1

“Keep the Park As It Is,” Free Lance-Star, 8 June 1933.

2

Jerry Marcus, oral history interview with the author, 27 May 2010, 3, FRSP Archives.

3 Nancy Moore, “Realty Projects Taking the „Wild‟ Out of Wilderness,” Free Lance-Star, 20 August 1971.
 

4

Jackson, as quoted by Nancy Moore in Ibid.
 

5 Rep. Schuyler Bland (D-VA) used the term “cockpit” when he argued for the bill that would eventually 

become law in House Committee on Military Affairs, National Military Park near Fredericksburg, Va.: 

Hearings on H.R. 6756, 69th Cong., 1st sess., 8 February 1926, 4.

6 Daniel E. Sutherland, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville: The Dare Mark Campaign (Lincoln: 

University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 1.
 

7 William Marvel, “The Making of a Myth: Ambrose E. Burnside and the Union High Command at 

Fredericksburg,” in The Fredericksburg Campaign: Decision on the Rappahannock, ed. by Gary Gallagher 

(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 1-8. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: 

Simon and Schuster Paperbacks, 1995), 387-90. See also James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom:

The Civil War Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 568-71; and George C. Rable, 

Fredericksburg! Fredericksburg! (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 42-62.

8 William A. Blair, “Barbarians at Fredericksburg‟s Gate: The Impact of the Union Army on Civilians,” in 

Gallagher, ed., Fredericksburg Campaign, 142-44, 153-58; Rable, Fredericksburg!, 156-84.
 

9 This account uses Rable, Fredericksburg!; Sutherland, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, 40-66; Gary 

W. Gallagher, “The Yanks Have Had a Terrible Whipping: Confederates Evaluate the Battle of 

Fredericksburg,” in Gallagher, ed., Fredericksburg Campaign, 131-32; and 

http://www.nps.gov/frsp/historyculture/fburghist.htm, accessed June 2010.

10 Edmund J. Raus, Banners South: A Northern Community at War (Kent, OH: Kent State University 

Press, 2005 ), 103, 105, 107-110. John Hennessy blog posting, Mysteries and Conundrums, accessed June 

2011 at http://npsfrsp.wordpress.com/2010/10/21/a-profound-and-ubiquitous-image-slaves-crossing-therappahannock/. Hennessy blog posting, Fredericksburg Remembered, accessed June 2011 at 

http://fredericksburghistory.wordpress.com/2011/02/11/abolition-emancipation-and-freedom-1862-style/. 
 

11 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 584-85, 638-39; Stephen W. Sears, Chancellorsville (Boston: 

Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996), 22-25, 117-20; Sutherland, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, 91-

102, 130.

12 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 639-41; Sutherland, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, 146-52; 

Sears, Chancellorsville, 213-24, 230-34, 238-43.
 

13 Sutherland, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, 152-58; Sears, Chancellorsville, 260-62, 272-81, 292-

97, 306, 407-8, 446-48; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 642.

14 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 642-45, 662-64; Sutherland, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, 

158- 79; Sears, Chancellorsville, 308-14, 325-33, 337-50, 352-66, 373-76, 378-89, 403-24. See also 

www.nps.gov/frsp/historyculture/cvillehist-end.htm.
 

15 See www.nps.gov/frsp/historyculture/cvillehist-end.htm, based on a brochure written by former NPS 

historian A. Wilson Greene, accessed June 2010.

16 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 721-24. Gary W. Gallagher, ed., The Wilderness Campaign (Chapel 

Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1997), ix-xv.
 

17 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 724-25; Gordon C. Rhea, The Battle of the Wilderness May 5-6, 

1864 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994), 94-402; Robert Garth Scott, Into the 

Wilderness with the Army of the Potomac (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 57-69; Earl J. 

Hess, Trench Warfare under Grant and Lee: Field Fortifications in the Overland Campaign (Chapel Hill: 

University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 19-43.

18 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 725-26; Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness, 283-452. Robert K. Krick, 

“‟Lee to the Rear,‟ the Texans Cried,” in Gallagher, ed., The Wilderness Campaign, 160, 176. Robert E. L. 

Krick, “Like a Duck on a June Bug: James Longstreet‟s Flank Attack, May 6, 1864,” in Gallagher, ed., 

The Wilderness Campaign, 237-38, 242, 246-56.

19 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 726-28; Scott. Into the Wilderness, 171-82. See also 

http://www.nps.gov/frsp/wildspot.htm, accessed June 2010.
 

20 Hess, Trench Warfare, 41-43, 45-98, 205-6. Gordon C. Rhea, The Battles for Spotsylvania Court House 

and the Road to Yellow Tavern May 7-12, 1864 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), 5-

6, 89-91; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 728. See also http://www.nps.gov/frsp/wildspot.htm.

21 Rhea, Battles of Spotsylvania Court House, 163-77; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 728-29.
 

22 Rhea, Battles of Spotsylvania Court House, 232-307; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 729-31. See 

also http://www.nps.gov/frsp/wildspot.htm.
 

23 All census figures from www.census.gov. Ronald L. Heinemann, et al., Old Dominion, New 

Commonwealth: A History of Virginia 1607-2007 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007), 

241-42; and Caroline E. Janney, “‟The Right to Love and to Mourn:‟ The Origins of Virginia‟s Ladies‟ 

Memorial Associations, 1865-1867,” in Crucible of the Civil War: Virginia from Secession to 

Commemoration, ed. Edward L. Ayers, Gary W. Gallagher, and Andrew J. Torget (Charlottesville: 

University of Virginia Press, 2006), 167-68. See also Happel, FRSP Admin History, 22.
 

24 Heinemann, History of Virginia, 240-58; Jane Dailey, Before Jim Crow: The Politics of Race in 

Postemancipation Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 1-6; J. Douglas Smith, 

Managing White Supremacy: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia (Chapel Hill: 

University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 19-22.
 

25 Heinemann, History of Virginia, 259-61; Dailey, Before Jim Crow, 139-54; Smith, Managing White 

Supremacy, 25-27; Ruth Coder Fitzgerald, A Different Story: A Black History of Fredericksburg, Stafford 

and Spotsylvania, Virginia (USA: Unicorn, 1979), 200-01.

26 Smith, Managing White Supremacy, 3-10, 29-39; Heinemann, History of Virginia, 261-67; Lewis A. 

Randolph and Gayle T. Tate, Rights for a Season: The Politics of Race, Class, and Gender in Richmond, 

Virginia (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2003), 104-05.
 

27 David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap 

Press of Harvard University Press, 2001), 256-59, 264-66, 270-73, 278-81, 291-93; Heinemann, History of 

Virginia, 261; Will Kaufman, The Civil War in American Culture (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 

2006), 21-24, 76; Clayton McClure Brooks, “Unlikely Allies: Southern Women, Interracial Cooperation, 

and the Making of Segregation in Virginia, 1910-1920,” in Women Shaping the South: Creating and 

Confronting Change, ed. Angela Boswell and Judith N. McArthur (Columbia: University of Missouri 

Press, 2006), 124-28; Gary W. Gallagher and Alan T. Nolan, eds., The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil 

War History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000); James Oliver Horton, “Confronting Slavery 

and Revealing the “Lost Cause,‟” in The Civil War Remembered, eds. John Latschar and Robert K. Sutton 

(Eastern National, 2011), 35-41.

28 Fitzgerald, Different Story, 101, 150-53; Heinemann, History of Virginia, 272-74; Smith, Managing 

White Supremacy, 32-33.
 

29 Fitzgerald, Different Story, 182-86, 194-96, 200-02, 209-10, 222, 226-28. Brooks, “Unlikely Allies,” in 

Women Shaping the South, 145-50.

30 Blight, Race and Reunion, 206, 209. See also Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, 

and Murder in the Jazz Age (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2004) for a description of Detroit‟s 

segregated housing and working conditions for blacks in the first half of the twentieth century.
 

31 Donald C. Pfanz, Where Valor Proudly Sleeps : A History of Fredericksburg National Cemetery, 1866-

1933, (FRSP, 2007), 201-04; Fitzgerald, Different Story, 217-18.

32 Editor of the Fredericksburg News, as quoted by Pfanz, Where Valor Proudly Sleeps, 203.

33 Ibid., 205. See also Blight, Race and Reunion, 202-10; and Paul A. Shackel, Memory in Black and 

White: Race, Commemoration, and the Post-Bellum Landscape (Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press, 

2003), 28-37.
 

34 W. Fitzhugh Brundage, The Southern Past: A Clash of Race and Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap 

Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 6-7, 59-72. See also Shackel, Memory in Black and White, 31-

37; and Kirk Savage, “The Politics of Memory: Black Emancipation and the Civil War Monument,” in 

Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John R. Gillis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton 

University Press, 1994), 135-36. By the time of World War I, there were three known Civil War 

monuments that included black soldiers, all of them located in the North. Two of them displayed a single 

black soldier in multifigure combat groups. The third one, by Augustus Saint-Gaudens and Charles 

McKim in Boston shows white commander Robert Gould Shaw on a horse in front of a procession of black 

soldiers from the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, the first all-black regiment to go into battle during 

the Civil War. Blacks now embrace this monument, once considered celebratory of the white commander, 

because it is one of only a few works that celebrate the achievements of black soldiers during the war. See 

Shackel, 113-44 and Savage, 135-36.
 

35 The literature on commemoration and memory is vast. For a good summary and analysis, see Kirk 

Savage, “History, Memory, and Monuments: An Overview of the Scholarly Literature on 

Commemoration,” accessed July 2010 at www.nps.gov/history/history/resedu/savage.htm. See also 

Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New 

York: Vintage Books, 1991); James E. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and 

Meaning (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993); and Edward Tabor Linenthal, Sacred Ground: 

Americans and Their Battlefields (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991) . My ideas about memory 

are explained further in my book, Fort Stanwix National Monument: Reconstructing the Past and 

Partnering for the Future (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008).

36 Donald C. Pfanz, Where Valor Proudly Sleeps : A History of Fredericksburg National Cemetery, 1866-

1933, (FRSP, 2007), 14-17; and Timothy B. Smith, The Golden Age of Battlefield Preservation: The 

Decade of the 1890s and the Establishment of America’s First Five Military Parks (Knoxville: University 

of Tennessee Press, 2008), 15-16, 19-20. For information about the relationship of cemeteries to parks, see 

John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford 

University Press, 1989). Historian John Neff argues that the involvement of veterans organizations, 

especially the Grand Army of the Republic, helped to ensure that national cemeteries went beyond being

simply burial places to sacred spaces. See John R. Neff, Honoring the Civil War Dead: Commemoration 

and the Problem of Reconciliation (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005), 106-09, 135.
 

37 Pfanz, Where Valor Proudly Sleeps, 62-66. Happel, FRSP Admin History, 23-24.

38 Pfanz, Where Valor Proudly Sleeps, 75-79, 81-87, 89-95, 105-10, 112-13, 116-18.

39 The following description of monuments in the national cemetery focuses upon those not specifically 

marking graves. There are two private headstones, for Col. Joseph A. Moesch and Sgt. Edward L. 

Townsend, for Civil War soldiers who died during the war.
 

40 Pfanz, Where Valor Proudly Sleeps, 135-37, 145-48. Donald C. Pfanz, History through Eyes of Stone: A 

Survey of Civil War Monuments near Fredericksburg, Virginia (FRSP, September 2006), 61-65, 70- 87. 

One other cemetery marker was placed in 1973 to honor Capt. William W. Parker‟s Virginia battery, which 

had defended Marye‟s Heights during Second Fredericksburg. It is the only Confederate marker in the

national cemetery, the only marker in the park dedicated to a Virginia military unit, and the only marker 

memorializing Second Fredericksburg.

41 Pfanz, History through Eyes of Stone, 203-10.
 

42 Ibid., 120-132.

43 Ibid., 57-60, 220-23.
 

44 Ibid., 10-19, 170-73, 287. Pfanz, Where Valor Proudly Rests, 62-69, 143-45. Southerners, starting in the 

mid-1880s, did place monuments, often of a Civil War soldier, in town squares. This step reflected a 

change in cultural perception of the war, marking the end of a bereavement period (when people placed 

monuments in cemeteries) and moving on to a celebration of the Lost Cause and the Confederacy. See 

Shackel, Memory in Black and White, 37.

45 Pfanz, History through Eyes of Stone, 24-29, 66-69.
 

46 Judge John T. Goolrick spoke at the dedication ceremonies for the Martha Stephens stone (p. 21), the 

Fifth Corps Monument (73), the Humphreys Monument (84), the 23rd New Jersey Monument (146), Hays 

Memorial (180), Soldier‟s Monument in the Spotsylvania Confederate Cemetery (252). He was supposed 

to speak at the 1st Massachusetts Heavy Artillery monument dedication, but he experienced transportation 

difficulties (213); C. O‟Conor Goolrick spoke at ceremonies for the UDC markers (25), Maury birthplace 

marker (152), and MOLLUS (Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States) Monument (231), 

all page references from Pfanz, History through Eyes of Stone.

47Happel, FRSP Admin History, 27-28. Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, Prospectus, long version, 

no date, 1-2, File Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, Eric Mink Files, FRSP.
 

48 Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, Prospectus, long version, 1.

49 Quotes from Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, Prospectus, short version, no date, 1, File 

Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, Eric Mink Files, FRSP. See also Jno. Marye to Rufus Merchant, 

31 August 1891, File Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, Eric Mink Files, FRSP.

50 Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, Prospectus, long version, 1.

51 Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, To Our Agents, 3 May 1892, 2, File Chancellorsville Battlefield 

Association, Eric Mink Files, FRSP.

52 Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, Prospectus, short version, 1. Quotes from Chancellorsville 

Battlefield Association, Prospectus, long version, 1.
 

53Quote from Chancellorsville Battlefield Association, To Our Agents, 1. See also Cindy S. Aron, Working 

at Play: A History of Vacations in the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 15-44; and 

Anne Farrar Hyde, An American Vision: Far Western Landscape and National Culture, 1820-1920 (New 

York: New York University Press, 1990), 147-90.

54 Happel, FRSP Admin History, 28-29.

55 Rowe, as quoted in “Battlefield Park Meeting,” Daily Star [Fredericksburg], 17 April 1896.

56 Resolutions and Jones quoted in Ibid.
 

57 “A Few Among Many Reasons Why There Should Be Established at and near Fredericksburg, in the 

State of Virginia, a National Battlefield Park,” no date [1896-1897], quotes on pages 5 and 10, respectively,

No file name, Eric Mink Files, FRSP. See Happel, FRSP Admin History, 35, about the date of the 

brochure.

58 Quote from “National Battlefield Park,” Free Lance, 28 August 1897. See also Grand Army of the 

Republic, Journal of the Thirtieth National Encampment, 2-4 September 1896, 227, No file name, Eric 

Mink Files, FRSP.

59 United Confederate Veterans, Minutes of the Sixth Annual Meeting and Reunion, 30 June-2 July 1896, 

49, No file name, Eric Mink Files, FRSP. “Interesting Specials,” Daily Star, 1 July 1896.

60 “Our National Park,” Daily Star, 11 January 1900, quoting an editorial from the Richmond Times of the 

same date.

61 “A Few Among Many Reasons,” 11.
 

62 “National Battlefield Park,” Free Lance, 28 August 1897. “Battlefields Park Project,” Daily Star, 12 

January 1898.

63 House Committee on Military Affairs, Fredericksburg and Adjacent National Battlefields Memorial 

Park, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 20 March 1900, H. Rep. 717, 2.

64 Happel, FRSP Admin History, 31, 33. Quotes Virginia state law regarding the association on p. 33.

65 Ibid., 33.
 

66 “Battlefields Park Project,” Daily Star, 12 January 1898.

67 Ronald F. Lee, The Origin and Evolution of the National Military Park Idea (NPS, 1973), Part III 

Chickamauga and Chattanooga, accessed July 2010 at 

www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/history_military/nmpidea5f.htm. Smith, Golden Age, 53-55, 

60-61.

68 To establish the Fredericksburg and Adjacent National Battlefields Memorial Park, S. 3910, 55th Cong., 

2d sess., 24 February 1898, 1, 15-21; To establish the Fredericksburg and Adjacent National Battlefields 

Memorial Park, HR 8774, 55th Cong., 2d sess., 2 March 1898, 1, 15-21. Quotes from both bills, p. 1. 
 

69 Fredericksburg and Adjacent Battlefield Memorial Park of Virginia, S. Doc. 261, 55th Cong., 2d. sess., 

10 May 1898, 1, 4, 5. Quotes on pp. 4-5.

70 Congress members did not submit bills for a Fredericksburg military park in 1904-1907 and 1918. See 

Edmund B. Rogers, ed., History of Legislation Relating to the National Park Service through the 82d 

Congress, (NPS, 1958), 2-10, Superintendent‟s Office, FRSP. Smith, Golden Age, 38-39, 43-44.
 

71 The three Representatives expressing dissension from the committee majority are Richard W. Parker (RNJ), J. H. Ketcham (R-NY), and F. C. Stevens (R-MN). House Committee on Military Affairs, 

Fredericksburg and Adjacent National Battlefields Memorial Park: Report and Views of the Minority, 57th

Cong., 1st sess., 6 March 1902, H. Rep. 771, 1, 8. Quotes from p. 8.

72 Ibid., 10.
 

73 Smith, Golden Age, 44, 46, 63, 87-108. Charles W. Snell and Sharon A. Brown, Antietam National 

Battlefield and National Cemetery: An Administrative History (NPS, 1986), 68-73, 93-116, as accessed 

July 2010 at http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/anti/adhi.pdf.

74 House Subcommittee on Parks of the Committee on Military Affairs, Establishment of Military Parks, 

57th Cong., 1st sess., April 1902, 1-2. Quotes on p. 2. See also Smith, Golden Age, 42-46.
 

75 Smith, Golden Age, 47-49.

76 Happel, FRSP Admin History, 43-45. “President Watches Battle of Marines,” New York Times, 2 

October 1921; “Marines Work on Historic Ground,” Star and Sentinel [Gettysburg, PA], 17 September 

1921; “Marines Fighting over Battle of Wilderness,” Miami News, 1 October 1921; “Harding Plods behind 

Marines,” Woodville [MS] Republican, 8 October 1921.
 

77 Report on Inspection of Battle Fields in and around Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania Court House, 

Virginia, 1 December 1925, 2, No file name, FRSP Superintendent‟s Files. The quotes come from the 

original act, as reproduced in the report, p. 2. Both House and Senate reports also include this language: 

House Committee on Military Affairs, Inspection of the Battle Fields in and around Fredericksburg and 

Spotsylvania Courthouse, Va., 68th Cong., 1st sess., 2 May 1924, H. Rep. 634, 1; and Senate Committee on 

Military Affairs, Inspection of the Battle Fields in and around Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania 

Courthouse, Va., 68th Cong., 1st sess., 14 May 1924, S. Rep. 555, 1.

78 House Committee on Military Affairs, Inspection of the Battle Fields, 68th Cong., 1st sess., 2 May 1924, 

H. Rep. 634, 2; and Senate Committee on Military Affairs, Inspection of the Battle Fields, 68th Cong., 1st

sess., 14 May 1924, S. Rep. 555, 2.

79 H. Rep. 634, 2-3; and S. Rep. 555, 2-3. Smith, Golden Age, 212. 1925 Report on Inspection of Battle 

Fields, 2. Happel, FRSP Admin History, 45. Lee, National Military Park Idea, Section IV, The 1926 Act.
 

80 1925 Report on Inspection of Battle Fields, 10-12, 22, 31. Judge John T. Goolrick had initially served as 

the Confederate representative on the Commission. After his passing in September 1925, Fleming took his 

place. Maj. Gen. Clem had served as a young boy for the Federals. See Happel, FRSP Admin History, 45-

47.

81 1925 Report on Inspection of Battle Fields, 18, 23-29. Quotes, in order, on pp. 26-27, 27, 24, 25.
 

82 House Committee on Military Affairs, National Military Park near Fredericksburg, Va.: Hearings on 

H.R. 6756, 69th Cong., 1st sess., 8 February 1926, 10-11.

83 Ibid., 14-16. Quotes, in order, pp. 14-15.

84 Ibid., 4-10. Quotes, in order, pp. 4, 6, 6, 10, 10.
 

85 Fredericksburg National Military Park Establishment Act of 1927, 44 Stat. 1091, 69th Cong., 2d sess. (14 

February 1927). See Appendix for a copy of the law.
 

86 Happel, FRSP Admin History, 45-50.

87 Ibid., 51. Most of Coolidge‟s speech is also reproduced in “American Prosperity Unequaled in History, 

Coolidge Declares,” Reading [PA] Eagle, 19 October 1928.

88 “American Prosperity Unequaled,” Reading Eagle, 19 October 1928.

89 Blight, Race and Reunion, 354-61.
 

90 Address of Edgar J. Rich, 19 October 1928, 5-11, File 871 Fredericksburg Commission, Box 2487, RG 

79 NPS Central Classified Files 1933-1949, NARA-Archives II. Quotes, in order, pp. 6, 6, 7, 9, 8, 8, 9, 10, 

10. See also Happel, FRSP Admin History, 51-54.

91 Coolidge, as quoted in Happel, FRSP Admin History, 51; Rich address, 19 October 1928, 11.

92 Both men also worked on developing the Petersburg national military park.
 

931925 Report on Inspection of Battle Fields, plus map. FRSP in its map collection has maps dating from 

the War Department era, indicating which lands the government initially identified for inclusion. “To 

Transfer Park Commission Head,” Free Lance-Star, 25 March 1930. “Battlefield Park Is Military „ClassRoom,‟” Free Lance-Star, 22 February 1932. Memorandum, Tenney Ross to Quartermaster General, War 

Department, 23 July 1929, 1; and V. M. Fleming, Progress Report July 1, 1928 to June 30, 1929, 30 July 

1929, 10, both in File No name, Box 29, Entry 5, War Department Records, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. 

Memorandum, H. L. Landers to Richard Ellis, 25 June 1932, and attached memorandum, Arthur Wilbourn 

to Quartermaster General, 6 July 1932, 7; and Wilbourn to John MacDonald, 25 February 1933, 2; H. L. 

Landers to Arthur Wilbourn, 9 March 1931, all in File Acts of Congress, Cabinet 6, Drawer 1, FRSP 

Basement Files. Memorandum, Wilbourn to Quartermaster General, 17 March 1931, 1, File Commission, 

Members of, Cabinet 6, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

94 Quote from Fleming, Progress Report, 30 July 1929, 10. See also Tenney Ross to Howard L. Landers, 6 

November 1929, File Colonel Ross, Cabinet 6, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Jonathon Clem to 

Quartermaster General, War Department, 7 April 1930, with attached concurrence by Quartermaster 

General, 13 June 1930, 5, File FRSP, Box 29, Entry 5, War Department Records, RG 79, NARA-Archives 

II.
 

95 Hugh E. Willis to Rep. William Robert Wood, 21 February 1930, 1, File FRSP, Box 29, Entry 5, War 

Department Records, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

96 Quotes from Secretary of War to Sen. David Reed, no date [7 March 1930], 2, File FRSP, Box 29, Entry 

5, War Department Records, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. See also For the Relief of Hugh E. Willis, S. 

3689, 71st Cong., 2d sess., 24 February 1930; and For the Purchase for the Fredericksburg and 

Spotsylvania County Battle Fields Memorial Park of the Farm of Hugh E. Willis in Orange and 

Spotsylvania Counties, Va., S. 3690, 71

st Cong., 2d sess., 24 February 1930. Secretary of War to Sen. R. B. 

Howell, 16 April 1930, 1, File FRSP, Box 29, Entry 5, War Department Records, RG 79, NARA-Archives 

II.

97 Willis to Sen. Arthur Robinson, 24 October 1931, Deed #67, FRSP Lands Files; quote on p. 2. Paul Kear 

to Attorney General, 10 May 1932, Deed #67, FRSP Lands Files.
 

98 Memorandum. Wilbourn to Quartermaster General, 2 October 1931, File Commission, Members of, 

Cabinet 6, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. “Spotsylvania Land Owners Greatly Aid Park Project,” Free 

Lance-Star, 21 March 1932.

99 Quotes from Wilbourn to A. E. Demaray, 11 August 1933, 2, File Commission, Members of, Cabinet 6, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. See also Happel, FRSP Admin History, 56. Unsigned letter to William 

Gibson, 19 November 1929, 2, File Colonel Ross, Cabinet 6, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Fleming, 

Progress Report, 30 July 1929, 5.

100 Fleming, Progress Report, 30 July 1929, 5. Happel, FRSP Admin History, 54-56. Memorandum, 

Wilbourn to Quartermaster General, 17 March 1931, 1-2, File Commission, Members of, Cabinet 6, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. “Plan to Charter Park Association,” Free Lance-Star, 4 May 1928. 

“Outlines Plans of Park Body,” Free Lance-Star, 15 August 1928.
 

101 Quote from Wilbourn to Demaray, 11 August 1933, 2. Fleming, Progress Report, 30 July 1929, 5. 

Happel, FRSP Admin History, 54-56. Memorandum, Wilbourn to Quartermaster General, 17 March 1931, 

1-2.

102 Quote from “Battery to Fire from Old Pits, Free Lance-Star, 3 November 1931. “Battlefield Park Road 

Draws Many,” Free Lance-Star, 5 June 1933. See also Happel, FRSP Admin History, 54-56. Arthur 

Wilbourn to A. D. Bruce, 5 February 1931, 1; Wilbourn to Quartermaster General, 8 April 1932, 

Memorandum, H. L. Landers to Laubach, 8 July 1932, 2; Wilbourn to John McDonald, 17 August 1932, 2, 

plus attached report describing proposing temporary markers, all in File Acts of Congress, Cabinet 6, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Wilbourn to Quartermaster General, 1 May 1931, 1, File 

Commission, Members of, Cabinet 6, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. T. Sutton Jett, Report on old War 

Department signs in FRSP, 15 August 1934, File Memoranda to Mr. Chatelain, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, 

FRSP Basement Files. See Dwight T. Pitcaithley, “‟A Cosmic Threat‟: The National Park Service 

Addresses the Causes of the American Civil War,” in Slavery and Public History: The Tough Stuff of 

American Memory, ed. James Oliver Horton and Lois E. Horton (New York: The New Press, 2006), 173.
 

103 L. J. Houston, Jr., to A. E. Demaray, 5 August 1933, 1, File 0-31 Fred-Spot County, Box 2464, CCF 

1933-1949, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

104 “Battlefield Park Demands Experience,” Free Lance-Star, 25 May 1933.

105 Rep. Bland, as quoted by Harlan D. Unrau and G. Frank Williss in Expansion of the National Park 

Service in the 1930s: Administrative History (1982) accessed July 2011 at 

http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books//unrau-williss/adhi2b.htm.

106 Quotes from “Keep the Park As It Is,” Free Lance-Star, 8 June 1933. Lee, National Military Park Idea, 

Section V, Conclusion.












1

 

1

Paraphrase from Ralph Happel, History and Description of FRSP and Four Self-Guide Tours, no date 

[1936], 7.

2 Roosevelt issued the first executive order (No. 6166) on 10 June 1933 and allowed 61 days before it 

became effective. He clarified 6166 with a second executive order (No. 6228) on 28 July 1933, specifically 

naming which sites would transfer to NPS and removing some national cemeteries (most notably Arlington 

and those in foreign lands). Roosevelt also briefly renamed the National Park Service the Office of 

National Parks, Buildings, and Reservations. The original name returned within two years. See Lary M. 

Dilsaver, ed., America’s National Park System: The Critical Documents (Lanham, MD: Rowman & 

Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1994), 116-21.

3 Harlan D. Unrau and G. Frank Williss, Expansion of the National Park Service in the 1930s: 

Administrative History (1982), Chapter 2B, accessed September 2010 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/unrau-williss/adhi2b.htm. See also Horace M. Albright, 

Origins of National Park Service Administration of Historic Sites (Philadelphia: Eastern National Parks & 

Monument Association, 1971), accessed September 2010 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/albright/index.htm.

4

Shenandoah National Park was authorized in 1926 and established, after land acquisition, in 1935.
 

5 Albright, Origins of NPS Administration of Historic Sites. 

6 An Act for the Relief of Unemployment through the Performance of Useful Public Work, and for Other 

Purposes, 31 March 1933, in Dilsaver, America’s National Park System, 114-15. Unrau and Williss, 

Expansion of the NPS in the 1930s, Chapter 3A. “Plan Battlefield Park to Interest „Average Person,‟” Free 

Lance-Star, 2 December 1933. Arno B. Cammerer to L. J. Houston, 5 June 1937, 1-2, File 608 Part 1 

Memorials, Box 2481, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.
 

7 Biographical chronology of Spalding attached to Branch Spalding to William Wraneck, 16 March 1936, 

File 504 Part 1 Publicity, Box 2478, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-1949, NARA Archives II. 

Frederick L. Rath, Jr., “Reflections on Historic Preservation and the National Park Service: The Early 

Years” accessed August 2010 at http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archives/14-4/14-4sall.pdf. Charles B. Hosmer, Jr., 

Preservation Comes of Age: From Williamsburg to the National Trust, 1926-1949, Vol. I (Charlottesville: 

University Press of Virginia, 1981), 604. George Palmer, Memories of his time at Fredericksburg, c. 1982, 

10, File H14 History of Service and Area 1981, Cabinet 16, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.
 

8

Palmer, Memories of his time at Fredericksburg, 1-3; John C. Paige, The Civilian Conservation Corps 

and the National Park Service, 1933-1942: An Administrative History (National Park Service, 1985), 

Chapter Three: Administration, as accessed September 2010 at 

www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/ccc. “Selects Site for Relief Camp Army,” Free Lance-Star, 8 

June 1933.

9 Aubrey L. Haines, The Yellowstone Story, vol. 2 (Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: Yellowstone 

Library and Museum Association in cooperation with Colorado Associated University Press, 1977); 

Richard A. Bartlett, Yellowstone: A Wilderness Besieged (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1989); 

Chris J. Magoc, Yellowstone: The Creation and Selling of an American Landscape, 1870-1903

(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999); Alice Wondrak Biel, Do (not) Feed the Bears: 

The Fitful History of Wildlife and Tourists in Yellowstone (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006); 

Alfred Runte, Yosemite: The Embattled Wilderness (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990); 

Richard West Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History (New Haven: Yale University 

Press, 1997); Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 3rd. ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 

1976); Horace M. Albright and Robert Cahn, The Birth of the National Park Service: The Founding Years, 

1913-1933 (Salt Lake City: Howe Brothers, 1985); H. Duane Hampton, How the U.S. Cavalry Saved Our 

National Parks (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1971); Joan M. Zenzen, “Promoting National 

Parks: Images of the West in the American Imagination, 1864-1972,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 

1997).
 

10 For example, Ethan Carr describes Daniel Hull‟s and Thomas C. Vint‟s contributions to landscape 

architecture in the early years, in his Wilderness By Design: Landscape Architecture and the National Park 

Service (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998). Conrad Wirth started in the agency as the first land 

planner, then led the state and federal CCC camp development, and eventually became director of the NPS. 

See his Parks, Politics, and the People (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980). See Sellars, 

Preserving Nature in the National Parks for examples of how wildlife biologists and others helped 

professionalize natural resource management.

11 F. H. Arnold, Forestry Policy for The Fredericksburg and Other Spotsylvania County Battlefields, 5 

October 1933, 1-2, File 207-01 Fredericksburg Annual Reports, Box 2468, RG 79 Central Classified Files, 

NARA-Archives II. Quote on p. 2.

12 Arnold, Report to Chief Forester on Emergency Conservation Work: The Chancellorsville Vista, 5-7 

April 1934, 2, File CCC, Box 207, Entry P-84 Branch of Forestry Correspondence, RG 79, NARAArchives II.
 

13 Quote, p. 2, from Verne Chatelain, Memorandum on Fredericksburg, 1-2, attached to Chatelain to H. J. 

Eckenrode, 24 August 1933, File Fred-Spot County 0-31, Box 2464, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-

49, NARA-Archives II;. See also Palmer, Memories of his time at Fredericksburg, 6.

14 Chatelain, Memorandum on Fredericksburg, 2 (handwritten notes).

15 Palmer‟s emphasis upon the terrain to tell the story coincides with the Park Service‟s long-time view that 

the resource was the prime feature for educating the public. This idea will receive more thorough 

consideration in the later section of this chapter on interpretation. George Palmer to Verne Chatelain, 21 

August 1933, and attached Memorandum upon a Historical Policy for National Military Parks, 3, File 0-31 

Fred-Spot County, Box 2464, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Quotes on p. 3 

of Memorandum upon a Historical Policy.
 

16 The author has been unsuccessful in finding the inflammatory letter as published in the newspaper. 

Palmer, Memories of his time at Fredericksburg, 8-9; Memorandum, Palmer to Chatelain, 6 January 1934,

2, File Branch of Historic Sites, Fredericksburg Monthly Reports, Goolrick, Box 2466, RG 79 Central 

Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Memorandum, Branch Spalding to Chatelain, 16 January 

1934, 1, File 0-31 Fred-Spot County, Box 2464, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives 

II.

17 George Palmer to Robert Krick, 14 January 1983, and attached A Few Words about Fredericksburg, 5, 

File H14 History of Service and Area 1981-, Cabinet 16, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files..

18 Memorandum, Spalding to Chatelain, 16 January 1934, 1-2.
 

19 Memorandum, Palmer to Chatelain, 16 March 1934, 3, File Branch of Historic Sites FRSP, Monthly 

Reports, Palmer, Box 2467, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

20 Spalding first served as Historical Technician, the same title he had at Petersburg. He was named acting 

superintendent of Fredericksburg on 15 October 1934 and Coordinating Superintendent of all Civil War 

battle areas in Virginia on 15 March 1936. See Ralph Happel, History and Description of the 

Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park and Four Self-Guide Tours, no date [post-April 

1936], 6, File 11, Box Unarranged Records1, Collection Happel 14117, Chancellorsville Visitor Center 

(CVC), FRSP.

21 Quote from Memorandum, Spalding to Chatelain, 2 August 1934, 2, File Memoranda to Mr. Chatelain, 

Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. See also Palmer, Memories of his time at Fredericksburg, 13.

22 Camp MP-3 began briefly as a white camp, then became a black camp between August 1934 and 

December 1940. Enrollees at MP-4 then transferred from the Wilderness camp to the Chancellorsville 
 

camp, a more central location than the Wilderness one. See Ross Abare to Charles Kenlan, 29 March 1941, 

1, BV-347-02.pdf, from Entry 115, RG 35, NARA-Archives II.

23 Camp MP-1 at Bloody Angle was a veteran‟s camp, housing men who had served in the Great War, and 

therefore they were generally older than the average CCC worker. The Bloody Angle camp closed in April 

1936. Ralph Happel notes the date of closing in his History and Description of FRSP and Four Self-Guide 

Tours, no date [post-April 1936], 7.

24 Paige, The CCC and the NPS Admin History, Chapter Three, Section Camp Description. Helen M. 

Walker, The CCC through the Eyes of 272 Boys: A Summary of a Group Study of the Reactions of 272 

Cleveland Boys to Their Experience in the Civilian Conservation Corps (Cleveland: Western Reserve 

University Press, 1938), 15-23, 55-58, 70-74.
 

25 Walker, CCC through the Eyes, 29-30, 39-40, 47-50. Paige, The CCC and the NPS Admin History, 

Chapter Three, Sections Daily Routine, Enrollment, and Training and Education. Memorandum, T. Sutton 

Jett to Chatelain, 29 September 1933, 1-2, File Branch of Historic Sites FRSP, Monthly Reports Jett, Box 

2466, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Camp MP-4 ran into difficulties with 

its educational program due to the lack of supplies and materials, as recounted in C. H. Kenlan, MP-4 

Supplementary Report, 24 February 1936, Education section, BV-348-01.pdf, from Entry 115, RG 79, 

NARA-Archives II. For an account about MP-1, the veterans camp, see No author [probably Leslie I. 

Neher], 15 November 1983, Report of the Fredericksburg CCC Camps, BV-350-02.pdf, FRSP Files.

26 Walker, CCC through the Eyes, 27-28, 53-55; Paige, The CCC and the NPS Admin History, Chapter 

Three, Section The NPS Camps: Problems and Challenges.
 

27 Goolrick quoted in “Defer Action on Negro C.C.C. Camp,” Free Lance-Star, 4 August 1934. See also 

“Negro C.C.C. Camp for Spotsylvania,” Free Lance-Star, 3 August 1934.

28 “Ultimatum says May Close Camps,” Free Lance-Star, 7 August 1934.

29 Quote made by T. C. Walker, as quoted in “Colored C.C.C. Men at Camp in County,” Free Lance-Star, 8 

August 1934.

30 “CCC Boys Warned To Be Less Noisy,” 16 August 1934; “Seeking Ten Who Injured CCC Man,” 13 

September 1934 [about a black CCC man in the hospital from injuries by black local residents during a 

dance]; “Negro Camp Men Given 60 Days,” 29 October 1934 [for intent to commit robbery]; “Negro 

Draws Year in Assault on Girl,” 23 September 1934 [for drunken behavior]; and “Negro CCC Camp due 

To Be Moved,” 30 November 1940, all in Free Lance-Star. One camp inspector noted in 1938 that 

“Community relations are very good. At first towns seem a little cool toward the boys, but this feeling has 

changed and relations are far more favorable.” See Supplementary Report, 3 March 1938, in BV-347-

02.pdf from NARA-Archives II, RG 35, Entry 115. Memorandum, Fred Johnston to Director, 11 

December 1940, in BV-348-03.pdf from Entry 65, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.
 

31 Blacks may have stayed longer because racial prejudices still gave whites an advantage over blacks in 

getting jobs while jobs remained few in number. See Paige, The CCC and the NPS Admin History, Chapter 

Three, Section Problems and Challenges: Black Enrollment.

32 Sources vary as to the exact number of blacks in the CCC. See Ibid and John A. Salmond, The Civilian 

Conservation Corps, 1933-1942: A New Deal Case Study (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1967), 

Chapter 5.

33 Salmond, The CCC, Chapter 5.

34 Ibid.
 

35 Charles H. Kenlan, Report on Camp MP-3, Colored Company No. 362, 25 February 1936; Kenlan, 

Supplementary Report Camp MP-3, 18 November 1936; Kenlan, Supplementary Report Camp MP-3, 21 

September 1937; Camp MP-3 Other Facilities Report, 3 March 1938; C. Porterfield Harris, MP-3 CCC 

Camp Educational Report, 7 June 1939; Luther C. McRae, Camp NP-11 CCC Camp Educational Report, 5 

May 1941 [now a white junior camp, for comparison purposes]; and Ross Abare to Charles Kenlan, 29 

March 1941, 1, all in BV-347-02.pdf from NARA-Archives II, RG 35, Entry 115. Memorandum, Branch 

Spalding to Director, 30 August 1935, 2, File CCC, Box 207, Entry P-84 Branch of Forestry 

Correspondence, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

36 See for example Camp MP-3 Report, 3 March 1938, 1, in BV-347-02.pdf from NARA-Archives II, RG 

35, Entry 115 in comparison to Camp MP-4 Wilderness Work accomplished 1 July 1937 to 28 February 

1938, 3 March 1938, in BV-348-01.pdf from NARA-Archives II, RG 35, Entry 115.

37 Branch Spalding, Speech at dinner in Fredericksburg, 21 September 1934, 1-2, File 0-31 Fred-Spot 

County, Box 2464, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-1949, NARA-Archives II.
 

38 Carr, Wilderness by Design, 11-16; Linda Flint McClelland, Building the National Parks: Historic 

Landscape Design and Construction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), chapter I; 

Zenzen, “Promoting National Parks,” 51-71.
 

39 Carr, Wilderness by Design, 5-9, 16-27; McClelland, Building the National Parks, 2-8, Part I.

40 Carr, Wilderness by Design, 203-04, 284-85; McClelland, Building the National Parks, 291-313. 

Spalding, Speech at dinner in Fredericksburg, 21 September 1934, 1-2. FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 7, 

File 207-01.4 Superintendent‟s Annual Reports, Box 2468, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, 

NARA-Archives II. The Park Service gained responsibility over the historical parks, but it also became the 

prime agency to develop state parks under the New Deal. Soon, the Park Service embraced recreational 

demonstration areas, national seashores, national recreation areas, and others.

41 E.I. Carner, Camp MP-4 Quarterly Narrative Report 1 October-31 December 1934, 31 December 1934, 

[no page numbering], BV-348-02.pdf, from Entry 42, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.
 

42 Arnold, Forestry Policy for Fredericksburg, 5 October 1933, 3.

43 E. I. Carner, Quarterly Narrative Report of Camp MP-4, Wilderness, 29 September 1934, [no page 

numbering], BV-348-02.pdf, from Entry 42, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

44 Arnold, Forestry Policy for Fredericksburg, 5 October 1933, 1-3. George Palmer, Memorandum upon 

Trench Preservation at Fredericksburg, Virginia, 26 February 1934, File Branch of Historic Sites, FRSP 

Monthly Reports Palmer, Box 2467, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Wilbur 

Savage, Report to the Chief Forester on Emergency Conservation Work 1-31 May 1935, 7 June 1935, 2, 

File CCC, Box 207, Entry P-84 Branch of Forestry Correspondence, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. Spalding, 

Speech at dinner, 21 September 1934, 1-3. 

45 T. Sutton Jett, Trench Restoration, no date [early 1936], 1-5, File Trench Restoration, Box 2467, RG 79 

Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.
 

46 Ibid, 5-10. Spalding assigned trench restoration work to Camp MP-3 in his justification for work. See 

Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 30 August 1935, 4, File CCC, Box 207, Entry P-84 Branch of Forestry 

Correspondence, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 4; and FRSP Annual Report, 

1937, 4, both in File 207-01.4 Superintendent‟s Annual Report, Box 2468, RG 79 Central Classified Files 

1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Raleigh Taylor, Museum Report for July 1936, 5 August 1936, 2, File 

Branch of Historic Sites FRSP Monthly Reports Jett, Box 2466, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, 

NARA-Archives II.

47 FRSP Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1938, 4, File 207 Reports, Box 2468, RG 79 Central Classified Files 

1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

48 FRSP Annual Report, 1940, 5, File 207-01 Fredericksburg Annual Reports, Box 2468, RG 79 Central 

Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. “Unofficial Dogwood Show Soon To Be on in Local Park,” 

3 May 1934; and “The Dogwood Show,” 13 April 1939, both in Free Lance-Star.

49 Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 3 December 1934, 1,File 630-Part 1 Roads, Box 2483, RG 79 

Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 2-3; FRSP Annual 

Report, 1937, 2. William K. Howard, MP-1 Camp Narrative Report for period 1 October 1934-31 March 

1935, 30 March 1935, 2; and William K. Howard, MP-1 Camp Narrative Report for period October, 

November December 1934, [no date], 2; both in BV-349-02.pdf from Entry 115, RG 35, NARA-Archives 

II. Chatelain to Eckenrode, 24 August 1933 and attached Memorandum on Fredericksburg, 1. Looking at 

the maps from the War Department and the NPS between 1930 and 1940, one can see, especially at 

Spotsylvania Court House, how the Park Service re-located the roads around earthworks, as opposed to 

through them. Maps available in the FRSP map collection.

50 FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 2-3; FRSP Annual Report, 1937, 2-3; FRSP Annual Report, 1938, 3. FRSP 

Annual Report, 1939, 4-5, File 207-01 Fredericksburg Annual Reports, Box 2468, RG 79 Central 

Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. William K. Howard, MP-1 Camp Narrative Report for 

Period October, November December 1934, [no date], 2; William K. Howard, MP-1 Camp Narrative 

Report for Period 1 October 1934-31 March 1935, 30 March 1935, 2, both in BV-349-02.pdf from Entry 
 

115, RG 35, NARA-Archives II. E. I. Carner, MP-4 Quarterly Narrative Report, 29 September 1934, 2, in 

BV-348-02.pdf from Entry 42, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

51 Planting plans 326-1071 and 326-1072 [Spotsylvania Court House], 1935; 326-1079 [Wilderness], 1935; 

326-1081, 1081 A, 1081B [Jackson Monument, Chancellorsville], 1936; 326-2063 [Lee Drive], 1937, all in 

TIC.

52 FRSP Annual Report, 1940, 4.

53 [No author], MP-3 Camp Narrative Report for Fourth Enrollment Period, no date [October 1934-March 

1935], 1, BV-347-03.pdf from Entry 42, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. One forester noted that the park was 

fortunate to secure all its trees and shrubs for the period he reported on from park neighbors at no cost. He 

believed this situation was possible due to the “extreme good will” between park and community and the 

fact that locals served as supervisory personnel for the CCC camps. See J. LeRoy Duford, Report to Chief 

Forester, 5 November 1935, 1, File CCC, Box 207, Entry P-84 Branch of Forestry Correspondence, RG 79, 

NARA-Archives II. 

54 FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 2-3; FRSP Annual Report, 1937, 2-3; FRSP Annual Report, 1938, 3. FRSP 

Annual Report, 1939, 4-5. One associate forester noted in his report to Spalding that the park should be 

commended on the “almost phenomenal success” achieved with plantings. See Memorandum, J. LeRoy

Duford to Spalding, 11 September 1935, 1, File CCC, Box 207, File P-84 Branch of Forestry 

Correspondence, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.
 

55 Locations of trails based on 1930s and 1940s maps in FRSP map archives. Park annual reports from the 

1930s provide general information about total length of foot trails completed throughout the park within a 

year‟s time. The same maps indicate locations of picnic areas and sometimes reference which areas were 

meant for whites or blacks. See also William K. Howard, Narrative Report, Camp MP-1, for Fifth Period, 

2, in BV-349-02.pdf from Entry 115, RG 35, NARA-Archives II.

56 “Foot Trails along Lee Base Trench,” Free Lance-Star, 23 September 1935. FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 

3; FRSP Annual Report, 1937, 2-3.

57 Spalding, as quoted in Spalding, Memorandum on the Prospective Acquisition of the Remainder of the 

Jackson Trail, 18 November 1934, File 630 Part I Roads, Box 2483,; and Memorandum, Spalding to 

Director, 19 February 1935, and attached Memorandum on Donation of Land for Jackson Trail, 1, File 601 

Part 1 Lands, Box 2480, both in RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. See also 

FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 4; FRSP Annual Report, 1937, 6; FRSP Annual Report, 1939, 2; FRSP Annual 

Report, 1938, 6; FRSP Annual Report, 1940, 5. FRSP Annual Report, 1941, 3; and FRSP Annual Report, 

1943, 2, both in Box 207-01 Fred Annual Reports, Box 2468, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, 

NARA-Archives II. Jackson Trail Plans, 6 sheets, 1939, 326-2074, TIC. Maps for Spotsylvania Court 

House and Chancellorsville 1930s-1940s, FRSP map collection.
 

58 T. Sutton Jett, December 1933 Monthly Report, 10 January 1934, 1, File Branch of Historic Sites FRSP 

Monthly Reports Jett, Box 2466, RG 79 Central Classified Files, NARA-Archives II. Ralph Happel, 

History and Description of FRSP and Four Self-Guide Tours, no date [post March 1936], 1-2. “Park 

Service Here Will Start Wide Scope Education Plan,” Free Lance-Star, 24 March 1934. Minutes, 

Fredericksburg NMP Commission Meeting, 29 March 1934, 2, File 871 Fredericksburg Commission, Box 

2487, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 30 

August 1935, 2, File CCC, Box 207, Entry P-84 Branch of Forestry Correspondence, RG 79, NARAArchives II. George Palmer to Julius Klein, 28 February 1934, 2, File 101-02 Historical programs, Box 

2465, RG 79 Central Classified Files, NARA-Archives II. FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 3.
 

59Interior photos provide information about what the Park Service kept inside the contact stations, see File 

Wilderness Contact Station, Wilderness Box 1, FRSP Photo Collection. See also FRSP Monthly Report, 

October 1935, photos of contact stations, File ECW 207 Reports, Box 2468, RG 79 Central Classified Files 

1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Designs for relief maps and their shelters at 326-2026, 326-2027, 326-2064, 

Denver Technical Information Center electronic collection [TIC]. For the map shelter at the Sedgwick 

Monument, see 326-1100A Map Shelter Drawing, 5 December 1935; 326-1100 Map Shelter Drawing 

preliminary sketch, 21 October 1935; 326-1034 Ranger Contact Station, 1 April 1935, all in TIC. Report 

on Outdoor Orientation Maps and Discs, 9 October 1936, 1-4, 6, File Report on Outdoor Maps and Discs, 

Box 2467, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Photos of relief maps in 

Spotsylvania Box 1, File Spotsylvania Contact Station Bloody Angle; Fredericksburg Box 1, File 

Fredericksburg Prospect Hill Contact Station, both in FRSP Photo Collection. FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 

3; FRSP Annual Report, 1937, 4-5. 
 

60 William C. Tweed, Laura E. Soulliere, and Henry G. Law, National Park Service: Rustic Architecture 

1916-1942, Parts 1, 3, 4, accessed September 2010 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/rusticarch/.

61 Spalding to Chatelain, 11 October 1934, 1-2, File 0-31 FRSP, Box 2464, RG 79 Central Classified Files 

1933-49, NARA-Archives II. George Palmer, Memories of his time at FRSP, 14 April 1982, 13. Minutes, 

FRSP Commission Meeting, 29 March 1934, 4. “Great Progress Made on Battlefield Park in 1934,” Free 

Lance-Star, 1 January 1935.

62 Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 14 December 1939, File 620-Part 1 Buildings, Box 2483, RG 79 

Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

63 William N. Denton, Jr., Final Construction Report Administration Building and Service Building, 4 May 

1936, 4, File Final Construction Report 5/4/36, Break Room Cabinets, FRSP.
 

64 Denton, Final Construction Report Administration and Service Buildings, 3-4.

65 Ibid., 4-5. Quote on p. 4.

66 Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 14 December 1939.

67 Final Construction Report Project 1 and 2 Driveways at FRSP Administration Building, 15 September 

1937, 10, File Final Construction Report, Break Room Cabinets, FRSP. FRSP Annual Report, 1937, 4.

68 FRSP Annual Report, 1938, 4.

69 FRSP Annual Report, 1938, 5; FRSP Annual Report, 1939, 6. Happel, FRSP Admin History, 65. “Park 

Residence, Garden Open,” Free Lance-Star, 15 April 1968.
 

70 Memorandum, Ralph Happel to Spalding, 22 August 1939, 1-2, File 630 Part 1 Roads, Box 2483, RG 79 

Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Quotes on pp. 1-2. See also Memorandum, Walter 

H. Sheffield to Regional landscape Architect, 8 August 1939; and Memorandum, Spalding to Regional 

Director, Region One, 22 August 1939; Memorandum, Robert F. Stevens to Spalding, 23 August 1939, all 

in File 630 Part 1 Roads, Box 2483, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Ralph 

Happel, “Finish Rebuilding Part of Famed Stonewall which Hid Confederates in Crucial Battle,” Free 

Lance-Star, 26 June 1939.

71 Branch Spalding, Lecture on FRSP Museum to be delivered at American Association of Museums, 20 

May 1938, 2, File 833-05 Museums, Box 2486, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives 

II.
 

72 Spalding to William H. Wranek, Jr., 16 March 1936, and attached article for the University of Virginia 

alumni association, 1, File 504 Part 1 Publicity, Box 2478, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARAArchives II. Quote from article.

73 Palmer, Memories of His Time at FRSP, 14 April 1982, 10.

74 Harold C. Bryant and W.C. Atwood, Jr., Research and Education in the National Park Service

(Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1932), Part I Introduction, accessed 

September 2010 at http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/resedu/resedu1.htm.

75 Barry Mackintosh, Interpretation and the National Park Service (Washington, DC: National Park 

Service, 1986), Chapter 1, Section The Park Service Assumes Responsibility, accessed September 2010 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mackintosh2/origins_nps_assumes_responsibility.htm.

76 Palmer to Julius Klein, 28 February 1934, 2, File 101-02 Historical Programs, Box 2465; T. Sutton Jett to 

Spalding, 22 June 1934, 1, File 0-31 FRSP, Box 2464; Jett, Monthly Report for January 1935, 1 February 

1935, 4, File Branch of Historic Sites FRSP Monthly Reports Jett, Box 2466; Jett, Monthly Report for 

October 1935, 5 November 1935, 5, File Branch of Historic Sites FRSP Monthly Reports Jett, Box 2466; 

Hubert A. Gurney, Monthly Report for December 1937, 2, File Branch of Historic Sites FRSP Monthly 
 

Reports Gurney, Box 2466, all in RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Spalding, 

talk in Fredericksburg, 21 September 1934, 3-4. Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 30 August 1935, 2. 

FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 1. By 1938, the historical staff appears to be assigned as NPS employees. See 

FRSP Annual Report, 1938, 1.

77 Spalding, talk in Fredericksburg, 21 September 1934, 4.

78 Quotes from FRSP Annual Report, 1940, 1, File 207-01 Fred Annual Reports, Box 2468, RG 70 Central 

Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. See also Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 16 July 1940, 

File 867 Tours, Box 2487, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Of course, once 

the CCC camps were disbanded in 1942, the park no longer had the extra staff to support these guided 

tours. Northington noted in 1948 as park superintendent that “a long road back would have to be travelled” 

before achieving the success of the CCC years with park interpretation. See FRSP Annual Report, 1948, 

File 207-01.4 Superintendent‟s Annual Reports, Box 2468, RG 79 Central Classified Files, NARAArchives II.

79 Spalding, Letters of Praise Park Service, 22 November 1940, File 840 Educational Activities and 

Methods, Box 2487, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Quotes on pp. 2, 1, 

consecutively.

80 Quotes from Herbert Evison to Stanton Smith, 5 August 1938, BV-348-03.pdf from Entry 65, RG 79, 

NARA-Archives II. Evison was repeating what Spalding had stated to him, as in Memorandum, Spalding 

to Regional Director, Region 1, 2 February 1940, BV-348-03.pdf from Entry 65, RG 79, NARA-Archives 

II.
 

81 FRSP Annual Report, 1938, 3; FRSP Annual Report, 1939, 4; FRSP Annual Report, 1940, 3-4; FRSP 

Annual Report, 1941, 2-3; FRSP Annual Report, 1943, 3. Manassas to Appomattox: The Year in the 

National Battlefield Parks of Virginia, 1938, 1, File 504 Part 1 Publicity, Box 2478, RG 79 Central 

Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

82 Spalding to Col. G. L. McEntee, 9 December 1939, 2, attached to memorandum, Spalding to Regional 

Director, Region 1, 9 December 1939, File 504 Part 1 Publicity, Box 2478, RG 79 Central Classified Files 

1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

83 Memorandum, Spalding to Chatelain, 8 August 1934, File Memoranda to Mr. Chatelain, Cabinet 10, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

84 Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 8 June 1939, 1, File 840 Educational Activities and Meetings, Box 

2487, RG 79 Central Classified Files, NARA-Archives II.

85 Jett, Monthly Report November 1935, 4 December 1935, 3; and Jett, Monthly Report for December 

1935, 9 January 1936, 4, both in File Branch of Historic Sites FRSP Monthly Reports Jett, Box 2466, RG 

79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 8 June 1939, 

1, File 840 Educational Activities and Methods, Box 2487, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, 

NARA-Archives II.
 

86 FRSP Annual Report, 1936, 5-7; FRSP Annual Report, 1937, 8-9; FRSP Annual Report, 1938, 7; 

Manassas to Appomattox, 1938, 2; FRSP Annual Report, 1939, 7; FRSP Annual Report, 1940, 7.

87 Spalding, Lecture on Museum, 20 May 1938. Interestingly, Spalding‟s intention to have the museum 

exhibits be expository, not narrative, was ahead of what the NPS did at first at its historical parks. Not until 

the Mission 66 era did historical parks across the system adopt this approach. See Mackintosh, 

Interpretation in NPS, Chapter 3, section New Directions: Museum Visitor Centers and the New Look, 

accessed September 2010 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mackintosh2/directions_museums.htm.

88 Ralph Happel, History and Description of FRSP and Four Self-Guide Tours, no date [1936], 7, File 11, 

Box Unarranged Records 1, Collection Happel 14117, CVC, FRSP..

89 1936 Exhibit Plan, unpaginated; and Introduction to the Museum Plan of FRSP, 1936, unpaginated, both 

in File D6215 FVC Exhibit Plan 1936, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Spalding, Lecture on 

Museum, 20 May 1938. FRSP Annual Report, 1937, 5; FRSP Annual Report, 1939, 3. Memorandum, 

Spalding to Director, 27 July 1937, 1, File 833-05 Museums, Box 2486, RG 79 Central Classified Files 

1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

90 Quotes from Spalding, Lecture on Museum, 20 May 1938, 6. See also T. Sutton Jett, Museum Report, 5 

February 1936, 14, File D6215 FVC Exhibit Plan 1936, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

91 Happel, FRSP Admin History, 62.
 

92 Quote from Spalding, Lecture on Museum, 20 May 1938, 8. See also T. Sutton Jett, Museum Report, 5 

February 1936, 14.

93 Dwight T. Pitcaithley, “Public Education and the National Park Service: Interpreting the Civil War,” 

accessed November 2010 at http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/2007/0711/0711pro2.cfm. The 

author has not determined if the Park Service had other states review proposed exhibit texts for parks in 

their states.

94 Bryant and Atwood, Research and Education in the National Parks, Part I, Section Wild-Flower 

Displays, accessed September 2010 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/resedu/resedu1e.htm.

95 Spalding, “Flowers to Jackson‟s Memory,” September 1935, copied from The Commonwealth, No File, 

Cabinet 7, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

96 Spalding, Jackson‟s Fredericksburg Tactics, Spring 1938, 5, No File, Cabinet 7, Drawer 1, FRSP 

Basement Files. Spalding also suggested the idea for a statue of Stonewall Jackson at Manassas National 

Battlefield Park. See Zenzen, Battling for Manassas, 27.

97 Palmer, Memories of his time at FRSP, 14 April 1982, 10-11. Examples of brochures dating from 1935, 

1936, 1937, 1939, and 1941 can be found in Folder 9, Box 11, Drawer 4. Cabinet 8, CVC.

98 Palmer, Memories of FRSP, 14 April 1982, 12.

99 Spalding, Memorandum to Director, Monthly Report for May 1935, 8 June 1935, 1, File Admin History, 

Eric Mink Files, FRSP.
 

100 Quote from Blair Bolles, “Chancellorsville Rings to „Rebel Yell‟ in Brilliant Re-Enactment,” as copied 

in Memorandum, Spalding to Director, Monthly Report for May 1935, 8 June 1935, unpaginated. See also 

Battle of Chancellorsville, 2 May 1935, brochure, Folder 9, Box 11, Drawer 4, Cabinet 8, CVC FRSP 

Archives.

101 Bolles, “Chancellorsville Rings;” Memorandum, Spalding to Director, Monthly Report for May 1935, 8 

June 1935. “Timely Topics,” Free Lance-Star, 2 May 1936. Happel, FRSP Admin History, 59.

102Visitation numbers accessed September 2010 at http://www.nature.nps.gov/stats/viewReport.cfm. See 

also annual visitation reports (telegrams) in File K1819 Travel Annual (Old), Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP 

Basement Files. Memorandum, Tyler B. Kiener to Regional Director, Region One, 31 March 1944, File 

504 Part 2 Publicity, Box 2478, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.
 

103 “Railroad Chief Presents Deed,” Free Lance-Star, 25 October 1937. Ralph Happel to Editor, Richmond 

Times-Dispatch, 22 April 1958, Deed # 98, FRSP Lands Files. Happel, FRSP Admin History, 64.

104 Charles West, his speech is quoted in entirety in “Jackson Shrine Accepted on Behalf of Government,” 

Free Lance-Star, 27 October 1937. See also transcript of West speech in File FRSP Correspondence 1941-

1942, NRHE Files.
 

105 FRSP Annual Report, 1940, 2. Happel, FRSP Admin History, 65-68. “Park To Get 152 Acres in 

Bloody Angle Area,” Free Lance-Star, 10 April 1939. Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 16 March 

1940, and attached draft memorandum by Ralph Happel, File 601 Part 2 lands, Box 2480, RG 79 Central 

Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. The draft was then finalized as Memorandum, Herbert 

Kahler to Director, 27 March 1940, File 871 Fredericksburg Commission, Box 2487, RG 79 Central 

Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. When Stuart passed away in December 1940, his family 

donated the bulk of his book collection to the park library. See FRSP Annual Report, 1941, 2.

106 Pfanz, Monument Study, 183-90. FRSP Annual Report, 1941, 1-2. Memorandum, Arno B. Cammerer 

to FRSP Commission, 3 May 1940, File 604 Part 1 Donations, Box 2481, RG 79 Central Classified Files 

1933-49, NARA-Archives II.
 

107 FRSP Annual Report, 1941, 2.

108 Spalding to John Lee Pratt, 29 September 1941, 1, File 604 Donations Joint Acquisition Wilderness, 

Cabinet 6, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

109 Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 21 October 1940, File 600-01 Master Plan, Box 2479, RG 79 

Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

110 Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 29 October 1940; and Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 25 

November 1940, both in File 600-01 Master Plan, Box 2479, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, 

NARA-Archives II. Quotes from 29 October 1940 memorandum.

111 Memorandum, Spalding to Director, 5 December 1941, 1, File 630 Part 1 Roads, Box 2483, RG 79 

Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

112 FRSP Annual Report, 1940, 4.
 

113 Francis Wilshin, Interpretive Section of the Development Outline for the FRSP Master Plan, 11 January 

1952, 2, 9, File D1815 Historic Base Map, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

114 Memorandum, Ronald F. Lee to Director, 5 June 1946, 1, File 601 Part 2 Lands, Box 2480, RG 79 

Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

115 Memorandum, O. F. Northington, Jr., to Ronald F. Lee, 9 August 1946, File FRSP Correspondence 

1943-53, NRHE Files.

116 Northington, July 1946 monthly report, 14 August 1946, 1, File 207-02.3 Superintendent‟s Report, Box 

2473, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

117 Memorandum, Tyler B. Keiner to Regional Director, Region One, 30 October 1945, 2, File 601 Part 2 

Lands, Box 2480, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.
 

118 Memorandum, Lee to Director, 5 June 1946, 1-2.

119 Memorandum, Conrad L. Wirth to Regional Director, Region One, 19 October 1951, 1, File L1417 

FRSP, Box 1630, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

120 Happel, FRSP Admin History, 57, 62. Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, 603-04.
 

121 Larry Evans, “Happel: Eccentric, Smart,” Free Lance-Star, 18 November 2002. Biographical 

information on Wilshin can be found in Joan M. Zenzen, Battling for Manassas: The Fifty-Year 

Preservation Struggle at Manassas National Battlefield Park (University Park: Pennsylvania State 

University Press, 1998), 52. Wilshin, Interpretive Section of the Development Outline of the FRSP Master 

Plan, 11 January 1952.

122 Happel had to transfer to Petersburg during part of the war years due to lack of funding to keep him at 

FRSP. The park during this time also had no maintenance force, either in person or on paper. See FRSP 

Annual Report, 1945, 2, 6, File 207-01.4 Superintendent‟s Annual Report, Box 2468, RG 79 Central 

Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II. For information about the parks during World War II, see 

Janet A. McDonnell, “World War II: Defending Park Values and Resources,” The Public Historian 29 

(Fall 2007): 15-33. On Army visits to the park, see FRSP Annual Report 1941, 5; and FRSP Annual 

Report, 1943, 1. Happel, FRSP Admin History, 73-74. Battle of Fredericksburg Electric Map scripts, no 

date, File D6215 Electric Map Program FVC, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.
 

123 Although he does not examine national park architecture, Robert Weyeneth does provide some 

important examples of how whites segregated public spaces and how blacks negotiated those spaces, 

serving as an example for the situation at national parks like FRSP. See Robert R. Weyeneth, “The 

Architecture of Racial Segregation: The Challenges of Preserving the Problematical Past,” The Public 

Historian, 27 (Fall 2005): 11-44. See also Seth C. Bruggeman, Here, George Washington Was Born: 

Memory, Material Culture, and the Public History of a National Monument (Athens: University of 

Georgia Press, 2008), 151-52. Bruggeman shows that Phil Hough, who served as superintendent of FRSP 

in the first months of NPS control of the park, displayed strong negative racial attitudes towards blacks at 

his primary park, George Washington Birthplace.
 

124 Recent historical scholarship has noted that the diorama scene probably displays the results of 

Confederate bombing on the city, not Federal, based on the direction of the damage. The looted scene, 

however, continues to focus upon Confederate losses as opposed to Federal. Russ Smith, email 

correspondence with the author, 28 February 2011, FRSP Admin History Files.

125 Peter Carmichael, transcript of oral history interview with the author, 1 September 2010, 19, FRSP 

Archives.

126 1936 FRSP Museum Plan, unpaginated. The NPS has undertaken an analysis of its interpretation at 

battlefield parks, with an eye toward expanding it to include causes of the Civil War. See Robert K. Sutton, 

“Holding the High ground: Interpreting the Civil War in National Parks,” The George Wright Forum 25:3 

(2008): 47-57; and Robert K. Sutton, ed., Rally on the High Ground: The National Park Service 

Symposium on the Civil War, accessed September 2010 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/rthg/fore.htm. Dwight T. Pitcaithley, “‟A Cosmic 

Threat‟: The National Park Service Addresses the Causes of the American Civil War,” in Horton and 

Horton, Slavery and Public History, 173-86.
 

127 Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Justice, and Murder in the Jazz Age (New York: Henry 

Holt, 2004); Freeman Tilden, Interpreting Our Heritage, 3rd. ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North 

Carolina, 1977).
 

128 Memorandum, Thomas J. Allen to Director, 24 September 1945, and attached Memorandum, Tyler 

Kiener to Regional Director, Region One, 19 September 1945, 1, File 610 Part 1 Private Holdings, Box 

2482, RG 79 Central Classified Files 1933-49, NARA-Archives II.

129 Heinemann, et al., Old Dominion, New Commonwealth, 303. Blight, Race and Reunion, 291; Smith, 

Managing White Supremacy, 10-13.












































 

1

FRSP Annual Report, 1948, 1, File 207-01.4 Superintendent’s Annual Report, Box 2468, RG 79 Central 

Classified Files, NARA-Archives II.

2

“Park Official Here: Northington Marks 30th Year,” 23 January 1964; “Northington Will Head Local 

Park,” 19 June 1946, both in Free Lance-Star.

3 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 7 June 1960, Superintendent’s Monthly Report, May 1960, 5, File 

A2823 Jan 1960-Dec 1961 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

4

FRSP Visitor stats as accessed October 2010 at www.nature.nps.gov/stats/viewReport.cfm.

 

5 Ethan Carr, Mission 66: Modernism and the National Park Dilemma (Amherst: University of 

Massachusetts Press in association with Library of American Landscape History, 2007), 46; Joan M. 

Zenzen, “Promoting National Parks: Images of the West in the American Imagination, 1864-1972,” (Ph.D. 

diss., University of Maryland, 1997), 339-42; John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), 447, 452; Newton B. Drury, “The Dilemma of Our 

National Parks,” American Forests (June 1949), reprint; Conrad L. Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the People

(Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1980), 234; John A. Jakle, The Tourist: Travel in TwentiethCentury North America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 185-89; John Robinson, Highways 

and Our Environment (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1971), 55, 58-60; United States 

Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, America’s Highways 1776-1976: A 

History of the Federal-Aid Program (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976), 142-47, 

154, 468, 471-72, 475-76; Mark H. Rose, Interstate: Express Highway Politics 1941-1956 (Lawrence: 

The Regents Press of Kansas, 1979).

6

Ise, Our National Park Policy,447-49, 452, 455; Drury, “The Dilemma of Our National Parks;” Wirth, 

Parks, Politics, and the People, 234. NPS, “Mission 66 for the National Park System,” January 1956, No 

File: Reports, Box Code A8213, Harpers Ferry Center, NPS History Collection.
 

7 Bernard DeVoto, “Let’s Close the National Parks,” Harper’s Magazine 207 (October 1953): 49-52.

8

Ibid., 51-52.

9 Carr, Mission 66, 39-41. Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the People, 4-7, 11-12, 113, 166, 170-71.
 

10 Carr, Mission 66, 44-45; Zenzen, “Promoting National Parks,” 347-53.

11 Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the People, Mission 66 chapter.; Carr, Mission 66, 54; Roy E. Appleman, A 

History of the National Park Service Mission 66 Program, January 1958, 3-12, accessed October 2010 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/mission66.pdf.
 

12 Appleman, History of NPS Mission 66, 16-17, 33-34.

13 Cecil Doty, as quoted by Sarah Allaback, Mission 66 Visitor Centers: The History of a Building Type

(Washington, DC: NPS, 2000), accessed October 2010 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/allaback/vc0b.htm.

14 Allaback, Mission 66 Visitor Centers, 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/allaback/vc0b.htm. Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the 

People, Mission 66 chapter, section d. Carr, Mission 66, chapter 5.
 

15 Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the People, Mission 66 chapter, section d; Carr, Mission 66, 141-51; Zenzen, 

“Promoting National Parks,” 357-61; Allaback, Mission 66 Visitor Centers, 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/allaback/vc0c.htm.

16 Zenzen, “Promoting National Parks,” 357-80; Carr, Mission 66, 157-65; Allaback, Mission 66 Visitor 

Centers, chapters 1-3.

17 Cabot, as quoted by Wolf Von Eckardt, “The Park Service Dares to Build Well,” Washington Post, 29 

March 1964.

18 Butcher and Swift quoted by Carr, Mission 66, 158-59.
 

19 The passage of the Wilderness Act of 1964 assuaged some of these fears, providing people with the 

opportunity to explore land where built facilities and roads did not intrude.

20 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 15 July 1955 and attached Mission 66 Outline, 3, File A-98-CP 

Mission 66, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

21 Memorandum, Elbert Cox to Northington, 22 July 1955; Memorandum, Edward Zimmer to Northington, 

26 July 1955; Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 26 July 1955, 1, all in File A98-CP Mission 66, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.
 

22 Memorandum, Edward Zimmer to Director, 9 November 1956, File A 98-CP Mission 66; and 

Memorandum, E. T. Scoyen to Regional Director, Region One, 9 January 1957, and attached Notice of 

Approval, 2, File A 98 Mission 66 Booklets, both in Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. 

Correspondence does not indicate any further discussion of Marye’s Heights for the visitor center, but this 

location would be considered again in later years.

23 Quote from Memorandum, Albert Dillahunty to Northington, 19 November 1959, 1, File 14, Box 

Unarranged Records 2, Collection Happel 14117, CVC Archives See also Memorandum, Northington to 

Director, 18 March 1957, 2, File A98 Prospectus FRSP, Box 733, Entry P-11, NARA-Archives II.

24 Quote in Memorandum, Leo Diederich to Chief, Division of Recreation Resource Planning, 19 March 

1957, File 20 601 General Correspondence, Box 7, NRG-079-00-293, RG 79, NARA-Denver. The park 

would return to the idea of a Lee Hill visitor center in later years. See also Memorandum, Harvey Cornell 

to Northington, 2 April 1957, 1, File FRSP, Box 3, NRG-079-275, RG 79, NARA-Denver.

25 Memorandum, W. G. Carnes to Regional Director, Region One, 18 June 1957, 1, File A 98 Mission 66 

Booklets, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Dick Sutton to Chief, Eastern 

Office, Division of Design and Construction [EODC], 21 June 1957; Memorandum, Northington to Chief, 

EODC, 23 August 1957; Memorandum, John A. Reshoft to Chief, EODC, 9 September 1957, 1; 

Memorandum, Northington to Chief, EODC, 4 November 1957; Memorandum, John Cabot to Director, 30 

December 1957; File FRSP, Box 3, NRG-079-00-275, RG 79, NARA-Denver; 
 

26 The park’s cultural resources manager, Eric Mink, has laid out in a four-part blog posting the essentials 

of the Chancellorsville visitor center discussion, focusing particularly on location. See 

http://npsfrsp.wordpress.com/2010/05/17/park-development-chancellorsville-battlefield-visitor-center/ and 

the other three blog postings. Initial NPS ideas for Chancellorsville probably had only an information 

shelter, as indicated in the cost estimate of only $20,000 in the April 1956 Mission 66 Prospectus, but a 

full-fledged facility soon became an accepted and expected addition. See Final Mission 66 Prospectus, 

FRSP, 13 April 1956, 8, 19, File A 98 Mission 66 Booklets, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

27 Memorandum, Chief, Design and Construction and Chief, Division of Interpretation, 3 April 1960, 1, 

File D3415 Chancellorsville Visitor Center [CVC], Cabinet 8, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

28 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 15 July 1955, and attached Mission 66 Outline, 4.

29 Ibid. Memorandum, E. M. Lisle to Director, 9 August 1956, File A 98-CP Mission 66, Cabinet 15, 

Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.
 

30 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 18 March 1958, 2. Memorandum. Harvey Cornell to 

Northington, 2 April 1957, 2; and Memorandum, Robert White to Director, 24 February 1958; 

Memorandum, Robert White to Director, 24 February 1958, all in File FRSP, Box 3, NRG-079-00-275, RG 

79, NARA-Denver. Memorandum, Thomas Vint to Regional Director, Region, 4 March 1959; and 

Memorandum, Vint to Chief EODC, 13 October 1959, both in File 27 FRSP Master Plan Correspondence, 

NRG-079-00-004, RG 79, NARA-Denver. Memorandum, Elbert Cox to Chief, EODC, 12 December 

1957, File D18 Master Plan CVC, Cabinet 7, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Map, Preliminary Plan, 

Chancellorsville, 1957, FRSP_326_3006.pdf; and Map, Chancellorsville Development Plan, 1957, 

FRSP_326_3006A.pdf, both from Denver Technical Information Center [TIC].

31 Northington first asked for consideration of moving the residences and utility building away from the 

Stuart Drive visitor center in Memorandum, Northington to Chief, EODC, 16 April 1957, 3, File FRSP, 

Box 3, NRG-079-00-275, RG 79, NARA-Denver. Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, 

Region One, 3 November 1958, 1; Memorandum, Happel to Northington, 22 December 1958; and 

Memorandum, Albert Dillahunty to Superintendent, 24 December 1958, all in File D18 Master Plan CVC, 

Cabinet 7, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

32 Memorandum, Happel to Northington, 22 December 1958, 3.

33 Memorandum, Dillahunty to Superintendent, 24 December 1958, 3.

34 Memorandum, Edward Zimmer to Regional Director, Region One, 19 November 1958, File FRSP, Box 

3, NRG-079-00-275, RG 79, NARA-Denver.
 

35 Memorandum, Vint to Regional Director, Region, 4 March 1959; and Memorandum, Vint to Chief 

EODC, 13 October 1959. Memorandum, H. Reese Smith to Director, 28 January 1959, File D18 Master 

Plan CVC, Cabinet 7, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Edward Zimmer to Chief EODC, 

26 August 1959, 1; Memorandum, E. M. Lisle to Chief EODC, 23 October 1959; Memorandum, John 

Cabot to Chief EODC, 30 October 1959, all in File 27 FRSP Correspondence, Box 3, NRG-079-01-004, 

RG 79, NARA-Denver. See also Map, Final Approved Plan, Chancellorsville Visitor Center and Utility 

Area, 1959, FRSP Map Collection. 

36 During the process of deciding the final size of the Chancellorsville Visitor Center, the park learned that 

the CVC might be significantly reduced in size. The park’s historians and superintendent all argued 

strenuously for having a visitor center large enough to interpret the battlefields beyond Fredericksburg and 

have room for storage. See Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, 19 November 1959, in CVC 

Exhibit Plan, Janice Frye’s Files, CVC, FRSP; Memorandum, Dillahunty to Northington, 19 November 

1959, File 14, Box Unarranged Records 2, Collection Happel 14117, CVC, FRSP.

37 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 15 July 1955, and attached Mission 66 Outline, 4-6; Final 

Mission 66 Prospectus, FRSP, 13 April 1956, 9, 10, 19. Memorandum, E. T. Scoyen to Regional Director, 

Region One, 9 January 1957, and attached Notice of Approval, 2, File A 98 Mission 66 Booklets, Cabinet 

15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Map, Final Plan, General Development at Spotsylvania Battlefield, 

1957, FRSP Map Collection.
 

38 Quotes from Memorandum, Harvey Cornell to Northington, 2 April 1957, 1-2. See also Memorandum, 

Northington to Director, 18 March 1957, 3.

39 Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 5 June 1957, and attached Mission 66 for 

FRSP, 3, 5, 8, File A 98-CP Mission 66, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Quotes on p. 3.

40 Quote from Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 4 February 1958, File A-98-

CP Mission 66, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. See also Memorandum, Northington to 

Regional Director, Region One, 16 January 1958, File A-98-CP Mission 66, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP 

Basement Files.

41 Memorandum, Northington to Chief, EODC, 28 December 1962, File A 98-CP Mission 66, Cabinet 15, 

Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 8 March 

1963, 1, File D66 FRSP 1964-66, Box 42, Entry P-82 Phila Planning and Service Center, RG 79, NARAArchives II.

42 Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 13 January 1958; and Memorandum, 

Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 13 January 1958, both in File A 98-CP Mission 66, Cabinet 

15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 8 

March 1963, 1. Exhibit Shelters, Wilderness and Spotsylvania, Design Plans, 1962, File D32 Plans 

Wilderness and Spotsylvania 1962, Cabinet 8, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.
 

43 The park would eventually get such an overlook from Stafford Heights when John Lee Pratt left Chatham 

in his will to the park, realized in the mid-1970s. See chapter six for a full discussion of this acquisition.

44 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 15 July 1955, 3-5; Memorandum, Elbert Cox to Northington, 22 

July 1955; Memorandum, Director to Regional Director, Region One, 18 December 1959, 1, File FRSP 

Correspondence 1954-59, NRHE Files. Elbert Cox to W. Cary Orismond, 16 March 1960, File 27 FRSP 

Master Plan Correspondence, Box 3, NRG-079-01-004, RG 79, NARA-Denver. Memorandum, 

Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 16 January 1958; Memorandum, Northington to Regional 

Director, Region One, 31 July 1957, 2; Memorandum, E. T. Scoyen to Northington, 13 February 1956, 2, 

all in File A 98-CP Mission 66, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Northington 

to Director, 18 March 1957, 3, File A98 Prospectus FRSP, Box 733, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives 

II. The Hamilton’s Crossing debate began when the state highway department and the Richmond, 

Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad debated moving the railroad crossing and having a connection built 

between the park road and Mine Run Road. See Herman Swanson to Conrad Wirth, 14 November 1959; 

Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 23 November 1959, and attached resolution, 

Board of County Supervisors, Spotsylvania County, 10 November 1959; Annie Fleming Smith to E. T 

Scoyen, 27 November 1959; Memorandum, Elbert Cox to Director, 10 December 1959, all in File D30 
 

FRSP, Box 1052, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. Memorandum, Northington to Director, 

November 1959 Monthly Narrative Report, 2, 4; and Memorandum, Northington to Director, 8 April 1960, 

Monthly Narrative Report March 1960, 1-2, both in File A2823 Jul 57- Dec 59 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P-11, 

RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

45 Pilot Area Management Study, FRSP, December 1955, 11-15, 17-20, File A6423 Service, Area 

Management Study (1955), Cabinet 8, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Quote on p. 12.

46 Master Plan Development Outline, FRSP, 1955 with sections of different dates, Operation section dated 

March 1952, 3 of 12, File D1815 Development Outline Master Plan Superintendent, Cabinet 7, Drawer 1, 

FRSP Basement Files.
 

47 Pilot Area Management Study, FRSP, December 1955, 12, 17-20. Memorandum, Elbert Cox to Director, 

23 July 1956, and attached Memorandum, Area Management Study Team, Region One to Regional 

Director, Region One, 18 July 1956, File Area Management Study (1955), Cabinet 8, Drawer 2, FRSP 

Basement Files. Memorandum, Thomas Harrison to Northington, 25 January 1964, 2, File K2621 Annual 

Report Interpretation and Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

48 Memorandum, Albert Dillahunty to Northington, 15 January 1957, 2, File K2621 Annual Report 

Interpretation and Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, 

Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 1 July 1954, plus individual tour plans for each battlefield 

dating 12 August 1954, File D1815 Tour Plans Master Plan, Cabinet 7, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. 

Northington to Mrs. H. H. Smith, Sr., 14 November 1960, 1, File A 98a Mission 66 Publicity Part I, 

Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. See also Map, Interpretive Tour Plan, Part of the Master 

Plan, approved 1955, FRSP Map Collection.

49 Northington to Hon. Harold Purcell, 30 March 1969; and Northington to Freeman Funk, 2 April 1957

[uses term “with enthusiasm”]; both in File A 98a Mission 66 Publicity Part 1; and Northington to Cary 
 

Crismond, 22 December 1960, 1-2, File A 98b Mission 66 Publicity Part II, all documents in Cabinet 15, 

Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Dillahunty also used the word “enthusiastic” in describing visitor 

reaction to the auto tour. See Memorandum, Albert Dillahunty to Northington, 15 January 1957, 2. Lem 

Houston to Northington, 25 July 1958, File A 98a Mission 66 Publicity Part I, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP 

Basement Files. Memorandum, Northington to Director, 10 July 1956, June Monthly Narrative Report, 3, 

File A2823 Jan 54-Jul 57 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

50 Northington to Crismond, 22 December 1960, 1; Map, Interpretive Tour Plan, Part of the Master Plan, 

approved 1955.

51 Narrative, Construct and install maps and markers, Project B-5, [1964], 1, File Signs, Markers, and 

Memorials Completion Report FRSP 1-1-64 to 12-31-64, Box 3, NRG 079-00-276, RG 79, NARA-Denver.

52 The 1959 Fredericksburg Visitor Center Museum Prospectus admits that the “average tourist cannot see 

all of the park,” but the hope remained that many motivated visitors would drive throughout the four 

battlefields. See Museum Prospectus, Fredericksburg Visitor Center, 13 March 1959, 86, FRSP Library.

53 Francis Wilshin, Self-Guided Tour of the Chancellorsville Battlefield, 10 June 1954, 1-2, File D1815 

Tour Plans Master Plan, Cabinet 7, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

54 Museum Prospectus for FRSP, Fredericksburg Visitor Center [FVC], 13 March 1959, 45, FRSP Library.
 

55 Museum Prospectus for FRSP, Chancellorsville Visitor Center [CVC], 29 October 1959, 3, FRSP 

Library.

56 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 10 July 1956, Monthly Narrative Report, 3, File A2823 Jan 54-

Jul 57 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

57 Ross Holland, as quoted by Elbert Cox in Memorandum, Cox to Director, 22 May 1959, 2, File D6215 

Museum Prospectus Fredericksburg, Cabinet 9, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

58 Completion Report, FVC, Lee Hill Shelter, and CVC construction work, 8 November 1963, 1, File 

D3423 Completion Report FRSP 7 CVC, Break Room Cabinets.

59 Happel wrote the text for the electric map. See Memorandum, Weldon Land to Director, 14 March 1962, 

2, File A2615 Monthly Narrative Historians’ Copy 1961-65, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. 

The electric map initially had operational problems with overheating, requiring further adjustments. See 

Memorandum, Joseph Cullen to Northington, 30 August 1962, File Historian’s Reading File 6/5/62-10/63, 

Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Park historians had hoped to have three electric maps instead 

of just the one, to tailor to the different parts of the battlefield story. See Memorandum, Chief, Division of 

Interpretation to Regional Director, Region One, 22 September 1959, 1-2, File D6215 Museum Prospectus 

Fredericksburg, Cabinet 9, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

60 Memorandum, Dillahunty to Northington, 29 January 1959, 3; and Memorandum, J. P. Cullen to 

Northington, 3 January 1963, 2, both in File K2621 Annual Report-Interpretation and Information 1953-, 

Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Museum Prospectus, FVC, 13 March 1959, 45-56. 

61 Completion Report, FVC, Lee Hill Shelter, and CVC construction work, 8 November 1963, 1. CVC 

drawing, 1961, FRSP_326_3019, Denver TIC. Eric Mink, blog posting, Park Development: 

Chancellorsville Battlefield Visitor Center Part 4, accessed November 2010 at 

http://npsfrsp.wordpress.com/2010/05/28/park-development-chancellorsville-battlefield-visitor-center-part4/.

62 Carver, as quoted by Paul Muse, “Official Is Cool to Center Design,” Free Lance-Star, 7 May 1963.
 

63 Quotes, in order, from FRSP CVC Exhibit Plan, no date [1962], no page numbering [Exhibit Number 

Five; Exhibit Number Eleven], FRSP Library.

64 Ibid., no page numbering [Exhibit Numbers 12-16]; CVC Museum Prospectus, 29 October 1959, 46-48.

65 CVC Museum Prospectus, 29 October 1959, 50 [Exhibit Number 13].

66 Memorandum, Roy Appleman to Chief, Division of Interpretation, 2 December 1959, 1, FRSP Library, 

with 1959 CVC Museum Prospectus.

67 Memorandum, Region One Chief, Division of Interpretation, Prospectus for Chancellorsville Battlefield, 

Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania, no date, FRSP Library, with 1959 CVC Museum Prospectus. CVC 

Exhibit Plan, no date [1962], no page numbering [Exhibit Numbers 17-18].

68 Quote from CVC Exhibit Plan, no date [1962], no page numbering, [Exhibit Number 19]. See also 

FRSP, Interpretive Prospectus, 1973, 13, FRSP Library.

69 Ibid., [Exhibit Number 22].

70 Ibid., [Exhibit Numbers 23-24].
 

71 Thomas Harrison, First Year Operational Report CVC, April 1965, 1, File D3415 Buildings CVC 

Operational Report, Cabinet 8, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

72 Ibid., 1-2, 7-9, 11, 13. Memorandum, Harrison to Northington, 19 June 1963, File Historian’s Reading 

File 6/5/62-10/63, Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

73 Completion Report, FVC, Lee Hill Shelter, and CVC construction work, 8 November 1963, 1. Museum 

Prospectus, FVC, 13 March 1959, 54-56. FRSP, Lee Hill Shelter Exhibit Plan, no date [1960]; 

Memorandum, Happel to Chief, Branch of Museums, 5 January 1962, both in File D6215 Exhibit Plan-Lee 

Hill Shelter 1960, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Lee Hill Shelter drawings, 1961, 

FRSP_326_3017 and _3017A, Denver TIC. Northington to Mrs. H. H. Smith, Sr., 14 November 1960, 2, 

File A 98a Mission 66 Publicity Part I, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, J. P. 

Cullen to Northington, 3 January 1963, 2, File K2621 Annual Report Interpretation and Information 1953-, 

Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Northington to Director, 8 April 1960, 3, File 

A2823 Jan 1960-Dec 1961 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P-11, NARA-Archives II.

74 Quote from Memorandum, Happel to Northington, 15 October 1963, File D6215 Exhibit Plan-Lee Hill 

Shelter 1960, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. See also Memorandum, Northington to 

Assistant Regional Director, Midwest Region, 15 October 1963, File D66 Interpretive Devices and 

Procedures 1963 Memo, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

75 Exhibit Shelters, Wilderness and Spotsylvania, Design Plans, 1962. Exhibit Plan, Wilderness and 

Spotsylvania Shelters, July 1963, no page numbering [Wilderness Exhibits], File D6215 Exhibit Plan 

Spotsylvania and Wilderness Exhibit Shelters 1963, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Museum 

Prospectus for Wilderness Battlefield, 31 January 1960, 27-28, FRSP Library. The earlier museum 

prospectus did not have an explicit panel about Grant and his entry in the battlefield but rather incorporated 

his strategy into overall panels describing the fighting at the Turnpike and at Plank Road. An overriding 

theme in the original Wilderness museum prospectus considered this battle “the beginning of the end for 

the Confederacy.” See 1960 Wilderness Museum Prospectus, 8. The Park Service tempered this thematic 

approach in the final exhibit panels.

76 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 8 September 1965, 3, File Historian’s Reading Files 7/1/65-

12/31/65, Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

77 Exhibit Shelters, Wilderness and Spotsylvania, Design Plans, 1962. Exhibit Plan, Wilderness and 

Spotsylvania Shelters, July 1963, no page numbering [Spotsylvania Exhibits]. Museum Prospectus for 

Spotsylvania Court House Battlefield, no date, 30-31, FRSP Library. Memorandum, Thomas J. Harrison to 

Regional Director, Southeast, 29 September 1965, 4, File Historian’s Reading Files 7/1/65-12/31/65, 

Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

78 Northington to Cary Crismond, 22 December 1960, 1.

79 Memorandum, Dillahunty to Northington, 29 January 1959, 3, File K2621 Annual Report Interpretation 

and Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Happel described the King painting 

and audio device as turning back time to “portray the desperate charges of December 13, 1862, when 

Ambrose E. Burnside threw away thousands of gallant Federals against an impregnable Confederate 

position.” See Happel to Donald Millikin, 18 September 1962, and attached story for the Waynesboro 

News Virginian, 2, File 8, Box 1, Collection Happel 14117, CVC Collection, FRSP.

80 Memorandum, Dillahunty to Northington, 29 January 1959, 4; and Memorandum, Dillahunty to 

Northington, 15 January 1960, 3, both in File K2621 Annual Report Interpretation and Information 1953-, 

Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

81 Salem Church Interpretation and Use, January 1977, no pagination, File A8215 Salem Church 

Dedication 1977, Cabinet 8, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Betty Hayden Snider, “Caroline Painter 

Leaves behind Legacy,” Free Lance-Star, 26 April 2002. Caroline County, Virginia, historian Herbert 

Collins stated upon King’s death in 2002 (at age 95) that King had the ability to “resurrect life onto 

canvas,” making viewers feel like they were right there in the action. Herbert Collins, as quoted by Betty 

Hayden Snider in “Caroline Painter Leaves behind Legacy,” Free Lance-Star, 26 April 2002. 
 

82 Obituary, Sidney King, Free Lance-Star, 26 April 2002. See also Barbara Crookshanks, “Fit for a 

Queen: The Legacy of Sidney E. King,” 16 March 2009, at http://history.librarypoint.org/ sidney_king, 

accessed 12 April 2010.

83 John Hennessy, as quoted by Betty Hayden Snider in “Caroline Painter Leaves behind Legacy,” Free 

Lance-Star, 26 April 2002.

84 Robert J. Cook, Troubled Commemoration: The American Civil War Centennial Commemoration 1961-

1965 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007), 15.

85 Civil War Centennial Commission, Guide for the Observance of the Centennial of the Civil War, 

September 1958, no page numbering [Foreword], File A20 Civil War Centennial Part 3, Entry P-11, RG 

79, NARA-Archives II.
 

86 Allyn Bursley to Charles Collier, 6 May 1959, File A20 CW Centennial Part 2, Box 17, Entry P-11 

General Records Admin Files, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

8787 Joan M. Zenzen, Battling for Manassas: The Fifty-Year Preservation Struggle at Manassas National 

Battlefield Park (University Park, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), 65-71.
 

88 Program, Centennial of the Battle of Fredericksburg, File 3, Box 1, Collection Happel 14117, CVC, 

FRSP. Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, 5 December 1962, File 100th Anniversary FVC 

Dec 1962, Cabinet 8, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Northington to Director, 10 January 

1963, 2, File A2615 Monthly Narrative Reports Historians’ Copy 1961-65, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP 

Basement Files. “Geary Commends Local Centennial Service,” Free Lance-Star, 15 December 1962.

89 Civil War Centennial Committee of Fredericksburg, Virginia, Program, Centennial of the Battle of 

Chancellorsville; and Spotsylvania Civil War Centennial Commission, Program, Centennial of the 

Campaign of Chancellorsville, both in File 3, Box 1, Collection Happel 14117, CVC, FRSP. Suggested 

Draft for Remarks by the Director, Dedication of CVC, 5 May 1963, File 15, Box Unarranged Records 2, 

Collection Happel 14117, CVC, FRSP. Memorandum, Harrison to Northington, 3, File K2621 Annual 

Report Interpretation and Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. “Three Units 

Accept Battle Invitations,” Free Lance-Star, 27 April 1963.

90 Mission 66 remarks, attached to Suggested Draft for Remarks by the Director, Dedication of CVC, 5 

May 1963, no pagination, [last page], File 15, Box Unarranged Records 2, Collection Happel 14117, CVC, 

FRSP.
 

91 Suggested Draft Remarks by the Director, 5 May 1963, 1, 6.

92 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 13 June 1961, 2, 5, File A2823 Jan 1960-Dec 1961 FRSP, Box 

188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. “Monument Rededication Scheduled Tomorrow,” 5 May 

1961; “Battle Flag to Stay Nearby,” 8 May 1961, both in Free Lance-Star. Northington explained that a 

host of reasons not pertinent to his monthly report influenced the decision to have the rededication in 1961 

as opposed to 1963, on the actual anniversary. Chapter four will discuss in further detail the Route 3 

widening and moving of the 15th New Jersey Monument..

93 In addition to the rededication ceremony, the US Postal Service issued on 5 May 1864 a Wilderness 

stamp. The park also hosted tours of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania Court House battlefields. See 

Memorandum, Northington to Director, 10 June 1964, 2, File A2615 Monthly Narrative Reports 

Historian’s Copy 1961-65, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

94 Quotes, in order, from Proceedings of Rededication Program, 16 May 1964, 4, 5, 7-9, File 5, Box 1, 

Collection Happel 14117, CVC, FRSP.

95 Ibid., 6. See also John C. Goolrick, “Rites Wind Up Centennial,” Free Lance-Star, 18 May 1964.
 

96 Cook, Troubled Commemoration, chapter 5. “Monument Rededication Scheduled Tomorrow,” Free 

Lance-Star, 5 May 1961. Alabama did not send a delegation to the rededication of the New Jersey 

Monument, which some members of the New Jersey delegation believed was in reaction to the South 

Carolina incident against its black commission member. See “Battle Flag to Stay Nearby,” Free LanceStar, 8 May 1961.

97 Virginia Civil War Commission, The Purpose of the Civil War Centennial in Virginia, 11 November 

1959, File A20 Civil War Centennial Part 2, Box 17, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. Quote on p. 

1.
 

98 For information about the historical record with regard to Richard Kirkland, see 

http://npsfrsp.wordpress.com/2010/08/31/kirkland-a-hero-or-bandwagon-evidence-memory-and-publichistory/#more-2080. Guy Friddell, “Lee and Another,” Free Lance-Star, 5 February 1964. Pfanz, 

Monument Study, Kirkland Memorial section. Covering Brief, James Holland to Regional Director, 

Southeast Region, no date [1964], File Signs, Markers, and Memorials Completion Report, FRSP 1-1-64 to 

12-31-64, Box 3, NRG-079-00-276, RG 79, NARA-Denver.

99 Pfanz, Monument Study, Kirkland Memorial section. Covering Brief, James Holland to Regional 

Director, Southeast Region, no date [1964]. Memorandum, Northington to Diector, 8 September 1965, 2, 

File Historian’s Reading Files 7/1/65-12/31/65, Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

100 John C. Goolrick, “Dedication,” Free Lance-Star, 30 September 1965. Pfanz, Monument Study, 

Kirkland Memorial section. Memorandum, Northington to Director, 11 October 1965, 2, File Historian’s 

Reading Files 7/1/65-12/31/65, Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

101 “Ambassador, Governor Praise Courage, Mercy of Kirkland,” Free Lance-Star, 29 September 1965.

102 Ralph Happel, “Richard Kirkland” in program for the Dedication of the Memorial to Sergeant Richard 

Kirkland, 29 September 1965, File 1, Box 1, Collection Happel 14117, CVC, FRSP.
 

103 John C. Goolrick, “Jackson Shrine Is Carefully Restored,” 21 October 1964; and “To Aid Restoration: 

Jackson Shrine Photos Sought,” 12 July 1961, both in Free Lance-Star. Personal correspondence, Orville 

Carroll to author, 22 January 2010, 2, FRSP Admin History Files.

104 Joan M. Zenzen, Fort Stanwix National Monument: Reconstructing the Past and Partnering for the 

Future (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008), 81. Joan M. Zenzen, Bridging the Past: A 

History of Minute Man National Historical Park (Washington, DC: NPS, 2007), 135.

105 Orville W. Carroll, Historic Structures Report on Jackson Shrine, Part I, October 1962, i, 1-9, 18-19, 

FRSP_326_D11_0001pg.pdf, Denver TIC. Goolrick, “Jackson Shrine Is Carefully Restored,” Free LanceStar, 21 October 1964. 
 

106 Orville W. Carroll, Historic Structures Report on Recommendations for the Restoration of the Jackson 

Shrine, Part II, February 1963, i, FRSP_326_D11_0001pg.pdf, Denver TIC. 

107 Ibid., 1-7.

108 Ibid., 3.

109 Memorandum, Happel to Northington, 14 March 1963, 1, attached to Memorandum, Northington to 

Regional Director, Southeast Region, 15 March 1963, File H30 FRSP, Box 1462, Entry P-11, RG 79, 

NARA-Archives II.

110 Memorandum, Raymond Mulvany to Director, 12 March 1963, attached to Ibid. Goolrick, “Jackson 

Shrine Is Carefully Restored,” Free Lance-Star, 21 October 1964.
 

111 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 11 December 1963, 4, File A2615 Monthly Narrative Reports 

Historian’s Copy 1961-65, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

112 Carroll, HSR Part II, Jackson Shrine, 4. Orville W. Carroll, Historic Structures Report Part III 

Architectural Data Section on Restoration of the Jackson Shrine, April 1964, 1-4, 

FRSP_326_D11_0001pg.pdf, Denver TIC.

113 Carroll, HSR Part III, 5-9. Personal Communication, Carroll to Zenzen, 22 January 2010, 2.

114 Happel, as quoted by Goolrick in “Jackson Shrine Is Carefully Restored,” Free Lance-Star, 21 October 

1964.
 

115 Ralph Happel, Furnishing Plan Historic Structures Report Jackson Shrine, April 1963, FRSP Library. 

Memorandum, E. M. Lisle to Northington, 4 February 1964, File D32 Landscape Development Plan 

Jackson Shrine NMP Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania County National Military Park 3047A 1963, Cabinet 

8, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Thomas Harrison to Northington, 22 January 1965, 2, 

File Historian’s Reading File 1/1/65-6/30/65; and Memorandum, Harrison to Regional Director, Southeast 

Region, 15 February 1966, 1, File Historian’s Reading File 1/1/66-3/31/66, both in Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, 

FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Dwight Stinson, Jr., to Director, 13 March 1967, 2, File A2615 

FRSP Jan 66-Dec 67, Box 89, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. Memorandum, Happel to Director, 

30 January 1968, 1, 3, File K2621 Annual Report Interpretation and Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 

3, FRSP Basement Files.

116 Northington, Monthly Narrative Report February 1952, 10 March 1952, 1, File A2823 Jun 1952- Dec 

1953 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. Memorandum, Northington to Director, 12 
 

July 1962, 2, File A2615 Monthly Narrative Reports Historian’s Copy 1961-65, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, 

FRSP Basement Files. Ralph Happel, Historic Structures Report, Old Salem Church, Section 4, Historical 

Data, 1965, FRSP Library.

117 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 14 May 1963, 2, File A2615 Monthly Narrative Reports 

Historian’s Copy 1961-65, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. 

118 Examples include Northington, Monthly Narrative Report March 1950, 13 April 1950, 2, File A2823 Jul 

1949- Dec 1951 FRSP; Memorandum, Northington to Director, 10 November 1954, 1, File A2823 Jan 54-

Jul 57 FRSP; Memorandum, Northington to Director, 13 January 1959, 1; Memorandum, Northington to 

Director, 12 October 1959, File A2823 Jul 57- Dec 59 FRSP; all in Box 188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARAArchives II. Memorandum, Northington to Director, 13 April 1966, 4, File A2615 FRSP Jan 66-Dec 67, 

Box 89, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. One story handed down attributes Northington with 

knocking down milk buckets placed on park roads and letting the milk spill onto the ground. See Robert 

Howard, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 29 September 2010, 30, FRSP Archives.

119 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 12 April 1954, 2, File A2823 Jan 1954- Jul 1957 FRSP, Box 

188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

120 Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 24 October 1957, File A 98-CP Mission 

66, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

121 Memorandum, Elbert Cox to Northington, 5 November 1957, File A 98-CP Mission 66, Cabinet 15, 

Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.
 

122 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 9 August 1962, 2, File A2615 Monthly Narrative Reports 

Historian’s Copy 1961-65, Cabinet 10, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

123 Mission 66 for FRSP, attached to memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 5 June 

1957, 4, File A 98-CP Mission 66, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

124 Underlining in the original. Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 2 October 

1958, File L1417 Part 2 FRSP, Box 1630, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.
 

125 Memorandum, Happel to Superintendent, 29 January 1970, 2, File K2621 Annual Report Interpretation 

and Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Northington to 

Director, 14 June 1965, 3, File A2615 Monthly Narrative Reports Historian’s Copy 1961-65, Cabinet 10, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Thomas Harrison to Director, 14 June 1966, 1; and 

Memorandum, Dwight Stinson, Jr., to Director, 13 March 1967, 1, both in File A2615 FRSP Jan 66- Dec 

67, Box 89, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

126 Opal Ritchie, personal conversation with the author, 26 October 2010.

127 Dixon Freeland, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 9 March 2010, 5, FRSP 

Archives.
 

128 This account of Happel is based on the following sources: Ralph Happel, transcription of oral history 

interview with Nancy Bruns, 11 December 1997, 8-10, Historic Fredericksburg Foundation Incorporated. 

My thanks to John Hennessy for providing a copy of this transcript. See also Robert K. Krick, “Ralph 

Happel: Historical Riches,” 28 April 2007, accessed October 2010 at 

http://fredericksburg.com/News/FLS/2007/042007/04282007/278982/. Larry Evans, “Happel: Eccentric, 

Smart,” Free Lance-Star, 18 November 2002. Ritchie, personal conversation with the author, 26 October 

2010. Carroll, personal communication to the author, 22 January 2010, 2.

129 Carroll, personal communication to the author, 22 January 2010, 2. Carroll maintained a relationship 

with Happel and his wife Louise after the Shrine project. Carroll designed an addition to the Happel 

cottage in King George County, which eventually became their permanent home.

130 Larry Evans, personal communication with the author, 25 October 2010, FRSP Admin History Files.

131 Operations Evaluation Report of FRSP, MANA, and GEWA, January 1971, 25, File A54 Operations 

Evaluation FRSP Group January 1971, Cabinet 8, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

132 Memorandum, Happel to Chief, Office of Operations Evaluations, SERO, 9 July 1971, 1, File A54 

Operations Evaluation, Audits, Etc., Cabinet 8, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

133 Quote from Operations Evaluation Report of FRSP, MANA, and GEWA, January 1971, 25. See also 

George Fry to Happel, 19 July 1971, File A54 Operations Evaluation, Audits, Etc., Cabinet 8, Drawer 2,

FRSP Basement Files.

 

134 Peter Carmichael, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 1 September 2010, 14-15, 

FRSP Archives.

135 Eric H. Walther “Slavery, Race, and Culture,” 126-27, in Steven E. Woodworth, ed., The American 

Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996).

136 Dwight T. Pitcaithley, “Public Education and the National Park Service: Interpreting the Civil War,” 

accessed November 2010 at http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/2007/0711/0711pro2.cfm

(November 2007 issue of the American Historical Association’s Perspectives newsletter). See also 

Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory, chapter four.
 

137 Northington, Memorandum, 7 June 1960, 5, File A2823 Jan 1960-Dec 1961 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P11, NARA-Archives II.














































1

 

1

Paraphrase of Ralph Happel, Draft Park Management Objectives, 6 August 1971, 3, File D18 

Management Objectives FRSP 1969-1974, Cabinet 8, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

2 Benjamin Franklin Cooling III to Walter Hickel, 5 May 1970, 1, File FRSP Correspondence 1960-1970, 

NRHE Files.

3 Happel, September 1949 Report, 4 October 1949, 1, File 21, Box Unarranged Records 2, Collection 

Happel 14117, FRSP CVC.
 

4 Cooling‟s books include Mr. Lincoln’s Forts: A Guide to the Civil War Defenses of Washington, by 

Cooling and Walton H. Owen II, new ed., (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2010); Jubal Early’s Raid on 

Washington (Fire Ant Books, 2008); and Forts Henry and Donelson: The Keys to the Confederate 

Heartland (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987). Cooling had also been an NPS historian, 

college professor, and historian in various federal agencies. The author met him when he was chief 

historian of the Department of Energy.

5 Dixon Freeland to Benjamin Franklin Cooling III, 21 May 1970, attached to Cooling to Hickel, 5 May 

1970. All quotes from Freeland letter, pp. 1-3, in order. Background information about the Land and 

Water Conservation Fund accessed July 2011 at http://www.nps.gov/ncrc/programs/lwcf/history.html.
 

6

“Park Residence, Garden Open,” 15 April 1968; James Moser, “Hollomon, NPS Chief Here, Tackles His 

New Job,” 8 February 1967; Moser, “Chief Appointed for Park Here,” 4 January 1967; Moser, 

Fredericksburg—Returning Home,” 8 July 1969, all in Free Lance-Star.

7 Moser, “Hollomon, NPS Chief Here, Tackles His New Job,” Free Lance-Star, 8 February 1967.

8

Freeland, transcript of interview, 1, 23-24. Moser, “Fredericksburg—Returning Home,” Free Lance-Star,

8 July 1969. The park contained 2,557 acres as of the 1969 Master Plan (p. 34) and as of 3 December 

1979, it contained 5,619 federal acreage (plus 779 non-federal acreage and 61 acres of easements), 

according to Park Area Identification by State, File A2621 Park Area Identification by Geographic 

Location, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

9

Steve Giegerich, “Two Spotsylvania Supervisors Roast New Park Service Man,” Free Lance-Star, 28 

January 1981. James Zinck, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 22 March 2010, 1-3, 7, 

18. See also Mike Johnson, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 11 December 2009, 36, 

FRSP Archives.

10 James Moser, “Historian Finds His Niche,” Free-Lance Star, 21 March 1972.
 

11 Peter Carmichael, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 1 September 2010, 10-11.

12 Moser, “Historian Finds His Niche,” Free-Lance Star, 21 March 1972.

13 Draft, Robert Krick, Superintendent‟s annual report, 1972, 12, File A26 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 

CY 1972, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Donald Pfanz, personal communication with the 

author, 29 October 2010, FRSP Admin History Files.

14 A History of Roads in Virginia: “The Most Convenient Wayes,” (Virginia Department of Transportation, 

2006), 37-39. VDOT History Highlights, accessed December 2010 at 

www.virginiadot.org/about/vdot_history.asp.
 

15 See also J. E. Harwood to Northington, 6 November 1958, 1, File Deed #39, FRSP Lands Files.

16 Memorandum, Albert Dillahunty to Northington, 26 February 1959, 1, File Deed #39, FRSP Lands Files.

17 Memorandum, Happel to Northington, 26 February 1959, File Deed #39, FRSP Lands Files.

18 Memorandum, Dillahunty to Northington, 26 February 1959, 2. Memorandum, Elbert Cox to 

Northington, 20 February 1959; Memorandum, Clifford Harrison to Northington, 1 April 1959, both in File 

Deed #39, FRSP Lands Files.

19 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 11 March 1959, 1, File A2823 Jan 54-July 57 FRSP, Box 188, 

Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.
 

20 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 13 June 1961, with a section written by Happel, 2, File A2823 

Jan 54-July 57 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

21 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 10 July 1956, 2, File A2823 Jan 54-July 57 FRSP, Box 188, 

Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

22 Memorandum, Thomas Harrison to Northington, 7 July 1966, File Historian‟s Reading Files 7/1/66-

12/31/66, Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

23 Memorandum, Happel to Hollomon, 1 July 1968, 2, File Division I&RM Reading File 7/1/68-8/31/68, 

Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

24 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 13 September 1966, 2, File A2615 FRSP Jan 66-Dec 67, Box 89, 

Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II.

25 Memorandum, Dwight Stinson to Director, 12 January 1967, and attached Highlight Briefing Statement, 

1, File Historian‟s Reading File 1/1/67-6/30/67, Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. The author 

has not found the record of the regional office‟s decision.

26 Memorandum, Northington to Director, 14 December 1966, 2, File A2615 FRSP Jan 66-Dec 67, Box 89, 

Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. 

27 Dixon Freeland, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 9 March 2010, 13, 16, FRSP 

Archives. FRSP Annual Report, 1974, 3, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1973-1975, Cabinet 

8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Northington to Director, 13 September 1966, 2, File 

A2615 FRSP Jan 1966-Dec 1967, Box 89, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA-Archives II. The author has not 

found the policy statement.

28 FRSP Annual Report, 1974, 3.
 

29 Memorandum, Happel to Hollomon, 1 July 1968, 3-4. Quote on p. 3. Memorandum, Happel to 

Hollomon, 15 October 1968, 1, File Division I&RM Reading File 7/1/68-8/31/68, Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, 

FRSP Basement Files.

30 Paul Muse, “Officials Think „95‟ Heralds Era of Growth,” Free Lance-Star, 12 December 1964.

31 United States Census figures from www.census.gov/population/cencounts/va190090.txt. With respect to 

the lack of support for zoning throughout Virginia, see Georgie Boge and Margie Holder Boge, Paving 
 

over the Past: A History and Guide to Civil War Battlefield Preservation (Washington, DC: Island Press, 

1993), chapter four.

32 Jones as quoted by Daryl Lease, “Fighting to Make a Name,” Free Lance-Star, 1 September 1989.

33 Ibid. Steve Giegerich, “Mall on Its Way—Winner in a High-Stakes Race,” 3 January 1979; Rusty 

Dennen, “Shoppers Stream in at Spotsylvania Mall,” 18 February 1980; Larry Evans, “New Chapter 

Unfolds in Spotsylvania History, 19 January 1987, all in Free Lance-Star.
 

34 Memorandum, Will Greene to Freeland, 25 October 1979, File Interp Reading Files 1979, Cabinet 3, 

Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Archives. Nancy Moore, “Realty Projects Taking the „Wild‟ Out of 

Wilderness,” 20 August 1971; Wilderness Camping Resorts, Inc. advertisement, 8 July 1971; Charles 

McEwen, “Water, Sewer Lines Are Given Go-Ahead,” 21 July 1970, all in Free Lance-Star. Freeland, 

transcript of interview, 9 March 2010, 3-4. Happel raised concerns about the recreational amenities being 

touted at Lake of the Woods, including using bridle trails (which did not exist) through the nearby sections 

of the national park. See Memorandum, Happel to Hollomon, 31 July 1967, File Division of I&RM 

Reading File, 1/1/68-3/31/68, Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

35 Ralph Happel, Draft Park Management Objectives, 6 August 1971, 3.

36 Memorandum, Freeland to Associate Regional Director, Park System Management, Mid-Atlantic 

Region, 26 March 1975, 3, File K2615 Reports Monthly Public Contact 1/1/65 FVC, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, 

FRSP Basement Files. L. Kimball Payne, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 16 March 

2010, 8, 15, FRSP Archives. Nancy Moore, “Sewer Study May Pave Way for Wilderness Area Boom,” 2 
 

February 1972; Daniel Epstein, “4,000 Home „Stonewall‟ Plan Is Opposed in Spotsylvania,” 10 July 1975, 

both in Free Lance-Star.

37 Nan Wishner, “Route 3: Highway Headed for Development,” 6 January 1981; Rick Pullen, “Plans for 

Shopping Center on Route 3 Taking Shape,” 11 July 1980; Larry Evans, “Silver Outlines Plans for New 

Center,” 23 July 1985; “White & Weeks Makes Move to New Spotsylvania Store,” 13 March 1981; Kelby 

Hartson, “Then and Now,” 20 September 1998, all in Free Lance-Star. Downtown businesses in 

Fredericksburg were already feeling the pinch in the mid-1970s from growth in Spotsylvania. See Edward 

Jones, “Maury Home Loss Lead to Historic Zone,” Free Lance-Star, 15 November 1974, with businesses 

wanting to remove the historic district designation to allow for construction of new and competitive 

businesses in the historic area.

38 Zinck to Robert Meinhard, 24 August 1981, 2, File A98 Conservation (General), Cabinet 8, Drawer 3, 

FRSP Basement Files.
 

39 Aerial photos from Aerial Photos Box, File Salem Church, FRSP Photo Archives. Freeland, transcript of 

interview, 9 March 2010, 11-12. Zinck, transcript of interview, 22 March 2010, 11-12. Zinck quote of 

Larry Silver in Zinck transcript, p. 12. FRSP Master Plan, 1969, 40-41, 93-100, FRSP Library, does not 

identify any tract numbers associated with Salem Church for acquisition. Civil War Boundary Study, 1972, 

No File, Cabinet 4, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Archives.

40 Robert Krick, as quoted by Larry Evans in “Subdivision Projects Bring Protests in Spotsylvania,” Free 

Lance-Star, 12 February 1987. That particular zoning request failed.

41 Cosner, as quoted by Larry Evans, “Spotsylvania Confronts Its Growing Pains,” Free Lance-Star, 15 

January 1986.

42 Ibid. Payne, transcript of interview, 16 March 2010, 1-2.

43 Wishner, “Route 3,” Free Lance-Star, 6 January 1981.

44 Former Stafford planner George Smerigan, as quoted by Wishner, in Ibid.
 

45 Ibid. Larry Evans, “Spotsylvania Tightens Ordinance to Cut Density of Developments,” Free LanceStar, 29 October 1986.

46 Zenzen, Battling for Manassas, 57-60.
 

47 Ibid., 77-81, 88-98.

48 Ibid., 61, 87, 171.

49 FRSP Master Plan, 1969, 35.
 

50 Ibid., 36.

51 Ibid., 35-36. Quote on p. 36.

52 The park switched regional offices during the time period of developing the master plan, starting with the 

Southeast office and moving to the National Capital one. Master planning was done for FRSP and GEWA 

simultaneously. The FRSP master plan was approved in July 1968 and printed with a date of 1969. 

Memorandum, Charles Brooks to Regional Director, 11 August 1966, File D18 Master Plan Field Study 

FRSP-GEWA September 19-26, 1966, Cabinet 8 Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

53 Ibid. Memorandum, Acting Chief, I&RM to Hollomon, 1 April 1968, 2; and Acting Chief, I&RM to 

Hollomon, 1 May 1968, 3, both in File Division of I&RM Reading File 4/1/68-6/30/68, Cabinet 3, Drawer 

1, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Happel to Hollomon, 24 January 1967, 4, File K2621 Annual 

Report-Interpretation and Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

54 Memorandum, Happel to Freeland, 29 January 1971, 2, File K2621 Annual Report-Interpretation and 

Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. More information about the Innis House 

restoration is available in chapter six.
 

55 Ibid., 3. Properties Acquired Since July 1, 1969, File K2615 Reports Monthly Public Contact 1/1/65 

FVC, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Draft, FRSP Annual Report, 1972, 12, File A26 

Superintendent‟s Annual Report CY 1972, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

56 Draft, FRSP Annual Report, 1972, 12. FRSP Annual Report, 1973, 3, File A2621 Superintendent‟s 

Annual Report 1973-75, both in Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Nancy Moore, “Realty 

Projects Taking the „Wild‟ Out of Wilderness,” Free Lance-Star, 20 August 1971.

57 Peter Snyder, Letter to the Editor, Free Lance-Star, 9 March 1973.

58 Nancy Moore, “Supervisors List Approaches to Control County Growth,” Free Lance-Star, 25 February 

1972.

59 Mike Johnson refers to this Civil War boundary study as being done under the Bible Commission—

Senate Alan Bible (D-NV). See also Zenzen, Battling for Manassas, 101-02. FRSP, Land Protection Plan, 

1986, 15, 37, FRSP Library. FRSP Annual Report, 1974, 4. Memorandum, Richard Schwartz to Freeland, 
 

10 November 1972, and attached FRSP Civil War Boundary Study, 1972, No File, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, 

FRSP Basement Archives. This version of the boundary study is the only one the author has found in the 

park‟s files.

60 FRSP, Statement for Management, 1981, 7, File D18 Resources Management Plan 1981 Aug 1980-Jan 

1981, Cabinet 8, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. The author has not located this subcommittee letter.

61 FRSP, LPP, 1986, 37.

62 The author does not have information about who served on this committee, although the park‟s 1986 

General Management Plan states that the team was composed of historians, managers, and lands specialists. 

See FRSP, GMP, 1986, 70, FRSP Library.

63 FRSP LPP, 1986, 37. Mike Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 14.

64 FRSP Annual Report, 1973, 3.

65 Memorandum, Benjamin Zerbey to Freeland, 13 March 1976, and attached Freeland, FRSP Outline of 

Planning Requirements, 1976, 5, File D18 Outline of Planning Requirements 1976, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, 

FRSP Basement Files.
 

66 Robert Krick actually drafted this letter, as the language and his initials on the last page attest. 

Memorandum, Freeland to Director, Northeast Region, 20 June 1973, Deed #257, FRSP Lands Files.

67 Ibid., 1.

68 FRSP, GMP, 1986, 70. The Civil War Boundary Study referred to a number of East Coast battlefield 

parks.

69 FRSP Boundary Study, 1972, 6-9. The 1969 master plan recommended that the National Park Service 

obtain a cooperative agreement with Montford Academy and Mary Washington College. See FRSP Master 

Plan, 1969, 60.

70 The boundary study map identified these parcels at Chancellorsville for acquisition but the written text 

does not mention these lands.

71 FRSP Boundary Study, 1972, 13-15. One tract (03-145) along Route 3 received special attention for 

acquisition due its owner‟s proposal to develop a shopping center there.
 

72 FRSP Boundary Study, 1972, 24-25.

73 Ibid., 25.

74 Ibid., 18, 29-30.

75 P. L. 96-199, An Act to establish the Channel Islands National Park, and for other purposes, 5 March 

1980. FRSP Annual Report, 1979, 2, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1976-1980, Cabinet 8, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

76 Memorandum, Freeland to Chet Brooks, 13 August 1973, and attached report England Exchange, 

Chancellorsville Battlefield, 2, Deed # 145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.

77 FRSP Summary Sheet, no date [1979], Part 2, 1, File L30, Cabinet 1, Drawer 3, FRSP Break Room Files.
 

78 Northington to Jay Jones, 12 January 1960, Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.

79 Northington to Jay Johns, 2 November 1959, Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.

80 Quote from Memorandum, Northington to Regional Director, Region One, 25 August 1959, Deed # 145, 

146, 147, FRSP Lands Files. See also Northington to Mrs. William Shouman, 12 August 1959, Deed # 

145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.

81 James Pates, Appraisal for Spotsylvania NMP of the Rowley Estate, 14 October 1959, no page 

numbering; Memorandum, E. M. Lisle to Director, 1 September 1959, both in Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP 

Lands Files.

82 Quote from Northington to Jay Johns, 12 January 1960, 1, Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files. See 

also Northington to Johns, 2 November 1959, 1, Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.

83 Quote from Northington to Vergil Carrington Jones, 28 August 1959, Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands 

Files. See also Northington to R. E. Warren, 6 November 1959, Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.

84 Northington to J. W. Johns, 6 May 1960, 1, Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.
 

85 Memorandum, Harrison to Northington, 1 February 1964, Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files. 

Quotes on pp. 1, 2.

86 Memorandum, Charles Marshall to Director, 1 July 1969; Memorandum, Ralph Bullard to Assistant 

Director, Division of Operations, 16 May 1972, 1; Memorandum, James Rourke and Robert Gilliland to 

Acting Chief, Office of Land Acquisition, 26 February 1973, 1; Memorandum, Robert Johnsen to Director, 

Northeast Region, 13 March 1973, 1, all in Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.

87 Memorandum, Robert Johnsen to Director, Northeast Region, 13 March 1973, 2. Johnsen would become 

a longtime superintendent at Shenandoah, serving from 1972 to 1986. See Darwin Lambert, The Undying 

Past of Shenandoah National Park (Lanham, MD: Roberts Rinehart, Inc. Publishers in cooperation with 

Shenandoah Natural History Association, 2001), 271-74.
 

88 Warranty Deed, 19 July 1973; Freeland to Park Neighbor, 20 July 1973, both in Deed #145, 146, 147, 

FRSP Lands Files.

89 Memorandum, Freeland to Brooks, 13 August 1973, and attached England Exchange report, 1-2. Quote 

on p. 1.

90 Ibid., 1-2. Quote on p. 1. See also Memorandum, Freeland to Director, Virginia State Office, 24 July 

1973, and attached Press Release, Key Chancellorsville Site Added to National Park; Helaine Patterson, 

“Park Addition Is Key Battlefield Tract,” Free Lance-Star, 21 July 1973; and Freeland to Park Neighbor, 

20 July 1973, all in Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.

91 Helaine Patterson, “County Seeking Rebuilt „Chancellor,‟” Free Lance-Star, 27 July 1973. Freeland to 

Andrew Seay, 9 August 1973, Deed #145, 146, 147, FRSP Lands Files.

92 FRSP, Annual Report, 1987, 11, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1987, Cabinet 14, Drawer 

1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

93 Freeland, transcript of interview, 9 March 2010, 4.

94 FRSP, Annual Report, 1976, 3, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1976-80, Cabinet 8, Drawer 

1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1974, 3. Memorandum, Freeland to Regional Director, 

Mid-Atlantic Region, 30 August 1974, and attached draft Statement for Management and Planning, 12-14, 

File D18 Management Objectives FRSP 1969-1974, Cabinet 8, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

95 FRSP Annual Report, 1974, 1-2; Freeland, transcript of interview, 9 March 2010, 9-10. A Wilson 

Greene, who had served as an interpreter historian while Freeland was at the park , remembered that Krick 

did not think highly of Freeland‟s active involvement in the community. Greene remembered that Krick

and others saw such activity as “pandering to the local history museums and maybe the tourism people” 

although now Greene readily admits the value and necessity of such actions. See A Wilson Greene, 

transcription of oral history interview with the author, 24 February 2010, 9, FRSP Archives. Krick would 

in fact become quite effective in pursuing park goals exactly through the connections he developed in the 

local community, on Capitol Hill, and within the Park Service.

96 FRSP, Annual Report, 1976, 4; Memorandum, Freeland to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 30 

August 1974, and attached draft Statement for Management and Planning, 13.

97 FRSP Annual Report, 1979, 2.
 

98 Debbie Aylor, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 8 December 2009, 16-18, FRSP 

Archives.

99 Danny Pemberton, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 7 December 2009, 15, FRSP 

Archives.

100 Zenzen, Bridging the Past, 80-87; Lambert, Undying Past, chapters 16-17; Anne Mitchell Whisnant, 

Super-Scenic Motorway: A Blue Ridge Parkway History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 

2006), chapter 3.

101 Memorandum, Freeland to Regional Chief of Land Acquisition, Mid-Atlantic Region, 16 January 1975, 

Deed #226, FRSP Lands Files.
 

102 Daniel Epstein, “Plant Bid Is Opposed by NPS,” 13 March 1975; Epstein, “Spotsylvania Panel Rejects 

Request for Concrete Plant,” 1 April 1975; Epstein, “Disputed Plant Wins Supervisors‟ Okay,” 25 April 

1975, all in Free Lance-Star

103 Krick, as quoted by Daniel Epstein, “More Opposition Arises to County Cement Plant,” Free LanceStar, 18 April 1975.

104 Joe Sprinkle, Negotiator‟s Progress Record, 7 March 1975; Sprinkle, Negotiator‟s Progress Record, 8 

April 1975; Sprinkle, Negotiator‟s Progress Record, 15 April 1975, all in Deed #226, FRSP Lands Files.

105 Memorandum, Freeland to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 17 April 1975, 2, Deed #226, FRSP 

Lands Files.

106 Ibid., 1.

107 Freeland to Ramon Minx, 14 August 1975; Freeland to R. L. Baker, 14 January 1977, both in Deed 

#226, FRSP Lands Files.

108 Memorandum, Robert Krick to the Files, 9 May 1975; Memorandum, Freeland to Files, 12 June 1975, 

both in Deed #226, FRSP Lands Files.
 

109 Memorandum, Benjamin Zerbey to Chief, US Park Police, 24 September 1976, 1, Deed #226, FRSP 

Lands Files.

110 Daniel Epstein, “Spotsylvanian Asks Time to Relocate His Business,” 13 September 1975; and “Ousted 

Developer Still Seeks Plant Site,” 20 September 1975, both in Free Lance-Star. Ronald Baker to National 

Park Service, 24 January 1977, Deed #226, FRSP Lands Files.

111 Memorandum, Freeland to Acting Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 11 February 1977, 2, Deed 

#226, FRSP Lands Files.

112 Memorandum, Krick to the Files, 21 May 1975, Deed #226, FRSP Lands Files.

113 Memorandum, Krick to the Files, 9 July 1975, Deed #226, FRSP Lands Files.

114 Freeland, Memorandum of Telephone Call, 14 July 1975, Deed #226, FRSP Lands Files.

115 “Two Candidates in Chancellor,” 31 May 1975; “Andrew Seay to Lead Board of Supervisors,” 13 

January 1977, both in Free Lance-Star.

116 Freeland, as quoted by Robin Gallaher, “Contractor‟s Plan Touches Off New Battle of 

Chancellorsville,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 7 December 1975. The article does not include any 

references to public outcry over Johnston‟s plight. The reporter quoted Johnston, Freeland, and the 

Assistant US Attorney.
 

117 Freeland, transcript of interview, 9 March 2010, 17.

118 Memorandum, Freeland to Chief, Division of Land Acquisition, Mid-Atlantic Region, 11 September 

1974, Deed #175; Memorandum, Richard Stanton to Director, Southeast Region, 6 April 1970, Deed #149; 

Tract 162, Sale, 20 acres, Justification, 17 March 1972, Deed #141; Memorandum, Ralph Happel to 

Freeland, 29 September 1971, Deed #138, all in FRSP Deeds Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1974, 4. James 

Zinck to Robert Meinhard, 24 August 1981, File A98 Conservation (General), Cabinet 8, Drawer 3, FRSP 

Basement Files.

119 Memorandum, Harry Pfanz to Chief, Land Acquisition Division, 24 February 1978, 2, Deed #250, 

FRSP Lands Files.

120 Freeland recounted later that before he left, an unhappy employee filed grievances which sparked an 

inspector general investigation. According to Freeland, the inspector general had some recommendations 

to improve park operations, but otherwise found no wrongdoing. Freeland saw his appointment to Hyde 

Park as a promotion and vindication for his handling of his job at Fredericksburg. Freeland, transcript of 

interview, 9 March 2010, 25. FRSP Operations Evaluation, November 1976, 24, File A54 Operations 

Evaluation, Audits, Cabinet 8, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Freeland remembered a maintenance 

employee fining the grievance; the operations report states it was the Administrative Officer.

121 James Zinck, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 22 March 2010, 18. See also p. 5.

122 The 1984 tour, for example, focused on resources and park problems and management issues. See 

FRSP, Annual Report, 1984, 17, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1984, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, 

FRSP Basement Files. In 1986 and 1987, in addition to the VIP tour, the park held four battlefield walking 
 

tours for park neighbors to help them understand the resource issues. See FRSP, Annual Report, 1986, 16, 

File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1986, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, 

Annual Report, 1987.

123 FRSP, Annual Report, 1981, 12, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1981-1982, Cabinet 14, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

124 Zinck, transcript of interview, 22 March 2010, 5.

125 FRSP, Annual Report, 1982, 15-16, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1981-1982, Cabinet 

14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1987, 19. FRSP, Annual Report, 1988, 16, 

File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1988, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

126 FRSP, Annual Report, 1983, 14, 16, 20, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1983, Cabinet 8, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

127 For information on NHPA, see http://www.preservationnation.org/resources/legalresources/understanding-preservation-law/federal-law/nhpa.html; http://www.achp.gov/about.html. For 

information on NEPA, see http://www.epa.gov/compliance/nepa/index.html, all accessed January 2011. 

The previous road widening of Route 3 and loss of historic park land may have gone differently if these 

federal laws had already been in place at the time of planning.

128 FRSP, Annual Report, 1981, 17. Memorandum, Zinck to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 14 

May 1982, 1-2, File D18 GMP 1981-85, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

129 Information on James Watt from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,926267-1,00.html. 

Information on the Reagan quote from http://www.snopes.com/quotes/reagan/redwoods.asp, both accessed 

January 2011.
 

130

 Quote from Zinck, transcript of interview, 7, FRSP Archives, 7. See also Steve Giegerich, “Two 

Spotsylvania Supervisors Roast New Park Service Man,” Free Lance-Star, 28 January 1981.

131 Zinck, as quoted by Giegerich, “Two Spotsylvania Supervisors,” Free Lance-Star, 28 January 1981.

132 Zinck, transcript of interview, 22 March 2010, 7.

133 Ibid., 6-7.

134 FRSP, Land Protection Plan, 1986, iii, FRSP Library.

135 FRSP, GMP, 1986, 121.
 

136 FRSP, GMP, 1986, 39; FRSP, LPP, 1986, iii-v.

137 FRSP, LPP, 1986, 30.

138 Ibid., 29. See also pp. 32-33.

139 Ibid., 41-44.

140 Ibid., 45.
 

141 Ibid., 45-46.

142 Ibid., 46-48.

143 Ibid., 49.

144 Ibid., 58.

145 Information on Judge Waller from Daryl Lease, “Local Past Important, Says Board,” Free Lance-Star, 5 

June 1987.
 

146 Mike Johnson, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 11 December 2009, 8-9. Quote on 

p. 9. Some landowners did have accesses with defined widths that would allow subdivision development.

147 FRSP, LPP, 1986, 39, 58-59. Memorandum, Zinck to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 15 July 

1986, 2, File D18 Public Review, GMP 1986-87, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

148 FRSP, LPP, 1986,45-46, 60-61; FRSP, GMP, 1986, 78.
 

149 FRSP, LPP, 1986, 64-65. Quote on p. 65.

150 Ibid., 69-70.

151 Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 9.
 

152 FRSP, GMP, 1986, 55, 65-66.

153 Ibid., 72-74.

154 Memorandum, Bonnie Campbell to Assistant Manager, Mid-Atlantic/North Atlantic Team, DSC, 6 May 

1983; Memorandum, Dan Huff, et al. to Assistant Manager, Mid-Atlantic/North Atlantic Team, DSC, 14 
 

July 1983, 4-5; Listing of Visitor Center pros and cons, no date [c. October 1983], all in File D18 GMP 

1981-85, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

155 FRSP, GMP, 1986, 74-79. Maintenance areas also received a little attention in the GMP, with the Lee 

Drive area slated for rehabilitation and upgrading to double its indoor shop space and vehicle storage. The 

Spotsylvania and Wilderness CCC buildings would be removed and the existing structure at Ellwood 

would be rehabilitated. A new garage would be built at Spotsylvania. See FRSP, GMP, 1986, 81.

156 FRSP, Draft GMP/Environmental Assessment, Match 1986, No File, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP 

Basement Files.
 

157 Memorandum, J. Fred Eubanks to Associate Regional Director, Planning and Resource Preservation 

Chief, Planning, 22 February 1983, 2, File D18 GMP 1981-85, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement 

Files.

158 Summary of GMP Meetings, no date [May 1983], File D18 Public Review Draft GMP 1983-85, Cabinet 

13, Drawer 4; Memorandum, Zinck to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 15 July 1986, File D18 

Public Review GMP 1986-87, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, both in FRSP Basement Files.

159 William Lakeman, “Park Service Takes Long-range Look at Battlefields,” Free Lance-Star, 18 May 

1983.

160 Zinck to Colleague, 2 February 1982, File D18 Statement for Management, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP 

Basement Files. NPS News Release, New Management Plan for Parks, 29 March 1983; Zinck to Interested 

Citizen, 3 May 1983; NPS News Release, Park Planning Begins, 13 May 1983; Planning Newsletter GMP, 

November 1983; Planning Newsletter GMP, November 1984; Planning Newsletter GMP, November 1985; 

all in File D18 Public Review Draft GMP 1983-85, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. GMP 

Briefing Schedule, no date [April 1986], File D18 Public Review GMP 1986-87, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, 

FRSP Basement Files.

161 Summary of GMP Meetings, no date [May 1983], 2-3. Quotes on p. 2.
 

162 Ibid., 10-11. Quote on p. 10.

163 Ibid., 3.

164 R. E. Bain to Zinck, 12 August 1983, and attached Stafford County Board of Supervisors Resolution, 2 

August 1983, File D18 Public Review Draft GMP 1983-85, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

165 Memorandum, Krick to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 7 October 1980; Memorandum, Krick 

to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 25 November 1980, both in File Interpretation Reading File 

1980, Cabinet 3, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Rob Hedelt, “Chatham Are To Get Plaza,” Free LanceStar, 3 October 1980. FRSP, Annual Report, 1983, 6. Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 

26.

166 Summary of GMP Meetings, no date [May 1983], 8-9. Quote on p. 8.
 

167 Ibid., 11-12. Quote on p. 12.

168 Alexander Rives, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 19 February 2010, 12-13, FRSP 

Archives.

169 FRSP, LPP, 1986, iii.

170 Ibid., 11-12.

171 Robert Freis, “Park Plan Draws New Battle Line,” Free Lance-Star, 13 May 1986. Although the article 

has a title that suggests confrontation, the article itself does not suggest any battle lines being drawn by 

residents or governments.

172 FRSP, LPP, 1986, 22-24. Memorandum, Zinck to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 15 July 

1986, and attached summary of comments, no page numbering, File D18 Public Review GMP 1986-87, 
 

Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Spotsylvania County may have been receptive to the 

GMP/LPP in part because the NPS regional office had granted an easement to the county for the Deep Run 

Sewer Interceptor through part of Fredericksburg battlefield. See FRSP, news release, 20 September 1985, 

File Reading Copies September 1985, cabinet 2, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

173 Rob Masson, “Wilderness Comes of Age,” Orange County Review, 29 May 1986. The author needs to 

do an online search of news articles to confirm the positive news reporting.

174 Memorandum, Zinck to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 15 July 1986, and attached summary 

of comments, no page numbering.

175 Zinck, transcript of interview, 22 March 2010, 5-6. FRSP, Annual Report, 1985, 15, File A2621 

Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1985, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 

1984, 3, 10, 16; FRSP, Annual Report, 1986, 2; FRSP, Annual Report, 1987, 15.
 

176 Memorandum, Director to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 28 January 1986, 1; WASO 

Comments and Planning Team Revisions for Draft FRSP GMP and LPP, 14 February 1986, 1-2, both in 

File D18 GMP 1986-88, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, GMP, 1986, 27-28.

177 Rives, transcript of interview, 19 February 2010, 5.

178 Greene, transcript of interview, 24 February 2010, 12.

179 Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 26.

180 Robert Howard, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 29 September 2010, 10, FRSP 

Archives.

181 Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 26.

182 Rives, transcript of interview, 19 February 2010, 5.
 

183 Ibid., 12.

184 Greene, transcript of interview, 24 February 2010, 10. Howard also shared the sign joke, Howard, 

transcript of interview, 29 September 2010, 10.

185 Zinck admitted to this aspect of his personality, Zinck, transcript of interview, 22 March 2010, 18.

186 Ibid., 17.

187 FRSP Operations Evaluation, February 1973, 2, File A54 Operations Evaluation, Audits, Cabinet 8, 

Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1976, 6. One of the rangers from this period, 

Bruce Bytnar, published a book about his time at Fredericksburg and other national parks. He states that in 

1979 that Freeland gave an allotment of fuel to the protection division only that resulted in the rangers 

being left unable to patrol the park due to reaching their allotments before the end of the month. 

Maintenance and interpretation divisions did not have the fuel allotment. After Freeland left, the fuel 

allotments went to maintenance and interpretation, not protection. See Bruce W. Bytnar, A Park Ranger’s 

Life: Thirty-Two Years Protecting Our National Parks (Tucson, AZ: Wheatmark, 2010), 67-69.

188 FRSP, Annual Report, 1981, 1, 15. Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 4. FRSP, 

Annual Report, 1974, 7.
 

189 FRSP, Annual Report, 1983, 1; Rives, transcript of interview, 19 February 2010, 2-4.

190 FRSP, Annual Report, 1976, 4.

191 FRSP, Annual Report, 1981, 2; FRSP, Annual Report, 1982, 3; FRSP, Annual Report, 1984, 5.

192 FRSP, Annual Report, 1981, 1; FRSP, 1986, 1. The FTE numbers may not fully account for part-time 

or subject-to-furlough or other staff situations.

193 Numbers adjusted for inflation using the inflation calculator from 

http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm, accessed June 2011. Budget numbers all from FRSP 

annual reports: 1972, p. 2; 1974, p. 13; 1979, chart at end; 1981, 2; 1984, 3; 1985, 3; 1986, 2.

194 FRSP, Annual Report, 1987, 14.














1

 

1 Maria Burks to Clay Peters, 14 January 1993, 2, File A56 Team Implement, Cabinet 8, Drawer 2, FRSP 

Basement Files.

2 Greene, as quoted by Scott Rafshoon, “In Charge and on Guard,” Free Lance-Star, 3 December 1990.

3 A. Wilson Greene, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 24 Frbruary 2010, 14-16, FRSP 

Archives.

4

Jim Toler and Mike Voss, “Leaving Room for the Past,” Free Lance-Star, 24 January 1995.
 

5 Editorial, “Spotsylvania Falls Short on Growth Control,” Free Lance-Star, 3 April 1987.

6 Cosner, as quoted by Daryl Lease, “Local Past Important, Says Board,” Free Lance-Star, 5 June 1987.

7

Spotsylvania County Board of Supervisors Meeting Minutes, 12 May 1981, accessed February 2011 at 

http://www.spotsylvania.va.us/filestorage/2614/4652/4656/4684/4798/05121981.pdf. See also Nan 

Wishner, “Spotsylvania Approves „Colonial‟ Gas Station,” 13 May 1981; and Joint Public hearing of Board 

of Supervisors and Planning Commission, 5 May 1981, both in Free Lance-Star.

8 Maria Carrillo, “Spotsylvania Adopts Zoning for Historic Areas,” Free Lance-Star, 28 October 1987.

9 Burks, as quoted by Toler and Voss, “Leaving Room,” Free Lance-Star, 24 January 1995.

 

10 Robert Bruegmann, Sprawl: A Compact History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 18. 

Dolores Hayden, Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban Growth, 1820-2000 (New York: Vintage, 

2004). Andre Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and 

the Decline of the American Dream (New York: North Point Press, 2000), 5-7. Joel Garreau, edge City: 

Life on the New Frontier (New York: Doubleday, 1991). Draft, Spotsylvania County Comprehensive 

Plan, 12 June 1994, 73-74, File L30 Comprehensive Plan/PAC, Cabinet 1, Drawer 3, FRSP Break Room. 

The author needs to get a final version of this plan.

11

 Draft, Spotsylvania County Comprehensive Plan, 1994, 74. Rusty Dennan, “New Stores at Central 

Park,” Free Lance-Star, 26 March 1996.

12 Draft, Spotsylvania County Comprehensive Plan, 1994, 71.

13 L. Kimball Payne, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 26 April 2010, 3-4, FRSP 

Archives. Quotes on p. 3. Jerry Marcus, a longtime resident of Spotsylvania County and former 

Supervisor echoes Payne‟s characterization of county residents. See Marcus, transcription of oral history 

interview with the author, 27 May 2010, 3-6, FRSP Archives.
 

14 Payne, transcript of interview, 26 April 2010, 4. 

15 Larry Evans, “State Route 3 West—the Great Light Way Getting Slower,”23 January 1987; “Developers 

Spruce Up New Center,” 6 April 1987, both in Free Lance-Star. Draft, Spotsylvania County 

Comprehensive Plan, 1994, 73.

16 Quote from Kerry Lane, Letter to the Editor, 14 January 1987, Free Lance-Star. See also Editorial, 

“Overhaul for Spotsylvania, 1 November 1991; Editorial, “Courtesy and the Rights of the Governed,” 29 

August 1989; both in Free Lance-Star.

17 Lane did not provide a source for these figures.

18 Lane, Letter to the Editor, Free Lance-Star, 14 January 1987.
 

19 Wim Wiewel, Joseph Persky, and Kimberly Shaffer, “Less Sprawl, Greater Equity? The Potential for 

Revenue Sharing in the Chicago Region,” in Urban Sprawl: Causes, Consequences, and Policy Responses, 

ed. Gregory D. Squires (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press, 2002), 264, 266; Duany, et al., 

Suburban Nation, 127-28; Lydia Savage and Mark Lapping, “Sprawl and Its Discontents: The Rural 

Dimension,” Suburban Sprawl: Culture, Theory, and Politics, eds. Matthew J. Lindstrom and Hugh 

Bartling (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2003), 7.

20 Adam Rome, The Bulldozer in the Countryside: Suburban Sprawl and the Rise of American 

Environmentalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). David J. Cieslewicz, “The 

Environmental Impacts of Sprawl,” 23-38; Paul A. Jargowsky, “Sprawl, Concentration of Poverty, and 

Urban Inequality,” 39-72, both in Squires, ed., Urban Sprawl. Savage and Lapping, “Sprawl and Its 

Discontents,” 5-18; Robert Messia, “Lawns as Artifacts: The Evolution of Social and Environmental 

Implications of Suburban Residential Land Use,” 69-84; Ronald Hayduk, “Race and Suburban Sprawl: 

Regionalism and Structural Racism,” 137-72, all in Lindstrom and Bartling, Suburban Sprawl. 

Bruegmann, Sprawl, 137-68.
 

21 Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia, and The Woodlands

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Bruegmann, Sprawl; Duany, et al., Suburban Nation, 

183-214. James R. Cohen, “Maryland‟s „Smart Growth‟: Using Incentives to Combat Sprawl,” in Urban 

Sprawl.

22 Danny Pemberton, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 7 December 2009, 4, 8, FRSP 

Archives. Quotes in reverse order of page numbers.
 

23 B. Judson Honaker, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 4 February 2010, 3, FRSP 

Archives. Honaker may be referring to more recent times. Larry Silver was one of the commercial 

partners in 1981 who successfully advocated for building a gas station on the corner where historic Salem 

Church stands. Wishner, “Spotsylvania Approves „Colonial‟ Gas Station.”

24 Honaker, transcript of interview, 4 February 2010, 2-4, 8-9. Quotes on pp. 3, 8.

25 Debbie Hawkins Aylor, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 8 December 2009, 12, 15, 

20-21, FRSP Archives. Quotes in order on pp. 15, 12, 20-21.
 

26 Enos Richardson, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 9 December 2009, 12, 9-10, 

FRSP Archives.

27 Marcus, transcript of interview, 27 May 2010, 12.
 

28 Joan M. Zenzen, Battling for Manassas: The Fifty-Year Preservation Struggle at Manassas National 

Battlefield Park (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), chapter 9.

29 Ibid., chapter 10. John Hennessy supplied documentation of the historical significance of Stuart‟s Hill, 

based upon his research for his book on Second Manassas. Hennessy went on to work at Fredericksburg 

and Spotsylvania NMP as assistant superintendent and then park chief historian.

30 Editorial, “Get Moving on Plan To Protect Area‟s Parks,” Free Lance-Star, 12 July 1988.

31 Editorial, “Another Victory at Manassas,” Free Lance-Star, 24 October 1988.

32 Parris, as quoted by Scott Rafshoon, “Administration Backs Park Expansion Bill, But No More,” Free 

Lance-Star, 3 May 1989.
 

33 Ibid.

34 Robert Mrazek, notes of conversation with the author, 14 June 2011, FRSP Admin History Files.

35 Robert Howard, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 29 September 2010, 15, FRSP 

Archives.

36 John Hennessy, personal communication with the author, 26 October 2010, FRSP Admin History Files.

37 Legislative Counsel to James C. Miller III, 11 January 1989, and attached draft bill to revise the 

boundaries, File FRSP Correspondence 1986-1992, NRHE Files. Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania County 

Battlefields Memorial, Public Law 101-214, 101st Cong, 1st sess. (11 December 1989).
 

38 Legislative Counsel to James C. Miller III, 11 January 1989, and attached draft bill to revise the 

boundaries, File FRSP Correspondence 1986-1992, NRHE Files. FRSP, Public Law 101-214, 101st Cong, 

1st sess. Carol Crawford to Bruce Vento, no date, Microfiche HR 875 FRSP, NPS Legislative Affairs 

Office.

39 House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Expanding the Boundaries of FRSP, 101st Cong., 1st

sess., 17 July 1989, H. Rep. 101-144, 3.

40 Heather Huyck, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 11 June 2010, 3, 6, 14-15, FRSP 

Archives. Quote on p. 15.
 

41 Zinck to D. French Slaughter, Jr., 1 June 1989, 1, Microfiche HR 875 FRSP, NPS Legislative Affairs 

Office.

42 Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania County Battlefields Memorial, Public Law 101-214, Section 5.

43 Huyck, transcript of interview, 11 June 2010, 17.

44 Ibid., 14.

45 Huyck could not recall if Lewis was involved with the FRSP bill but she did acknowledge his role later 

in shaping NPS laws about interpretation and the Civil War parks. See Ibid., 19.

46 Ibid. The author in chapter six places the 1989 boundary legislation‟s section on interpretation within the 

larger context of NPS and FRSP park interpretation.
 

47 Huyck, transcript of interview, 11 June 2010, 1-12. Quotes on p. 12.

48 Maria Burks to B. Franklin Cooling, 13 February 1990, 1, File Reading Copies February 1990, Cabinet 

2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, FRSP Expansion 

Act of 1989, 101st Cong., 1st sess., 21 November 1989, S. Rep. 101-220, 8. Maria Burks to Wayne Taylor, 

18 July 1990, 1, File Reading Copies July 1990, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.
 

49 Burks to Cooling, 13 February 1990, 1, 3. S. Rep. 101-220, 8.

50 Huyck, transcript of interview, 11 June 2010, 13.

51 “Reports: Gibbs Retiring,” Free Lance-Star, 5 March 1993.

52 Burks to Cooling, 13 February 1990, 1-2. Memorandum, Zinck to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic 

Region, 25 April 1988, Deed #293, FRSP Lands Files.

53 Mike Johnson, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 11 December 2009, 19-20, FRSP 

Archives. Quote on p. 20.
 

54 Memorandum, Zinck to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 25 April 1988, 1.

55 Burks to Cooling, 13 February 1990, 2.

56 NTS Senior Vice President to Zinck, 8 March 1989, 2, Deed #293, FRSP Lands Files. NTS and the Park 

Service reached a settlement in 2001 following the 1999 destruction of a section of the earthworks along 

Longstreet Drive. NTs paid a sum that went toward two restoration projects, the stone wall along the 

Sunken Road and an archeological investigation of Willis Hill and structures along the Sunken Road, as 

equivalent restoration work for the loss at Longstreet Drive. See Mark Barash to Robert White and Bruce 

Nesslage, 11 July 2001, and attached 19 March 2001 settlement agreement; and Park System Resource 

Protection Project Completion Report Fact Sheet, 2003, NTS Fawn Lake Earthworks I, both in Deed #293, 

FRSP Lands Files.

57 Burks to Cooling, 13 February 1990, 3.
 

58 Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 21. See also Daryl Lease, “Area Battlefield groups 

Hoping to Gain Ground,” Free Lance-Star, 24 March 1990; and FRSP Fiscal Year 1990 Budget Briefing 

Statement: Fawn Lake, 15 March 1990, 1, File Reading Copies March 1990, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP 

Basement Files. Preservationists also decried the impending destruction of one part of the NTS 

development, where Longstreet‟s flank attack occurred, and the mammoth sign helped crystallize that 

concern. Further discussion on the Longstreet flank attack area later in this chapter.

59 Charles McDaniel to Chairman, Support for HR 875, 2 May 1989, Microfiche HR 875 FRSP, NPS 

Legislative Affairs Office. Quotes from all three pp.

60 Zinck to Charles McDaniel, 31 May 1985; and McDaniel to Zinck, 3 June 1985, both in File L30 

Hilldrup, Cabinet 1, Drawer 2, FRSP Break Room.
 

61 Scott Rafshoon, “In Charge and On Guard,” Free Lance-Star, 3 December 1990. Maria Burks, 

transcription of oral history interview with the author, 4 May 2010, 10, FRSP Archives.

62 Burks, transcript of interview, 4 May 2010, 1.

63 Burks, as quoted by Rafshoon, “In Charge,” Free Lance-Star, 3 December 1990.

64 Burks, transcript of interview, 4 May 2010, 2-3.

65 Ibid., 11.
 

66 Burks, as quoted by Marie Joyce, “Saving a View of History,” Free Lance-Star, 3 April 1990.

67 NPS, The Vail Agenda: National Parks for the 21st Century (NPS, 1992), 2, 5-6, 24-28, 43, 62.

68 Burks to Clay Peters, 14 January 1993. Quotes on both pp.
 

69 FRSP, Related Areas Data Base, 1994, Index, Eric Mink‟s Office. Noel G. Harrison, Gazetteer of 

Historic Sites Related to FRSP, vol. I, 1986, acknowledgments, 1-2. Personal communication, Harrison to 

the author, 20 January 2010, FRSP Admin History Files. Personal communication, Eric Mink to author, 28 

October 2010, 2, FRSP Admin History Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1987, 13, File A2621 

Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1987, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

70 Zenzen, Battling for Manassas, 160.
 

71 Ibid., 160-61. Daryl Lease, “Senate Passes Bill to Expand Preservation Efforts,” Free Lance-Star, 3 

August 1990. FRSP, Annual Report, 1990, 3, File Reading Copies April 1991, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP 

Basement Files. Civil War Sites Advisory Commission Report on the Nation‟s Civil War Battlefields, 

1993, accessed January 2011 at http://www.nps.gov/history/hps/abpp/cwsac/cws0-1.html. See also the 

American Battlefield Protection Program website accessed January 2011 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/hps/abpp/. The ABPP now looks broadly at battlefields fought on American 

soil, including the Revolutionary War and War of 1812, that shaped the United States.

72 FRSP, Annual Report, 1990, 2.

73 Burks to Wayne Taylor, 15 October 1990, 1, File Reading Copies October 1990, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, 

FRSP Basement Files. Burks refers specifically to the 1986 GMP calling for a 200-foot buffer around the 

park, but the GMP/LPP do not have such a recommendation. They instead refer to cooperative agreements 

as ways to control visual intrusions. See FRSP, GMP, 1986, 19; FRSP, LPP, 1986, 28-29.
 

74 Burks to Wayne Taylor, 15 October 1990.

75 Ibid., 2; Burks, transcript of interview, 4 May 2010, 4. Memorandum, Burks to Regional Director, MidAtlantic Region, 25 April 1990, File Reading Copies April 1990; Burks to Friend, 20 September 1990, File 

Reading Copies September 1990; Burks to Catharine Gilliam, 10 January 1991, File Reading Copies 

January 1991, both in Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Melissa Jacobs, “Better Plans for a 

Better Community,” Free Lance-Star, 1 November 1990. FRSP, Annual Report, 1991, 3, File A2621 

Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1991, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

76 L. Kimball Payne to Burks, 2 October 1990, File L30 Related Lands 90, 91, 92, Cabinet 11, Drawer 3, 

FRSP Basement Files.

77 Burks to Taylor, 15 October 1990, 2.
 

78 FRSP, Related Areas Data Base, Index. Fax transmission sheet, Ginny Kaminski to Ashley Neville, 27 

February 1996, and attached FRSP Adjacent and Related Lands Initiative report, 1, File Related Lands 

Briefing Papers, Cabinet 11, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Workplan, FRSP Related Lands Study, July 

1991, File L30 Related Lands 90, 91, 92, Cabinet 11, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, 

Harrison to Peter Iris-Williams, MARO, 10 February 1992, File Reading Copies February 1992, Cabinet 2, 

Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Personal communication, Harrison, to the author, 8 January 2010, 1-2. 

Harrison started the work on the database in 1991 but due to health issues, had to take a break in 1993. 

Park historian Frank O‟Reilly and seasonal ranger Travis Lee Clements wrote the map narratives and

compiled the documentation. Harrison proofed the data base in 1994 for its delivery to the county.

79 Fax transmission sheet, Kaminski to Neville, 27 February 1996, and attached FRSP Adjacent and Related 

Lands Initiative report, 1-2. Supplemental Agreement/Amendment, Civil War Resources in Spotsylvania 

County Comprehensive Plan, June 1993, File L30 Coop Agreement NLT, Cabinet 1, Drawer 3, FRSP 

Break Room. FRSP, Annual Report, 1991, 3-4. FRSP, Annual Report, 1992, 2-3, File A2621 Annual 

Narrative Report for 1992, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Burks to Regional 

Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 2 June 1993, and attached Biannual Update of LPP, June 1993, File L24 BiAnn Update 6/93, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.
 

80 Fax transmission sheet, Kaminski to Neville, 27 February 1996, and attached FRSP Adjacent and Related 

Lands Initiative report, 1-2. FRSP Related Lands Program GIS Battlefields Database, March 1994, File 

L30 ABPP/IRD/GIS, Cabinet 1, Drawer 3, FRSP Break Room. FRSP, Annual Report, 1991, 3-4. FRSP, 

Annual Report, 1992, 2-3, File A2621 Annual Narrative Report for 1992; FRSP, Annual Report, 1993, 4, 

File A2621 1994 and 1995, both in Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Peter Samuel, Telephone 

Conversation Report, 6 April 1992, File L30 Related Lands 90, 91, 92, Cabinet 11, Drawer 3, FRSP 

Basement Files.

81 FRSP, Land Protection Plan, 1991, 39-41, FRSP Library.

82 Ibid., 39.

83 Draft, Administrative Guidelines for Assisting Landowners and Local Jurisdictions in Evaluating Civil 

War Battlefield Sites, 1994, File L32 Admin Guidelines (Related Lands); and John Hennessy to L. Kimball 

Payne, 27 June 1995, 1, File L30 Community Guide, both in Cabinet 1, Drawer 3, FRSP Break Room. A 

Community Guide to Protecting Civil War Battlefield Sites and Features in the Fredericksburg Region of 

Virginia, 1996, File L30 Related Lands 1993, Cabinet 11, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Fax 
 

transmission sheet, Kaminski to Neville, 27 February 1996, and attached FRSP Adjacent and Related 

Lands Initiative report, 2. 

84 Marti Leicester, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 2 March 2010, 1-4, FRSP 

Archives.

85 Ibid., 7.

86 Ibid., 11.
 

87 Information about National Heritage Areas accessed July 2011 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/heritageareas/FAQ/.

88 Zenzen, Fort Stanwix National Monument, 171-72. 

89 Memorandum, Outdoor Recreation Planner, Park Planning Branch to George Church, 6 July 1992, 3, File 

L30 Related Lands 90, 91, 92, Cabinet 11, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.
 

90 FRSP, Annual Report, 1991, 3. FRSP, Annual Report, 1993, 3.

91 Payne, transcript of interview, 26 April 2010, 10.

92 Corps of Engineers information accessed February 2011 at 

http://www.usace.army.mil/CECW/Pages/ww_reg_permit.aspx

93 Advisory Commission on Historic Preservation, accessed February 2011 at 

http://www.achp.gov/docs/nhpa%202008-final.pdf . Noel G. Harrison, “Mitigating Effects to Battlefield 

Landscapes: A National Park Service U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Partnership,” The George Wright 

Forum 14:1 (1997), 56-57.
 

94 Harold Wiggins, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 3 February 2010, 5, FRSP 

Archives.

95 Ibid., 2, 4; Harrison, “Mitigating Effects,” 57. Quote from the latter source.

96 Harrison, “Mitigating Effects,” 58-59, 64. For verification of the utility of the corridor concept, see also 

Martha Leicester to Morton Leibowitz, 25 May 1995, 2, File L30 Prison Expansion, Cabinet 1, Drawer 3, 

FRSP Break Room.
 

97 Bruce Williams to Distribution, 20 March 1995, 1, File L30 Corps of Engineers, Cabinet 1, Drawer 3, 

FRSP Break Room.

98 Wiggins, transcript of interview, 3 February 2010, 9.

99 Personal communication, Harrison to the author, 8 January 2010, 2.

100 Ibid., 3-4.

101 Wiggins, transcript of interview, 3 February 2010, 3.

102 Ibid., 6.

103 Chris Hornung, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 4 February 2010, 2, FRSP 

Archives.
 

104 Hornung, transcript of interview, 4 February 2010, 3-4, 6-7, 10-11. Honaker, transcript of interview, 4 

February 2010, 2.

105 Honaker, transcript of interview, 4 February 2010, 8.
 

106 Hornung, transcript of interview, 4 February 2010, 18.

107 A. Wilson Greene, conversation with the author, 4 February 2011.

108 FRSP, Annual Report, 1990, 3-4. Huyck, transcript of interview, 11 June 2010, 13. Burks to Kay and 

Pete Jorgensen, 13 February 1990, and attached piece for The Civil War Times, File Reading Copies 

February 1990; and FRSP Fiscal 1990 Budget Briefing Statement, 15 March 1990, 1-2, File Reading 

Copies March 1990, both in Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. B. F. Cooling was one of the 

“most outspoken individual preservationists,” according to Burks in the briefing statement. Scott 

Rafshoon, “Interior Secretary Visits Wilderness,” Free Lance-Star, 2 August 1990.

109 Memorandum, Burks to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 13 March 1991, 1, File Reading 

Copies March 1991, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

110 Rafshoon, “Administration Backs Park Expansion,” Free Lance-Star, 3 May 1989. Quote is a 

paraphrase by Rafshoon of what Zinck had said.
 

111 Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Expanding the Boundaries of FRSP, 102d Cong., 

2d sess., July 1992, S. Rpt. 102-335, 6-7.

112 Memorandum, Burks to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 13 March 1991, 1.

113 FRSP Fiscal 1990 Budget Briefing Statement, 15 March 1990, 2.

114 Ibid., 3. FRSP, Annual Report, 1990, 4. Senate Committee, Expanding the Boundaries of FRSP, 7.

115 Scott Rafshoon, “Interior Secretary Visits Wilderness,” Free Lance-Star, 2 August 1990. See also 

Memorandum, George Church to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 2 August 1990, File Reading 

Copies August 1990, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Rafshoon reported that NPS chief 

historian Bearss called the Longstreet flank attack site six times more important than the William Center 

tract at Manassas.
 

116 FRSP Criteria for Boundary Adjustment, June 1992, File W38 Legislation, Cabinet 1, Drawer 2, FRSP 

Break Room. Quote on p. 1. By May 1991, Lujan had established the American Battlefield Protection 

Foundation to serve as the fundraising arm of the protection program. The foundation put the Wilderness 

battlefield number one on its priority list. See “Foundation Campaigns for Battlefields,” Free Lance-Star, 

14 May 1991.

117 FRSP, Annual Report, 1991, 4-5. Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania County Battlefields Memorial, 

Public Law 102-541, 102d Cong., 2d sess., (27 October 1992).

118 Memorandum, Burks to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 13 March 1991, 1.

119 Senate Committee, Expanding the Boundaries of FRSP, 7.

120 L. Kimball Payne, III to Knute Knudson, Jr., 2 June 1992, File FRSP Correspondence 1992-, NRHE 

Files.

121 Editorial, “A Way to Piece Together Civil War Battlefields,” Free Lance-Star, 22 August 1990.
 

122 Kelby Hartson, “Fawn Lake Deal Drops Out of Sight,” Free Lance-Star, 24 October 1998. Senate 

Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Wilderness Battlefield, 105th Cong., 2d sess., S. Rpt. 105-

387, 1, 4-5.

123 Alexander Rives to Jerry Logan, 17 September 1998, File FRSP Wilderness, NPS Office of Legislative 

Affairs. Quotes on p. 2. See also email communication, Rives to Carol Anthony, Cindy Daly, Jacqui 

Handly, Elaine Sevy, and Kitty Roberts, 21 September 1998, File FRSP Wilderness, NPS Office of 

Legislative Affairs.

124 Third Amended Proffer Statement, NTS, 1 February 1999 and attached Michael Hannon to Board of 

Supervisors, 29 January 1999, File W38 Legislation WBF Boundary Adjustment, Cabinet 1, Drawer 2, 

FRSP Break Room. Christine Neuberger, “Clock Ticking in Wilderness,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 2 

May 1999.

125 Hennessy, as quoted by Kelby Hartson, “Deal Buys Time for Historic Land,” Free Lance-Star, 10 

February 1999.
 

126 Bateman quoted by Kelby Hartson, “Battle Cry Sounds to Save Wilderness,” Free Lance-Star, 21 July 

1999. See also Kelby Hartson, “Lawmakers File Bills on Wilderness,” 5 May 1999; Elizabeth Pezzullo, 

“Land Buy Wins OK in House,” 13 October 1999; Elizabeth Pezzullo, “Congress OKs Buy for Park,” 25 

November 1999, all in Free Lance-Star. House Committee on Resources, Addition to Wilderness 

Battlefield, Virginia, 106th Cong., 1st sess., 4 October 1999, H. Rpt. 106-362, 2.

127 Hennessy, as quoted by Pezzullo, “Congress OKs Buy for Park.” Wilderness Battlefield Extension Act, 

Public Law 106-150, 106th Cong., 1st sess. (9 December 1999).

128 Memorandum, Michael Hannon to Rebel Powell, 6 February 2000, 1, File W38 Legislation WBF 

Boundary Adjustment, Cabinet 1, Drawer 2, FRSP Break Room.

129 Sponaugle, as quoted by Elizabeth Pezzullo, “Victory in the Wilderness,” Free Lance-Star, 17 April 

2002. See also Elizabeth Pezzullo, “Green Light for Battlefield,” Free Lance-Star, 2 November 2000. 

Boyd Sponaugle to Grayson Hanes, 21 January 2001, File W38 Legislation WBF Boundary Adjustment, 

Cabinet 1, Drawer 2, FRSP Break Room.

130 Leicester, transcript of interview, 2 March 2010, 16.
 

131 FRSP, Annual Report, 1991, 4; FRSP, Annual Report, 1992, 4; FRSP, Annual Report, 1993, 4.

132 FRSP, Annual Report, CY 1994-FY 1995, 6, File A2621 Annual Report 1994 1995, Cabinet 14, Drawer 

1, FRSP Basement Files.

133 Memorandum, Burks to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 12 July 1990, 1, File Reading Copies 

July 1990, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. A Wilson Greene, conversation with the author, 4 

February 2011. The author needs confirmation that this donation took place.

134 Information on Slaughter Pen Farm accessed February 2011 at 

http://www.nps.gov/frsp/photosmultimedia/slaughterpen.htm; 

http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/fredericksburg/fredericksburg-2010/. 
 

135 Leicester as quoted by Gary Rhodes, “Joining Forces for Preservation,” Free Lance-Star, 1 July 1995. 

See also FRSP, Annual Report, CY 1994 to FY 1995, 15; Leicester, transcript of interview, 2 March 2010, 

13-14.

136 FRSP, Annual Report, 1996, 12, File A2621 Annual Report 1996, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP 

Basement Files.

137 Jim Toler, “Protecting Historic Lands,” Free Lance-Star, 20 September 1996. Richardson, transcript of 

interview, 9 December 2009, 3.

138 Richardson, transcript of interview, 9 December 2009, 2-3. Mike Greenfield, transcription of oral 

history interview with the author, 10 December 2010, 15-16, FRSP Archives.

139 Richardson, transcript of interview, 9 December 2009, 4. 
 

140 Leicester, transcript of interview, 2 March 2010, 14-15.

141 Memorandum, Krick to Leicester and John Hennessy, no date [c. September 1995], File D30 Proposed 

Sunken Road Closing, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Quotes on both pp.

142 Jim Toler, “Civil War Preservation „Irons in the Fire,‟” Free Lance-Star, 1 May 1997. Leicester, 

transcript of interview, 2 March 2010, 16. Leicester stated that Frances Kennedy, wife of NPS Director 

Roger Kennedy, worked behind the scenes to get support from the Civil War Trust.

143 Hennessy, quoted by Kiran Krishnamurthy, “Decision on Montfort Property in Hands of Nuns Who 

Own It,” Free Lance-Star, 9 October 1996.

144 Toler, “„Irons in the Fire.‟” Memorandum, Boyd Sponaugle to Leicester, Notification of closing, 8 

August 1997, 1, Deed #02-103, FRSP Lands Files.
 

145 Richardson, as quoted by Ted Byrd, “A Victory for Preservation,” Free Lance-Star, 23 June 1997.

146 Richardson, transcript of interview, 9 December 2009, 6-8.

147 Richardson, as quoted by Jim Toler, “Enos Richardson, John Mitchell,” Free Lance-Star, 27 December 

1997. See also Memorandum, Chief, Title and Closing Unit, Land Resources Program Center, Northeast 

Regional Office, 27 August 1998, Deed #329, FRSP Lands Files.

148 Jim Toler, “Historic Land To Be Protected,” Free Lance-Star, 27 May 1998.

149 Mitchell, as quoted by Jim Toler, “Civil War Trust Sells Piece of Battlefield to Park Service,” Free 

Lance-Star, 4 May 1998.
 

150 Alexander Rives, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 19 February 2010, 1-2, 8-9, 

FRSP Archives. Ted Byrd, “Area Battlefield Gets New Leader,” 12 February 1998; and Elizabeth 

Pezzullo, “County Set to Hear Talk of the Town,” 3 November 2002, both in Free Lance-Star.

151 Rives, as quoted by Elizabeth Pezzullo, “Green Light for Battlefield,” Free Lance-Star, 2 November 

2000.

152 Rives, transcript of interview, 19 February 2010, 8.

153 Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 28.

154 Rives, transcript of interview, 19 February 2010, 8-9. Quote on p. 9.

155 FRSP, Annual Report, 1998, 1, File A2621 Annual Reports, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement 

Files. The author needs confirmation of the total land acquisition money Rives obtained. 
 

156 The author thanks City of Fredericksburg Senior Planner Erik Nelson for describing the major issues 

related to the Outer Connector proposal and providing associated documents. The following documents are 

from the City of Fredericksburg‟s Planning Department, with copies of relevant pages kept in FRSP Admin 

History Files. US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and VDOT, 

Outer Connector Study Draft Environmental Impact Statement and Section 4(F) Evaluation, 1997, 1-7, 1-8, 

Exhibit 2-9; FWHA and VDOT, Outer Connector Study Northwest Quadrant Supplemental Draft EIS and 

Section 4(F) Evaluation, 2001.

157 Martha K. Leicester to Ken Wilkinson, 26 March 1997, 1-2, Erik Nelson documents, FRSP Admin 

History Files. Quote on p. 2. Wilkinson served as VDOT‟s Environmental Program Planner.

158 Robert H. Reardon, Jr. to Roberto Fonseca-Martinez, FWHA Division Administrator, 30 November 

1997, 2, Erik Nelson documents, FRSP Admin History Files.

159 R. Thomas Van Arsdall and Rita G. Van Arsdall to Earl T. Robb, VDOT Environmental Administrator, 

28 December 1997, 5, Erik Nelson documents, FRSP Admin History Files.
 

160 Elizabeth S. Merritt, National Trust‟s Deputy General Counsel to Roberto Fonseca-Martinez and Earl T. 

Robb, 1 August 2001, 3, Erik Nelson documents, FRSP Admin History Files.

161 The city had supported in 1981 study of a beltway, but subsequent experience had convinced the city to 

change its perspective on the idea.

162 Marvin S. Bollinger, Fredericksburg City Manager, to L. Kimball Payne, III, Spotsylvania County 

Administrator and C. M. Williams, Jr., Stafford County Administrator, 25 April 1994; Erik F. Nelson to 

Ken Wilkinson, 25 August 1997; Bolinger to Wilkinson, 15 January 2002, all in Erik Nelson documents, 

FRSP Admin History Files.
 

163 Quote from City of Fredericksburg, Resolution 01-43; City of Fredericksburg, Resolution 01-42, both 

dated 26 June 2001; Ken Wilkinson to Marvin S. Bolinger, 4 December 2001, 1, all in Erik Nelson 

documents, FRSP Admin History Files.

164 “Road May Carve Hallowed Ground,” National Parks, May-June 1998, 18-19. Elizabeth Pezzullo, 

“National Exposure Aids Effort to Save Battlefield,” 15 February 1999; Elizabeth Pezzullo, “Site Gets Top 

Status,” 15 June 1998, both in Free Lance-Star. Deborah Fitts, “Huge Development Proposed at 

Chancellorsville,” Civil War News, August 2002. John Hennessy, personal communication with the author, 

26 March 2010, FRSP Admin History Files. Marcus, transcript of interview, 27 May 2010, 8-11. 

Christopher Shea, “Fighting Back,” Preservation, May/June 2010, 30. Rachel F. Seidman, 

“Chancellorsville Battlefield,” accessed June 2011 at 

http://www.thehistorychannelclub.com/articles/articletype/articleview/articleid/97/chancellorsvillebattlefield. Erik Nelson, personal communication with the author, 27 June 2011, FRSP Admin History 

Files.

165 Rives, transcript of interview, 19 February 2010, 9. See also FRSP, Annual Report, 1998, 2; FRSP, 

Annual Report, 1999, 2; and FRSP, Annual Report, 2000, 2, all in File A2621 Annual Reports, Cabinet 14, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

166 Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 7.

167 Ibid., 11-12.
 

168 Greenfield, transcript of interview, 10 December 2009, 5, 14. Quote on p. 14.

169 Ibid., 4-5. FRSP, Law Enforcement Needs Assessment, March 2000, 11-12, FRSP Admin History Files. 

The author thanks Mike Greenfield for providing this document.

170 Memorandum, Mike Greenfield to Steve Shackelton, 21 July 1999, 1-3. Greenfield, transcript of 

interview, 10 December 2009, 6. OF Northington, Monthly Narrative Report, March 1958, 7; OF 

Northington, Monthly Narrative Report, September 1959, 2, both in File A2823 Jul 57- Dec 59 FRSP, Box 

188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA Archives II.
 

171 FRSP, Law Enforcement Needs Assessment, March 2000, 9. FRSP, Annual Report, 1992, 7. Personal 

communication, Greenfield to the author, 18 January 2010, 1, FRSP Admin History Files. Memorandum, 

Greenfield to Dennis Kennedy, 23 May 2004, FRSP Admin History Files. Amy Satterthwaite, “Civil War 

Treasures Can Be Costly,” 23 April 1988; Elizabeth Pezzullo, “Ad-monishing Relic Thieves,” 2 October 

2002, both in Free Lance-Star. Brooke A. Masters, “Two Sentenced for Digging Up Relics,” Washington 

Post, 20 May 1998. Greenfield, transcript of interview, 10 December 2009, 6.

172 Personal communication, Greenfield to the author, 18 January 2010, 1. FRSP, Annual Report, CY 1994 

and FY 1995, 11. 
 

173 FRSP, Annual Report, 1990, 5. Personal communication, Greenfield to the author, 10 January 2010, 

FRSP Admin History Files. Amy Satterthwaite, “Artifact from Civil War Stolen from Battlefield Center,” 

Free Lance-Star, 4 September 1990. Theft Case #900297, 31 August 1990, FRSP Admin History Files. 

The note came to the park in 1949, according to OF Northington, Monthly Narrative Report, December 

1949, 3, File A2823 Jul 49-Dec 51 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P-11, RG 79, NARA Archives II. The Cornwall 

note theft certainly has not been the only loss over the years. Superintendent Northington noted in 1952 the 

theft of a dragoon type pistol from the Fredericksburg museum building. This was the third theft from the 

museum since its existence, and all thefts had been of historic firearms. See OF Northington, Monthly 

Narrative Report, February 1952, 2, File A2823 Jun 52- Dec 53 FRSP, Box 188, Entry P-11, RG 79, 

NARA Archives II. Information about reenacting sailing the wooden boats from 1953 photograph, File 

Reenact sending small boats, Fred Box 10, FRSP Photo Archives.

174 Personal communication, Greenfield to the author, 10 January 2010.

175 Johnson, transcript of interview, 10 December 2009, 33.

176 FRSP, Law Enforcement Needs Assessment, March 2000, 9.

177 FRSP Annual Reports: 1986, File A2621 NPS Annual Report 1986-87. Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP 

Basement Files. 1990, 4; 1991, 6; 1992, 5; 1998, 7.
 

178 FRSP, Law Enforcement Needs Assessment, March 2000, 10. Greenfield, transcript of interview, 10 

December 2009, 2-3. Johnson, transcript of interview, 11 December 2009, 2-3. Leicester, transcript of 

interview, 2 March 2010, 10.

179 FRSP, Annual Reports: 1992, 8; 1993, 11; CY 1994/ FY 1995, 15; 1996, 13; 1998, 5, 6; 1999, 4. 

FRSP, Annual Report, 1996-1997, 2, File A2621 Annual Report 1997/1998, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP 

Basement Files.

180 FRSP, Annual Reports, 1986, 2; 1993, 2; 1996, 16; 1998, 7; 1999, 5; 2000, 4.
 

181 This quoted statement is a paraphrase of Huyck. See Huyck, transcript of interview, 11 June 2010, 13-

14.














1

 

1

FRSP, Interpretive Prospectus, 1973, 2, FRSP Library.

2 House Committee on Military Affairs, Inspection of the Battle Fields in and around Fredericksburg and 

Spotsylvania Courthouse, Va., 68th Cong., 1st sess., 2 May 1924, H. Rep. 634, 2.
 

3 The author emphasizes that no documents from the park‟s establishment period suggested splitting up the 

battlefields into separate park units. On separate tour routes for each battlefield, see FRSP, Long Range 

Interpretive Plan, 2001, 19, FRSP Library. See also A. Wilson Greene, transcription of oral history 

interview with the author, 24 February 2010, 5, FRSP Archives.
 

4 Quote and listing of objectives from FRSP, Interpretive Prospectus, 1973, 2, FRSP Library. Freeman 

Tilden, Interpreting Our Heritage, 3rd ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1977), 8-9. 

Evidence of the continued importance of Tilden‟s book to NPS interpretation can be found in the fact that 

the author participated in a 2007 National Council on Public History working group about NPS 

interpretation and history, and the key book the working group read and discussed was Interpreting Our 

Heritage. The group was organized by an NPS interpretive ranger.
 

5 Greene, transcript of interview, 24 February 2010, 2.

6

Peter Carmichael, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 1 September 2010, 12, FRSP 

Archives.

7 Eric Mink, personal communication with the author, 28 October 2010, 2, FRSP Admin History Files.

8 Greene, transcript of interview, 24 February 2010, 7. Frank O‟Reilly, personal communication with the 

author, November 2010, 1, FRSP Admin History Files. John Hennessy, personal communication with the 

author, 26 October 2010, 2, FRSP Admin History Files.

9 Mink, personal communication with the author, 28 October 2010, 1.

10 John Hennessy, park comments to draft chapter six, 1, FRSP Admin History Files.

11 O‟Reilly, personal communication with the author, November 2010, 2-3.
 

12 Noel Harrison, personal communication with the author, 26 October 2010, 1, FRSP Admin History Files.

13 Mink, personal communication with the author, 28 October 2010, 2.

14 Pfanz, personal communication with the author, 25 October 2010, 1.

15 Hennessy, personal communication with the author, 26 October 2010, 2. Mink personal communication 

with the author, 28 October 2010, 2.

16 Hennessy, personal communication with the author, 26 October 2010, 1; Carmichael, transcript of oral 

history interview, 1 September 2010, 7; Harrison, personal communication with the author, 26 October 

2010, 1; Pfanz, personal communication with the author, 25 October 2010, 2.
 

17 FRSP, IP, 1973, 13.

18 Ibid., 21.

19 Carmichael, transcript of interview, 1 September 2010, 11.

20 Ibid., 10. Donald Pfanz, personal communication with the author, 25 October 2010, FRSP Admin 

History Files.
 

21 Greene, transcript of interview, 24 February 2010, 4-5.

22 Carmichael, transcript of interview, 1 September 2010, 14, 16.
 

23 NPS, Interpretation at Civil War Sites: A Report to Congress, March 2000. Survey found at 

http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/icws/icws_review.htm#top, accessed January 2011.

24 Dwight T. Pitcaithley, “„A Cosmic Threat‟: The National Park Service Addresses the Causes of the 

American Civil War,” in Slavery and Public History: The Tough Stuff of American Memory, edited by 

James Oliver Horton and Lois E. Horton (New York: The New Press, 2006), 171-72.
 

25 Ibid., 173. Holding the High Ground: Principles and Strategies for Managing and Interpreting Civil 

War Battlefield Landscapes, Proceedings of Conference, August 1998, assessed January 2011 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/categrs/mili2/high_ground_1998.pdf. The National Park Service 

followed up on this conference with another meeting at Ford‟s Theatre in 2000 and another at Richmond in 

2001. See http://www.nps.gov/history/history/categrs/mili2/high_ground_2001.pdf, accessed January 

2011.
 

26 Quote from Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to Chief, Branch of Equipment Services, Harpers Ferry 

Center, 15 January 1975, File D6215 CVC Slide Program, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. 

See also Memorandum, Charles Marshall to Director, Denver Service Center, 20 December 1972; 

Memorandum, William Smith to Director, Northeast Region, 19 January 1973, 1; and Memorandum, 

Vincent Mauro to Superintendent FRSP, 26 November 1974, all in File D2615 Renovation of FVC 

Exhibits 1973-1974, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

27 Quote from Robert Krick, Draft Task Directive, AV Script, Fredericksburg NMP, 5 May 1976, 1, File 

D6215 Slide Program, FVC, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. See also Joanne Young, A 

Medley of Voices: Treatment Proposed for Sound/Slide Program for FVC, no date; and Memorandum, 

James Zinck to Manager, Harpers Ferry Center, 23 March 1981, both in File D6215 FVC audiovisual 

program 1974-81, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. 

28 Memorandum, Richard Smith to Acting Superintendent FRSP, 12 September 1980 and attached 

Fredericksburg Visitor Center Project, 12 September 1980; and Memorandum, Robert Krick to Regional 

Director, Mid-Atlantic, 3 October 1980, both in File D6215 FVC Renovation Jan-Feb 1981, Cabinet 15, 
 

Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1981, 3, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual 

Report 1981 and 1982; FRSP, Annual Report, 1992, 6, File A2621 1992 Annual Report; and FRSP, Annual 

Report, 1993, 8, File A2621 1993 Annual Report, all in Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. 

FRSP, Annual Report, 1984, 5, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1984, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1,

FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Chester Harris to Regional Chief, I&VS, 16 December 1983, 1; 

Krick to John Bank, 6 April 1984, 1; Memorandum, Krick to Marilyn Wandrus, 11 April 1984, 1; and Press 

Release, Permanent New Exhibit of “Soldier Art” at Fredericksburg, 25 June 1984, 1, all in File D6215 

New FVC Exhibits Winter 1983-84, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, James 

Zinck to Director, 5 November 1985, File Reading Copies November 1985, Cabinet 2, Drawer 4, FRSP 

Basement Files. Maria Burks to George Minnucci, 5 March 1992, File Reading Files March 1992, Cabinet 

2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

29 Quotes from Memorandum, James Zinck to Manager, Harpers Ferry Center, 18 April 1984, attached 

script, 13, File D6215 Planning for New AV Program for FVC, Fall 1983, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP 

Basement Files. See also Memorandum, Zinck to Manager, Harpers Ferry Center, 22 December 1982; 

Memorandum, Zinck to Fred Jessen, 9 February 1983; and Memorandum, Zinck to Manager, Harpers Ferry 

Center, 29 September 1983, all in File D6215 Electric Map Program, FVC, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP 

Basement Files. Memorandum, Zinck to Manager, Harpers Ferry Center, 23 March 1981. Memorandum, 

Frederick Jessen to Zinck, 8 October 1981, 1, File D6215 FVC Audiovisual Program 1974-81, Cabinet 15,

Drawer 4; Memorandum, Zinck to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 4 November 1985, File 

Reading Copies November 1985, Cabinet 2, Drawer 4, all in FRSP Basement Files.

30 Robert Krick, Fredericksburg Visitor Center Slide Program Proposal, December 1983, 1, D6215 

Planning for New AV Program for FVC Fall 1983, Cabinet 15 Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.
 

31 FRSP, Annual Report, 1991, 4, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Reports 1991, Cabinet 14, Drawer 

1; and Maria Burks to Michael Nagg, 23 May 1991, File Reading Copies May 1991, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, 

both in FRSP Basement Files.

32 Tenney Ross to the Mayor and Council of the City of Fredericksburg, 9 August 1929; City of 

Fredericksburg, Deed to Battlefield Park Commission, 13 August 1931; Copy, Resolution, Board of 

Supervisors, County of Spotsylvania, 9 June 1936; Memorandum, Branch Spalding to Director, 2 

December 1941; Memorandum, Mike Sweeney to Superintendent, 25 August 1976, 1, all in Deed #38, 

FRSP Lands Files. The City of Fredericksburg annexed all of the Sunken Road in the early 1940s. See 

Memorandum, Spalding to the Director, 18 April 1941, Deed #38, FRSP Lands Files. FRSP Master Plan, 

1969, 57, FRSP Library. “Sunken Road to be Changed to One-Way,” 19 May 1972; and Larry Evans,

“Sunken Road Still Two-Way to Some,” 2 October 1972, both in Free Lance-Star. Concerns over keeping 

Montfort Academy students safe resulted in the early 1960s with the city building a narrow sidewalk on the 

east side of the Sunken Road. See “Sunken Road Walkway Plan Gets Go-Ahead,”12 April 1963, Free 

Lance-Star.
 

33 NPS, General Management Plan, FRSP, 1986, 72-73, FRSP Library. Memorandum, James Zinck to 

Regional Solicitor, Northeast Region, 2 July 1986, 1; Memorandum, Anthony Conte to Superintendent, 

FRSP, 18 July 1986; Zinck to Mayor Lawrence Davies, 27 March 1987, 1-2; Walter Sheffield to Zinck, 19 

January 1989; Robert Krick to Mayor Davies, 4 April 1990; George Church to Mayor Davies, 30 July 

1990; Thomas Slaydon to Brian Dendis, 19 September 1990, all in File D30 Proposed Sunken Road 

Closing, C15, D2, FRSP Basement Files. Jim Hall, “Sunken Road Trial Closure Is Proposed, 2 April 1987; 

Editorial, “Protecting the History of the Sunken Road,” 4 April 1987; Jim Hall, “Park Service Loses 

Skirmish in Sunken Road Campaign,” 27 May 1987; Editorial, “Council Loses the Battle of Sunken Road,” 

27 May 1987; Keith Epps, “Question Arises Again: Close Sunken Road?” 24 January 1989; Keith Epps, 

“Summer Closing Slated for City‟s Sunken Road,” 16 March 1989; Epps, “Sunken Road Battlefield to 

Reopen at Public Hearing,” 14 August 1989; Epps, “Traffic Study Shows Impact of Road Closure,” 21 

August 1989; Epps, “Federal Forces Lose Skirmish at Sunken Road,” 9 May 1990; Epps, “Park Service 

Plies New Sunken Road Strategy,” 13 August 1990, all in Free Lance-Star.
 

34 Mike Voss, “City Connector Ready for Traffic,” 17 November 1995; Elizabeth Pezzullo, “Residents 

Weigh in on Sunken Road Redesign,” 31 May 2002; Jessica Allen, “Sunken Road Surveyed,” 8 March 

2004; Pezzullo, “Will Area Take Road to Past?” 10 March 2001; Elizabeth Waters, “Sunken Road Cul-deSac Goes to Vote,” 21 May 2001; George Whitehurst, “Sunken Road, Old Again,” 30 May 2005; Rusty 

Dennon, “Stone‟s Throw to History,” 23 September 2004; Pezzullo, “Park Service Lobbies To Restore 

Road‟s Look,” 12 January 2001; Becky Piedell, “Sunken Road Begins a Trip Back in Time,” 19 June 2004; 

Becky Piedel, “Park to Restore Avenue,” 17 August 2004, all in Free Lance-Star.

35 Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to Chief, Division of Land Acquisition, Mid-Atlantic Region, 26 

September 1975; Memorandum, John Cook to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 5 November 1975; 

Prince Woodard to Freeland, 20 February 1980; Memorandum, James Zinck to Regional Director, MidAtlantic Region, 27 October 1981; William Anderson to Zinck, 2 February 1984; Zinck to R. L. Miller, 19 

June 1984; Herbert Rothenberg to Thomas Williams, 21 May 1987, 1; and Rothenberg to Zinck, 14 

October 1987, all in File Deed #282, FRSP Lands Files. Michael Zitz, “College and Park Service Make a 

Land Deal,” 5 December 1987, Free Lance-Star. The university later sold the 24 acres, and the land now 

holds a subdivision.
 

36 Quote from Henry Magaziner, Field Trip Report, 2-3 August 1976, 9, File Regional Trip Reports and 

Reserve Monies, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. See also the rest of this report, especially pp. 

1-2, 8, 10. Memorandum, Robert Krick to Superintendent, 17 November 1978, File K1817 Interpretive 

Planning 1971-1980, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Krick, Innis House Rehabilitation and 

Use, October 1985; and Press Release, Open House at Newly Restored Battlefield Landmark, 2 July 1987, 

both in File H30 Restoration of Innis House 1986-87, Cabinet 16, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Robert 

Freis, “Scars of Old Battle Reopened,” 17 March 1986, Free Lance-Star. Reed Engle, Field Trip Report, 

29 October 1985, 4, File A2623 MARO Trip Reports 1984-86; and Memorandum, Acting Associate 

Director, Cultural Resources to Superintendent, FRSP, 15 January 1988, 1, File A2623 MARO Trip 

Reports 1987-, both in Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. Information on the Martha 

Stephens/Innis marker from Donald C. Pfanz, History through Eyes of Stone: A Survey of Civil War 

Monuments near Fredericksburg, Virginia, 1983, rev. 2006, 22, Eric Mink‟s Files, FRSP; and 

www.nps.gov.frsp/photosmultimedia/sr.htm.

37 FRSP, Outline for Wayside Exhibits, August 1998, 3-5, FRSP Library.
 

38 Donald C. Pfanz, History through Eyes of Stone: A Survey of Civil War Monuments near 

Fredericksburg, Virginia, 1983, rev. 2006, 67-68, Eric Mink‟s Files, FRSP. FRSP Land Protection Plan, 

1986, 41-42, FRSP Library.

39 FRSP Master Plan, 1969, 35, FRSP Library. Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to Regional Director, 

Northeast Region, 5 November 1973; and Memorandum, Richard Schwartz to Freeland, 25 July 1975, both 

in File Deed #174, FRSP Lands Files. James Moser, NPS Buys Parcel off Mine Road, Free Lance-Star, 21 

September 1974. Memorandum, Freeland to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 15 March 1976; and 

Memorandum, Schwartz to Freeland, 7 September 1976, both in File Deed #205, FRSP Lands Files. 

Donald C. Pfanz, History through Eyes of Stone: A Survey of Civil War Monuments near Fredericksburg, 

Virginia, 1983, rev. 2006, 68, Eric Mink‟s Files, FRSP.
 

40 FRSP General Management Plan, 1986, 77-78, FRSP Library. Jerry Rogers to Paul Trible, 12 June 

1984, 2, File FRSP Correspondence 1986-1992, NRHE Files.

41 John Hennessy, line-by-line comments to draft chapter six, May 2010, 9, FRSP Admin History Files.

42 FRSP, Annual Report, 1985, 8, File A2621 1985 Annual Report, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1; FRSP, Annual 

Report, 1981, 10, File A26211981 and 1982 Annual Reports; James Zinck to Randy Swart, 12 June 1989, 

1, File D30 Hiker-Biker Trails and Routes, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, all in FRSP Basement Files. FRSP 

General Management Plan, 1986, 77-78, FRSP Library. Jerry Rogers to Paul Trible, 12 June 1984, 2, File 

FRSP Correspondence 1986-1992, NRHE Files.

43FRSP General Management Plan, 1986, 77, FRSP Library. FRSP, Outline for Wayside Exhibits, August 

1998, 3-5, FRSP Library. 
 

44 Memorandum, JC Harrington to Director, 24 March 1964, File Deed #200, FRSP Lands Files.

45 Preliminary Historic Resource Study, Chatham, October 1982, 234-39, FRSP Library.

46 Ibid., 240.

47 Guy Friddell, “Millionaire‟s Business: People,” Roanoke Times, no date [late 1975, early 1976], File 

Chatham People and Resources, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

48 Colgate Darden, Jr., as quoted by Friddell, “Millionaire‟s Business: People.”

49 Ibid.
 

50 Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 24 December 1975; draft 

letter from John Lee Pratt to Conrad Wirth, c. 1963; A. F. Rollins to John Lee Pratt, 5 December 1963; and 

Memorandum, J. C. Harrington to Director, 24 March 1964, all in File Deed #200, FRSP Lands Files. 

Preliminary Historic Resource Study, Chatham, October 1982, 241, FRSP Library.

51 Oscar Northington, as quoted by Paul Muse, “Civil War Bridge Sites Given to Park Service,” Free 

Lance-Star, 14 March 1964. See also Preliminary Historic Resource Study, Chatham, October 1982, 242, 

FRSP Library.
 

52 Gerald Carr and edited by Harlan D. Unrau, Chatham Historic Structure Report: Architectural Data 

Section, 1977, rev. 1983, vi, 5,7-9, 15, 22-23, FRSP Library. NPS, Environmental Assessment, Chatham, 

1980, rev. 1982, 14, File H30 Chatham Environmental Assessment, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement 

Files.

53 The Federal occupation of the estate during the Civil War did leave the grounds trampled and some of 

the original wood paneling and doors taken down for firewood, but the buildings themselves did not sustain 

any shell damage. See Preliminary Historic Resource Study, Chatham, October 1982, 179, FRSP Library.

54 Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to Key Staff, FRSP, 7 July 1976, 1, File Chatham Rehab, Cabinet 9, 

Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Freeland to Associate Regional Director, Operations, MidAtlantic Region, 3 August 1976, 1; Memorandum, Nathan Golub to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic

Region, 26 March 1976, 1; Memorandum, Freeland to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 2 April 

1976, 1, all in File Chatham Development Planning 1974-77, both in Cabinet 9, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement 

Files. Paul Sullivan, “Chatham Is Prepared for Opening Next Fall;” and 11 December 1976. Larry Evans, 

“Company‟s Coming,” 7 October 1977, both in Free Lance-Star.
 

55 Preliminary Historic Resource Study, Chatham, October 1982, 34, 37, 49, 129, 134, 144, 155, FRSP 

Library. See also www.nps.gov/frsp/chatham.htm. About possible locations for Chatham‟s slave quarters, 

see http://npsfrsp.wordpress.com/2010/04/01/j-horace-lacy%E2%80%99s-chatham-quarters-part-1/, and 

http://npsfrsp.wordpress.com/2010/04/02/j-horace-lacy%E2%80%99s-chatham-quarters-part-2/, accessed 

July 2011.

56 Memorandum, Stuart Maule to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 2 November 1976, and attached 

drawings; Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 20 January 1976, and 

attached draft Preliminary Plan for the Operation of Chatham Manor, 16 January 1976, both in File 

Chatham Development Planning 1974-77, Cabinet 9, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

57 Four portraits of previous Chatham owners and three pieces of furniture associated with the house were 

put on display in 1996 following donations. Another painting which had once hung at Chatham also was 

donated to the park. See NPS Press Release, Historic Furnishings Put on Display at Chatham, 18 April 

1996, File D6215 Museum and Exhibit Activities 1994-, Cabinet 15, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.
 

58 Quote by Krick in Memorandum, Robert Krick to Dixon Freeland, 11 February 1974, File Deed # 200, 

FRSP Lands Files. See also Robin Gallaher, “Pratt Auction Draws Rich, Curious Crowd,” Richmond 

Times-Dispatch, 9 May 1976. Memorandum, Nathan Golub to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 26 

March 1976, File Chatham Development Planning 1974-77, Cabinet 9, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. 

Paul Sullivan, “Chatham Is Prepared for Opening Next Fall,” Free Lance-Star, 11 December 1976.
 

59 On Drayton Hall, see http://www.draytonhall.org/preservation/overview/, accessed January 2011. On 

MIMA, see Joan M. Zenzen, Bridging the Past: Administrative History of Minute Man National Historical 

Park (GPO, 2010), accessed January 2011 at 

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mima/mima_admin.pdf.

60 FRSP General Management Plan, 1986, 28-29; FRSP Interpretive Prospectus: Chatham and Ellwood 

Houses, 1982, 3-5, both in FRSP Library. Memorandum, Reed Engle to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic 

Region, 10 August 1984, 1-2; and Memorandum, Reed Engle to Acting Associate Regional Director, CRM, 

MARO, 29 October 1985, 2-4, both in File A2623 MARO Trip Reports 1984-86, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, 

FRSP Basement Files. James Zinck to Jean Printz, 4 June 1982; Memorandum, Don Castleberry to James 

Zinck, 30 July 1984, and attached xxx Form; Press Release, National Park Service Restores Formal Garden 

at Chatham Manor, 29 May 1985, all in File D32 Restoration of Chatham Gardens, Cabinet 15, Drawer 3, 

FRSP Basement Files. Ron Sauder, “Chatham Manor Blooming Again,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 18 

July 1985. James Zinck, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 22 March 2010, 8-10, 

FRSP Archives. Senga Mortimer, “The Romance of the Rose,” House & Garden (April 1997): 150-57.

James Zinck, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 22 March 2010, 8-9, FRSP Archives. 

A. Wilson Greene, transcript of interview, 24 February 2010, 12-13. Alexander Rives, transcription of oral 

history interview with the author, 19 February 2010, 4-5, FRSP Archives.
 

61 Memorandum, Charles Wyatt to Files, 26 April 1976, 1; Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to Regional 

Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 18 June 1976; Memorandum, Freeland to Dave Kimball, 17 September 

1976, 1; Memorandum, Barron Bohnet to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 17 September 1976; 

Memorandum, Jack Galloway to Assistant Manager, Mid-Atlantic Region/North Atlantic Team, DSC, 14 

July 1980, 1, 3, all in File D18 DCP Chatham, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP 

Environmental Assessment Chatham Manor Unit, 1982, 33, File H30 Chatham Environmental Assessment, 

Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, James Zinck to Regional Solicitor, 12 August 

1983; James Zinck to Dr. and Mrs. Louis Massad, 6 September 1983; Memorandum, Anthony Conte to 

James Zinck, 7 September 1983; David Wright to Russell Roberts, 4 October 1984; and James Zinck to D. 

French Slaughter, 24 June 1986, 1, all in File D30 Chatham Lane Access Question, Cabinet 13, Drawer 4, 

FRSP Basement Files.

62 The growth of developments surrounding Salem Church is discussed in chapter four.
 

63 FRSP, Annual Report, draft, 1972, 10, File A2623 Annual Report 1972, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP 

Basement Files. Memorandum, Chester Brooks to Dixon Freeland, 19 June 1975, and attached report by 

Henry Magaziner, File H30 Salem Church Historic Structures, Cabinet 9, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. 

Edward Aschmann, Report of Architectural Survey and Inspection of Salem Church, 7 March 1961, 2, File 

Deed # 112, FRSP Lands Files. “Sunday Rites to Reopen Historic Salem Church,” 24 May 1977, Free 

Lance-Star. Program, Dedication of Restored Old Salem Church, 29 May 1977, File A8215 Salem Church 

Dedication, Cabinet 8, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Ralph Happel, The History of Salem Church, 

Section 4, Historical Data, part of Old Salem Church : Chancellorsville Campaign, 1968, 60-61, FRSP 

Library.

64 J. Kenneth Robinson, quoted by Natalie Belle, “Historical Old Salem Opened to Public,” Spotsylvania 

Times, 1 June 1977.

65 Robert Krick, Salem Church speech, 29 May 1977, 5, File A8215 Salem Church Dedication, Cabinet 8, 

Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

66 Robert Krick, Salem Church Anniversary Address, 29 September 1974, 6, File A82 Anniversary 

Celebration, Salem Church, 1974, Cabinet 8, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.
 

67 Salem Church Interpretation and Use, January 1977, no pagination [last page for quote], File A8215 

Salem Church Dedication 1977, Cabinet 8, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

68 FRSP, Interpretive Prospectus, 1973, 2, FRSP Library.

69 Herbert Collins, as quoted by Betty Hayden Snider in “Caroline Painter Leaves behind Legacy,” Free 

Lance-Star, 26 April 2002.

70 FRSP, General Management Plan, 1986, 73, FRSP Library. Salem Church Interpretation and Use, 

January 1977, no pagination, File A8215 Salem Church Dedication 1977, Cabinet 8, Drawer 3, FRSP 

Basement Files. Jim Toler and Ted Byrd, “Traffic: It Just Gets Worse,” Free Lance-Star, 28 December 

1992.
 

71 FRSP, Annual Report, 1984, 18, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1984; FRSP Annual 

Report, 1985, 19, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1985, both in Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP 

Basement Files.

72 Sylvia Day, “Magafan‟s Epic Mural—„Battle of the Wilderness‟—Superb Work of Art,” Ulster County 

Gazette, 30 November 1978.
 

73 Dan Epstein, “The Mural,” Free Lance-Star, 9 March 1979; Ethel Magafan biography, at 

www.sullivangoss.com/ethel_Magafan/, accessed 12 April 2010. Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to 

Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 20 June 1974; Memorandum, Freeland to Regional Director, 

MARO, 30 August 1974; Alfred Poor to Chester Brooks, 10 December 1974; Memorandum, Robert Krick 

to Freeland, 21 January 1976, all in File D62 Historical Mural, CVC, Cabinet 15, Drawer 3, FRSP 

Basement Files.

74 Memorandum, Krick to the Files, 23 October 1975, File D62 Historical Mural CVC, Cabinet 15, Drawer 

3, FRSP Basement Files.

75 Memorandum, Freeland to Chet Harris, MARO, 2 March 1976, File D62 Historical Mural CVC, Cabinet 

15, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

76 Nathan Golub to Alfred Easton Poor, 21 June 1976, File D62 Historical Mural CVC, Cabinet 15, Drawer 

3, FRSP Basement Files.

77 Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 20 June 1974, 2, File D62 

Historical Mural, CVC, Cabinet 15, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

78 Chester Brooks to Alfred Poor, 27 November 1974, 1, File D62 Historical Mural, CVC, Cabinet 15, 

Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

79 Memorandum, Nathan Golub to Dixon Freeland, 4 November 1976, 1, File D62 Historical Mural, CVC, 

Cabinet 15, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

80 When first considering ideas for a mural in 1974, Freeland had favored Grant in the Wilderness, Krick 

had favored the Jackson flank attack, and the park staff as a whole was “somewhat attracted to” the Jackson 

wounding idea. Krick may have stepped aside in pursuing the flank attack subject once Magafan was 

chosen since her previous work did not mesh with what he had envisioned. See Memorandum, Freeland to 
 

Regional Director, MARO, 30 August 1974, File D62 Historical Mural CVC, Cabinet 15, Drawer 3, FRSP 

Basement Files. Quote on p.2.

81 Dixon Freeland quoted in Freeland to John Dobkin, 23 October 1979, File D6215 CVC Mural, Cabinet 

15, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. See also Dennis Dogseth, “When Does a Painting Take Two Years 

and Nine Months to Complete?” Woodstock Times, 30 November 1978. Sylvia Day, “Magafan‟s Epic 

Mural—„Battle of the Wilderness‟—Superb Work of Art,” Ulster County Gazette, 30 November 1978. 

Freeland may have found merit in the mural, but most park staff never warmed to the mural‟s subject or 

depiction. The park covered the mural with muslin in 2010 to install other temporary exhibits.

82 The costumed interpreters were not part of a larger outside reenactment group but instead received 

specified training from NPS staff and worked directly for FRSP.

83 Les Jensen, email message to author, 2 April 2010, FRSP Admin History Files. Jacque Mason, “Soldiers 

Feel Comfortable Recreating Civil War Past,” Spotsylvania Times, 24 July 1974; “Encampment an EyeOpener,” Free Lance-Star, 1 September 1973. Jean Purcell, “Battlefield Job Pleased Her,” Richmond 

Times-Dispatch, File CVC 1973 Living History Camp, CVC Archives.
 

84 “Encampment an Eye-Opener,” Free Lance-Star, 1 September 1973.

85 Gerald and Mary Rankin to Charlotte and Soldiers, 17 July 1973, File CVC 1973 Living History Camp, 

CVC Archives.

86 “Encampment an Eye-Opener,” Free Lance-Star, 1 September 1973. Jacque Mason, “Soldiers Feel 

Comfortable Recreating Civil War Past,” Spotsylvania Times, 24 July 1974.

87 Jacque Mason, “Soldiers Feel Comfortable Recreating Civil War Past,” Spotsylvania Times, 24 July 

1974.

88 John Hennessy, comments to draft chapter six, May 2010, 5, FRSP Admin History Files.
 

89 George Hartzog quoted by former NPS Chief Historian Robert Utley in Barry Mackintosh, Interpretation 

in the National Park Service: A Historical Perspective, chapter three, section Living History at 

http://nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mackintosh2/directions_living _history.htm. See also Joan M. 

Zenzen, Battling for Manassas: The Fifty-Year Preservation Struggle at Manassas National Battlefield 

Park (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), 65-71.

90 Memorandum, William Hollomon to Regional Director, Southeast Region, 25 September 1968, File 

Historian‟s Reading Files 9/68-12/31/68, Cabinet 3, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

91 Memorandum, Happel to Freeland, 29 January 1970, 4, File K2621 Annual Report Interpretation and 

Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

92 Ibid., 4-5. Memorandum, Happel to Freeland, 29 January 1971, 5, File K2621 Annual Report 

Interpretation and Information 1953-, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.
 

93 Frank Barnes, as quoted by Barry Mackintosh in Interpretation in the National Park Service: A 

Historical Perspective, chapter three, section Living History at 

http://nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mackintosh2/directions_living _history.htm. See also 

Memorandum, Charles Shedd to Superintendents, 30 November 1972, File K1817 Interp Planning 1971-

80, Cabinet 9, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.

94 Joan M. Zenzen, Fort Stanwix National Monument: Reenacting the Past and Partnering for the Future

(Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008), 97-102, 115.
 

95 Quote from FRSP, Interpretive Prospectus, 1973, 35, FRSP Library. See also James Moser, “Former 

Saratoga Aide Gets Park Service Role Here,” Free Lance-Star, 20 July 1972. Les Jensen, email message to 

author, 2 April 2010, FRSP Admin History Files. Bill Meuse later went to Springfield Armory National 

Historic Site (MA) as curator and became known as a gun enthusiast and collector.

96 Dixon Freeland to Mr. and Mrs. Gerald Rankin, 3 August 1973, 1, File CVC 1973 Living History Camp, 

CVC Archives.

97 Memorandum. Chris Calkins to Prospective Participants in the Living History Program, 17 November 

1977, File K1815 Living History, Cabinet 16, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files. Robert Krick to Parke 

Rouse, 29 December 1978, 2-3, File Interp Reading Files 1978, Cabinet 3, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement 

Files.

98 Robert Krick to Stephen Hynes, 8 August 1985, 1, File Reading Copies August 1985, Cabinet 2, Drawer 

4, FRSP Basement Files.

99 The 1990 annual report states that summer staffing was one half what it had been 15 years earlier. FRSP, 

Annual Report, 1990, 4, File Reading Copies April 1991, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.
 

100 James Zinck to Martha Steger, 12 November 1985, File Reading Copies November 1985, Cabinet 2, 

Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. See Summer ‟94 Interpretation Schedule and Summer ‟96 Interpretation 

Schedule, Staff Historian‟s Files, FRSP. Greg Mertz, email message to author, 1 February 2010, FRSP 

Admin History Files.

101 James Zinck to Dama Rice, 13 June 1985, File Reading Copies June 1985; and Memorandum, James 

Zinck to Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Region, 20 December 1985, File Reading Copies December 

1985, both in Cabinet 2, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. Gary Rhodes, “Festivities Mark Anniversary of 

the Battle,” Free Lance-Star, 8 April 1988.

102 Rives, transcript of interview, 19 February 2010, 6.
 

103 FRSP, Annual Report, draft, 1972, 12. FRSP, Annual Report, 1974, 7; and FRSP, Annual Report, 1976, 

6, both in File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1973-1975, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement 

Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1980, 2, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1976-1980, Cabinet 14, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1984, 8; FRSP, Annual Report, 1986, 12, File 

A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual

Report, draft, 1991, 17. FRSP, Annual Report, 1998, 2; FRSP, Annual Report, 1999, 4, both in File A2621 

Annual Report 1997-2000, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. James Zinck to Lin Clayberg, 28 

October 1981, 1, File Interp Reading Files Sept-Dec 1981, Cabinet 3, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

FRSP, General Management Plan, 1986, 78, FRSP Library. FRSP, Land Protection Plan, 1986, 45, FRSP 

Library.
 

104 FRSP, Land Protection Plan, 1986, 20. Jean Purcell, “Civil War Headquarters Is Bought by U.S. Park 

Service,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 16 May 1971.

105 FRSP, Annual Report, 1979, 4, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1976-1980, Cabinet 8, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1982, 7, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual 

Report, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1983, 6, File A2621 

Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1983, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 

1984, 9. “Scout Project: Trailblazer,” Free Lance-Star, 7 May 1988. FRSP, General Management Plan, 

1986, 65, FRSP Library.
 

106 FRSP, Annual Report, 1988, 7, File A2621 Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1988, Cabinet 14, Drawer 

1, FRSP Basement Files. XXX Form, Historic Widow Tapp Field clearance, 9 October 1987, File Widow 

Tapp Scene Restoration, Cabinet 16, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

107 The Ellwood Historic Structure Report and newspaper reports incorrectly reported that the Joneses 

obtained a life estate for Dr. Jones‟s parents. See Schedule A; Warranty Deed, 26 April 1971; 

Memorandum, Dixon Freeland to Files, 29 October 1972; and Memorandum, Richard Schwartz to Chief, 

Branch of Coordination and Control, WASO, 25 November 1975, and attached 21 October 1975 deed 

terminating the reservation, all in File Deed #136, FRSP Lands Files. The park gained control of Ellwood 

in 1975, not 1977 as previously believed.

108 Memorandum, Richard Stanton to Chief, Division of Land Acquisition, 30 April 1971, 1; Memorandum 

of Visit with Dr. Gordon Jones and Father at the Lacy House “Ellwood,” 21 June 1974; Dixon Freeland to 

Gordon Jones, 26 August 1975, and attached Jones to Freeland, 19 August 1975, all in File Deed # 136, 

FRSP Lands Files. Henry Magaziner, Field Trip Report, 2-3 August 1976, 11, File Regional Trip Reports, 

Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.
 

109 Henry Magaziner, Field Trip Report, 2-3 August 1976, 11-12, File Regional Trip Reports, Cabinet 8, 

Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. See also www.nps.gov/frsp/ellwood.htm, accessed 14 April 2010.

110 See www.nps.gov/frsp/ellwood.htm, accessed 14 April 2010.
 

111 Quote by Henry Magaziner, Field Trip Report, 2-3 August 1976, 13-16 (quote on p. 16), File Regional 

Trip Reports, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual Report, 1975, 5, File A2621 

Superintendent‟s Annual Reports 1973-1975, Cabinet 8, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, Annual 

Report, 1976, 9.

112 Benjamin Zerbey to Robert Garvey, 7 July 1978, 1, File H30 Lacy House, Cabinet 16, Drawer 2, FRSP 

Basement Files.

113 Magaziner, Field Trip Report, 2-3 August 1976, 13-16. FRSP, Annual Report, 1975, 5; FRSP, Annual 

Report, 1976, 9; FRSP, Annual Report, 1979, 2; FRSP, Annual Report, 1982, 7; FRSP, Annual Report, 

1983, 7; FRSP, Annual Report, 1984, 9; FRSP, Annual Report, 1985, 14. Memorandum, Acting 

Superintendent, FRSP to Regional Director, MARO, 28 March 1989, File H30 Lacy House, Cabinet 16, 

Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. Memorandum, Mike Greenfield to Superintendent, 24 January 1992, 1, 

File Reading Copies January 1992, Cabinet 2, Drawer 3, FRSP Basement Files.
 

114 FRSP, Annual Report, 1998, 3. NPS Press Release, Battlefield‟s Historic Ellwood To Open to the 

Public, 22 April 1998; Friends of Wilderness Battlefield, Restoration of Ellwood (Lacy House), 13 January 

2000, 1, both in File H30 Ellwood 1997 Grand Opening, Cabinet 16, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files. For 

information about the Ellwood exhibits, see http://www.fowb.org/visitorsexperience, accessed July 2011.

115 National Parks for the 21st Century: The Vail Agenda, 1992, 19, 24. Holding the High Ground 

proceedings at http://www.nps.gov/history/history/categrs/mili2/high_ground_1998.pdf, accessed January 

2011.
 

116 J. Michael Greenfield, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 10 December 2010, 17, 

FRSP Archives. FRSP, Statement for Management, 1981, 6, File D18 Resources Management Plan, 

Cabinet 8, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files.

117 FRSP Interpretive Prospectus, 1973, 27-30, FRSP Library. FRSP, Annual Report, 1987, 10, File A2621 

Superintendent‟s Annual Report 1987, Cabinet 14, Drawer 1, FRSP Basement Files.

118 John Hennessy, line-by-line comments on draft chapter six, 28, FRSP Admin History Files.
 

119 FRSP Interpretive Prospectus, 1973, 27-30, FRSP Library. Memorandum, Michael Johnson to Files, 5 

August 1985, 1, File Reading Copies August 1985; and Memorandum, Johnson to Files, 6 November 1985, 

File Reading Copies November 1985; both in Cabinet 2, Drawer 4, FRSP Basement Files. FRSP, General 

Management Plan, 1986, 79, FRSP Library. James Zinck to Larry Smith, 22 February 1985, 1, File D30 

Roads, General, Cabinet 15, Drawer 2, FRSP Basement Files.

120 Will Greene remembered in his oral history interview that he had suggested naming the road after 

Burnside. See Greene, transcript of interview, 24 February 2010, 16.

121 The park produced a Long Range Interpretive Plan in March 1998, and then a more detailed LRIP in 

2001. Discussion of the Spotsylvania Court House reconstructed earthworks are found in FRSP, Long 

Range Interpretive Plan, 1998, 16-17; FRSP, LRIP, 2001, 31, both in FRSP Library.

122 FRSP, Long Range Interpretive Plan, 1998, 16-17. FRSP, LRIP, 2001, 12. FRSP, Annual Report, 

1987, 10. See also www.nps.gov/frsp/photosmultimedia/last.
 

123 Hennessy, comments to draft chapter six, May 2010, 6.

124 Ibid.

125 FRSP, Annual Report, 1984, 5, 14-15.
 

126 Carmichael, transcript of interview, 1 September 2010, 12.
 

127 Mike Johnson, transcription of oral history interview with the author, 11 December 2009, 20, FRSP 

Archives.

128 Pitcaithley, “„A Cosmic Threat,‟” 172-86.

129 Zenzen, Battling for Manassas, 100-01; Zenzen, Bridging the Past, 309-10. Martha Temkin, “FreezeFrame, September 17, 1862: A Preservation Battle at Antietam National Battlefield Park,” in Myth, 

Memory, and the Making of the American Landscape, edited by Paul Shackel (Gainesville: University 

Press of Florida, 2001), 123-40.





























1

 

1 Russ Smith, GMP Newsletter, Summer 2009, 1.

2

Ibid.

3

“Telling the Park‟s Story,” Free Lance-Star, 4 July 2003.
 

4 Accessed February 2011 at http://www.nps.gov/frsp/photosmultimedia/index.htm. 

5 Clint Schemmer, “Park Paints Fuller View of Past,” 19 October 2010, accessed November 2010 at 

www.fredericksburg.com/news/FLS/2010/102010/10102010. 

6 A complete run of annual reports on the Educational program can be found in Janice Frye‟s Files, CVC, 

FRSP. See specifically October 93-September 94, 1, 5; 95-96 Education Program, 2; FY97 Education 

Program, 3; FY 1998 Education Recap, 1-3; FY 2000 Education Recap, “Teaching with Historic Places” at 

FRSP section; FY 2001 Education Recap, 2; FY 2003 Education Recap, 2, Archeology Inservice workshop 
 

June 17-19, 2003 section; 2004 Education Program Summary, 2-3; FY 2006 Education Recap, 1; FY 2008 

Education Recap, 2.

7

Shea, “Fighting Back,” 26-27, 31. “Trial Approaches in „Wilderness Walmart‟ Case,” Hallowed Ground, 

Winter 2010, 12. “Walmart‟s Retreat,” Free Lance-Star, 27 January 2011.


















http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/resedu/resedu1.htm


www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/history_military/nmpidea5f.htm

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mackintosh2/origins_nps_assum

es_responsibility.htm
www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/ccc

http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/2007/0711/0711pro2.cfm
http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archives/14-4/14-

4sall.pdf

www.nps.gov/history/history/resedu/savage.htm
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/anti/adhi.pdf

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/rthg/fore.htm
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/rusticarch/

http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/unrau-williss/adhi2b.htm

www.virginiadot.org/about/vdot_history.asp