other federal agency 

equipment and supplies required during peacetime and war. Throughout 

the history of the United States, the merchant marine has been used to 

transport troops and supplies, including more recently for Operations 

Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom. MARAD’s Maritime Security 

Program (MSP) provides direct payment to companies for militarily useful 

U.S.-flag and U.S.-crewed oceangoing ships that are available upon 

DOD’s request at times of war or national emergency. Vessel operators in 

this MARAD program receive this financial support to partially offset the 

higher operating costs of keeping these vessels under the U.S. flag and 

are also eligible to carry government preference cargoes.16 For fiscal year 

2013, according to MARAD, Congress appropriated $175 million to 

MARAD for the MSP providing participating vessels with $3.1 million per 

year to offset this higher operating cost. In addition, cargo preference, 

which is designed to support a U.S.-flag commercial fleet for national 

defense purposes, generally requires that 100 percent of DOD cargoes, 

to the extent rates are not excessive or unreasonable, and 50 percent of 

the gross tonnage of all other government-generated cargo be 

transported on privately owned U.S.-flag vessels ―to the extent those 

vessels are available at fair and reasonable rates for commercial vessels 

of the United States.‖

17

 

15The Military Sealift Command (MSC) provides ocean transportation for the Navy and the 

rest of DOD. MSC reports to the U.S. Fleet Forces Command for Navy-unique matters, 

the U.S. Transportation Command for defense transportation matters, and the Assistant 

Secretary of the Navy (Research, Development and Acquisition) for procurement policy 

and oversight matters. 

16According to MARAD, in 2010 it cost on average 2.7 times more to operate (as opposed 

to fuel or purchase) a U.S.-flag oceangoing vessel in foreign trade than to operate a 

foreign-flag vessel. See U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration, 

Comparison of U.S. and Foreign-Flag Operating Costs (September 2011). 

17Until July 2012, federal statute provided that the transportation of food aid cargoes 

sponsored by the Secretary of Agriculture were subject to an additional 25 percent gross 

tonnage requirement on U.S.-flag vessels. MAP-21 repealed the additional 25 percent

requirement leaving only the 50 percent requirement, which is the level that applies to all 

other non-DOD government-impelled preference cargoes. 

The Merchant Marine 

Provides Oceangoing 

Vessels and Mariners for 

National Defense
Page 8 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Figure 2: Roles Performed by U.S. Mariners 

Complete, detailed data on active mariners is not available. Maritime 

industry stakeholders and federal agencies collect different types of data 

on U.S. mariners primarily related to their own segment of the industry or 

for different purposes. According to MARAD, some data, such as the 

number of mariners who work for maritime companies or the number of 

mariners who belong to unions, are considered business proprietary, and 

these organizations are reluctant to share these numbers with each other 

or the public. Other potential data—such as the number of mariners 

working in the domestic waterways, the number of non-union mariners, or 

the number of mariners who are not permanent employees of 

companies—are not currently widely collected. Similarly, government 

agencies closely related to the maritime industry currently do not track the 

entire maritime workforce, but focus on individual aspects of it. For 

example, according to Coast Guard officials, their data system tracks the 

number of credentials; however, mariners may hold more than one 

credential or they may not be active. MARAD relies on Coast Guard data 

to assess the number of mariners in the industry who would be qualified 

to work on oceangoing sealift vessels and has recently completed a study 

with the maritime unions assessing the number of mariners who are 

actively sailing on oceangoing vessels. At this time, however, MARAD’s 

analysis does not extend to mariners sailing in other parts of the industry. 

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ (BLS) occupational outlook,

which is based on industry and household reporting, nearly 80,000 people 
Page 9 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

were reported to be in water transportation occupations in 2010. While a 

majority of these workers were employed by companies working in the 

oceangoing or inland water transportation industry, some also worked in 

other venues, such as federal, state or local governments, educational 

establishments, or other activities.

Training requirements for U.S. mariners vary depending on 

circumstances, such as the mariner’s role on the vessel, the area of 

operation, and the size of the vessel, but they are primarily subject to 

three types of training requirements:

 training pursuant to regulations for commercial operations in both 

oceangoing and domestic waterways,18

 military-specific training requirements for civilian mariners who sail 

aboard government-owned vessels or vessels on charter to DOD, 

and

 maritime company-specific training requirements.

Training requirements vary based on the areas of operation indicated in 

figure 3 below. Under Coast Guard regulations, in general, oceangoing 

mariners must also hold an STCW endorsement certifying compliance 

with the international STCW requirements, which the Coast Guard has 

incorporated into federal maritime regulations.19 The STCW provides, 

among other things, an international training standard for mariners on 

vessels sailing on oceangoing waterways. Under Coast Guard 

regulations, mariners can meet such training requirements through a 

combination of experience or training with evaluation through professional 

examination and a practical demonstration of skills. According to the IMO, 

the 1978 STCW Convention was the first to establish basic minimum 

requirements on training, certification, and watchkeeping (a watchkeeper 

 

18See 46 C.F.R. Parts 10-13. The Coast Guard also approves all training courses and 

programs intended to qualify U.S. mariners for Coast Guard endorsements and issues 

Coast Guard endorsements to Merchant Mariner Credentials.

19Implementation of the Amendments to the International Convention on Standards of 

Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, and Changes to National 

Endorsements; Final rule; 78 Fed. Reg. 77796 (Dec. 24, 2013).

Training Requirements for 

U.S. Mariners
Page 10 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

is someone who stands watch over the deck or engine) for seafarers on 

an international level. Previously, these requirements were established by 

individual governments, which resulted in wide variations in standards 

and procedures, according to IMO.

Figure 3: Areas of Operation for U.S. Mariners
Page 11 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Under Coast Guard regulations, before prospective mariners can become 

an oceangoing or domestic waterways qualified mariner, they first must 

apply for and receive a Merchant Mariner Credential (MMC).20 To apply 

for an MMC, the prospective mariner must either hold or apply for a 

Transportation Worker Identification Card (TWIC), and pass a criminal 

record review, a drug test, and a physical examination.21 Coast Guardtraining-related requirements for mariners vary according to their position 

and type of vessel on which they serve. Officers are in charge of the 

vessel and serve in management and leadership roles on the vessel; nonofficer mariners serve under the command and supervision of the officers. 

Coast Guard-training-related requirements are divided based on whether 

mariners serve as officers or non-officers and whether they want to serve 

in the deck department (steering and guiding the vessel) or the engine 

department (watching over and maintaining the engines).22 Certain types 

of vessels such as passenger vessels, tankers, and towing vessels, 

require additional training.23

Mariners sailing onboard Military Sealift Command (MSC) vessels and 

other vessels that may come under MSC operational control, such as the 

MARAD Ready Reserve Force vessels, are required to take specific 

DOD-approved training to match the types of vessels, cargo, mission 

requirements, and areas of operation according to MARAD. The 

specialized training includes such topics as physical security, 

antiterrorism, ship survivability, Navy communication systems, naval 

operations, engineering, and logistics. This training is typically provided 

 

2046 C.F.R. § 10.203(a). 

21All prospective mariners who have never held an MMC are required to apply for a TWIC 

because the security threat assessment process is integrated with the TWIC application 

process. Some mariners, however, are not required to hold a valid TWIC and must only 

apply and pass the criminal record review to apply for an MMC. Section 809 of the Coast 

Guard Authorization Act of 2010 (Pub. L. No. 111-281, 124 Stat. 2095) permits the 

Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security to exempt mariners who do not require 

unescorted access to a secure areas of a vessel from the requirement to hold a TWIC as 

a precondition of receiving and holding a MMC.

22Larger vessels also have a ―stewards department,‖ which is the department onboard 

responsible for serving food. 46 C.F.R. § 10.109 lists endorsements including ―steward’s 

department‖ and ―stewards department (FH)‖ which are entry level ratings. 

23See, for example, United States Coast Guard, Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular 

4-01 (May 21, 2001) (towing vessels); 46 C.F.R. Part 13 (tankers); and STCW A-V/2 

(passenger vessels).
Page 12 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

by Navy trainers, as well as by union and private trainers. Some maritime 

companies might also require additional training for their mariner 

employees, including how to operate a specific type of engine.

Depending on where they decide to work and in what capacity, mariners 

then pursue the necessary Coast Guard endorsements. An endorsement 

is a statement of a mariner’s qualifications, which may include the 

categories of officer, non-officer (referred to as a rating endorsement), 

and other special endorsements, such as those relating to the operation 

of specific types of vessels. Endorsements are affixed to an MMC much 

like a visa stamp on a passport. All endorsements for officer level 

mariners require varying amounts of training, sea time, examination, and 

demonstration of proficiency.24 In general, both oceangoing and domestic 

endorsements allow the mariner to work on any vessel or engine equal in 

size or smaller than the endorsement they have.

To secure Coast Guard endorsements, mariners must take Coast Guardapproved training commensurate with their desired position on a vessel.25

The Coast Guard’s National Maritime Center (NMC) approves all training 

courses, programs of training, and training providers. These approvals 

also include the professional development program curriculum that leads 

to the issuance of a professional credential at the six state maritime 

academies and the United States Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA).

The expected compensation among mariners also varies widely. For 

example, according to BLS data, the median annual wage of mariners in 

2010 was about $46,600, with the lowest 10 percent earning less than 

$24,890 and the top 10 percent earning over $99,690. According to BLS, 

the median wages in 2010 for ship engineers and for captains, mates, 

and pilots were about $66,000 and $64,000, respectively. These median 

wages are estimated based on the wages for all mariners, including those 

working on oceangoing vessels as well as those working in domestic 

areas such as the Great Lakes and the inland waterways.

 

2446 C.F.R. § 12.25-10. Entry level ratings do not require training, sea time, examination, 

or demonstration of proficiency to obtain their domestic rating. 

25Training is not required for domestic entry level rating endorsements.
Page 13 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

MARAD’s responsibilities include providing for the education and training 

of U.S. citizens for the safe and efficient operation of the U.S. merchant 

marine.26 MARAD funds and operates the U.S. Merchant Marine 

Academy (USMMA), and it also provides direct support to the six state 

maritime academies to include training vessels. Community colleges and 

union-supported schools also provide training, as do private companies 

and non-profit organizations.

MARAD oversees the USMMA, designs its training curriculum, and 

approves parts of the curriculum and courses at the six state maritime 

academies.27 (Fig. 4 on p. 18 shows the locations of the seven 

academies.) For fiscal year 2013, Congress appropriated $85.7 million to 

MARAD for the USMMA and $17.2 million for the state academies, 

according to MARAD. The USMMA provides undergraduate education 

programs for students seeking to become officers in the U.S. merchant 

marine. The eligibility, scholastic, and physical requirements for 

prospective mariners are established in federal regulations.28 Likewise, 

the six state academies operate as federally supported maritime 

academies and are subject to federal regulations.29 These academies all 

offer a maritime-officer-training program similar to that offered at the 

USMMA. Aside from maritime-officer-training programs, some offer 

separate undergraduate and graduate degrees along with professional 

mariner training. According to USMMA officials, the USMMA’s 

coursework mainly focuses on oceangoing training, although the 

academy has started to focus more on domestic waterways training. 

According to USMMA officials, the academy offers some courses as 

electives that focus on skills useful for operating vessels in domestic 

waterways, particularly for towing. Similarly, officials of four state 

academies also told us that required coursework is focused on 

oceangoing maritime training, but that each academy may also offer 

 

2646 U.S.C. § 51103(a). This is the Secretary of Transportation’s general statutory 

authority, with respect to the merchant marine, which is delegated to MARAD. 

27The six state maritime academies are the California Maritime Academy, Maine Maritime 

Academy, Massachusetts Maritime Academy, State University of New York Maritime 

College, Texas Maritime College of the Texas A&M University at Galveston, and Great 

Lakes Maritime Academy. 

2846 C.F.R. §§ 310.54, 55, 56. 

2946 C.F.R. § 310.3. 

Maritime Training Is 

Available through 

Many Public and 

Private Entities

MARAD Funds and 

Operates the U.S. 

Merchant Marine Academy 

and Provides Partial 

Financial and Curriculum 

Support to the Six State 

Academies
Page 14 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

elective training courses focused on domestic areas of operation 

including training specifically for tug and tow barges.

After successfully completing the 4-year course of study, USMMA 

graduates and state maritime academy graduates enrolled in the officer 

program receive a Bachelor’s degree and a Coast Guard credential with a 

license30 endorsement as an unlimited tonnage, oceans third mate 

(lowest level deck officer) or an unlimited horsepower, oceans third 

assistant engineer (lowest level engineering officer). According to 

MARAD data, graduation at the USMMA and the six state maritime 

academies has increased from 727 mariners graduating with oceangoing 

endorsements in 2007 to 854 mariners graduating in 2012 with 

oceangoing endorsements.

According to NMC data, in 2012, 14 community colleges across the 

United States provided varying levels of Coast Guard-approved maritime 

training to both oceangoing and domestic mariners through either an 

individual course or entire programs of study. (Fig. 4 shows the 14 

locations of the community colleges.) Mariners taking community college 

courses can earn credit toward a new endorsement or gain maritimerelated skills. For example, according to NMC data, Carteret Community 

College in North Carolina offers individual courses and has trained 

approximately 40 students from 2010–2012. San Jacinto Community 

College Maritime in Texas, started in 2010, offers entire programs of 

study that can lead to associate degrees in maritime technology as well 

as individual Coast Guard-approved mariner courses. According to the 

director of the maritime college, since 2010, San Jacinto Maritime has 

issued approximately 1,800 to 1,900 maritime-training certificates and is 

creating a new maritime-training facility to enable it to offer better mariner 

training, including simulation.

 

30Mariners who complete the requisite training and certification to become officers also 

receive a license.

Fourteen Community 

Colleges Also Provide 

Maritime Training
Page 15 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Five major union-affiliated schools provide training to union members, as 

well as some non-members. (Fig. 4 on p.18 shows the locations of the 

union-affiliated schools.) The unions with which these schools are 

affiliated primarily represent oceangoing mariners.31 According to the 

unions, they have collective-bargaining agreements with companies that 

specify the terms and conditions for providing training to members, 

including entry-level training, endorsement maintenance training, and in 

some cases advancement training. An agreement may specify, for 

example, that for every day a union member is onboard a company 

vessel, the company contributes a certain amount to the union training 

fund.

Table 1: Maritime Union-Affiliated Training Schools

Maritime union Training school Location

Marine Engineers’ Beneficial 

Association (MEBA)

Calhoon MEBA Engineering School Easton, Maryland

Sailors’ Union of the Pacific Andrew Furuseth School of Seamanship San Francisco, California

Seafarers International Union Paul Hall Center for Maritime Training and Education Piney Point, Maryland

American Maritime Officers Raymond T. McKay Simulation, Training, Assessment & 

Research (STAR) Center

Dania Beach, Florida

International Organization of

Masters, Mates and Pilots

Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies 

and the Pacific Maritime Institute

Linthicum Heights, 

Maryland, and Seattle, 

Washington

Source: GAO Analysis of MARAD Data.

Training at union-affiliated schools varies, but most have simulators and 

other specialized facilities in addition to classrooms, and offer Coast 

Guard and non-Coast Guard approved training. For example, the 

Calhoon School has engine simulators, a vessel bridge simulator, and 

machine shops for providing hands-on training to maritime engineers. The 

Paul Hall Center provides both career-entry basic maritime training to 

students with no maritime experience and professional advancement 

training for experienced mariners, and has engine and deck simulators, 

among other training aids. According to American Maritime Officers 

(AMO) officials, at the STAR Center (Simulation, Training, Assessment 

 

31Out of the five major maritime unions that have their own schools, most represent 

oceangoing mariners, although some represent domestic mariners, primarily operating on 

the Great Lakes and inland waterways. 

Union-Affiliated Schools 

Primarily Provide Training 

to Oceangoing U.S. 

Mariners
Page 16 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

and Research), mariners have access to more than 400 maritime-training 

courses as well as customized courses as requested by companies.

According to union officials, aside from their training efforts for current 

members, two unions—AMO and International Organization of Masters, 

Mates and Pilots (IOMMP)—have entry-level mariner-training programs to 

produce officers. Officials told us that both programs are designed to offer 

high school graduates the opportunity to gain training and sea-service 

experience similar to that offered by the maritime academies but without a 

college degree. Both programs, according to union officials, are intended 

to produce oceangoing third mates (lowest level deck officers), will 

involve approximately 30 total mariners, and are expected to take 

approximately 2 to 2-1/2 years to complete.

Some maritime unions reported that they also provide training to nonunion members on a case-by-case basis, particularly training that 

satisfies military requirements as mandated by the Military Sealift 

Command. For example, officials from the Seafarers International Union

and AMO told us that they provide courses of study at their schools 

including helicopter firefighting, weapons training, and courses on 

chemical and biological hazards that meet military sealift requirements.

Companies across multiple sectors of the maritime industry, from an 

oceangoing carrier to an oilfield driller to a domestic waterways operator, 

offer and require specific training courses for their mariners. For example, 

representatives from an oceangoing-carrier company with vessels sailing 

under both U.S. and international flags told us that they require and 

provide training beyond that which a mariner brings to the job. The 

representatives further stated that the company might supplement union 

training with manufacturer-specific training that allows the mariners to get 

safety and quality certification for engines used on the company’s 

vessels.

Likewise, representatives from a large operator of domestic waterways’

inland and coastal tank barges that transport chemicals told us that their 

company has a training center in Texas, which is equipped with a training 

vessel and a full radar-equipped towboat wheelhouse simulator. 

According to a company representative, the company invested $11 million 

in the training center in 2011.

Oceangoing and Domestic 

Maritime Companies Offer 

Mariner Training
Page 17 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

About 230 private maritime-training providers gave Coast Guardapproved training to varying numbers of mariners across the country in 

2012, according to Coast Guard NMC data. (Fig. 4 on p.18 shows the 

locations of the private schools.) This training can range from safety 

training to management training to vessel operations. The schools range 

greatly in size. For example, one school we visited is a large nonacademy training provider with two locations in Kentucky and Texas. 

According to school officials, this provider trains about 1,000 to 1,200 

students per year. Moreover, according to officials, at both locations, the 

provider primarily trains domestic waterways mariners and offers 

simulator, hands-on, and classroom training. Courses range from 2 days 

to 2 weeks. Another school we visited offers 18 Coast Guard approved 

courses to about 50 to 60 mariners a year seeking to work on tugs and 

towboats.

Private Maritime-Training 

Providers Train 

Oceangoing and Domestic 

Mariners
Page 18 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Figure 4: Locations of Public and Private Maritime-Training Providers as of December 2012
Page 19 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

The costs associated with required maritime training—whether borne by 

the mariners or by entities such as federal agencies—vary greatly 

depending on the type of training and the training provider. Training costs 

vary greatly both for the initial training that prospective mariners take 

before entering the workforce and for any ongoing training that current 

mariners take after entering the workforce. For example, several 

stakeholders estimated that Coast Guard-required entry-level mariner 

training—including basic safety training and other up-front costs for 

required physical exams and drug tests—range from about $1,500 to 

$3,000. In another example, a large private-training provider told us that 

one week of training—mostly designed for current mariners seeking to 

advance their careers or keep up with training requirements—costs about 

$1,300 per mariner per week. According to GAO analysis, for prospective 

mariners enrolled in their first year at state maritime academies, tuition, 

fees, and room and board costs for an in-state mariner can be as high as 

$29,000 or as low as $19,000 per year, depending on the academy. 

Finally, one union stakeholder estimated that it would cost about $30,000 

for an entry-level mariner to get training through a private-training 

provider equivalent to that gained through one of the maritime academies.

MARAD provides each USMMA student with free tuition, room and board, 

uniforms, and books, in exchange for the student’s obligation to serve for 

at least 5 years after graduation either in the maritime industry or on

active duty in an armed or uniformed service of the United States.

USMMA graduates must also meet other obligations, including (1) 

maintaining a U.S. Coast Guard officer license for at least 6 years after 

graduation; (2) accepting an appointment as a commissioned officer in 

any reserve unit of the U.S. armed forces and maintaining that 

commission for at least 6 years after graduation; and (3) submitting to 

Federal and Private 

Financial Assistance 

Is Available for 

Maritime Training, but 

Some Mariners Could 

Lack Access to 

Assistance

Maritime-Training Costs 

Vary

Available Federal 

Assistance
Page 20 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

MARAD documentation verifying compliance with these obligations 

annually until service obligation requirements have been met. Students 

attending the six state maritime academies also have access to financial 

assistance through MARAD. State academy students can apply for 

MARAD’s Student Incentive Payment (SIP) program, a competitive, 

voluntary program that provides up to $8,000 per year to participating 

students that can be used to defray the costs of tuition, uniforms, books, 

and subsistence. In return, SIP recipients have the same obligations cited 

above for USMMA graduates with the exception of the obligation to serve 

in the maritime industry or on active duty within an armed or uniformed 

service of the United States. The service obligation for SIP students is 3

years instead of the 5 years of service required for USMMA graduates.

MARAD estimates that the SIP program helps support the enrollment of 

about 75 new students each year at the six state academies collectively. 

Of the approximately 650 students that MARAD estimates will graduate 

from the state academies during the 2013 academic year, about 75 

graduates, or 11 percent, received SIP funding.

In addition, both USMMA and state academy students may also be 

eligible for financial aid through Department of Education grants and 

loans. For example, according to USMMA, students may wish to obtain 

additional assistance to pay for educational supplies and fees not covered 

by MARAD.32 Similarly, officials from the Massachusetts Maritime 

Academy and from State University of New York Maritime Academy told 

us that about 80 percent of their students, respectively, use Department 

of Education loans to help pay for their schooling.

Prospective mariners pursuing oceangoing and domestic careers who are 

enrolled in maritime programs at other state and local colleges may be 

eligible for Department of Education grants and loans through their 

institutions. Generally, to qualify for Department of Education financial 

aid, students must have financial need and be enrolled at least part time 

 

32In addition, mariners in training programs—both at the maritime academies and in nonacademy training programs—may be eligible for education tax credits that could help 

offset the costs of training. As we recently reported, tax credits such as the American 

opportunity credit and the lifetime-learning credit reduce tax filers’ income tax liability on a 

dollar-for-dollar basis for qualified education expenses. The Business Deduction for WorkRelated Education Tax may also benefit tax filers pursuing training. Deductible expenses 

include tuition, books, supplies, lab fees, certain transportation and travel costs and other 

education expenses. See GAO, Higher Education: Improved Tax Information Could Help 

Families Pay for College, GAO-12-560 (Washington, D.C.: May 18, 2012). 
Page 21 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

in a college that has been certified by the Department of Education to 

participate in the federal student aid program. Thus, generally only those 

prospective mariners in an eligible training program at colleges eligible to 

participate in the federal student aid program would have access to 

Department of Education grants and loans.

Prospective mariners who are veterans may be eligible for financial 

assistance to fund maritime training through Department of Veterans 

Affairs (VA) education programs, but only if the training provider has been 

approved to accept VA education assistance funds. VA assistance is 

primarily provided through the Post-9/11 Veterans Educational Assistance 

Act of 2008 (Post-9/11 GI Bill), as amended.33 That assistance can be 

used for programs of study at 4-year colleges and universities, as well as 

for non-college degree programs and trade schools, and for 

apprenticeships and on-the-job training.34 However, all schools and 

training providers must be approved by VA to accept Post-9/11 GI Bill 

benefits. Several officials we spoke with at maritime-training facilities told 

us that their facilities did not use VA funds to pay for training. For 

example, the director of San Jacinto Maritime told us that mariners in 

training at his facility cannot use VA funds to pay for their training 

because the facility has not found it economically feasible to apply for GIBill status with the VA. In another example, an official at a large training 

facility in Kentucky told us that no mariners in training at his facility used 

VA programs to fund training.

Finally, several stakeholders told us that some states use training 

programs sponsored by the Department of Labor (Labor) to help fund 

 

33Pub. L. No. 110-252, 122 Stat. 2323, 2357. See also GAO, VA Education Benefits: 

Student Characteristics and Outcomes Vary across Schools, GAO-13-567 (Washington, 

D.C.: July 25, 2013). The VA provided nearly $11 billion in postsecondary education 

benefits through multiple programs to almost 1-million veterans and their beneficiaries in 

fiscal year 2012. The majority of such payments—over $8 billion—was distributed through 

the Post-9/11 GI Bill.

34All training providers accepting Post-9/11 GI Bill benefits must fulfill certain 

responsibilities, such as keeping the VA informed about the enrollment status of veterans; 

keeping the VA informed of new programs and changes in current programs; and keeping 

up to date on current VA rules and benefits.
Page 22 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

maritime training.35 The stakeholders indicated that these funds are 

usually allocated by state workforce agencies to maritime companies and 

local training providers, but some of these funds also could be directly 

accessible to eligible mariners seeking training.36 For example, the Texas 

Workforce Commission has a Skills Development Fund grant program 

that funds training to meet specific training needs identified by Texasbased employers and trade unions. This grant program is a collaborative 

effort between Texas-based employers or trade unions and public 

community colleges or technical colleges. A grant through this program 

helped establish the local maritime-training program at the San Jacinto 

Community College in Texas. According to the program’s website, since 

2010, the program and 16 partnering maritime companies had received 

about $1 million in funding for U.S. Coast Guard- and STCW-approved 

mariner training. According to the director of this program, the grant helps 

offset training costs for Texas-based maritime companies. Prospective 

mariners may also be eligible for direct access to Labor assistance funds 

for training, assuming that they meet any required financial need and any 

other requirements.

Mariners who are members of a union may also have access to training 

that is paid through their unions.37 For example, two union leaders told us 

that union members would receive assistance to attend training at a 

specific training provider and also would have other training-related costs 

paid by the union, such as room and board. However, most maritime 

 

35As we reported in 2011, Department of Labor programs are a major source of funding 

for federally funded employment and training programs. Based on the results of a survey, 

GAO found that about 77 percent of the total number of participants served across all 

federally funded employment and training programs received services through the 

Workforce Investment Act (WIA) Adult program and the Employment Service / WagnerPeyser Fund program, both of which are administered by the Department of Labor. See 

GAO, Multiple Employment and Training Programs: Providing Information and Colocating 

Services and Consolidating Administrative Structures Could Promote Efficiencies, 

GAO-11-92 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 13, 2011). 

36A prospective or current mariner could be eligible to receive direct funds for training 

services through Department of Labor programs such as the WIA Adult program. The WIA 

Adult program and the Employment Service program are typically administered by the 

respective state workforce agency. The available training as well as the individual 

eligibility requirements would vary by state. 

37Although all the maritime unions we interviewed pay for mariner training, all union 

members are required to pay dues to maintain their membership.

Assistance May Be 

Available for Union 

Members and Company 

Employees
Page 23 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

unions represent primarily oceangoing mariners, who make up a small 

portion of the overall mariner workforce. Consequently, many current 

mariners working in the domestic waterways are not members of unions 

and therefore lack access to paid union training.

Some maritime companies in both domestic and oceangoing 

transportation provide employee training in-house or pay employees to 

attend off-site training courses. For example, representatives from a large 

offshore company told us that their company spends about $100 million 

per year for in-house training for all of its mariners, including initial newhire training and periodic subsequent training. Similarly, representatives 

from a large inland-towing company predominately operating in the rivers 

and coastal areas told us that the company pays for workers’ initial 

training and all subsequent training, including any travel costs from the 

mariners’ duty station to the training site. In addition, representatives of a 

large oceangoing company told us that their company pays for initial and 

subsequent training at a specific union school as well as training-related 

travel, lodging, and meal costs.

Fourteen industry stakeholders we interviewed—including representatives 

from two maritime academies, six non-academy training providers, four 

unions and associations, and two other industry representatives—

expressed concerns about the lack of financial assistance for some 

mariners. For example, a representative of a non-academy training facility 

and another stakeholder stated that only prospective mariners attending 

the USMMA and the state maritime academies have sufficient access to 

financial assistance. In another example, a representative of a nonacademy training provider stated that most of the maritime schools that 

cater to unlicensed mariners are too small to be accredited by the 

Department of Education and that therefore, their students would not 

have access to federal student loan programs. Also, a private sector 

school stated that none of its students used federal programs and all paid 

out of pocket for the training costs. Some types of prospective and current 

mariners could lack access to the financial assistance listed in figure 5

because they do not meet the eligibility conditions for federal or private 

financial assistance. For example, a recent high school graduate seeking 

an entry-level maritime position would likely not have access to 

assistance to pay for any training required before applying for the specific 

position. In another example, a current non-union mariner working for a 

company that does not pay for training would likely not have access to 

financial assistance to pay for any continuing training courses needed to 

keep up with training requirements. Finally, a mariner who is a military 

Selected Stakeholders 

Reported That Some 

Mariners Could Lack 

Access to Financial 

Assistance
Page 24 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

veteran and attending a non-college maritime program that has not been 

approved to accept VA funds or Department of Education financial aid 

funds would likely not have access to federal financial assistance. 

However, MARAD’s responsibility towards paying for training mainly

extends to students at the USMMA and the students at the state maritime 

academies who receive student incentive-payment program funds.

Figure 5: Examples of Financial Assistance Available to Mariners for Training

aProspective and current mariners may also have access to Department of Labor training programs. 

As we reported in GAO-11-92, Department of Labor programs are a major source of funding for 

federally funded employment and training programs. Mariners seeking training could directly access 

such funds if they meet individual eligibility requirements.

bCurrent mariners refers to mariners who have already entered the maritime workforce. This could 

include veterans and those in training at state and local colleges.
Page 25 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

The oceangoing sector of the U.S. maritime industry has declined over 

the past decades while the overall domestic sector has been holding 

steady in recent years and some domestic sectors have grown. Although 

many factors influence the commercial oceangoing industry, we have 

previously reported that the costs of building vessels in the United States 

and operating vessels under the U.S. flag are significantly higher than in 

other countries.38 In contrast, according to MARAD, the domestic sector 

has either held steady or seen growth in economic activity and investment 

over the past decade, especially in the offshore oil and drilling area and 

the inland and coastal transportation area.39 MARAD officials stated that 

the recent growth in domestic commerce was a result of the increase in 

off-shore oil and gas support vessel activities.

 

38For example, as we recently reported, foreign shipyards—such as those in China, 

Japan, and South Korea—can build vessels for less than U.S. shipyards. See GAO, 

Puerto Rico: Characteristics of the Island’s Maritime Trade and Potential Effects of 

Modifying the Jones Act, GAO-13-260 (Washington, D.C.: Mar 14, 2013). 

39See DOT, U.S. Water Transportation Statistical Snapshot (Washington, D.C.: November 

2013). 

MARAD Primarily 

Supports the Needs 

of the Oceangoing 

Maritime Industry, 

Raising Concerns 

among Stakeholders 

about Training 

Implications for the 

Domestic Maritime 

Industry

Maritime Industry Has 

Shifted from Oceangoing 

to Domestic Sectors, but 

U.S. Policy Encompasses 

Support for Both
Page 26 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Although MARAD has been delegated DOT’s statutory requirement to 

study all maritime problems arising in carrying out the merchant marine 

policies for commerce and national defense,40 MARAD’s programs and 

activities primarily focus on supporting the oceangoing sector of the 

maritime industry, which supports its national defense objectives. 

MARAD’s support for the oceangoing sector includes providing mariner 

training and collecting and analyzing industry data to determine potential 

problems.41 MARAD’s programs and activities, however, have not 

focused as much on collecting and analyzing industry data to determine 

potential problems in the domestic sector of the maritime industry. For 

example, MARAD assessed mariner training to meet sealift requirements 

in 200442 and has recently completed a study with maritime unions to 

determine the availability of mariners to crew the sealift vessels if they are 

activated. Officials stated they intend to continue to track this number and 

have been collecting these data since 2007. Recent interest about this 

issue arose during a congressional hearing in May 201343 highlighting 

that DOD and a large maritime labor union representing mariners in all 

sectors of the industry disagreed on the number of mariners available for 

sealift. MARAD officials told us that MARAD has limited budget resources 

and has prioritized its efforts to oceangoing mariners and national 

defense objectives.44

According to MARAD officials, while MARAD has not studied the 

domestic sector of the industry as it has the oceangoing sector, the 

 

4046 U.S.C. §§ 50101, 50104. 

41MARAD is responsible for determining whether adequate manpower is available to 

support the operation of sealift ships during a crisis, as set forth in the National Security 

Sealift Policy, National Security Directive (NSD) No. 28, October 5, 1989. 

42DOT, Merchant Mariner Training to Meet Sealift Requirements: A Report to Congress. 

Maritime Administration (Washington, D.C.: August 2004). 

43Maritime Transportation: Hearings on the Role of U.S. Ships and Mariners Before the 

Subcommittee on Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation, House Committee on 

Transportation and Infrastructure, May 21, 2013. 

44MARAD’s prioritization of resources for national defense is also reflected by its proposal 

for fiscal year 2014 to realign the Maritime Workforce Development office, which is 

responsible for the review and development of broad national policies and programs in the 

area of maritime labor and training, to be under the Strategic Sealift Associate 

Administrator. Maritime Workforce Development is the MARAD office that conducted the 

study to determine whether the current pool of oceangoing mariners is large enough to 

meet military sealift requirements.

MARAD Primarily 

Supports the Training 

Needs of the Oceangoing 

Maritime Industry
Page 27 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

academies directly support training for domestic and inland waterway 

commerce. The officials stated that while the maritime academies 

graduate mariners who are qualified to sail on oceangoing vessels, these 

qualifications also allow them to sail aboard vessels in other sectors of 

the industry, although additional endorsements may be necessary. The 

officials acknowledged that the increase in domestic requirements could, 

over time, lessen the applicability of oceangoing training that the 

academies provide to meet the training requirements of the domestic 

sector. However, they noted that there did not appear to be a lack of 

training providers for the domestic sector.

In addition, officials told us that they intend to collect data on the number 

of commercial mariners in different domestic maritime sectors, and their 

credentials and endorsements. The officials also told us that this effort 

could be similar to the study they conducted with the maritime unions on 

the oceangoing workforce and could compare the number of commercial 

vessels with the number of mariners who hold the appropriate credentials 

and endorsements to work on those vessels. However, the officials stated 

that MARAD has not yet developed a plan to conduct this study that 

includes both the necessary staff resources and an established time 

frame to complete the effort. Without a plan to conduct this study that 

includes both staff resources and time frames, it is unclear if MARAD will 

complete this effort.

Some stakeholders expressed concerns about MARAD’s continued focus 

on the training and other needs of the oceangoing sector and about the 

need for more information from MARAD on the maritime industry overall. 

Some stakeholders we interviewed—including representatives from three 

non-academy training providers and two companies—told us that MARAD 

seemed overly focused on supporting the needs of the oceangoingmaritime industry and had not acknowledged the current and future 

growth and needs of the domestic maritime industry. Some of these and 

other stakeholders stated they felt it was important for MARAD to collect 

data and conduct studies in order to help better understand, promote, and 

support the entire commercial industry, both the oceangoing and 

domestic sectors. These stakeholders included representatives of three 

academies, a non-academy provider, and a union. The union stakeholder 

stated that it was important to know about workforce trends, and that the 

industry could use more standardized sets of data. For example, one 

maritime academy stated that it could update training curriculums that will 

meet changing workforce needs if it had more industry survey data from 

MARAD.

Selected Stakeholders 

Raised Concerns about 

MARAD’s Continued 

Focus on the Training 

Needs of the Oceangoing 

Maritime Industry
Page 28 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Three of the maritime academies, whose funding from MARAD primarily 

focuses on producing oceangoing officers and on supporting national 

defense sealift, expressed the need for more information to better meet 

the requirements of the domestic industry, particularly in the offshore and 

near coastal areas, for example:

 One academy stakeholder stated that more information from MARAD 

and studies on qualified mariners would help the academy make 

planning and resource decisions. Without this information, the school 

sometimes makes decisions simply based upon what other schools 

are doing.

 Two academy stakeholders said that such studies could help focus 

and update their respective academies’ curriculums.

 One academy started offering domestic waterways training as an 

elective and is planning to acquire a tug and barge simulator. 

According to this academy stakeholder, though, this academy makes 

these curriculum decisions based on anecdotal information from 

industry, other schools’ practices, and some government data, and 

noted that more industry information from MARAD was important to 

the stakeholder to help make better planning and resource decisions.

 One academy stakeholder noted that this academy would like to 

increase its size, mostly in response to current growth in the offshore 

areas, but that more guidance would be helpful as the academy 

adapts to industry changes.

Several company stakeholders also expressed concerns about the 

academies’ lack of sufficient curriculums specifically tailored for the 

domestic sector. For example, officials at one domestic maritime 

company that we spoke to noted that it required recent academy 

graduates to take 13 months of required training and on-the-job 

experience. In another example, officials from an offshore company told 

us that they did not think the academies have sufficient curriculums 

specifically focused on offshore operations.

According to MARAD officials, there has been an increase in specialized 

training necessary to work on specific types of vessels for both the 

domestic and oceangoing sectors of the industry. The officials stated that 

20 years ago mariners could graduate from an academy with credentials 

that allowed them to work on any type of vessel. Since that time, 

specialization has led to more training requirements. According to 
Page 29 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

MARAD, tankers, passenger vessels, towing vessels, and dynamicpositioning vessels all require specialized training. The officials noted that 

it is increasingly difficult, if not impossible, for a 4-year maritime academy 

to provide all of the courses for an undergraduate degree and all of the 

necessary training and sea time for a mariner to have the qualifications to 

sail aboard all vessels. 

As discussed earlier, MARAD has a broad mission to support both the 

domestic and oceangoing waterways, including providing overall direction 

for the training of U.S. mariners in both sectors. For MARAD to meet its 

statutory responsibilities, including those delegated by the Secretary of 

Transportation to MARAD, it is important that it study all problems arising 

in the merchant marine’s ability to carry out specified national commerce 

and defense objectives to ensure both economic growth and sealift 

support in times of war. As industry stakeholders have noted, lack of 

sufficient information, including on mariner-training needs in the domestic 

sector, could have adverse effects for the domestic sector of the maritime 

industry.

DOT has raised concerns about the number of U.S. oceangoing mariners. 

The primary source of mariners to crew government reserve sealift ships 

is the pool of U.S. mariners actively sailing in the U.S.-flag shipping 

industry. According to MARAD officials, the sufficiency (availability, 

commitment, and skills) of this mariner pool to support a large-scale 

activation of the government reserve sealift fleet (60 ships) depends upon 

the health and size of the commercial U.S.-flag merchant fleet. The DOT 

Deputy Secretary testified in May 2013 that while the pool of U.S. 

oceangoing mariners is adequate to meet current sealift needs, DOT was 

concerned that the costs of operating under the U.S.-flag registry may 

result in continued reductions in the oceangoing commercial fleet.45 In 

addition, MARAD officials acknowledged that many mariners now prefer 

to work domestically, including on the outer continental shelf, which is a 

growing sector of the industry that is required to hire U.S. citizens. This 

shift in preference could lessen the number of qualified oceangoing 

mariners. The officials also acknowledged that the decline in the number 

 

45John D. Porcari, Deputy Secretary, U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime 

Transportation: Hearings on the Role of U.S. Ships and Mariners, testimony before the 

House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, Subcommittee on Coast Guard 

and Maritime Transportation, 113th Cong., 1st sess., May 21, 2013. 

MARAD Strategic Efforts 

Could Provide 

Opportunities to Identify 

and Study Training Issues
Page 30 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

of U.S.-flag ships has resulted in fewer qualified U.S. mariners for DOD 

sealift.

To help address these issues, MARAD announced in September 2013 

that it is developing a national maritime strategy, to include ways to 

address the decline in U.S.-flag oceangoing vessels, shipbuilding, and 

other ways to support the maritime industry.46 MARAD officials told us 

that they have set a preliminary 30-year goal to significantly increase the 

participation of U.S.-flag oceangoing vessels in international shipping.

The share of imports and exports carried by the existing 89 U.S.-flag 

foreign-trading vessels is approximately 2 percent by weight of cargo; 

doubling the share of oceanborne exports and imports carried by U.S.-

flag vessels to 4 percent could employ approximately double this number 

of vessels. Reaching a 10-percent share could employ 300 to 500 

vessels, depending on future trade growth, vessel types, and vessel-size 

trends. As part of the process to develop this strategy, MARAD convened

a series of roundtables in January 2014 with maritime stakeholders to 

generate ideas for improving, strengthening, and sustaining cargo 

opportunities and sealift capacity within the U.S. marine transportation 

system. Among the areas MARAD discussed with stakeholders was the 

number of qualified U.S.-citizen mariners and U.S-flag ships, training and 

retention of the maritime workforce, and steps to revitalize the U.S. 

shipbuilding industry. The officials stated further that they will refine the 

30-year target numbers for the U.S.-flag international oceangoing fleet 

after the roundtable discussions. Studying potential training-related 

problems affecting the merchant marine’s ability to carry out specified 

national commerce and defense objectives to ensure economic growth 

and sealift support in times of war could provide information to maritime 

stakeholders and help MARAD meet its responsibilities.

It is important that MARAD ensure that the maritime workforce is trained 

to meet the needs of the domestic and oceangoing sectors of the 

maritime industry. The decline in the number of U.S. oceangoing vessels 

is adversely affecting the maritime industry’s ability to meet sealift 

requirements. Considering that DOD relies on the merchant marine 

 

46Paul N. Jaenichen, Acting Maritime Administrator, Maritime Transportation Regulations: 

Hearings on the Impacts on Safety, Security, Jobs and the Environment, Part I, testimony 

before the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, Subcommittee on 

Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation, 113th Cong. 1st sess., September 10, 2013. 

Conclusions
Page 31 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

during times of war, it is imperative that MARAD continue to study any 

potential problems that jeopardize fulfilling U.S. national defense 

objectives, in particular, whether there is a large enough pool of trained 

U.S. mariners. However, the Secretary’s legislatively mandated role, 

delegated to MARAD, also includes ensuring that the entire merchant

marine, both the oceangoing and domestic sectors, is sufficient to satisfy 

national commerce objectives. MARAD’s resources and actions, 

however, are predominantly focused on the oceangoing industry’s 

contribution to national defense. Many of the stakeholders we 

interviewed—including academy stakeholders responsible for training 

oceangoing mariners—have noticed this focus and are concerned about 

MARAD’s lack of data and studies on the domestic maritime industry. For 

MARAD to meet its mission to foster, promote, and develop the entire 

U.S. merchant maritime industry, it is important that MARAD study any 

potential problems that could arise in fulfilling U.S. national commerce 

objectives for both the oceangoing and domestic waterways including 

whether there are sufficient numbers of trained mariners for all sectors of 

the maritime industry.

As MARAD develops a national maritime strategy and assists DOT in 

developing a national freight strategic plan, it has taken a step in the 

direction of studying problems facing the various sectors of the maritime 

industry with the January 2014 roundtable discussions with industry 

stakeholders. The development of the national maritime strategy can 

serve as an opportunity to determine whether there are any potential 

problems related to all sectors of the industry, including the training 

issues raised by the stakeholders we interviewed. MARAD would also 

have the opportunity to identify what analyses to conduct to understand 

how the U.S. maritime-training infrastructure can better meet the needs of 

the domestic waterways. Developing a national maritime strategy without 

the collection and analysis of fundamental industry information about the 

domestic maritime workforce could make it more difficult for MARAD to 

identify potential problems with ensuring sufficient numbers of trained 

mariners for all maritime industry sectors.

As part of the development of a national maritime strategy and a national 

freight strategic plan, we recommend that the Secretary of Transportation 

direct MARAD—in consultation with maritime industry stakeholders—to 

study and identify any potential problems in ensuring that U.S. mariners 

are adequately trained to meet the needs of the entire maritime industry, 

including the domestic waterways. Public forums, such as MARAD’s 

Recommendation for 

Executive Action
Page 32 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

roundtable discussions, could serve as a means for gaining industry input 

on potential training issues.

We provided a draft of this report to the Secretaries of Transportation, 

Homeland Security, and Department of Defense for review and comment.

DOT did not agree or disagree with our recommendation but provided 

technical comments, which we incorporated as appropriate. The 

Department of Homeland Security also provided technical comments, 

which we incorporated as appropriate. DOD did not have any comments.

We are sending copies of this report to the appropriate congressional 

committees, the Secretary of Transportation, the Secretary of Homeland 

Security, and the Secretary of Defense. In addition, the report is available 

at no charge on the GAO website at http://www.gao.gov.

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact 

me at (202) 512-2834 or StJamesL@gao.gov. Contact points for our 

Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on 

the last page of this report. GAO staff who made major contributions to 

this report are listed in appendix II.

Lorelei St. James

Director, Physical Infrastructure

Agency Comments
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 33 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

The Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation Act of 2012 mandated us 

to review mariner training. Because of the large size and diversity of the 

U.S. maritime industry—such as the number of government agencies with 

maritime responsibilities, areas of operations, training requirements and 

regulations, training providers, and vessel-owning companies—we limited 

the scope of our review in the following ways. We focused on the three 

federal government agencies that have a broad and direct impact on 

training for the maritime industry: the Maritime Administration (MARAD), 

which has broad statutory responsibilities for overseeing the health of the 

maritime industry, including statutory responsibilities delegated by the 

Secretary of Transportation regarding the training of mariners and 

ensuring that the merchant marine meets U.S. waterborne commerce and 

national defense objectives; Coast Guard, which regulates the training 

infrastructure; develops training standards; approves maritime schools, 

courses and instructors; and issues credentials to mariners; and Military 

Sealift Command, which sets the training-related requirements for U.S. 

mariners to augment military sealift capabilities during times of war or 

national emergency. We selected for interview a non-probability sample 

of industry stakeholders based on such factors as area of operation, 

location, industry sector, and training provider type. We did not study the 

impact of training requirements on the maritime workforce primarily 

because the proposed Coast Guard regulations promulgating the most 

recent iteration of international training requirements had not been issued 

in a final form in time for our review. The Coast Guard issued the final 

regulation incorporating the IMO’s 2010 amendments to the STCW on 

December 24, 2013.

Our report examines the following questions: (1) What is the availability of 

government (federal, state, and local) and private sector entities that 

currently provide training to U.S. mariners? (2) What federal and nonfederal financial assistance that available to mariners to help them meet 

training requirements? (3) What actions has MARAD taken to ensure 

there are trained mariners to meet commerce and national defense 

needs, and what are the views of merchant marine stakeholders on these 

actions and on current and potential training issues?

To describe what is known about government and private entities that 

provide mariner training, we obtained and reviewed documents from 

government and non-government stakeholders about training 

requirements and their training infrastructure. Specifically, we analyzed 

information about training requirements for U.S mariners, including 

current federal regulations governing training for mariners working on 

both oceangoing and domestic commercial waterways. Title 46 (Shipping) 

Appendix I: Scope and Methodology
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 34 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) contain the Coast Guard’s 

training-related requirements for both oceangoing and domestic 

waterways. Oceangoing regulations include the implementation of the 

International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) International Convention on 

Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 

1978, as amended (STCW). Concerning how mariners receive training 

that satisfies commercial-oceangoing and domestic requirements and 

military requirements, we reviewed information and interviewed officials 

from MARAD; the Coast Guard and its National Maritime Center (NMC) in 

Martinsburg, West Virginia; and the Military Sealift Command.

Specifically, the MARAD documents and data we analyzed included the 

number of federal and state maritime academy graduates in the past 5 

years, budgetary resources for fiscal years 2009–2013, and industry 

studies and statistics. From the Coast Guard and NMC we obtained and 

analyzed documents and data on the numbers of mariner-training 

certificates issued by non-academy training providers in the last 5 years 

and the NMC’s process for approving training providers and courses. 

Although our use of Coast Guard and MARAD data was limited in our 

report, we conducted interviews with knowledgeable agency officials in 

order to ensure the data were sufficiently reliable for our use. Regarding 

military sealift, we analyzed Military Sealift Command documents on its 

wartime requirements for the oceangoing vessels and the associated 

training requirements for merchant mariners.

The non-probability sample of maritime industry stakeholders that we

selected for interviews included:

 5 unions;

 4 associations representing the maritime industry;

 21 training providers, of which 6 were maritime academies, 4 were 

union-affiliated schools, 5 were maritime companies that offer 

training, 4 were for-profit training providers, and 2 were non-profit 

training providers; and

 7 members of the Merchant Mariner Personnel Advisory 

Committee, which advises the Coast Guard on merchant marine 

personnel issues, such as training, qualifications, certification and 

other issues.

We selected these stakeholders because of their wide knowledge and 

roles in multiple aspects of the maritime industry. We also conducted site 

visits to maritime industry facilities and training providers in the New York 
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 35 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

City and Houston, Texas, areas. We selected both areas based on the 

diversity of their maritime industry and their concentration of facilities and 

training providers. We also visited three of the four union-affiliated 

maritime-training schools we selected for interviews and toured their 

facilities, which were located in the Washington, D.C., area.

To describe what is known about federal and non-federal financial 

assistance that is available to mariners, we relied on the knowledge and 

experience of the industry stakeholders and government officials we 

selected for interview. We did not intend or attempt to provide a 

comprehensive overview of all possible federal, state, and local 

government and private sector financial assistance programs available for 

mariners, their employers, or their training providers. With the industry 

stakeholders we discussed the types of financial assistance, if any, that 

they provide—such as union and company provided training—and their 

knowledge and use of federal and other non-federal financial assistance. 

Also, we discussed with stakeholders how individual mariners pay for 

training and the types of mariners that do not have access to financial 

assistance. We compared the different sources of training as described 

by the stakeholders and, where necessary, we followed up with further 

research on financial assistance for training and education, including 

reviewing prior GAO work in this area.1

To determine what actions MARAD has taken to ensure there are trained 

merchant mariners to meet commercial industry (both domestic and 

oceangoing) and national defense needs, we interviewed MARAD 

officials, including from the Office of Maritime Workforce Development, 

the unit responsible for conducting studies on the population of trained 

and qualified mariners; reviewed MARAD’s publicly available studies, 

statistics, and surveys of the maritime industry; and included this topic in 

our interviews with industry stakeholders. With MARAD officials, we 

discussed the agency’s current priorities and its ongoing and future efforts 

to study the U.S. mariner population. In particular, we discussed 

MARAD’s current collaboration with maritime unions to determine 

 

1 See GAO, Multiple Employment and Training Programs: Providing Information and 

Colocating Services and Consolidating Administrative Structures Could Promote 

Efficiencies, GAO-11-92 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 13, 2011); Higher Education: Improved 

Tax Information Could Help Families Pay for College, GAO-12-560 (Washington, D.C.: 

May 18, 2012); and VA Education Benefits: Student Characteristics and Outcomes Vary 

across Schools, GAO-13-567 (Washington, D.C.: Jul 25, 2013).
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 36 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

whether the pool of mariners in the oceangoing industry is sufficient to 

meet military sealift requirements. We also analyzed MARAD’s budget for 

the fiscal years 2009–2013 and its current strategic plan covering 2008–

2013. In addition, we discussed MARAD’s budgetary priorities and how 

the agency focuses its work and accomplishes its statutorily mandated 

objectives regarding the maritime industry as a whole.

To determine the views of merchant marine stakeholders on current and 

potential training issues, we developed semi-structured interview guides 

to elicit stakeholders’ views on current training issues within the maritime 

industry, including federal regulations and oversight, as well as to collect 

basic information from the stakeholders, such as the demographics of the 

mariner population they represent and specific training-related 

information. We identified the following limitations that should be 

considered when using the results of our interviews with maritime industry 

stakeholders. First, the stakeholders we selected for interview were not a 

representative sample of the industry and, therefore, the views we 

received from them should not be interpreted as representing the industry 

as a whole. Second, information from our site visits and interviews is 

illustrative and cannot be generalized to the maritime industry and training 

providers.

We conducted this performance audit from March 2013 through January 

2014 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing 

standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to 

obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for 

our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe 

that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings 

and conclusions based on our audit objectives.
Appendix II: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments

Page 37 GAO-14-212 U.S. Merchant Marine Training 

Lorelei St. James, (202) 512-2834 or StJamesL@gao.gov.

In addition to the contact named above, Edward Laughlin (Assistant 

Director); Amy Abramowitz; Jessica Bryant-Bertail; Jose Cardenas; Colin 

Fallon; Geoffrey Hamilton; Sam Hinojosa; Josh Ormond; Emily Upstill; 

and Elizabeth Wood made key contributions to this report.

Appendix II: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments

GAO Contact

Staff 

Acknowledgments

(544191)
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