National Park Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Natural Resource Program Center 

Physical Resources Foundation Report 

White Sands National Monument 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/NRR—2009/166 
ON THE COVER 

Barchan dunes of White Sands National Monument as seen from the air. 

Photograph courtesy of White Sands National Monument
Physical Resources Foundation Report 

White Sands National Monument 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/NRR —2009/166 

Jeffery Bennett 

Big Bend National Park 

P.O. Box 129 

Big Bend National Park, TX, 79830 

(prepared water resources sections in report) 

Douglas Wilder 

NPS Midwest Region Geospatial Support Center 

120 Russell Labs 

1630 Linden Drive 

Madison, WI 53706 

(prepared geologic resources sections in report) 

 

November 2009 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

National Park Service 

Natural Resource Program Center 

Fort Collins, Colorado
The National Park Service, Natural Resource Program Center publishes a range of reports that 

address natural resource topics of interest and applicability to a broad audience in the National 

Park Service and others in natural resource management, including scientists, conservation and 

environmental constituencies, and the public. 

The Natural Resource Report Series is used to disseminate high-priority, current natural resource 

management information with managerial application. The series targets a general, diverse 

audience, and may contain NPS policy considerations or address sensitive issues of management 

applicability. 

All manuscripts in the series receive the appropriate level of peer review to ensure that the 

information is scientifically credible, technically accurate, appropriately written for the intended 

audience, and designed and published in a professional manner. This report received formal peer 

review by subject-matter experts who were not directly involved in the collection, analysis, or 

reporting of the data, and whose background and expertise put them on par technically and 

scientifically with the authors of the information. 

Views, statements, findings, conclusions, recommendations, and data in this report are those of 

the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect views and policies of the National Park Service, U.S. 

Department of the Interior. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute 

endorsement or recommendation for use by the National Park Service. 

This report is available from the Natural Resource Publications Management website 

http://www.nature.nps.gov/publications/NRPM 

Please cite this publication as: 

Bennett, J., and D. Wilder. 2009. Physical resources foundation report, White Sands National 

Monument. Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/NRR—2009/166. National Park Service, Fort 

Collins, Colorado. 

NPS 142/100371, November 2009 
Contents 

Page 

Figures........................................................................................................................................... v

Tables........................................................................................................................................... vi

Executive Summary................................................................................................................. vii 

Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 

 Physical Resources Planning ..................................................................................................... 1

 Location and Demography......................................................................................................... 3

Description of Natural Resources.......................................................................................... 7

 Climate....................................................................................................................................... 7

 Physiography.............................................................................................................................. 9

Alkali Flat and Lake Lucero ............................................................................................... 9 

Dune Field........................................................................................................................... 9 

 Geology...................................................................................................................................... 9

Structural Geology............................................................................................................ 12 

Stratigraphy/Lithology...................................................................................................... 12 

Geologic Processes........................................................................................................... 14 

 Soils.......................................................................................................................................... 22

Soil Crusts......................................................................................................................... 21

 Hydrogeology .......................................................................................................................... 22

Watersheds........................................................................................................................ 22 

Surface Water.................................................................................................................... 23 

Groundwater ..................................................................................................................... 24 

 Water Quality........................................................................................................................... 27

 Flora and Fauna........................................................................................................................ 28

iii
Flora .................................................................................................................................. 28 

Fauna................................................................................................................................. 29 

 Air Quality ............................................................................................................................... 30

Fundamental Geologic and Water Resources and Values............................................. 31 

 What is the importance of geologic and water resources?....................................................... 31

Geologic Resources .......................................................................................................... 31 

Water Resources............................................................................................................... 40 

 What is the adequacy of existing geologic and water resource information?.......................... 42

Geologic Resources .......................................................................................................... 42 

Water Resources............................................................................................................... 45 

 What are the current conditions and related trends of the geologic and water resources? ...... 47

Geologic Resources .......................................................................................................... 47 

Water Resources............................................................................................................... 48 

 What are the current or potential threats to the geologic and water resources? ...................... 49

Geologic Resources .......................................................................................................... 49 

Water Resources............................................................................................................... 51 

 Climate Change................................................................................................................. 53

 Stakeholders, Legislation, and Management Policies.............................................................. 55

National Stakeholders....................................................................................................... 55 

State Stakeholders............................................................................................................. 56 

Regional Stakeholders ...................................................................................................... 56 

Park Specific Legislation .................................................................................................. 56 

Federal Legislation............................................................................................................ 57 

State of New Mexico ........................................................................................................ 61 

Literature Cited......................................................................................................................... 63 

iv
Appendices 

 Appendix A: CHDN Paleontological Resources Inventory Report – WHSA section............. 69

Figures 

Figure 1. National Park Service Planning Framework .................................................................. 2 

Figure 2. White Sand National Monument index map ................................................................... 4 

Figure 3. Topographic map and true color satellite imagery of White Sands National Monument 

......................................................................................................................................................... 5 

Figure 4. Dune type and major physiographic feature distribution associated with White Sands 

National Monument ........................................................................................................................ 8 

Figure 5. Geologic map of the Tularosa Basin and vicinity ......................................................... 11 

Figure 6. Generalized cross sections of the Tularosa Basin. ........................................................ 12 

Figure 7. General stratigraphic column of the Tularosa Basin ..................................................... 13 

Figure 8. Amber selenite crystals at Lake Lucero ........................................................................ 15 

Figure 9. Dune types of White Sands National Monument.......................................................... 17 

Figure 10. Geologic map of the younger deposits near White Sands National Monument.......... 20 

Figure 11. Soil types of White Sands National Monument .......................................................... 21 

Figure 12. Hydrologic units and major rivers in the vicinity of White Sands.............................. 22 

Figure 13. Concentrations of total dissolved solids in groundwater across the basin .................. 28 

Figure 14. Photo of a large yardang at White Sands National Monument ................................... 34 

Figure 15. Locations of crystal monuments at White Sands National Monument ....................... 36 

Figure 16. Photo of crystal pedestals of White Sands National Monument ................................. 37 

Figure 17. Photo comparison of fins on Mars and at White Sands National Monument. ............ 39 

Figure 18. USGS 7.5 minute quads comprising White Sands National Monument. ................... 42 

Figure 19. Distribution of saltcedar areas in White Sands National Monument. ......................... 50 

v
Tables 

Table 1. Temperature and precipitation data recorded at White Sands National Monument 

between 1/1/1939 to 12/31/1999..................................................................................................... 7 

Table 2. Dune movement rates by dune type................................................................................ 18 

Table 3. Basic watershed information to assess potential threats posed by runoff and erosion ... 23 

Table 4. Monitoring wells within WHSA and water levels at the time of construction............... 27

vi
Executive Summary 

In accordance with the NPS 2004 Park Planning Program Standards, parks are to prepare a 

Foundation for Park Planning and Management document (Foundation Document), which 

describes its purpose, significance, primary interpretive themes and special mandates, identifying 

and analyzing those resources and values determined to warrant primary consideration 

(Fundamental and Important Resources and Values) in park planning and management. The 

Foundation Document may be developed as the first phase of a park’s general management 

planning process or independently of the General Management Plan. 

This Physical Resources Foundation Report is designed to support development of the 

Foundation Document for White Sands National Monument (WHSA) and to be used as a 

reference for the General Management Plan, as needed. 

The primary objectives of this report are to: 

1. Build upon the monument’s purpose and significance statements and identify the 

fundamental physical resources critical to achieving WHSA’s purpose and maintaining 

its significance. 

2. Provide background information for WHSA’s fundamental physical resources (current 

condition, related trends, and issues/threats). 

3. Define the relevant laws and policies that support management decisions for the priority 

physical resources and identify stakeholder interest. 

White Sands National Monument Legislation, Purpose and Significance 

Statements 

The 1933 Presidential Proclamation (No. 2025, 47 Stat. 2551) creating White Sands National 

Monument states: 

“Whereas it appears that the public interest would be promoted by including the lands 

hereinafter described within a national monument for the preservation of the white sands and 

additional features of scenic, scientific, and educational interest...” 

From this proclamation, the following Purpose Statement, which describes the specific reasons 

for establishing the national monument, was generated for WHSA (from the White Sands 

National Monument Strategic Plan, FY2001-2005): 

 “...the purpose of White Sands National Monument is: 

• preserve a portion of the world’s largest gypsum dunefield and additional features of 

scenic, scientific, and education interest; and 

• provide for educational and recreational opportunities compatible with the protection of 

those resources for future generations.” 

vii 
The WHSA Significance Statement that defines what is most important about the national 

monument’s physical resources and values is: 

“The primary significance of White Sands National Monument lies in its superlative geologic 

values. The dunefield is actively migrating. Dune movement is an easily observed example of a 

dynamic process. The story of gypsum sand, its formation into dunes and their movement, as well 

as the stories of the larger geological events, can be learned at White Sands, the world’s largest 

gypsum dune field.” 

Foundation Document 

Building from the WHSA Purpose and Significance statements, it is recommended that geologic 

and water resources be defined as “fundamental resources” at WHSA, warranting the highest 

level of preservation. For a NPS Foundation Document, the following questions are asked about 

the park-specific priority resources and values: 

1. What is the importance of the geologic and water resources? 

The WHSA was established by Congress to preserve a portion of the largest gypsum dune field 

in the world and additional features of scenic, scientific, and educational interest. These unique 

geologic features are ultimately tied to both the historic and current geologic and hydrologic 

processes of the Tularosa Basin. Some of the specific justifications for the “fundamental 

resource” recommendation are listed below: 

Geologic Resources 

• WHSA preserves 115 square miles of the world’s largest gypsum dune field (275 

square miles). Many of the area’s organisms have rapidly adapted to the white sands 

by modifying color to match the sands, becoming distinct species and subspecies. The 

white sands are the driver of the local ecosystem and the species within it. 

• WHSA has been identified as a premier U.S. site for yardangs (an elongated windabraded ridge found in desert environments). 

• Plant and crystal pedestals are an important subject of research. The formation 

mechanism of pedestals is not well understood. 

• Bajadas on the western side of the monument distribute water, have distinct plant 

communities and soil types, and are the recharge area for water to the basin. 

• Fossilized mammoth tracks and other paleontological resources within the monument 

are indicators of past climate and may provide information on the climatic conditions 

during the Pleistocene. 

• The biological soil crusts at WHSA are communities of cyanobacteria and fungus that 

occupy an intermediate ecological position between active dunes and heavily 

viii
vegetated surfaces. Soil crusts are indicators of ecosystem stability, health, and 

climate change. 

• Lake Otero sediments represent the most recent lake history and hold clues to dune 

processes, habitat for early humans, and regional geologic history. These sediments 

may also include a record of micrometeorite falls that may have affected mammoth 

and bison populations in the area. 

• White Sands is recognized as an analog for Mars and the Moon. Gypsum dunes, 

crystals pedestals and other formations are known to occur both at White Sands and 

on Mars. Research in the monument may reveal significant information about 

physical processes and conditions on Mars and the Moon. 

Water Resources 

• The occurrence of a shallow aquifer within WHSA is of critical importance (BarudZubillaga, 2000). Groundwater is a major factor in controlling dune stability and 

movement. Saturated sediments are more resistant of the erosive forces of wind. 

• Groundwater quality in the monument is naturally poor for consumption but 

important for dune stability. Saline groundwater precipitates minerals within the wind 

blown sand which cement the soft gypsum grains together. 

• In the context of the ecosystem of WHSA, the unsaturated zone is very important to 

dune stability. Infiltrating precipitation and surface waters, along with groundwater 

provided by capillary action, are important for plants, burrowing animals, and soil 

function. 

• Groundwater is important to the hydrologic processes of Lake Lucero. Fluctuating 

groundwater levels and the influx of surface water dissolve and re-precipitate (cycle) 

gypsum, continually reworking the lake bed. Selenite pedestals are a unique feature of 

Lake Lucero. 

• Based on reported visitor activity, Lake Lucero is an important natural feature of 

popular interest to the public. 

2. What is the adequacy of the existing geologic and water resources information? 

Geologic Resources 

Existing Information: 

• Numerous studies have been conducted to both inventory geologic resources and 

better understand dune processes. Early geologic reconnaissance work was done by 

Herrick (1904). 

ix
• KellerLynn (2008) provides a thorough summary of geologic resources identified 

during project scoping for the NPS Geologic Resources Inventory program. 

• There are reports and ongoing research to ground truth remote sensing data. This 

work proposed age dates and a time line for the growth of the dune field 

(Szybkiewicz et al., 2008). 

• A generalized summary of the paleontological resources in the monument was 

prepared in 2007 (National Park Service, 2007). 

• A comprehensive summary of White Sands’ local geology was completed in 2002 

(New Mexico Geological Society, 2002). 

Needed Data/Information: 

• Bibliography of dune research, including a catalog of existing data and imagery 

should be compiled and loaded into the NPS NatureBib database. 

• It is not clear whether the dune field is growing or shrinking. Origin and timing of 

dune formation, dune dynamics, and the interactions between deflation of the dunes 

and playa lakes are not well understood and are current subjects of research. 

Additional research in these subjects is important to better frame monument 

management decisions. 

• A thorough inventory of the paleontological resources in the monument is needed. 

The inventory should include the location, stratigraphic position, and age of all 

paleontological resources, including fossil mammoth tracks and microfossils in the 

lake bed sediments. 

• A more detailed soils map is needed to better match the scale at which monument 

management decisions and activities occur. 

• Additional information is needed on soil crust resilience, recovery rates and areal 

extents of different biological soil crusts occurring in the monument. 

• An inventory of yardang locations and conditions is needed to plan for the protection 

of this unique resource. 

• The mechanism of crystal pedestal formation is unknown and the subject of current 

research. 

x
Water Resources 

Existing Information: 

• Available information on water resources within the Tularosa Basin consists of water 

resource and hydrogeologic reports dating back to the beginning of the twentieth 

century, and geologic data gathered in support of the water resource reports. The 

scarcity of water within the basin prompted significant investigation on the nature and 

occurrence of water as early as 1915 (Meinzer and Hare). 

• The NPS Chihuahuan Desert Inventory and Monitoring Network has produced 

several reports for park units within the network, including WHSA, that contain 

historic water resources data. 

• The NPS Water Resources Division completed a comprehensive summary of existing 

surface water quality data for WHSA (National Park Service, 1997). 

• Information on the occurrence and persistence of contaminants from the Department 

of Defense (DOD) activities is available from USGS and DOD reports (KellerLynn, 

2003). 

• An inventory of wetlands on neighboring DOD property was completed in 2004 

(Martin et al., 2004). 

Needed Data/Information: 

• Groundwater flow models have been produced for the purposes of regional planning 

(Huff, 2004). Available models are not scaled properly to incorporate and evaluate 

potential threats posed by water resource development. A single basin wide 

groundwater flow model that incorporates all users is needed. 

• The relationship between groundwater dynamics, the Jarilla Fault, and the ecology 

and stability of the dunes has not been fully investigated. Information on recharge to 

the shallow aquifer within the dunefield is inadequate. 

• Monitoring wells within WHSA provide opportunities for shallow monitoring of 

groundwater resources, but are not oriented in the most effective way to capture 

potential groundwater contaminant plumes from Holloman Air Force Base (HAFB). 

• The relationship between groundwater elevations, precipitation, and flows within the 

Lost River is not understood. 

• Surface water features like the Lost River are not systematically monitored for 

contaminants. 

xi
3. What are the current states or conditions and the related trends of the geologic and 

water resources? 

Geologic Resources 

• The condition of the eolian system appears very sensitive to changes in groundwater 

elevations (Fryberger, 2001). 

• It is not clear whether or not fossil mammoth tracks, lake sediment micro fossils and 

yardangs are eroding or not. However, Fryberger (2001) has stated the need for more 

research on yardangs, noting that these features are presently undamaged. 

• Biologic soil crusts appear robust; however, potential problems are unknown. Crusts 

in sulfate-rich soils form quickly (within a few years) so that foot-traffic disturbances 

are less likely to create long-term problems. 

Water Resources 

Water Quantity 

• Twice as much precipitation falls on the higher Sacramento Mountains as does on the 

San Andres Mountains on the western side of the basin. Hence, water extraction is 

concentrated on the eastern side of the basin. 

• The New Mexico State Engineer’s Office, on May 19, 1997, recognized the Tularosa 

Basin as a mined basin (for groundwater resources) and instituted policies and 

procedures to allow a specified amount of de-watering during a forty-year planning 

period. The office specified that water level decline rates should not exceed 2.5 feet 

per year. Water conservation strategies such as reuse of gray water and innovative 

technologies like the desalinization facility advanced by the City of Alamogordo, 

other communities, and federal agencies have and will help slow the decline in 

groundwater levels. 

• Groundwater that supports the hydrologic function of the playa and dune system is 

supplied by a regional groundwater gradient that transmits water from the 

surrounding mountains to the playas at the basin center. The process is complicated 

by the presence of the north-south trending Jarilla Fault located along the eastern 

boundary of WHSA. The eastern side of the fault has moved upward relative to the 

western block and has brought bedrock to or very near the surface, effectively 

separating the two sides of the basin fill aquifer. From where the fault intersects the 

surface the geologic formations dip to the east. Groundwater moving from the 

Sacramento Mountains westward into the basin is brought to the surface by these 

rising beds where it discharges as springs and wetlands primarily on DOD property to 

the east of WHSA. Climate forces place heavy evaporation pressure on these 

resources. Some current groundwater flow models assume all this water evaporates 

and therefore presumes these resources would not contribute to water resources in the 

xii
western basin. However, groundwater from the eastern side of the basin may not all 

evaporate and may contribute to recharge of groundwater resources in the western 

side. Groundwater from the eastern sub-basin may play a role in maintaining 

groundwater levels in the western sub-basin. 

• Within the last 60 years, four springs have dried up within the monument including 

Garton Pond, adobe wells (a hand dug well), and a spring that was shown on a 1960 

topographic map. 

Water Quality 

• The water quality in WHSA is heavily impacted by the high evaporation rate of the 

region. Local ground and surface water naturally violate drinking water and aquatic 

use standards for chloride and sulfate. 

• Fresh water is limited in the basin and occurs in alluvial fans on the basin margins 

and in gravel layers that transmit groundwater without contact with gypsiferous 

sediments. Fresh water to supply park functions must come from outside the park. 

Water is delivered by pipeline from the Boles Well field south of Alamogordo in the 

summer and from HAFB, which draws the water from Bonito Lake in the winter. 

• Information on the occurrence and persistence of contaminants from Department of 

Defense activities state that no current water quality problems have been identified in 

WHSA (KellerLynn, 2003). 

4. What are the current and potential threats to geologic and water resources? 

Geologic Resources 

• Saltcedar (Tamarisk sp.) creates vegetative pedestals by drying out the surrounding 

sand, which erodes away, altering dune distribution. Resulting pedestals change local 

wind patterns imposing further control on where dunes form. Continued influence of 

saltcedar may result in distribution patterns of dunes reflecting occurrence of the 

invasive species. 

• Certain man-made structures may concentrate the effects of erosion and threaten both 

natural and monument facility resources. Road culverts on the west side of the 

monument have accelerated erosion and caused damage to some cultural resources, 

specifically the Huntington Site. Additional man-made structures affecting erosion 

include buried fiber optic cables, water lines, roads, and trails. 

• Dissolution around buried features such as water lines and fiber optic cables may 

cause the formation of sink holes and other karst-like features. Parking lots and 

buildings are also at risk as rainwater runoff and water from other sources dissolves 

underlying gypsum layers. 

xiii
• Erosion or deposition of sand due to wind affects WHSA facility development. 

Maintenance decisions for the location of new facilities should consider wind erosion 

patterns across the monument. 

• Debris flows sourced on the west side of the monument can transport large boulders 

onto roads and destroy fences. There are also documented cases of fatalities due to 

debris flows on the missile range and in a nearby BLM campground. 

Water Resources 

• The City of El Paso, Texas, extracts groundwater from the Tularosa-Hueco Bolson 

and recently constructed a desalinization facility to allow for increased utilization of 

the aquifer. Reporting by the El Paso Water Utilities indicates that water level 

declines due to pumping will propagate to the north across the state line and into the 

vicinity of WHSA (El Paso Water Utilities, 2004). 

• Declines in groundwater elevations are expected within the Tularosa Basin and 

present a significant and impending threat to WHSA’s dunefield. It is unclear how 

water level declines will impact the shallow aquifer within WHSA. However, this 

uncertainty should not dissuade management from monitoring every water permit 

application to the State Engineer’s Office. 

• The limited nature of freshwater within the basin makes the supply vulnerable to over 

production and pollution. Over production could concentrate brines, locally alter the 

direction of flow of groundwater and impact the water quality as well as the quantity 

of perennial fresh water sources like the Lost River 

• The use of hazardous materials on White Sands Missile Range (WSMR) represents a 

potential threat to WHSA’s natural resources and visitor safety. A groundwater 

monitoring system is in place and to date no contamination has been found. However, 

hazardous waste sites and groundwater contaminants have been identified on WSMR. 

With increasing demands on groundwater resources in the region, changes in 

groundwater flow could enhance off-site migration of contaminants. 

• Saltcedars (Tamarisk sp.) have invaded arroyos, springs and areas with a shallow 

water table. Saltcedar encroachment has apparently lowered water tables in portions 

of the park and increased dune mobility. Saltcedars can also degrade water quality. 

Climate Change 

Climate change may have a dramatic impact on WHSA. Both the ecological and physical 

systems currently active in the monument are at risk with large permanent changes in regional 

precipitation, wind averages, and temperature. 

• Changes in temperature and precipitation regimes in the surrounding mountains may 

shorten the run-off season and change aquifer recharge patterns. 

xiv
• Warmer, drier conditions could result in larger deflation areas within the dunefield; 

reactivation of dunes could occur with potentially larger dunes forming; less runoff 

available to feed Lake Lucero would create more dunes moving out of the lake beds. 

Changing precipitation cycles could impact biological crusts on soils. 

• Warmer, drier conditions will alter water supply patterns and likely increase the 

reliance on groundwater as a primary source of domestic, industrial and agricultural 

water. A drop in the water table could impact dune formation and retention. 

• Changing atmospheric conditions, including an increase in carbon dioxide will alter 

vegetation patterns and communities. Dune stabilizing vegetation could decrease. 

Shifting range conditions in uplands could alter aquifer recharge patterns. 

Experience with complex ecosystem dynamics strongly suggests that stressors that drive 

ecosystems in any direction away from the natural range of variability of conditions under which 

they developed will have adverse impacts on that system. Ecohydrologic systems such as WHSA 

can be highly sensitive to hydroclimatic factors, particularly water quantity, water quality, the 

probability of extreme events, and flow volumes, rates, and timing. Determining the impacts on 

WHSA will require additional region-specific, and ecosystem-specific, research. 

Two additional questions presented in a typical park Foundation Document are: 

5. Which laws and policies apply to the geologic and water resources, and what 

guidance do they provide? 

6. Who are the stakeholders who have an interest in WHSA’s geologic and water 

resources? 

These last two questions are answered in the main body of this report. 

xv
xvi
Introduction 

White Sands National Monument (WHSA) was established by Presidential Proclamation in 1933 

for “... the preservation of the white sands and additional features of scenic, scientific, and 

educational interest...”. From this proclamation, the following Purpose Statement, which 

describes the specific reasons for establishing the national monument, was generated for WHSA 

(from the White Sands National Monument Strategic Plan, FY2001-2005): 

 “...the purpose of White Sands National Monument is: 

• preserve a portion of the world’s largest gypsum dunefield and additional features of 

scenic, scientific, and education interest; and 

• provide for educational and recreational opportunities compatible with the protection of 

those resources for future generations.” 

Building from the Purpose Statement, the WHSA Significance Statement that defines what is 

most important about the national monument’s physical resources and values is: 

“The primary significance of White Sands National Monument lies in its superlative geologic 

values. The dunefield is actively migrating. Dune movement is an easily observed example of a 

dynamic process. The story of gypsum sand, its formation into dunes and their movement, as well 

as the stories of the larger geological events, can be learned at White Sands, the world’s largest 

gypsum dune field.” 

Building from the WHSA Purpose and Significance statements, it is recommended that geologic 

and water resources be defined as “fundamental resources” at WHSA, warranting the highest 

level of preservation. The unique geologic features within the monument’s boundaries are 

ultimately tied to both the historic and current geologic and hydrologic processes of the Tularosa 

Basin. It is the mission of the National Park Service at WHSA to preserve the world's largest 

gypsum dunefield and the resources of interest related to the enabling legislation and provide 

educational and recreational opportunities compatible with the protection of those resources for 

future generations. 

The elements of a unique geologic history, an abundance of gypsum, an enclosed drainage 

system, a dry climate, and strong winds have combined to create this unique natural area. The 

outstanding geological and biological features, the superlative scenic values and recreational 

opportunities, and its location on a major highway (U.S. 70) make WHSA one of the most 

popular national park areas in the southwest United States. 

Physical Resources Planning 

This Physical Resources Foundation Report is designed to support development of the 

Foundation Document for WHSA and to be used as a reference for the General Management 

Plan, as needed. In accordance with the 2004 NPS Park Planning Program Standards, six 

discrete elements of planning are captured in six planning-related documents (Figure 1). This 

section outlines the individual elements of the NPS planning framework (National Park Service, 

1 
2004), including the Foundation Document, and better describes how this report fits into the 

framework. 

Foundation 

GMP 

Program 

Mgmt 

Plans – 

Resource 

Stewardship 

Strategy Strategic

Plan Implementation 

Plans 

Annual Performance Plan 

and Report 

WHY WHAT HOW

NPS PLANNING FRAMEWORK 

LONG TERM SHORT TERM 

Physical Resources 

Foundation Report 

Figure 1. National Park Service Planning Framework. 

The Foundation for Planning and Management document (Foundation Document) defines the 

legal and policy requirements that mandate the park’s basic management responsibilities, and 

identifies and analyzes the resources and values that are fundamental to achieving the park’s 

purpose or otherwise important to park planning and management. 

The General Management Plan (GMP) uses information from the Foundation Document to 

define broad direction for resource preservation and visitor use in a park, and serves as the basic 

foundation for park decision-making, including long-term direction for desired conditions of 

park resources and visitor experiences. 

The Program Management Plan tiers off the GMP, identifying and recommending the best 

strategies for achieving the desire resource conditions and visitor experiences presented in the 

GMP. Program planning serves as a bridge to translate the qualitative statements of desired 

conditions into measurable or objective indicators that can be monitored to assess the degree to 

which the desired conditions are being achieved. Based on the information obtained through the 

2
analysis, comprehensive strategies are developed to achieve the desired condition. The Program 

Management Plan for natural and cultural resources is the Resource Stewardship Strategy. 

The Strategic Plan tiers off the Program Management Plan identifying the highest-priority 

strategies, including measurable goals that work toward maintaining and/or restoring the park’s 

desired conditions over the next 3 to 5 years. 

Implementation Plans tier off the Strategic Plan describing in detail (including methods, cost 

estimate, and schedules) the high-priority actions that will be taken over the next several years to 

help achieve the desired conditions for the park. 

The Annual Performance Plan and Report measure the progress of projects from the 

Implementation Plan with objectives from the Strategic Plan. 

This Physical Resources Stewardship Report is designed to address the geologic and water 

resource needs in WHSA’s Foundation Document and will be helpful in preparing the 

monument’s General Management Plan. 

The primary objectives of this report are to: 

1. Build upon the monument’s purpose and significance statements and identify the 

fundamental physical resources critical to achieving WHSA’s purpose and maintaining 

its significance. 

2. Provide background information for WHSA’s fundamental physical resources (current 

condition, related trends, and issues/threats). 

3. Define the relevant laws and policies that support management decisions for the priority 

physical resources and identify stakeholder interest. 

Location and Demography 

The monument is located in south central New Mexico between the Sacramento and San Andres 

mountains in Otero and Don Ana counties. The monument is completely surrounded by the 

White Sands Missile Range and Holloman Air Force Base. The approximately 144,000-acre 

monument lies within the Tularosa Basin--an enclosed drainage system that contains numerous 

playa lakes and lies within the northern reaches of the Chihuahuan Desert (Figure 2). The lands 

within the monument are 100% fee title owned by the U.S. Government and managed by the 

National Park Service. The monument receives approximately 450,000 visitors each year (White 

Sands 2001-2005 Strategic Plan, 2000 

[http://www.nps.gov/applications/parks/whsa/ppdocuments/Strategic Plan WHSA.htm]). 

Alamogordo is the principal population center in the region; smaller communities include 

Tularosa and Carrizozo. In 2000, the regional population was reported at 60,357 and projected to 

reach 94,000 by 2040 (Livingston and Shomaker, 2002). The economy is centered on military 

bases in the area consisting of the White Sands Missile Range, Holloman Air Force Base, and 

part of Fort Bliss (Huff, 2004). A USGS topographic map and true color satellite image of the 

monument area are shown in Figure 3. 

3
Figure 2. White Sand National Monument index map. The National Monument lies at the southern end 

of the Tularosa Basin within the Basin and Range physiographic province. The monument encompasses 

approximately 40% of the world's largest gypsum dunefield. Source: Kocurek et al. (2007). 

4
Figure 3. Topographic map (top) and true color satellite imagery (bottom) of White Sands National 

Monument. Source: ESRI online maps). 

5
6
Description of Natural Resources 

Climate 

The high desert area of the monument is subject to harsh and sometimes rapidly changing 

climatic conditions. Summers are hot, averaging 96oF and 97oF in June and July, with air 

temperatures frequently exceeding 100oF. Winters are cool to cold with average minimums of 

22oF and 23oF in December and January (from WHSA website: http://www.nps.gov/whsa/climateaverages.htm). White Sands is located approximately equidistant from two principal moisture 

sources, the Gulf of Mexico and the Sea of Cortez. The monument is influenced by tropical 

moisture from both sources during the summer monsoon season (Reid and Reiser, 2006). Little 

precipitation is associated with mid-latitude storm events; consequently it has only one rainy 

season -- the summer monsoon. Table 1 summarizes temperature and precipitation records for 

the monument. More detailed summaries of weather are available from the Chihuahuan Desert 

Inventory and Monitoring Network (Reid and Reiser, 2006; Davey et al., 2007). 

Table 1. Temperature and precipitation data recorded at White Sands National Monument between 

1/1/1939 to 12/31/1999 (from Fryberger, 2001). 

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 

Average Max. 

Temperature (°F) 57 63 70.4 79.3 88 96.7 97 94.4 88.8 78.9 66.1 56.8 78 

Average Min. 

Temperature (°F) 22.3 25.6 31.3 39.3 48.3 58.2 63.8 61.5 54 40.8 28 21.8 41.2 

Average Total 

Precip. (inches) 0.53 0.34 0.3 0.28 0.38 0.72 1.43 1.71 1.32 0.87 0.42 0.68 8.97 

Average Total 

Snow Fall (inches) 1 0.4 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 1.1 2.8 

Average Snow 

Depth (inches) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Peak wind season occurs during the spring with southwest winds averaging about 23 miles per 

hour. During the winter, northerly and southerly winds are significant but not strong enough to 

permanently change the shapes of the dunes, which migrate consistently towards the northeast 

under the influence of the southwest winds. This wind regime appears to have been in place 

since the development of the dune field since there is no evidence of dune cross bedding for 

older wind regimes of a different average direction (Fryberger, 2001). Figure 4 includes rose 

diagrams depicting wind data collected at Holloman AFB. 

7
 

Figure 4. Dune type and major physiographic feature distribution associated with White Sands National 

Monument. From Shell U.K. Exploration and Production, Nov. 1999 (Fryberger, 2001 -- Monument 

boundary approximate). 

8
Physiography 

White Sands National Monument is situated in the Tularosa Basin of the Rio Grande Rift, and is 

flanked on the west by the San Andres Mountains and on the east by the Sacramento Mountains. 

The Tularosa Basin is a hydrologically closed basin. Run-off and surface water infiltrate basin 

sediments or collect in playa lakes. Like any bowl shaped structure, water collects in the center 

and eventually evaporates, leaving behind salt deposits. The monument is dominated by this 

process which created Lake Lucero and Alkali Flat. Winds, blowing preferentially from the 

south move the soft, gypsiferous sediments to form the monument’s dune field. The 275-squaremile gypsum dune field extends northeastward from Lake Lucero and continues beyond the 

northern border of the monument. 

Alkali Flat and Lake Lucero 

Alkali Flat and Lake Lucero are remnants of the much larger glacial lake named Lake Otero that 

formed during the last ice age about 24,000 to 12,000 years ago. The Alkali Flat covers 

approximately 1,600 square miles. Lake Lucero, which occupies the topographically lowest area 

of the Tularosa Basin, is at the south end of a 30-mile string of playas (Allmendinger and Titus, 

1973) and is the largest of the playas. The lake, or more appropriately playa, lies 3,890 feet 

above mean sea level and is approximately 60 feet below the dunes to the west. All the playas 

are sharply defined basins with abrupt and steep edges, nearly level floors and were formed by 

wind erosion. The presence of water varies depending on seasonal changes of inflow and 

evaporation. Because of the flat topography, a small water-level change has a large effect on the 

surface area of the ephemeral lake, which may cover about ten square miles. 

Dune Field 

The dune field is composed of primarily gypsum sands and covers 275 mi2 with about 115 mi2

located within White Sands National Monument. The dune field consists of a core of barchan 

dunes flanked to the north, east, and south by fields of parabolic dunes (Kocurek et al., 2007). 

Geology 

The Tularosa Basin is the northern portion of one of the largest basins in the Rio Grande Rift, the 

Tularosa-Hueco Basin (Chapin, 1971). At over 160 miles long and 30 miles wide, the basin 

covers approximately 6,000 mi2

. On the east, the Tularosa Basin is bounded by the Jicarilla, 

Sierra Blanca, and Sacramento mountains. The Otero Mesa bounds the basin’s southern end. 

Chupadera Mesa and the Oscura, San Andres, Organ, and Franklin mountains form the west 

flanks of the basin (Meinzer and Hare, 1915). 

Sediments in the basin were deposited in shallow inland seas that advanced and retreated across 

southern New Mexico throughout the Paleozoic Era. By the late Paleozoic, the sea levels were 

dropping and water circulation became restricted behind the reef deposits to the southeast (King 

and Harder, 1985). As the seas evaporated, large carbonate and evaporite deposits were left 

behind to form rock units such as the Permian-aged San Andres, Yeso and Abo formations. 

These formations are exposed as light-colored layers near the top of the San Andres Mountains 

9
and contain large amounts of gypsum which supplies the sands that form the dunes of White 

Sands. 

With the onset of the Laramide Orogeny (mountain building episode) 70 million years ago, these 

units were uplifted into a broad dome. Beginning 10 million years ago, the center of this dome 

collapsed during formation of the Rio Grande Rift to create the Tularosa Basin. The sides of the 

original dome now form the San Andres and Sacramento mountain ranges that ring the basin 

(King and Harder, 1985). 

More recently, extensive igneous activity such as the eruption of the Sierra Blanca volcano and 

the intrusives of the Jarilla, Cornudas, Sierra Blanca, Lone, and Tres Hermanos mountains have 

occurred (King and Harder, 1985) (Figure 5). 

10
 

JARILLA 

FAULT 

ZONE 

(dashed where conjectural) 

Figure 5. Geologic map of the Tularosa Basin and vicinity. Refer to Figure 7 for rock formation names 

(from Fryberger, 2001). Approximate location of Jarilla Fault Zone inferred from Figure 5 in Finch, 2006.

11
Structural Geology 

The Tularosa Basin is a fault bounded internally drained depression in south-central New 

Mexico. The depression is formed by two half grabens or down dropped blocks. The two grabens 

are separated by the Jarilla Fault with the upthrown block to the east (Figure 6). In the area of the 

monument, the Jarilla Fault brings bedrock to the surface effectively separating basin fill 

sediments on the east from those on the west. Geophysical data (Healy et al., 1978) indicates 

basin asymmetry with the basin tilting to the west and south with the deepest portion of the basin 

on the western half graben. The Tularosa Basin and the Hueco Bolson to the south are two halves 

of a large tectonic basin associated with the Rio Grande Rift (Chapin, 1971). 

Figure 6. Generalized cross sections of the Tularosa Basin. Section lines are shown in Figure 5 (from 

Fryberger, 2001). 

Stratigraphy/Lithology 

Rocks in the Tularosa Basin were deposited during the Paleozoic through Cenozoic Eras. The 

uniqueness of White Sands as the largest gypsum dunefield in the world is directly related to the 

geologic history that preceded dune formation. The presence of shallow and sometimes restricted 

inland seas throughout most of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras (Orr and Myers, 1986) was 

affected by both orogenic processes and rifting (Fryberger, 2001). Figure 7 summarizes the 

stratigraphy in context of the general tectonic history of the basin. The subsurface geology in the 

12
basin dates back to the Pre-Cambrian while surficial geology of the monument is dominated by 

Quaternary and Holocene sediments. 

 

Figure 7. General stratigraphic column of the Tularosa Basin (Seager et al., 1997 in Fryberger, 2001). 

13
Geologic Processes 

Gypsum/Selenite Formation 

The mineral gypsum, a hydrous form of calcium sulfate, is rarely found as sand because it is 

soluble in water. Gypsum--soft and lightly colored--frequently occurs interstratified with 

limestones and shales and will precipitate from saline solutions before halite (rock salt) (Hurlbut 

and Klein, 1977). Selenite is a form of gypsum (Figure 8) that yields large, occasionally 

colorless, transparent crystals (Hurlbut and Klein, 1977). The commonly observed amber 

coloring is due to organic acids within the crystals. Normally, dissolved gypsum would be 

transported by rivers to the sea. Since no river drains the Tularosa Basin, gypsum and other 

sediments remain trapped in the basin. 

The gypsum that forms the white sands was eroded from the Permian rocks in the surrounding 

highlands and deposited at the bottom of Lake Otero. Lake Otero’s size and hydrology was 

affected by the last glacial period. At the end of the glacial period, the lake contracted and 

evaporated. The exposed lake beds were eroded to produce fine white gypsum sand that through 

eolian processes later created the White Sand’s dunefield (Szynkiewicz et al., 2008). 

The gypsum sand is created by deflation of evaporite beds of Lake Otero and the younger playa 

lakes, primarily Lake Lucero—a remnant of Lake Otero (Kocurek et al., 2007). Gypsum 

dissolves in water into calcium ions and sulfate ions which recombine under evaporating 

conditions and precipitate out again into gypsum or anhydrite. Gypsum has many commercial 

uses; it is very common, and mined in sufficient quantities in other parts of the United States. 

14
 

 Figure 8. Amber selenite crystals at Lake Lucero (NPS Photo). 

During wet periods, the evaporative process along the shore of Lake Lucero and the Alkali Flat 

results in the formation of beds of selenite crystals, some up to three feet long although 

monument staff have reported only smaller crystals after recent wet periods. When the dominant 

wind from the southwest blows across the dried up playa of Lake Lucero and the Alkali Flat, 

finer silts and clays are blown away, a process called deflation, leaving the crystals exposed. 

Weathering breaks them up by: 

1. Large temperature differences between day and night stressing the mineral 

2. Freezing and thawing of water which seeps along the cleavage planes 

3. Dissolution by water working preferentially along the cleavage planes 

Transport or movement of grains begins with wind speeds between 10 and 20 mph, depending on 

grain size. There are two principle manners in which sand grains are moved by the wind: 

1. Suspension — particles are kept aloft by eddies and updrafts. 

2. Saltation — particles hop and bounce over the ground. 

As sand grains are moved by the wind, they are reduced in size by frequent collisions with other 

grains and the land surface. The softness and perfect cleavage of gypsum aids this process. Sand 

refers to size, not composition. Sand is defined as any particle between 0.06251 and 2.0 mm in 

diameter. Particles less than 0.06251 mm are called silt and clay and those over 2.0 mm are 

15
called granules and pebbles. In qualitative terms, sand is defined as any particle light enough to 

be moved by wind, but too heavy to be held in suspension in the air. 

The Geoindicators Scoping Report notes that although very little new gypsum is forming today, 

wind erosion of the gypsum-bearing sediments of ancient Lake Otero continues, along with the 

breakdown of the small gypsum crystals to produce sand (KellerLynn, 2003). This process, 

rather than contribution from Lake Lucero sediments, is the main process feeding the most active 

portions of the dune field. The contribution of gypsum from Lake Lucero is limited by 

dampness, mud, and evaporite cementation within the lake bed. Areas immediately downwind of 

the lake exhibit signs of scour as partly lithified gypsum dunes are eroded. Whether or not the 

dune field is growing or shrinking remains to be seen, however it is known that the leading edge 

of the dune field is advancing to the northeast (Fryberger, 2001). 

Dune Formation 

Deposition of sand occurs whenever the wind slackens such as in the lee of plants or other 

obstacles. Moving particles that encounter a softer surface (such as loose sand) during saltation 

(bouncing along) will also slow down and accumulate. 

As the sand grains accumulate in to dunes, they bounce up the gentle windward side of the dune, 

creating ripples on the surface. At the steep leading edge of the dune, sand builds up until gravity 

pulls the sand down the slip face, moving the dune forward. As sand accumulates, the dune 

becomes an obstruction to wind movement that further contributes to dune formation. Dune 

types and general characteristics are discussed on the following page. 

Continued dune formation and migration is primarily dependent upon gypsum supply and wind. 

Where dunes form is dependent upon the factors listed above. Dunes would not form without an 

internally drained Tularosa Basin that allows for the evaporative processes that produces 

selenite, weathering processes that break down selenite crystals, and a wind regime that 

subsequently transports gypsum sand. Surface water and groundwater that support vegetation are 

important controls on where dunes occur and the rate and frequency of movement if the dunes. 

Erosion 

Weathering due to wind and water is the principle driver of landform formation within the 

monument. In general, winds out of the west and southwest transport newly formed sediments 

(broken down selenite crystals) from playas and deposit them as dunes. Subsequent dune 

movements is also driven primarily by wind. 

Along the western edge of the monument, water is responsible for the formation of Bajadas-- 

piedmont landforms consisting of coalescing alluvial fans. Bajadas have braided streams and 

distinct plant and animal communities (KellerLynn, 2003). 

Distinctive erosional hills called yardangs and plant and crystal pedestals that occur in the 

monument also result primarily from erosion and deposition due to prevailing winds. 

16
Dune Types and Sizes 

Four types of dunes are known to occur in the monument: 

1. Dome. The first dunes to form downwind of Lake Lucero are low mounds of sand. 

2. Transverse. In areas with ample sand, barchan dunes join together into long ridges of 

sand. 

3. Barchan. Crescent-shaped dunes form in areas with strong winds and a limited supply of 

sand. 

4. Parabolic. On the dune field edges, plants anchor the arms of barchans and invert their 

shape. 

Figure 4 shows the distribution of major dune types in and around the monument. Figure 9 

depicts the four major dune types that occur in the monument. 

Figure 9. Dune types of White Sands National Monument. Arrows show prevailing wind direction (McKee, 

1979). 

There is a noticeable lack of dome dunes in the monument (KellerLynn, 2008). However, the 

monument brochure includes an illustration of dome dunes and discusses them as part of the 

landscape. Also, McKee and Douglass, 1971, note the occurrence of dome dunes and report rates 

of movement of these and other dune types (Table 2). 

17
Table 2. Dune movement rates by dune type. Average rates derived from McKee and Douglass, 1971. 

Dune Type (in order of 

formation from upwind to 

downwind) 

Average rate 

of movement 

(ft/year) 

Dome 32.75 

Transverse/ Barchanoid ridge 7.5 

Barchan 8.25 

Parabolic 3.5 

Eastern margin Parabolics 2.5 

Interdunes 

The interdune areas at White Sands, like the dunes, exist in several varieties. Groundwater is 

often within a few feet of the surface and has widely varying salinities depending on location and 

season. This aspect, along with sub-environments created by the forms of the dunes result in a 

wide variety of interdune types. Much of the flora and fauna depend on the interdune areas 

where moisture and nutrient levels and protection from wind provide a favorable microclimate 

(Fryberger, 2001). 

Wind and sand flow conditions in the interdune areas differ from in the dunes due to their 

location. Wind speed and direction are commonly more variable in interdunes than on dunes due 

to turbulence and wind deflection caused by surrounding dunes. The winds are commonly 

weaker in interdunes although it is not uncommon for interdunes to experience strong winds if 

the wind is funneled through a gap between two dunes. This is a common condition within 

barchan dunes. It is common for rates of sand deposition to be quite slow or for scour to occur in 

interdune areas immediately downwind of slip faces. This is due to trapping of sand by the dune 

slip faces. This can cause scour to occur where the wind flow, which has had much of its sand 

removed by the slip face, reattaches on the downwind, interdune surface. 

Types of Interdunes 

Fryberger (2001) classifies interdunes in four categories: 

1. Erosional 

2. Dry 

3. Damp-wet (freshwater) 

4. Evaporitic 

Interdune classifications based on water are dynamic. A given interdune may change in area due 

to rainfall events or movement of surface or groundwater affecting the area. The current 

conditions on the surface represent a snapshot in the history of the interdune. 

18
Lake (Playa) Lucero – Surface Sediments 

The surface of Lake Lucero contains white powdery minerals that form as surface water 

evaporates. The primary component is calcium sulfate, or gypsum, and there are lesser amounts 

of sodium chloride (common table salt) and magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt). Also present are 

larger crystalline forms of these minerals. Calcium sulfate may be found as selenite and sodium 

chloride may be found as halite. These larger crystals form when groundwater, heavily laden 

with dissolved gypsum, moves upward to the surface of Lake Lucero through capillary action. 

As the water approaches the playa surface, it evaporates and selenite and halite crystals form in 

the mud just beneath the surface. 

The surface crust, along with non-gypsiferous clay and silt washed into Lake Lucero during 

rainstorms eventually breaks down into fine particles and is moved by the wind. Allmendinger 

and Titus (1973) reports that material from this crust is so fine that winds often carry the 

sediments thousands of feet above ground level before depositing them beyond the White Sands 

dune field. This suggests that some of the sediments from Lake Lucero do not contribute to dune 

replenishment. 

Lake Otero 

Lake Otero formed during the last Ice Age (about 24,000 to 12,000 years ago) under much cooler 

and wetter climatic conditions than today. Higher precipitation rates led to the formation of the 

1,600-square-mile Lake Otero. The precipitation also led to the dissolution of gypsum (calcium 

sulfate), salt (sodium chloride), and other soluble minerals from the Yeso and Abo-Hueco 

formations (Figure 7) in the surrounding mountains. These sediments were subsequently 

transported via run-off and deposited in Lake Otero. 

For perhaps 20,000 years, Lake Otero occupied the Tularosa Basin. Silt, clay, and millions of 

tons of dissolved gypsum were washed from the mountains into the lake. About 12,000 years ago 

the climate changed again. With the end of the Ice Age, less rain fell on the mountains and 

warming temperatures began to dry up Lake Otero. 

Figure 10 shows the distribution of younger geologic units in the vicinity of White Sands. The 

distribution of younger sand deposits indicate that the prevailing wind blew out of the southwest. 

19
 

Figure 10. Geologic Map of the younger deposits near White Sands National Monument (after Seager et 

al., 1987 – Monument boundary approximate). Colored portions of the map emphasize the younger 

deposits mapped by Seager, et al. as contemporaneous with Lake Otero and later deposition. 

20
Soils 

The soil regime of White Sands National Monument is dominated by mineral soils associated 

with arid conditions. The soils in the monument are gypsum rich and host sparse yet highly 

diverse vegetation (KellerLynn, 2003). Figure 11 shows the distribution of general soil types 

within the monument. 

Soil Crusts 

Soil crusts occupy an intermediate ecological position between active dunes and heavily 

vegetated surfaces. Biological soil crusts consist of hydrophobic filaments of cyanobacteria and 

microfungi that wind through the upper two or three millimeters of soil binding soil particles 

together into aggregates. Filaments of cyanobacteria are hydrophobic, so crusts made of 

cyanobacteria promote lateral redistribution of water. That is, the horizontal-laying crusts impede 

the infiltration of water. These aggregates create surfaces for nutrient transformations. Physical 

crusts are inorganic and caused by features such as platy soil surface particles, an accumulation 

of salt, or a rainfall induced decrease in pore space (Rosentreter et al., 2007). Soil crusts play a 

critical role in dune stability (Guo et al., 2008). 

Figure 11. Soil types of White Sands National Monument (NPS GIS data supplied by Whites Sands 

National Monument). 

21
Hydrogeology 

Watersheds 

According to the NPS Management Policies, the NPS will manage watersheds as complete 

hydrologic systems, and will minimize human disturbance to the natural upland processes that 

deliver water, sediment, and woody debris to streams (National Park Service, 2006). 

Watersheds are delineated by the U.S. Geological Survey using a nation-wide system based on 

surface hydrologic features. This system divides the country into 21 regions, 222 sub regions, 

352 accounting units, and 2,262 cataloguing units. A hierarchical hydrologic unit code (HUC) 

consisting of 2 digits for each level in the hydrologic unit system is used to identify any 

hydrologic area. The 6-digit accounting units and the 8-digit cataloguing units are generally 

referred to as basin and sub-basin, respectively. HUC’s serve as the backbone for the country’s 

hydrologic delineation. Within the HUC classification system, WHSA is located in the Rio 

Grande – Tularosa Valley sub-basin (13050003) of Region 13 (Figure 12). 

Figure 12. Hydrologic units and major rivers in the vicinity of White Sands National Monument (U.S. 

Geological Survey, 2009). 

22
For the purpose of calculating the storm water runoff contribution to groundwater recharge, the 

U.S. Geologic Survey has identified 46 subbasins or watersheds that drain the highlands 

surrounding the Tularosa Basin, 20 of which are listed as “near White Sands” (Waltemeyer, 

2001). Changing land use in any of these subbasins, but especially the nearest subbasins, could 

impact surface runoff or groundwater recharge. Storm-water runoff, altered by road construction 

or other activities, may pose a threat to monument resources. Threat assessments require basic 

watershed information. Pertinent data for the 20 nearest subbasins are listed in Table 3. 

Table 3. Basic watershed information to assess potential threats posed by runoff and erosion. Major 

watersheds in the western Tularosa Basin that contribute surface runoff to WHSA, summary of watershed 

data and estimated yield, from Waltemeyer (2001). 

Stream Name Drainage 

Area (mi2) 

Mean Annual 

Precipitation 

(in/yr) 

Mean 

Elevation 

(ft-msl) 

USGS Estimated 

Mean Annual 

Streamflow (acreft/yr) 

Oak Canyon 8.94 14.85 5,717 203 

Soledad Canyon 15.6 15.88 6,335 485 

Sotol Creek 13.1 14.32 5,646 319 

Unnamed arroyo 12.2 11.91 4,898 217 

Bear Canyon 15.4 11.8 5,741 290 

Little San Nicolas 

Canyon 

7.35 12.0 6,155 109 

Ash Canyon 7.60 13.81 6,352 145 

San Andres 8.9 15.63 5,845 217 

Mayberry Canyon 11.5 15.49 5,695 304 

Deadman Canyon 16.1 14.33 5,576 427 

Lost Man Canyon 10.2 12.88 5,954 188 

Hembrillo Canyon 17.2 12.00 5,669 348 

Grandview Canyon 2.82 12.00 5,928 29 

Sulfur Canyon 30.3 12.04 5,770 746 

Ash Canyon 4.2 12.08 6,352 51 

Workman Canyon 5.99 12.66 6,141 94 

Cottonwood Canyon 45.3 13.73 5,791 1,600 

Rhoades Canyon 39.7 14.57 6,185 1,477 

Good Fortune Canyon 24.0 15.34 6,228 811 

Thurgood Canyon 37.2 13.8 5,589 1,231 

 

Surface Water 

Precipitation and the resulting runoff in the vicinity of White Sands generally follow surface and 

subsurface drainage systems to numerous playa lakes including Lake Lucero. The Sacramento 

Mountains receive twice as much precipitation as the San Andres Mountains because the 

Sacramento Mountains are higher in elevation. Snowmelt in the Sacramento Mountains sustains 

perennial streams at the mountain fronts. Precipitation in the San Andres Mountains occurs 

mainly as rainfall and arroyos draining the mountains flow only during storm events. The 

arroyos have been impacted by road construction and development. Culverts and other flow 

diversions concentrate flow and threaten archeological resources (KellerLynn, 2003). 

23
Major streams in the vicinity of the monument include Salt Creek, Tularosa Creek, Malpais 

Creek, Barrel Spring, Brazel Lake and Lost River, of which the Lost River is the only stream that 

occasionally flows onto monument property. Located in the northeast portion of the monument, 

this stream originates outside the monument on DOD property, is perennial in the DOD reach 

and hosts a native pupfish. This stream, like other streams and wetlands located on the Jarilla 

fault, is sustained by groundwater. In addition, this stream, as well as all surface water in the 

basin, is heavily impacted by evaporation. The reach on NPS property is ephemeral and surface 

water that flows into the monument is blocked by dunes on the northeastern boundary (BarudZubillaga, 2000). 

The dominant surface water feature at WHSA is Lake Lucero, a hypersaline, ephemeral playa 

occupying the lowest topographical point in the basin. During occasional rainy seasons the lake 

forms, but disappears during dry seasons. Barud-Zubillaga (2000) describes it as a groundwater 

discharge area, noting that the water table is near the elevation of the lake bed. Evaporation is a 

large part of the hydrologic balance of the groundwater system. Surface water and groundwater 

in the basin flow toward the playa. 

Groundwater 

Zones of Precipitation Runoff, and Percolation 

For discussions of recharge and groundwater contribution to the basin fill aquifer, the topography 

of the Tularosa Basin can be divided into several hydrologic zones, as follows: (1) The 

mountain uplands, with heavy precipitation, heavy flood discharge, and a small perennial stream 

flow; (2) the upper portion or apex of the alluvial fans with low precipitation similar to the basin 

center, little runoff, and heavy percolation; (3) an area of dense clay soil with little precipitation, 

considerable runoff, small capillary adsorption and little percolation; (4) the interior gypsiferous 

plain which has minimum precipitation, little runoff, great capacity for capillary adsorption and 

considerable percolation through sinkholes; (5) the alkali flats with minimum precipitation, no 

run-off, little adsorption or percolation, and maximum evaporation (Meinzer and Hare, 1915). 

Recharge of the groundwater in the basin is primarily by infiltration from runoff through the 

upper porous zone of the coalesced alluvial fans (bajadas) and debris slopes, the sink holes of the 

interior gypsiferous plain, and through the gypsum and quartz sands. 

Regional Aquifers 

The basin-fill aquifer of the Tularosa Basin, like many basins in the western U.S., is 

characterized by low recharge rates and long residence time. Sediments and dissolved minerals 

from the surrounding highlands have filled the basin since the onset of the Rio Grande Rift 

(Chapin, 1971). Coarse sediments shed from the surrounding highlands interfinger with the finegrained fluvial and lake deposits of the basin center. Groundwater enters the basin through 

alluvial fans at the mountain flanks. Recent chemical and microbial evidence suggest that a deep 

geothermal source contributes to the aquifer (Schulze-Makuch, 2002). Some groundwater leaves 

the basin to the south, flowing into the Hueco Bolson, an important water supply for the city of 

El Paso (EL Paso Water Utilities, 2004). Most of the sediments in the bolson are saturated with 

24
saline water (Orr and Myers, 1986). Freshwater supplies are primarily found at the basin edges 

and more saline waters toward the center. 

A major controlling structural feature of the basin fill aquifer is the Jarilla Fault. This north-south 

trending fault effectively divides the aquifer in two. Groundwater from the eastern subbasin 

flows westward over the bedrock high associated with the Jarilla Fault. Groundwater flow 

models, used for regional planning, assume that most of this water evaporates and contributes 

very little to the western subbasin (Finch, personal communication, 2009). However, the 

proximity of the fault to several perennial water sources (Brazel Lake, Barrel Springs and the 

Lost River) suggest that groundwater from the eastern subbasin is important in maintaining these 

features. 

Local Aquifer 

Groundwater that supports the hydrologic function of the playa and dune system is supplied by a 

regional groundwater gradient that transmits water from the surrounding mountains to the playas 

at the basin center. The process is complicated by the presence of the north-south trending Jarilla 

Fault located along the eastern boundary of WHSA. The eastern side of the fault has moved 

upward relative to the western block and has brought bedrock to or very near the surface, 

effectively separating the two sides of the basin fill aquifer. From where the fault intersects the 

surface the geologic formations dip to the east. Groundwater moving from the Sacramento 

Mountains westward into the basin is brought to the surface by these rising beds where it 

discharges as springs and wetlands primarily on Department of Defense property to the east of 

WHSA. Climate forces place heavy evaporation pressure on these resources. Some current 

groundwater flow models assume all this water evaporates and therefore presumes these 

resources would not contribute to water resources in the western basin. However, groundwater 

from the eastern side of the basin may not all evaporate and may contribute to recharge of 

groundwater resources in the western side. Groundwater from the eastern sub-basin may play a 

role in maintaining groundwater levels in the western sub-basin. 

Groundwater elevations measured in the observation wells in the monument indicate that the 

water table is higher than might be expected based upon regional groundwater gradients. The 

observation wells are completed in a clay layer rich in organic material that underlies the dune 

field (Barud-Zubillaga, 2000). There has been speculation that this indicates a “perched” water 

table; however there are no data to suggest that sediments directly below the clay layer are not 

saturated. Nonetheless, the high water levels present an interesting puzzle and perhaps point to a 

disconnection between the regional aquifer and the local aquifer (Huff, 2005). 

Regional Flow 

Streamflow in the Tularosa Basin infiltrates through streambeds into the basin fill aquifer at or 

near the mountain fronts. Streamflow is a substantial part of the recharge for the aquifer. 

Streamflow differs substantially between the streams draining the Sacramento Mountains and the 

San Andres Mountains (Waltemeyer, 2001). Estimates of streamflow and potential recharge by 

the U.S. Geological Survey put the contribution from the Sacramento Mountains at 47,800 acre25
feet and from the San Andres Mountains at 21,000 acre-feet. Recharge from streamflow from the 

eastern highlands is more than twice the streamflow from the western highlands. 

The higher precipitation in the Sacramento Mountains causes greater recharge and debris fan 

construction on the west side of these mountains than on the eastern side. This combined with 

basin tilting create regional groundwater flow from northeast to the southwest (Huff, 2005). 

Lensing 

Basin sediments consist of interfingering coarse sediments shed from surrounding uplands and 

fine-grained stream and lake sediments. The coarse layers have greater porosity and allow 

groundwater to move relatively faster while the finer deposits retard the rate of groundwater 

movement. The faster movement of groundwater means less contact with soluble minerals, less 

dissolved solids, and better water quality. In some areas, these coarse beds extend far into the 

basin providing freshwater to wells and riparian areas. This may be the case for the Lost River 

and in other areas where cottonwood groves exist on the east side of the monument. 

Wells 

Wells are generally used to withdraw water from aquifers. Sufficiently large withdrawals can 

change directions of groundwater flow. Groundwater withdrawn from an aquifer does not exit 

the aquifer at natural discharge areas. Information on well locations, groundwater withdrawals, 

and groundwater levels are needed to properly manage resources dependent upon hydrologic 

processes. 

Monitoring wells within the monument can be used to monitor the level of the shallow aquifer 

and for contamination. Water levels will reflect the sum total of climatic factors, including 

precipitation and evapotranspiration. Water samples for these wells can also be tested for 

hazardous chemicals. Table 4 provides a summary of monitoring wells within WHSA. 

Water supply wells for communities outside the monument are found in the Douglas, Boles, San 

Andres and Snake Tank Road well fields (Huff, 1996, Livingston Associates and John Shomaker 

and Associates, 2002). The highest concentration of water supply wells in the Tularosa Basin 

occurs on the eastern margin on alluvial fans where water quality is acceptable. Water level 

declines associated with the municipal water supply have been modeled by the U. S. Geologic 

Survey and results indicate the water level declines would probably be limited to areas adjacent 

to the well fields. The model did not include discharge or withdrawal data from wells toward the 

center of the basin. 

26
Table 4. Monitoring wells within WHSA and water levels at the time of construction (Barud-Zubillaga, 

2000). 

Well ID Northing Easting Total Depth

(ft) 

Depth to 

Water (top 

of casing) 

(ft)

Date of Water 

Level 

Measurement 

MW-001 32°49”23” 106°16”05” 25 3.58 July 21, 1997 

MW-002 32°48”53” 106°15”02” 30 4.125 July 21, 1997 

MW-003 32°47”12” 106°10”57” 40 18.0 July 22, 1997 

MW-004 32°46”45” 106°10”26” 37 10.4 July 22, 1997 

MW-005 32°46”18” 106°10”52” 29 9.4 July 22, 1997 

MW-006 32°48”50” 106°15”29” 29.5 3.1 July 23, 1997 

Water Quality 

The pollution of natural waters can impair the natural function of aquatic and terrestrial 

ecosystems and negatively impact visitor experience. According to NPS Management Policies, 

the NPS will determine the quality of WHSA water resources and avoid, whenever possible, the 

pollution of monument water by human activities occurring within and outside monument 

boundaries (National Park Service, 2006). 

Within WHSA, natural water quality conditions should be maintained “unimpaired” under the 

National Park Service Organic Act (1916, 16 USC11). Water quality standards relative to 

WHSA are guided by the Clean Water Act as promulgated by the State of New Mexico. The 

2008-2010 State of New Mexico CWA § 303(d)/§ 305(b) Integrated Report does not list any 

designated use waters within WHSA.

Water resource status and trends are summarized for all parks within the Chihuahuan Desert 

Inventory and Monitoring Network (Porter et al., 2009). Water quality in WHSA is 

overwhelmingly controlled by the high rate of evaporation in the basin (60-80 in/yr.) which 

concentrates the dissolved minerals in the water to > 65,000 mg/L TDS in some areas of the 

Tularosa Basin. This phenomenon is a common feature of closed basins within the southwestern 

United States. 

Saline and brine groundwater are found throughout the basin with concentrations being higher 

toward the center of the basin (Figure 13). Fresh water supplies (<1,000 mg/L TDS) are found 

beneath the alluvial fans at the basin edges and within coarse grain lenses that carry water to the 

basin center without contact with gypsiferous sediments. Water quality is dominated by calcium, 

sodium and sulfate. 

Concentrations of chloride and sulfate from Lake Lucero samples exceeded USEPA drinking 

water and freshwater criteria. The highest concentrations of chloride and sulfate (126,000 mg/L 

and 39,000 respectively) were reported for Lake Lucero in April 1993. Elevated concentrations 

of metals were reported (National Park Service, 1997). 

27
Data for the headwaters segment of the Lost River were limited to concentrations of metals in 

streambed sediments and lists of macro invertebrates and diatoms from studies by the New 

Mexico Environment Department in 1993 (Porter et al, 2009). 

Figure 13. Concentrations of total dissolved solids in groundwater across the Tularosa Basin (BarudZubillaga, 2000). 

Flora and Fauna 

Flora 

WHSA is located at the northern limits of the Chihuahuan Desert, and as expected, the majority 

of plants are drought tolerant. In addition, many of these plants must be adapted to alkaline, 

nutrient poor soils with high gypsum content. The highly mineralized water table under these 

soils ranges from about 3 feet below the surface at Lake Lucero and the interdune flats to more 

than 20 feet outside the dune field. 

Plants surviving here must also endure being buried by moving dunes and be able to tolerate 

extreme fluctuations in temperature, with common sub-freezing winter lows to occasional 100+ 

summer days. 

28
The majority of plants in WHSA are found in 6 distinct ecological units -- A through F--, 

primarily on the basis of soil type and mineral concentration, dune activity, and water 

availability. A description of each unit from http://www.ohranger.com/white-sands/plants, along 

with examples of plant species found in each, follows: 

Lake Lucero (Unit A) and Alkali Flat (Unit B) - Alkali Flat is the exposed lake bed of ancient 

Pleistocene Lake Otero, which has dried into its present condition. Occasionally water pools in 

the southern end of the flat, forming seasonal Lake Lucero. Extreme alkaline conditions and 

occasional flooding prevent the growth of plant life in these two areas except for a few scattered 

grasses and pickleweed. Saltcedar, an exotic invasive shrub, has managed to survive in places 

along the fringes of these two areas. 

Unit C is primarily dome, transverse, and barchan dunes and represents some of the most 

extreme environmental conditions for plant life on the monument. These dunes creep forward as 

much as 30 feet per year and even fast-growing plants such as yucca and rosemary mint cannot 

outgrow them. Occasional pedestals topped with sumac, rosemary mint, or saltcedar are left in 

the trail of a moving dune. The interdune areas may contain sand verbena, evening primrose, 

woolly paper flower, Indian rice grass, yucca, ephedra, and alkali sacaton. 

Unit D is composed mostly of parabolic dunes, which extend two to three miles into the 

dunefield from its southern and eastern boundaries. These are slower moving, vegetated-dunes 

and are separated by large grassy, interdune areas. Grasses found here include several members 

of the dropseed tribe, gypsum grama, little bluestem, sandhill muhly, and alkali sacaton. Soaptree 

yucca, rosemary mint, skunkbush sumac, Rio Grande cottonwood, and scattered stands of the 

exotic saltcedar are the primary woody plants found in this area. This area has the most complex 

and varied plant community on the monument. 

Unit E can best be described as a saltbush/alkali sacaton association, dotted with an occasional 

sumac bush, hedgehog cactus and cane cholla. This extremely flat area of grey-green vegetation 

over gypsum/alkali soils extends from the eastern and southern monument boundaries to the 

edges of the dunefield. 

Unit F is composed of mesquite hummocks near the edges of Alkali Flat and Lake Lucero and 

creosote bush on alluvial fans that extend to the monument boundary from the base of the San 

Andres Mountains. Alkali sacaton and a few other grasses are found above the lake floodplain 

into the margins of the mesquite dunes (composed of quartz sand rather than gypsum). 

Fauna 

Forty-four species of mammals, twenty-six species of reptiles, six species of amphibians and 

nearly 100 families of insects have been recorded within White Sands National Monument. Most 

animals inhabit the margins of the dune field and the adjacent desert plain. 

As in other deserts, most animals that live here are nocturnal. In order to conserve water and 

avoid extreme heat, many desert animals stay underground during the day, emerging from their 

29
burrows after sunset to search for food. Evidence of their activities can be found in the sand the 

next morning. The Big Dune Nature Trail is a good place to search for animal tracks and sign. 

Even at night, dark animals are easily spotted against the white background of the gypsum sand, 

making them easy victims for predators. Some small animals, including the Apache pocket 

mouse, the Bleached Earless Lizard, the Cowles Prairie Lizard, and numerous insects, have 

evolved a white coloration that camouflages them in the dunes. 

Animals are rarely seen within the center of the dune field. The extreme temperatures and the 

lack of food, shelter and standing water combine to restrict their number. But they are here, even 

in the heart of the dunes. Like plants, most animals are found in the interdune flats. During the 

day, watch for darkling beetles, lizards and birds venturing onto the sand. At night, pocket mice 

and kangaroo rats forage for seeds, and kit fox hunt the mice and rats. 

The oryx, or gemsbok, is a large (450 pounds) African antelope that now lives in southern New 

Mexico. Oryx were introduced onto the White Sands Missile Range by the state of New Mexico 

to establish a huntable big game population. Oryx have successfully adapted to the area and have 

spread throughout the Tularosa Basin, including White Sands National Monument. The National 

Park Service considers the oryx to be a threat to the monument's native plants and animals and 

has fenced the monument boundary to exclude the oryx. 

Aquatic fauna are adapted to the saline environments. A list of macroinvertebrates and diatoms 

from Lost River is available for samples collected in 1993 by the New Mexico Environment 

Department (Porter et al., 2009). Macroinvertebrate taxa richness was 7, dominated by 

Trichochoiza sp., a salt tolerant water bug. The diatom community consisted of halophilic 

species found typically in coastal estuaries. The rare White Sands Pupfish, the only fish native to 

the Tularosa Basin, can be found in Lost River, a stream that originates in the Sacramento 

Mountains. Lost River enters the eastern part of the dune field and flows about two miles before 

disappearing in the sand. 

Air Quality 

Under the Clean Air Act (42 USC 7401-7671q, as amended in 1990), park managers have a 

responsibility to protect air quality and related values from the adverse effects of air pollution. 

Protection of air quality in national parks requires knowledge of the origin, transport, and fate of 

air pollution, as well as its impacts on resources. Air quality was identified as a potential vital 

sign for the network because of its importance as both an anthropogenic and natural driver of 

change (Reiser et al. 2008). 

WHSA is a Class II area. Class II areas of the country are protected under the Clean Air Act, but 

have less stringent protection from air pollution damage than a Class I area, except in specified 

cases. 

30
Fundamental Geologic and Water Resources and Values 

It is important for WHSA to identify the resources and values critical to achieving the 

monument’s purpose and maintaining its significance. The reasons for identifying fundamental 

and other important resources and values are: 

1. To define and understand the most important resources and values that support the 

monument’s purpose and significance. If these resources and values are degraded or 

eliminated, they then jeopardize the monument’s purpose and significance. 

2. To ensure that the planning team and public understand the key elements that sustains the 

monument’s purpose and significance. 

3. To help planning and management activities focus on larger issues and concerns regarding 

protection of the resources and values that support the monument’s purpose and significance. 

4. To allow the planning team to test alternatives and estimate how each might influence the 

fundamental and important resources and values of the monument. 

5. To become the building blocks in creating a future vision and management strategy for the 

monument. 

Identifying the fundamental and important resources and values at WHSA helps ensure that all 

planning is focused on what is most significant about the monument. As presented earlier in this 

report, it is recommended that both geologic and water resources be defined as fundamental 

resources at WHSA, receiving the highest level of protection. 

The following sections follow a format currently used by the NPS Denver Service Center (DSC) 

Planning Division in preparing a park-specific Foundation Document. This includes the 

following six questions that are answered for fundamental resources (geologic and water 

resources) at the monument: 

1. What is the importance of geologic and water resources? 

2. What is the adequacy of the existing geologic and water resources information? 

3. What are the current conditions and related trends of the geologic and water resources? 

4. What are the current and potential threats to the geologic and water resources? 

5. Who are the stakeholders who have an interest in WHSA’s geologic and water resources? 

6. Which laws and policies apply to geologic and water resources at the monument? 

These questions are answered from interviews and existing technical references provided to the 

authors. 

What is the importance of geologic and water resources? 

Geologic Resources 

WHSA contains the world’s largest gypsum dune field and the preservation of it and related 

natural resources is the basis of the enabling legislation for WHSA. Wind, water and sediment 

supply play a central role in the dynamics of the dune field. Since these factors are not bound by 

31
monument borders, management staff should look beyond the monument boundary when making 

important decisions and long-term plans. 

During the 2003 Geoindicators meeting, participants prioritized the most important geologic and 

hydrologic features and processes at White Sands National Monument as: 

• Dune features and processes, including dune formation and reactivation, groundwater 

chemistry and groundwater levels. 

• Lacustrine features and processes, including lake levels and salinity. 

The principle features and processes of dunes remain a subject of research (KellerLynn, 2008). 

Groundwater levels and their capacity to support vegetation play an important role in dune 

dynamics (KellerLynn, 2008). As the groundwater levels decline, dune-anchoring vegetation 

diminishes, causing dune movement. Conversely, as groundwater levels rise and support more 

plants, dunes stabilize. 

Dunefields 

Shifting or migrating dunes alter drainage patterns creating new pathways for water to enter the 

monument and in some cases create barriers to water flow. Since 2003, new drainages into the 

monument are known to have resulted in the introduction of the pupfish—a state-listed 

threatened species—to the monument (KellerLynn, 2008). 

Soil Crusts 

Soil crusts are important resources at WHSA as indicators of ecosystem stability, health, and 

climate change. Soil crusts come in two forms, biological and physical. Biological crusts occupy 

an intermediate ecological position between active dunes and vegetated surfaces in the 

monument. They are critical to plant growth because they fix nitrogen into the system and bind 

soil. Physical crusts are inorganic and caused by features such as platy soil surface particles, an 

accumulation of salt, or, as rainfall drives finer grains into pore spaces, a decrease in pore space 

(Rosentreter et al., 2007). Both physical and biological crusts are important soil binders. 

The importance and hydroecological role of a soil crust is very much site dependent. 

Physical crusts can only occur on soil with a large distribution of grain size and by definition 

have decreased pore space. Therefore the formation of a physical crust will lead to a decrease in 

infiltration and an increase in runoff. Low infiltration can impact vegetation communities by 

preventing rainfall from reaching root zones. Increased runoff can increase the potential for 

erosion. Areas where vegetative cover has been removed are vulnerable to physical crust 

formation. 

Biological soil crusts can impact water infiltration in unexpected ways. On silty soils a biological 

crust can prevent the formation of a physical crust and so increase infiltration and decrease 

runoff. On silty soils a biological crust means a deeper wetting front during rain storms and a 

wetter root zone. On sandy soils, where more porosity means higher infiltration rates, a 

32
biological crust can decrease infiltration by covering the sandy soil with a biological mat with 

lower porosity. A decrease in infiltration will mean an increase in runoff. Both of these attributes 

are important for the dune ecosystem. 

Unique Features 

Yardangs 

White Sands has been identified as a premier U.S. site for yardangs. The variety at White Sands 

is great (Steven Fryberger, in KellerLynn, 2008). Unfortunately, most visitors never see these 

features because the best examples are not accessible. Yet they are worth noting as an important 

geomorphic feature of White Sands because the monument may contain the world’s best 

examples of these features. Figure 14 shows a typical yardang at White Sands. 

Yardangs occur in arid environments where wind is a significant erosional force (Fryberger, 

2001). The widespread occurrence of yardangs within the barchan dune areas of WHSA suggests 

a long history of wind erosion at the monument. These intriguing features not only offer 

interpretative value, study of them may lead to a better understanding of desert erosional 

processes. 

There may also be a connection between the development of plant pedestals and yardangs. 

Fryberger, 2001, suggests that as vegetation on a plant pedestal dies, it will take the form of a 

yardang. Since yardangs represent a more significant wind regime, their location, orientation, 

size and age, in conjunction with plant pedestals, may record wind erosion history at large and 

small scales. 

Additionally, since yardangs occur extensively on Mars (McCauley, 1973), they are of interest to 

planetary scientists. 

Additional photographs and information may be found on the internet at 

http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/parks/whsa/geows/Chapter8.htm#sec5. 

33
Figure 14. Photo of a large yardang at White Sands National Monument. Prevailing wind in this photo is 

from the left foreground to the right background (southwest to northeast) (Fryberger, 2001).

34
Pedestals 

There are two types of pedestals that occur in White Sands National Monument: plant and 

crystal. Plant pedestals are often a sign of severe wind or sheet wash erosion (Pellant et al., 

2000). In WHSA, several competing theories describe plant pedestal formation. One theory is 

that the pedestals are remnants of older dunes that have largely weathered away. It is thought that 

deep-rooted plants are able to survive longer while surrounding vegetation dies off perhaps due 

to a drop in the water table. The deep roots preserve parts of a dune and form a pedestal. Another 

theory with a cultural connection is that the tops of the preexisting dune had been used as 

campsites and campfires ossified the gypsum sand, effectively creating a resistant cap which 

impedes erosion. Plant pedestals are known to provide habit for a variety of organisms. As 

"island" communities, these pedestals demonstrate an important relationship between geological 

and biological processes. 

Crystal pedestals are an intriguing feature of the landscape at White Sands occurring on Alkali 

Flat in and out of the monument. Figure 15 shows the area of the monument known to include 

crystal pedestals. The pedestals are essentially accumulations of coarse gypsum cleavage 

fragments and crystals (Love, personal communication, 2008) and are not related to vegetation. 

Crystals found in the pedestals generally appear to be aligned in at least two directions (Figure 

16). 

There remains uncertainty as to the origin of these crystal pedestals. One theory is that the 

pedestals grew upward along with groundwater upwelling through playa lake beds. Another 

proposed mechanism is that the pedestals are gypsum crystals that fell in cracks, perhaps formed 

via earthquake or erosion (soil piping) in lake beds (Love, personal communication, 2008). 

Similar crystal pedestals have been observed on Mars making White Sands an important location 

for planetary research. The gypsum crystals are cemented together by capillary water and a 

fluctuating water table and are exposed as the lake bed erodes. 

35
Figure 15. Locations of crystal monuments at White Sands National Monument. Crystal pedestals have 

been observed in the northwest portion of the monument as well as in other parts of the Alkali Flat outside 

the monument (Source: White Sands National Monument). 

36
 

Figure 16. Photo of crystal pedestals of White Sands National Monument. The mechanisms for the 

formation of these pedestals is poorly understood and the subject of current research (Photograph by 

Dave Love, New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources). 

Interdunes 

Interdunes provide important habitat for much of the flora and fauna of White Sands. The 

evolution of interdunes is, obviously, tied to that of dunes but since the interdunes host a greater 

and more abundant variety of species, interdune evolution determines species growth and 

distribution. 

Interdunes are sites for sediment preservation since they are commonly overridden by moving 

dunes, increasing chances for preservation in the sediment record. Because of their preservation 

potential, they are of great interest to geologists studying sediments and rocks for what they may 

reveal about environmental conditions at the time of deposition. Since sediments are well 

preserved in interdunes, trenches dug in them can reveal historical snapshots and allow scientists 

to construct a history of dune movement (Fryberger, 2001). 

Bajadas 

Coalesced alluvial fans on the west side of the monument distribute water, have distinct plant 

communities and soil types, and are thought to be the primary source of groundwater recharge 

for the basin underlying the monument. Bajadas form when alluvial fans converge. The resulting 

apron of sediment is called a bajada. These deposits consist of gravels and sands and interfinger 

with the finer evaporite and lacustrine deposits of the basin center (Orr and Myers, 1986). 

37
Paleontology 

Fossil mammoth tracks and microinvertebrate fossils from Lake Otero sediments occur within 

the monument (Bruce Allen, in KellerLynn, 2008). Such fossils are indicators of past climate 

and may contain a record of conditions during the Pleistocene. 

Several sets of late Pleistocene mammoth tracks preserved in convex relief in a soft gypsum 

matrix have been found in the monument. Radiocarbon dating (14C) of the track-bearing 

sediments suggests that the tracks are at least 30,000 yrs old (Lucas et al., 2007). These trace 

fossils are considered extremely delicate and subject to erosion. Since May 2007, monument 

staff has discovered more than ten sets of mammoth tracks throughout the monument without 

making a concerted effort to systematically inventory the fossil tracks. This suggests that a 

rigorous survey may yield additional sets of tracks. 

Lake Sediments 

Lake Otero sediments in the monument represent the latest part of the lake history and hold clues 

to dune processes, habitat for early humans and regional geologic history, including, possibly, a 

record of micrometeorite falls that may have affected mammoth and bison populations (Dave 

Love in KellerLynn, 2008). 

Extraterrestrial Research 

An intriguing aspect of White Sands is its recognized similarity to Mars and the Moon. The 

NASA rover, Opportunity, landed on Mars on January 24, 2004 in a large playa which bears 

striking similarities to the Alkali Flat. Research has shown that dunes on Mars were formed by 

wind and past water erosion in a playa system similar to White Sands. Data have shown that the 

dunes of Mars are also made up of gypsum, thus research of the White Sands dunes may reveal 

information about processes and conditions on Mars. 

Other features including crystal pedestals and smaller-scale surface formations such as “fins” 

observed on Mars also occur in the monument (Figure 17). The "fins" are cemented gypsum sand 

grains and crack-filling gypsum cement along fissures in older sand dune deposits (Love, 

personal communication, 2009). 

38
Figure 17. Photo comparison of fins on Mars and at White Sands National Monument. Fins observed on 

Mars (left) may have formed under conditions similar to fins seen at White Sands (right). Source: 

NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory and White Sands National Monument. 

The major focus of Mars related research at White Sands is based around three questions: 

1. What influence does the atmosphere have on gypsum soils of White Sands and Mars? 

2. How is gypsum formed, concentrated and broken down to form the dune fields of White 

Sands and Mars? 

3. How do dunes at White Sands and Mars develop and migrate? 

Teams from the University of California at Davis; Indiana University; and University of Texas at 

Austin are currently pursuing these lines of research. The University of Texas team has been 

creating highly accurate three dimensional maps of the monument’s dunes and playa system for 

several consecutive years. These data and maps may be useful for planning and management as 

well as Inventory and Monitoring Program objectives. 

Species Adaptations to Geology 

The geologic characteristics of WHSA have become central to the adaptations of several plant 

and animal species. For example, the shifting sands are believed to drive the soaptree yucca’s 

ability to grow upward to a foot a year to keep its leaves above the sand. Also, in some cases, 

species have adapted to the color of the sand. The bleached earless lizard, as well as a variety of 

insect species that occur in the monument, have adapted to match the color of the white sands. 

These species adaptations are tangible and fascinating examples of the effects of geology on 

endemism. 

39
Water Resources 

Few perennial water sources (springs, wetlands, perennial streams) exist in or near the 

monument. The occurrence of water and its quantity and quality directly impact dune stability. 

Permanent and migratory wildlife depend on the water and riparian community associated with 

area water sources. These water sources probably host metapopulations of endemic species. 

Based on the 2006 NPS Management Policies for water resources (National Park Service, 2006): 

• WHSA will avoid the pollution of water by human activities occurring within and outside 

the monument. 

• WHSA will manage watersheds as complete hydrologic systems, and minimize human 

disturbance to the natural upland processes that deliver water, sediment, and dissolved 

solids. 

• WHSA will manage wetlands in compliance with NPS mandates and requirements of 

Executive Order 11990 (Wetland Protection), the Clean Water Act, the Rivers and 

Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899, and the procedures described in Director’s Order 

Orders 77-1. The service will 1) provide leadership and take action to prevent the 

destruction, loss, and degradation of wetlands; 2) preserve and enhance the natural and 

beneficial value of wetlands; and 3) avoid direct and indirect support of new construction 

in wetlands unless there are not practicable alternatives and the proposed action includes 

all practicable measures to minimize harm to wetlands. The NPS will implement a “no 

net loss” of wetlands property. 

• WHSA will 1) manage for the preservation of floodplain values; 2) minimize potentially 

hazardous conditions associated with flooding; and 3) comply with the NPS Organic Act 

and all other federal laws and executive orders related to the management of activities in 

flood-prone area including Executive Order 11988 (Floodplain Management), NEPA, 

applicable provision of the Clean Water Act, and the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899. 

Surface Water 

Lost River 

 

Perennial flow in the Lost River exists only on DOD property at the northwest corner of the 

monument and supports an adapted aquatic ecosystem and is critical to species protection. 

The flow is lost to infiltration and evaporation and may sustain dune stability and groundwater 

levels underneath the dunes. Thus water in perennial streams east of the monument is important 

to White Sands National Monument. 

Lake Lucero 

Lake Lucero is a unique and important hydrologic feature. Anecdotal reports by monument staff 

of visitor use suggest it is the second most visited fundamental resource in the monument along 

with the dune field. In wet times it is a recharge area while in dry times it is a groundwater 

discharge area. The regional groundwater gradient is toward the lake and continually brings 

40
hypersaline groundwater to the playa which evaporates and leaves behind mineral precipitates. 

Surface water transports very little gypsum to the playa and contributes very little to the 

formation of the dunes (Allmendinger and Titus, 1973). Surface water occasionally fills the lake 

and supports migrating bird populations. Ponded water dissolves the upper crust of the playa, 

causing the salinity of the surface water to increase. However, this process is not important for 

gypsum sand formation. Whether wet or dry, Lake Lucero contributes greatly to the biodiversity 

of the area. 

Groundwater 

As a major controlling factor of dune activity and dune biodiversity, it is important to monitor 

groundwater levels and the quality of groundwater. Water levels within two to three feet of 

ground surface support vegetation that stabilizes dunes. During wet times, interdune areas of 

sand erosion can become saturated with shallow pools preventing wind erosion. The wet-dry 

cycle of the interdunes can dissolve and re-precipitate minerals creating a physical crust that is 

more resistant to wind erosion. By preventing erosion of the interdune, these wet periods exert 

important geomorphic control by decreasing dune movement. 

Wetlands occupy low lying areas and seasonally impound surface water. Wetlands support both 

endemic and migratory animals. 

The ecological community adapted to the dune field and surrounding area is dependent on the 

high groundwater level. The unsaturated zone, that area between the ground surface and the 

water table, is important for a process known as “capillary action”. The process pulls water up 

and makes it available for plants, burrowing animals and soil forming processes. A long-term (50 

year plus) rise or fall of the water table of only a few feet would initiate major changes in dune 

dynamics at the monument. In contrast with Great Sand Dunes National Park where a number of 

other factors affect dune dynamics, groundwater level plays a primary role in dunefield growth, 

erosion and movement at White Sands. 

Water Chemistry 

Groundwater transports a large quantity of gypsum to Lake Lucero (Allmendinger and Titus, 

1973). The dissolution of Permian evaporates in the Yeso Formation and lacustrine deposits 

provide the necessary minerals for gypsum and selenite formation. As groundwater evaporates 

from the surface of Lake Lucero, selenite crystals grow. These crystals are eventually abraded by 

wind and provide the source of the sand for the dunes (Allmendinger and Titus, 1973). Recent 

research, however, calls into question the importance of this process in adding gypsum grains to 

the dunefield (Fryberger, 2001). 

The quality of surface water and groundwater contributes to a unique assemblage of plants and 

animals that are adapted to saline environments. Groundwater chemistry controls vegetation and 

thus affects dune stability. Increased salinity will result in greater dune activity as anchoring 

vegetation dies off (KellerLynn, 2003). Water quality drives the ecohydrologic function of the 

landscape in and around WHSA and thus the quality of surface water and groundwater is 

important at WHSA. 

41
What is the adequacy of existing geologic and water resource information? 

Geologic Resources 

Dune Processes 

 

Current research by Anna Szynkiewicz, Gary Kocurek, and Rip Langford is refining the 

understanding of the origin and timing of dune formation, dune dynamics, and the interactions 

between eolian deflation of dunes and playa lakes (KellerLynn, 2008). The Heart of Sands 

quadrangle (Figure 18), Kocurek’s study area, includes all dune types. Kocurek and Langford are 

writing a monitoring protocol for dune dynamics, and Langford and Szynkiewicz are creating 

conceptual models for the gypsum sand dunes at White Sands National Monument and 

Guadalupe Mountains National Park. Kocurek and colleagues have baseline LiDAR data 

acquired in 2007. 

 Figure 18. USGS 7.5 minute quads comprising White Sands National Monument. 

42
Additional study of the relationship between dunes and groundwater is needed (KellerLynn, 

2008). While it’s generally understood that a lower water table results in greater dune activity, 

the following mechanisms are not well understood: 

• Dune stability – specifically as related to the unsaturated zone 

• Gypsum production 

• Dune formation as it is related to groundwater 

Research in these processes may allow for a better understanding of the interrelationship of dune 

and hydrogeologic processes. Management of the dune resources will likely benefit from a 

greater knowledge of the effects of groundwater dynamics on dune processes. 

During the Geoindicators meeting in 2003, participants suggested that a map identifying the 

various generations of dunes, ranging from active dunes to the oldest fossil dunes, would be 

useful for resource management. Figures 4 and 10 provide some information on the extent of the 

active and inactive dunefields but do not focus on dune dynamics. A map with color 

classifications of dune activity would provide an important context for resource management and 

monument operations. Such a map would likely require regularly scheduled revisions as new 

data are collected. A time-synched map series such as this would give managers an 

understanding of dynamic dune processes and may help identify how management actions affect 

those processes. This in turn will guide management decisions to best preserve the dune 

resources. It is generally agreed that Seager et al. (1987), Figure 5, should serve as the basic 

digital geologic map for White Sands National Monument (KellerLynn, 2008). 

The Department of Defense at White Sands Missile Range has acquired and interpreted satellite 

imagery of the dune field, playa lakes, and surrounding areas. These data (shapefiles) could 

likely be shared with the National Park Service if a representative from White Sands National 

Monument requested them. 

A comprehensive bibliography of dune research, including a catalog of existing data and 

imagery, should be compiled (KellerLynn, 2003). The 2002 New Mexico Geological Society 

publication titled “Geology of White Sands” currently represents the best available, published 

compilation for geology of the southern Tularosa Basin. The National Park Service maintains a 

website containing links to online resources for southern Tularosa Basin geology at 

http://www.nps.gov/archive/whsa/home.htm. 

Paleontology 

Even though a literature review summarizing the paleontological resources in the monument was 

completed in 2007 (National Park Service, 2007), a detailed inventory of paleontological 

resources in the monument is still needed (KellerLynn, 2008). As noted earlier, several sets of 

mammoth tracks have been discovered since 2007 by monument staff. Such discoveries suggest 

that a more rigorous inventory would result in of the discovery of additional sites. 

Paleontological resources are summarized in the NPS Chihuahuan Desert Network (CHDN) 

inventory and monitoring report (National Park Service, 2007). The section for the CHDN is 

included as Appendix A. 

43
Key findings from the CHDN Paleontological Inventory: 

• Paleontological discoveries are documented from an area adjacent to the monument 

boundary. There is limited potential for future discovery of fossils at WHSA. 

• Pleistocene mammalian track-ways have been documented on the nearby White Sands 

Missile Range. 

While the CHDN report noted a low potential for new fossil discoveries, documented finds 

adjacent to the monument may suggest otherwise. The CHDN report also did not address 

microfossils, which may occur in abundance in the monument and may represent an important 

resource for further study. 

Mammoth tracks observed in the monument have not been adequately dated with radiocarbon 

methods. Dating of the lake bed sediments via radiocarbon techniques will help constrain the age 

of the tracks (KellerLynn, 2008). 

A plethora of microfossils likely exist in Lake Otero sediments (KellerLynn, 2003). Since these 

fossils are indicators of past climate, it would be valuable to the monument to analyze the 

sediments in order to model paleoecological conditions. Security measures in place in the White 

Sands Missile Range have prevented thorough study of Lake Otero sediments. Extensive study in 

other regional lakes reveals a wealth of paleontological information (KellerLynn, 2008). 

Soils and Sediments 

The scale at which the existing soils map (Neher and Bailey, 1976) was produced is not useful 

for making management decisions (KellerLynn, 2008) and should be remapped to at least the 

national map standard of 1:24,000. Mapping should include physical and biological soil crusts. 

As of May 2008, the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) was in the process of 

updating the soils map of the Tularosa Basin (Dave Love, New Mexico Bureau of Geology and 

Mineral Resources, written communication, May 16, 2008). 

The digital geologic map produced by the GRI Program (based on Seager et al., 1987) does not 

include soils. Monument staff can contact Pete Biggam, NPS’ Soils Program Manager in the 

Geologic Resources Division (pete_biggam@nps.gov or 303-987-6948) for assistance with their 

soils mapping and soil resource management needs. 

Bruce Allen, Bob Myers and Dave Love are working on a report of their investigations in the 

Tularosa Basin. The work is located mostly north and west of the monument and focuses 

primarily in Quaternary spring, marsh and lake deposits. The report will include radiocarbon 

dates for sediments from these deposits (Dave Love, New Mexico Bureau of Geology and 

Mineral Resources, written communication, August, 2008). 

Further study of sediment sequences and composition is needed to better understand ecosystem 

change and human influences on the ecosystem (KellerLynn, 2008). Sediment processes record 

environmental conditions at the time of deposition and therefore provides a context for further 

study as well as monument management decisions. Analysis of sediment cores from Lake Lucero 

would likely lead to a better understanding of how Lake Lucero developed over time. 

44
In addition, if eolian sediments from the dunes could be dated, the ages of different portions of 

the dunefield could be better understood and tied to events in the history of the ancient lakes, 

evaporite flats and playas. Sediment processes associated with flooding of Lake Lucero and the 

degree to which sediments from these events contribute to dune formation is poorly understood 

(Fryberger, 2001). 

Biological Soil Crusts 

Reports and data on biological soil crusts should be compiled and made available to NPS staff. 

Sources for information on biological soil crusts include (KellerLynn, 2008): 

• Data from vegetation plots in White Sands Missile Range 

• Data from Holloman Air Force Base 

• Data from a study of ATV tracks in 2000 and 2002 in the monument 

• AVIRIS imagery from University of Texas–El Paso. 

Additional study of soil crust resilience, recovery rates and the areal extent of different biological 

soil crusts occurring in the monument is also needed (KellerLynn, 2008). 

Yardangs 

While it is generally understood that yardangs occur in the barchanoid dune fields of WHSA 

(Fryberger, 2001), an inventory of locations, orientations, and other characteristics including 

size, shape and degree of weathering would inform our understanding of the erosional history of 

the monument. There are a number of questions concerning yardangs such as: 

1. Does the occurrence of yardangs correlate spatially with areas of little gypsum sand 

deposition? 

2. What is the developmental relationship between yardangs and plant pedestals? 

3. How well do yardangs represent similarly shaped features on Mars? 

4. What do yardangs tell us about the history of wind erosion at WHSA? 

5. Are existing yardangs eroding and where might yardangs form in the future? 

A thorough inventory of yardangs will provide baseline data for research focused on answering 

these questions. 

Water Resources 

The existing water-related information for WHSA consists of studies and monitoring efforts by 

NPS staff and other agencies that range from a single sampling event to multi-year monitoring 

programs. For example, water levels are monitored in the monument’s observation wells. In 

addition, the Chihuahuan Desert Inventory and Monitoring Network has produced several 

reports, the most recent a summary of relevant information available (Porter et al, 2009). 

However, much of the data needed for the development of a conceptual model that relates the 

Jarilla Fault to surface and groundwater flow, and overall ecohydrologic function of natural 

resources at WHSA is not readily available. 

45
The following is a summary of historic and current efforts to collect water resources information 

at WHSA. 

Surface Water 

A thorough inventory of wetlands and surface water features has not been performed and is 

therefore needed (KellerLynn, 2003). Some information is available on water levels and water 

quality for Lake Lucero but has not been pulled together for analysis and interpretation. A nineyear study on wetlands on adjacent DOD property is available (Martin et al., 2004). This study 

focuses on overall importance of wetlands, habitat availability, species composition, wildlife 

utilization, and the occurrence of exotic invaders. It does not illustrate the role of geology in 

maintaining these features. This study should be considered before any inventory of wetlands 

and surface water sources in WHSA. 

Dr. Elizabeth Walsh, University of Texas at El Paso is working on the systematics and ecology 

of aquatic macroinvertebrates of the Chihuahuan Desert. In 2007-2008, her team sampled a 

variety of aquatic habitats including Lake Lucero, interdunal areas that were flooded, a stock 

tank, a spring, the Lost River, and several locations adjacent to the monument. These efforts 

included water chemistry and zooplankton surveys. The State of New Mexico has also surveyed 

the Lost River for aquatic invertebrates (Bustos, personal communication, 2009). No detailed 

report is available. 

Two reported investigations on water contamination were available for this report. In 1998, the 

USGS analyzed water samples from two wells (MW2 and MW3) and the Lost River for 

contaminants entering the monument from HAFB. Very small concentrations were found but 

were below detectable limits and below allowable maximum contaminant levels. In 2003, six 

solid leaf samples from the Lost River were analyzed by the USGS for perchlorate. All samples 

had concentrations below detectable limits. 

Groundwater 

Proximity to DOD activities that utilize hazardous materials has raised concerns in the past 

concerning groundwater contamination. Thus, several groundwater quality studies have been 

performed both inside and outside the monument. The USGS has installed monitoring wells 

inside the monument (KellerLynn, 2003) which, along with the water quality studies, have 

resulted in a better understanding of shallow groundwater. No indications of groundwater 

contamination have been reported (Reid and Reiser, 2005). However, the current configuration 

of wells is not optimized to detect contaminant plumes entering the monument. Placement should 

be along the eastern monument boundary and an appropriate sampling depth found through 

geophysical studies designed to detect highly transmissive zones. 

Even though several numerical groundwater flow models are available (Finch, 2006; Huff, 

2005), a regional, basin-wide conceptual model of the relationship between groundwater levels, 

groundwater withdrawals and the eolian ecosystem is lacking. Water users employ groundwater 

flow models to predict water-level declines and future water-supply shortages. Models for the 

Tularosa Basin are generally limited to the eastern half and do not include hydrologic conditions 

46
west of the Jarilla Fault. However, the City of El Paso has a model to manage groundwater 

withdrawals from the Hueco Bolson, which is located 60 miles to the south of the monument and 

is hydraulically connected to the western half of the Tularosa Basin. 

The possibility of a perched aquifer occurring beneath the dune field has not been investigated. 

The relationship between local groundwater gradients and regional groundwater gradients could 

be better defined. Data from the observation wells near WHSA headquarters and the picnic loop, 

compared to groundwater data for the Basin-fill aquifer (Huff, 2004) indicate that the local water 

table is generally eighty feet higher than expected (Porter et al., 2009). Several reports attribute 

this to a perched water table. Monitoring of water levels and quality in the six existing wells 

within the monument is needed to provide context for development of ecohydrologic conceptual 

models. These data would also help illuminate the relationships between regional groundwater 

flow and water quality, local groundwater flow and water quality, lake levels and water quality, 

and dune processes. In addition, a new observation well that penetrates the clay layer found in 

each of the current observation wells, along with expansion of the existing groundwater 

monitoring well network to better define aquifer characteristics, should be considered. 

Another notable data gap concerns the “Garton Well”. This was once a flowing artesian well and 

discharged into a man-made pond that served recreationists. The well no longer flows. Verbal 

reports from monument staff (Bustos, personal communication, 2009) indicate that there have 

been efforts to restore flow from the well, including the use of explosives. This well should be 

put to appropriate use or properly closed. 

Other reports from Mr. Bustos indicate the presence of at least three hand-dug wells. During the 

site visit for this report the team visited one dug well on the west side of Lake Lucero. If the 

hand-dug wells are not historic features, they should be properly closed. 

The effects of surface and groundwater contaminants on selenite formation are unclear. Brines 

with altered chemistries due to contamination may not produce quality selenite crystals or may 

produce smaller crystals. 

What are the current conditions and related trends of the geologic and water 

resources? 

Geologic Resources 

In general, current conditions of geologic resources/features at White Sands are reflected above 

under Description of Natural Resources – Geologic Resources. Current conditions are also 

described in the following section in the context of threats and issues concerning these resources. 

Dunes 

Dune processes observed today are driven largely by prevailing northeast winds and while 

Fryberger, 2001, finds no evidence for older wind regimes, “fossil” dunes found east and south 

of the main dunefield may offer information about historical wind and climate regimes. 

47
The eolian system appears to be very sensitive to the elevation of the groundwater table 

(Fryberger, 2001). 

It is not clear whether the dune field is growing or shrinking. Origin and timing of dune 

formation, dune movement, and the interactions between eolian deflation and playa lakes are not 

well understood and is the subject of current research. A better understanding of these processes 

may help determine current trends and in changes in the size of the dune field. 

Similarly, given the lack of basic inventories for several important geologic resources including 

fossil mammoth tracks, lake sediment microfossils and yardang distribution and abundance, it is 

not clear whether or not these resources are currently in a state of decline (erosion) or not. 

However, Fryberger (2001) in stating the need for more research on yardangs noted that these 

features are presently undamaged. 

Soil Crusts 

Soil crusts in White Sands National Monument appear robust, and potential problems are 

unknown. Crusts in sulfate-rich soils form quickly (within a few years) so that foot-traffic 

disturbances are less likely to create long-term problems (Love, written communication, 2008). 

Water Resources 

Surface Water 

Neither the National Park Service nor its cooperators have conducted a comprehensive inventory 

of wetlands within the monument, but anecdotal evidence indicates that wetlands, and thereby 

wetland species, are disappearing (KellerLynn, 2008). Source areas for basin wetlands have not 

been investigated and it is therefore difficult to determine why or even if water sources are 

disappearing. A study on the ecological importance of wetlands on adjacent DOD property was 

published in 2004 (Martin et al., 2004). The study revealed that DOD wetlands are vibrant and 

play a critical role in the maintenance of wildlife, especially migrating and endemic birds. In 

addition, this study revealed that the exotic saltcedar (Tamarix chinensis.) is well established at 

most wetland sites. This study did not evaluate geologic controls on groundwater flow or 

potential threats to source water. 

 

The condition and trend of flow in the Lost River is unknown. Anecdotal reports suggest that 

flow is decreasing. The potential for other geologically similar features on DOD property exists 

and information on those features could prove useful in evaluating trends for the Lost River. 

Martin et al. (2004) lists several possibilities, including Brazel Lake, Barrel Spring and Tularosa 

Creek. Historic aerial photographs may be useful background information for an inventory of 

wetlands. Aerial photos available online through Google Earth reveal arroyos with vegetation to 

the north and along the Jarilla Fault. A stream gage would provide useful long-term data and 

would need to be located on DOD property. 

48
Groundwater 

A Master’s Thesis from University of Texas at El Paso (Barud-Zubillaga, 2000) reported that 

annual water levels in observation wells within WHSA did not decline and did not vary by more 

than 3.9 inches. The report notes that several of the wells do show some response to precipitation 

and seasonal changes. Recent measurements of water samples from these same wells suggest that 

groundwater is low in total dissolved solids (Bustos, personal communication, 2008) indicating 

that recharge to the shallow aquifer may largely be due to precipitation. 

More is known about the condition of deeper, regional groundwater resources. Groundwater 

reports for the surrounding communities indicate that groundwater levels are declining. Along 

the eastern side of the Tularosa Basin, these declines are limited to areas adjacent to the well 

fields. However, groundwater declines due to withdrawals by the City of El Paso are projected to 

propagate north to the monument (El Paso Water Utilities, 2004). Declines in the once flowing 

Garton well may be due to deterioration of the well casing or an indication that water level 

declines are more widespread than previously thought. 

What are the current or potential threats to the geologic and water resources? 

Geologic Resources 

Dune Stability - Invasive Plants 

Introduced into the United States in the early 1900s as an ornamental shrub, wind break, and 

shade tree, saltcedar creates vegetative pedestals by transpiring enough groundwater to lower the 

water table in the immediate area, drying out the surrounding sand, which then erodes away. 

Interdunal areas are stabilized by high groundwater levels, which dry out the surrounding sand 

that erodes away. This alone alters dune distribution but the pedestals also change local wind 

patterns imposing further control on where dunes occur. Continued influence of saltcedar may 

result in distribution patterns of dunes reflecting occurrence of the invasive species. 

Figure 19 shows the approximate locations of areas where saltcedar may occur in the monument. 

The University of New Mexico is currently producing a more detailed map of saltcedar 

occurrence (Bustos, personal communication, 2009). Comparing the new distribution map to 

dune distribution in the monument may highlight areas where saltcedar poses threats to dune 

resources. 

49
Figure 19. Distribution of saltcedar areas within White Sands National Monument. These areas are 

shown in purple. (GIS data provided by White Sands National Monument). 

Erosion 

Erosion is a natural process at WHSA; however man-made structures in certain areas may 

concentrate the effects of erosion and threaten both natural resources and monument facilities. 

Road culverts on the west side of the monument concentrate flow and accelerate erosion. This 

has damaged some cultural resources, specifically the Huntington Site (KellerLynn, 2008). 

Berms and alterations to channel morphology eliminate the beneficial effects of water on certain 

portions of the landscape and concentrate it on others, altering vegetation and erosional patterns 

(Bennett, 2004). Man-made structures such as roads, tanks, buried fiber optic cables, water lines, 

roads and trails all impact runoff patterns. Increased erosion and the accidental excavation of 

cultural resources are a real possibility. Periodic flooding can also transport contaminants from 

DOD property onto WHSA, either by causing a spill or carrying previously spilled hazardous 

materials into the monument 

Dissolution around buried features such as buried water lines and fiber optic cables and trenches 

has caused the formation of sink holes and other karst-like features. No naturally-occurring karst 

is documented within the monument (KellerLynn, 2008). Parking lots and buildings are also at 

risk as rainwater runoff and water from other sources dissolves underlying gypsum layers. 

50
Wind: Erosion or deposition of sand due to wind affects facility development and requires 

increased maintenance especially along the Loop Road which is often covered by wind-blown 

sand. Decisions for the location of new facilities should consider sand movement patterns across 

the monument. 

Hillslope Processes: Coalesced alluvial fans on the west side of the monument are known 

sources of debris flows caused by storm events. These debris flows can transport large boulders 

onto roads and destroy fences. There are also documented cases of fatalities due to debris flows 

on the missile range and in a nearby BLM campground (KellerLynn, 2008). 

Park staff is concerned about impacts from road building on the west side of the monument. 

Road structures and culverts concentrate runoff and erode downstream monument natural and 

cultural resources (KellerLynn, 2003). A full inventory of these structures and assessment of at 

risk resources has not been done. 

Water Resources 

Groundwater Mining 

The Office of the New Mexico State Engineer, on May 19, 1997, recognized the Tularosa Basin 

as a mined basin and instituted policies and procedures to allow a specified amount of dewatering during a forty-year planning period. The office specified that water level decline rates 

should not exceed 2.5 feet per year and the application of water shall not be contrary to the 

public welfare. Water quality suitable for domestic, municipal, and agriculture and industrial 

purpose shall be maintained and a major portion of the freshwater saturated thickness shall be 

reserved for uses beyond the 40-year planning period (New Mexico State Engineer Office, 

1997). Municipal use represents the largest draw on freshwater resources in the area and 

projected water level declines are limited to areas adjacent to well fields used to supply 

municipal customers. 

To date, water resource development has been restricted to the eastern basin. The regional 40-

year water development plan states that this trend will continue. Reports indicate that flow in the 

Lost River has been diminished by consumptive use by the city of Alamogordo and communities 

in the Sacramento Mountains (KellerLynn, 2003). Agricultural operations may contribute to 

diminished streamflow as well (Finch, personal communication, 2009). The city of Alamogordo 

recently extended groundwater withdrawals to brackish water with a proposal to construct a 

desalinization facility north of the Village of Tularosa. The right to withdraw groundwater is 

based on permit T-3825 and specifies a diversion of 4000 acre-feet-per-year (AFY) of brackish 

water to divert 3200 AFY of fresh water. The agreement also states that groundwater rights at 

other city wells be reduced; the net reduction in all city wells amounts to 61 percent of the new 

right (New Mexico State Engineer Office, 2007). The pipeline needed to convey this water is 

currently under environmental review. This agreement will satisfy projected water needs for the 

City of Alamogordo until 2043 (New Mexico State Engineer Office, 2007). Other consumers of 

water on the eastern side include agricultural interests. Withdrawals of groundwater for irrigation 

along the upper portions of the Lost River, in the area west of state highway 54, and north of 

highway 82, may reduce flow in the Lost River. Applications to the New Mexico Office of the 

51
State Engineer for groundwater pumping rights within the Tularosa Basin need to be carefully 

monitored by the NPS. 

Since the Jarilla Fault acts as a barrier to groundwater movement, it could preclude the 

propagation of water level declines from the eastern part to the western part of the basin. 

However, groundwater from the eastern basin may contribute to supplies in the western basin. 

Likely sources for the groundwater moving from the eastern basin to the western basin are highly 

transmissive subsurface gravel lenses that are recharged at the eastern basin margin. The Jarilla 

Fault would force this water to the surface just west of Alamogordo. The nature and timing of 

dewatering has not been reported and as such, interpreting the causes is difficult. However, 

highly transmissive gravels would be a likely target for any drilling project. The dewatering of 

streams entering the dune field could be related to anecdotal reports of wetland decline. A 

decline in wetlands indicates a declining water table and would represent a threat to dune 

stability. 

The Tularosa Basin is connected to the Hueco Bolson to the south. The Hueco Bolson extends 

across the state line into Texas and is a primary water source for the city of El Paso. Under the 

“Rule of Capture”, groundwater extraction in Texas is not regulated. A landowner is legally 

entitled to any water that can be captured from a piece of land, even it that withdrawal drains 

water from an adjoining piece of property. El Paso has constructed a large desalinization facility 

to maximize their use of the basin aquifer. Computer modeling of the impacts of groundwater 

pumping indicate that declining water levels in the Hueco Bolson will propagate north into the 

Tularosa Basin (El Paso Water Utilities, 2004). Furthermore, each of the Department of Defense 

facilities has its own water supply. Currently, a comprehensive model that brings together all 

current and potential use within the basins does not exist. Without such a model it is difficult to 

predict how declining water levels will propagate and superimpose. 

Declining water levels will increase dune mobility and decrease biological activity in interdune 

areas. The essential question concerns the relationship of the local shallow aquifer to the basin 

aquifer. The seriousness of this issue is evident in the impact of the invasion of Tamarisk trees in 

the northeast portion of the monument. Here the exotic tree consumes enough water to lower the 

water table locally and cause the erosion of the interdune areas. 

Groundwater lenses in the monument are discontinuous and have limited areal extent. Because of 

this they are susceptible to drought and over production. Over production of one of these lenses 

could result in declining water levels or saline water intrusion. 

Water Pollution and Groundwater Contamination 

The groundwater resources in the monument include fresh groundwater in the alluvial fans on 

the western side and abundant saline groundwater. The water table generally lies between 3 and 

9 feet below the surface. Potential sources for contamination include over 50 hazardous waste 

sites on adjacent DOD land, spills on Highway 70, and errant missiles that occasionally land on 

monument property (Bustos, personal communication, 2008). WHSA is completely surrounded 

by military facilities involved in the research and development of weapons and weapons delivery 

systems. Missile craters are a common feature of the landscape and errant missiles represent a 

52
direct vector for contamination. Accidental spills of fuel and industrial products during normal 

operations have the potential to cause localized groundwater contamination. Hazardous waste 

sites consist of volatile organic compounds (VOC), fuels, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 

dioxins, nitrate compounds, heavy metals, radioactive compounds, and pesticides. Groundwater 

gradients bring groundwater to the monument from the surrounding lands. 

Two reported investigations on water contamination were available for this report. In 1998, the 

USGS analyzed water samples from two wells (MW2 and 3) and the Lost River for contaminants 

entering the monument from HAFB. Very small concentrations were found but were below 

detectable limits and below allowable maximum contaminant levels. In 2003, six solid leaf 

samples from the Lost River were analyzed by the USGS for perchlorate. All samples had 

concentrations below detectable limits. 

The current configuration of monitoring wells may not allow for detection of contaminant 

plumes from upgradient sources. Better locations would be along the eastern boundary of the 

monument, with the locations and depths determined by geophysical surveys to identify higher 

permeability lenses or tongues of sediment which would provide preferential paths for 

groundwater flow. 

Climate Change 

All regions of the world show an overall net negative impact of climate change on water 

resources and freshwater ecosystems. Areas in which runoff is projected to decline are 

likely to face a reduction in the value of the services provided by water resources. The 

beneficial impacts of increased annual runoff in other areas are likely to be tempered in 

some areas by negative effects of increased precipitation variability and seasonal runoff 

shifts on water supply, water quality and flood risks (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 

Change, 2007). 

Climate change has the potential to dramatically impact White Sands National Monument, the 

Tularosa Basin and the arid Southwest (IPCC, 2007) in general. Large permanent changes in 

regional precipitation, wind averages and temperature pose risks to the ecological and physical 

systems currently active in the monument. The complex interplay of the dune system, vegetation 

and groundwater is a product of the hydroclimatic and hydrologic condition of the past 8,000 

years. The future condition of WHSA will depend upon several factors including the application 

of prudent monitoring and planning actions in light of regional growth and development and the 

subsequent natural system response to the coming hydroclimatic stressors. Since these factors are 

interdependent, changes in one may lead to feedback adjustments that fundamentally alter the 

current resources in the monument. Despite the complexity of predicting climate change, many 

changes can be expected with some confidence and are summarized below (Gleick and Adams, 

2000). 

• Temperature increases in the Sacramento Mountains will increase the ratio of rain to 

snow and decrease the length of the snow storage. It is likely that reductions in snowfall 

and earlier snowmelt and runoff would increase the probability of flooding early in the 

year and shorten the run-off season. 

53
• Warmer, drier conditions could result in less vegetation to stabilize existing dunes and 

larger deflation areas; reactivation of dunes could occur with a change in the relative 

proportion of dune types and sizes. 

• Warmer, drier conditions will alter water supply patterns and likely increase the reliance 

on groundwater as a primary source of domestic, industrial and agricultural water; a drop 

in the water table could impact dune formation and retention; less runoff available to feed 

Lake Lucero could create more dunes moving out of the lake beds. 

• Research results suggest that drought frequencies in some areas are likely to change. 

Models project that the occurrence and severity of droughts could increase as a result of 

decreases in total rainfall, more frequent dry spells, and higher evaporation. Other models 

suggest with equal confidence that the frequency and severity of droughts in some 

regions would decrease as a result of increases in total rainfall and less frequent dry 

spells. In the arid west and southwest, small changes in precipitation and timing will have 

a greater proportional impact than similar changes in wetter regions. 

• Ecologists have high confidence that climate warming will produce a shift in species 

distributions northward, with extinctions and extirpations of temperate or cold-water 

species at lower latitudes, and range expansion of warm-water and cool-water species 

into higher latitudes. Similar patterns can be expected in elevation distributions, with 

low-elevation species distributions moving upward, and the potential that new lowelevation niches being available to new colonizers, including invasive exotic species. 

• Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide will affect the use of water by vegetation, but the 

net effects of this and other competing influences are complex and difficult to predict. 

For instance, increasing CO2 concentrations in some circumstances can reduce the rate of 

transpiration in certain plants. This in turn would tend to increase runoff since less water 

is returned directly to the atmosphere by such vegetation, allowing a greater share of 

precipitation to reach streams or aquifers. On the other hand rising CO2 concentrations 

can also increase plant growth, leading to a larger area of transpiring tissue and a 

corresponding increase in transpiration. Rising carbon dioxide may also alter plant 

communities locally on the dunes and in the surrounding regions. Plant species important 

to dune stability may be lost. Changing plant communities in the surrounding mountains 

could alter rates of aquifer recharge. 

• Changing precipitation cycles could impact biological crusts on soils and in turn might 

impact the nutrient cycling, moisture retention, and erosion resistance capacity of the 

soils (KellerLynn, 2003). Increased thunderstorm activity could also impact soil surfaces 

by diminishing soil crusts and increasing erosion. 

Climate change research implies that some climate scenarios can yield conditions that might 

reduce stresses on local or regional ecosystems. However, experience with complex ecosystem 

dynamics strongly suggests that stressors that drive ecosystems in any direction away from the 

54
natural range of variability of conditions under which they developed will have adverse impacts 

on that system. Ecohydrologic systems can be highly sensitive to hydroclimatic factors, 

particularly water quantity, water quality, the probability of extreme events, and flow volumes, 

rates, and timing. Determining the impacts on WHSA will require additional region-specific, and 

ecosystem-specific, research. 

Recognizing the serious implications that global warming and climate variation will have on the 

economy and the environment, the Governor of New Mexico signed executive order 05-033 

(2005) establishing the New Mexico Climate Change Action Council and the New Mexico 

Climate change Advisory Group (Weeks, 2007). 

Stakeholders, Legislation, and Management Policies 

National Stakeholders 

U.S. Department of Defense, Holloman AFB and White Sands Missile Range. The DOD 

maintains active flight and research operations in the vicinity of WHSA. Defense department 

activities are often classified and or dangerous and have prompted strict security on Holloman 

AFB and Missile Range lands.

U.S. Bureau of Land Management is responsible for much of the land adjacent to DOD property 

and influences land use for watersheds above WHSA. 

U.S. Forest Service manages many of the watersheds in the surrounding highlands. 

U.S. Geological Survey conducts desert and planetary research within and around the monument. 

The USGS New Mexico Water Resources office in Las Cruces also conducts research and 

monitoring activities in the vicinity. 

Mescalero Apache Reservation encompasses approximately 720 square miles northeast of 

Alamogordo. The reservation is home to about 4,000 people and includes recreational 

developments designed to attract tourists. 

Tribal Historic Preservation Office implements federal and tribal preservation laws as well as 

advises and works with federal agencies on the management of tribal historic properties. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resource Conservation Service and Agricultural 

Research Service actively promote soil, water and other natural resource conservation both by 

conducting and funding research and by communicating with local landowners and managers on 

best conservation practices. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has the mission is to protect human health and the 

environment. 

55
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Southwest Region 2 seeks to conserve, protect and enhance fish, 

wildlife and plants and their habitats. The FWS administers the San Andres National Wildlife 

Refuge.

NASA maintains several space flight testing and training facilities in adjacent DOD lands and 

supports and conducts planetary research in and around WHSA. 

State Stakeholders 

New Mexico, Office of the State Engineer administers groundwater allocation in the state. 

New Mexico, Interstate Stream Commission administers surface water within the state. 

 

State Historic Preservation Office, overseen by the NPS, grants permits for archaeological 

surveys and excavations, places properties on the State Register of Cultural Properties and makes 

recommendations for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, and reviews and 

approves state income tax credits for rehabilitation and stabilization of registered properties. 

New Mexico, Department of Game and Fish aims to provide and maintain an adequate supply of 

wildlife and fish. The department manages to conserve wildlife and fish for their use as public 

recreation and food supply. 

Regional Stakeholders 

City of Alamogordo and other local communities partially rely on the tourist dollars generated by 

WHSA. These communities also have a stake in regional water rights and development 

associated with them may have an impact on WHSA ecosystems and subsequent management 

strategies. 

Southwest Environmental Center is and active conservation association in the region and seeks 

to protect and restore natural ecoscapes in the vicinity of WHSA. 

Academic research is conducted in and around the monument by numerous institutions including 

University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP), New Mexico State University (NMSU), University of 

New Mexico (UNM), University of Texas at Austin, (UT Austin), New Mexico Tech and 

Indiana University. The Lunar and Planetary Institute supports and conducts much of this 

research and serves as a repository for data and information resulting from this research. 

Park Specific Legislation 

1. Legal Description: White Sands National Monument is located in the Tularosa Basin of 

south central New Mexico, between the Sacramento and San Andres mountains. Its 

144,000 acres are 15 miles southwest of Alamogordo, New Mexico in Otero and Don 

Ana counties. White Sands Missile Range and Holloman Air Force Base completely 

surround the monument. 

56
2. Under the authority of 16 U.S.C., Section 3, and Title 36, Code of Federal Regulations, 

Chapter 1, Parts 1-7, a Compendium of Superintendent's Orders is established for White 

Sands National Monument 

(http://www.nps.gov/whsa/parkmgmt/upload/Compendium%20Jan%2026%202007.pdf). Regulations 

listed in this compendium are requirements in addition to those listed in Parts 1-7 

of Title 36 unless otherwise noted. The specific authority for this regulatory procedure is 

found in Sections 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 of Title 36. This Compendium will remain in effect 

until specifically amended or supplemented by the Superintendent. 

3. The primary purpose of the monument is to preserve and protect the most impressive 

portion of the world’s largest gypsum desert. A related purpose of the monument is to 

preserve all cultural and natural resources, historic structures and wildlife. Pertinent 

legislation is as follows: 

January 18, 1933: White Sands National Monument was established by Herbert Hoover, 

President of the United States of America, with Presidential Proclamation No. 2025 (47 

Stat. 2551) 

November 28. 1934: Boundaries enlarged by Presidential Proclamation No. 2108 (49 

Stat. 3426) 

August 29, 1938: Boundaries were modified by Presidential Proclamation No. 2295, 

eliminating them from all sections now included in the right-of-way for United States 

Highway Route 70 (53 Stat. 2465) 

June 6. 1942: This Act added the former White Sands Recreational Demonstration 

Project to the monument (56 Stat. 327) 

June 27, 1953: Added public lands to the monument. Presidential Proclamation No. 3024 

(18 F.R. 3683) 

November 10. 1978: This Act adjusted the monument boundaries by adding certain lands 

and deleting others (92 Stat. 3467) 

September 28, 1996: This Act adjusted the monument boundaries by adding certain lands 

and deleting others (110 Stat. 2803) 

Federal Legislation 

National Park Service Organic Act of 1916 created the NPS and includes a significant 

management provision stating that the NPS shall promote and regulate the use of the 

federal areas known as national parks, monuments, and reservations by such means and 

measures as conform to the fundamental purpose of the said parks, monuments, and 

reservations, which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic 

objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such 

manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for future generations. The 

Organic Act also authorizes the NPS to regulate the use of national parks and develop 

rules, regulations and detailed policies to implement the broad policies provided by 

Congress. Rules and regulations for the national park system are described in the Code of 

Federal Regulations (Title 36). 

57
General Authorities Act of 1970 strengthened the 1916 Organic Act, stating that lands in all 

NPS units, regardless of title or designation, shall have a common purpose of 

preservation. All water resources in the national park system, therefore, are equally 

protected by federal law. It is the primary duty of the NPS to protect those resources 

unless otherwise indicated by Congress. 

Redwood National Park Act of 1978 amended the General Authorities Act of 1970, 

identifying the high public value and integrity of the national park system as reason to 

manage and protect all park system units. The act further stated that no activities should 

be allowed that will compromise the values and purposes for which these various areas 

have been established, except where specifically authorized by law or provided for by 

Congress. 

National Parks Omnibus Management Act of 1998 outlined a strategy to improve the ability 

of the NPS to provide high-quality resource management, protection, interpretation, and 

research in the national park system by: 

• Fostering the collection and application of the highest quality science and information to 

enhance management of units of the national park system; 

• Authorizing and initiating cooperative agreements with colleges and universities, 

including but not limited to land grant schools, along with creating partnerships with 

other Federal and State agencies, to construct cooperative study units that will coordinate 

multi-disciplinary research and develop integrated information products on the resources 

in national park system units and/or the larger region surrounding and including parks; 

• Designing and implementing an inventory and monitoring program of national park 

system resources to collect baseline information and to evaluate long-term trends on 

resource condition of the national park system, and; 

• Executing the necessary actions to fully and properly apply the results of scientific study 

to park management decisions. Additionally, all NPS actions that may cause a significant 

adverse effect on a park resource must conduct unit resource studies and administratively 

record how study results were considered in decision making. The trend in resource 

condition in the national park system shall be a critical element in evaluating the annual 

performance of the NPS. 

Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, also known as the Clean Water Act, strives to 

restore and maintain the integrity of U.S. waters. The Clean Water Act grants authority to 

the states to implement water quality protection through best management practices and 

water quality standards. Section 404 of the act requires that any dredged or fill materials 

discharged into U.S. waters, including wetlands, must be authorized through a permit 

issued by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which administers the Section 404 permit 

program. Additionally, Section 402 of the act requires that pollutants from any point 

source discharged into U.S. waters must be authorized by a permit obtained from the 

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). All discharges and storm 

water runoff from major industrial and transportation activities, municipalities, and 

certain construction activities generally must be authorized by permit through the NPDES 

58
program. NPDES permitting authority typically is delegated to the state by the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency. 

Safe Drinking Water Act (42 USC 3001 et seq.) applies to developed public drinking water 

supplies. It sets national minimum water quality standards and requires testing of 

drinking water. 

2006 NPS Management Policies: The NPS will determine the quality of park 

surface and groundwater resources and avoid, whenever possible, the pollution of 

park waters by human activities occurring within and outside of parks. 

• Work with appropriate governmental bodies to obtain the highest 

possible standards available under the Clean Water Act for the 

protection of park waters. 

• Take all necessary actions to maintain or restore the quality of surface 

water and groundwater within the parks consistent with the Clean 

Water Act and all other applicable federal, state, and local laws and 

regulations; 

• Enter into agreements with other agencies and governing bodies, as 

appropriate, to secure their cooperation in maintaining or restoring the 

quality of park water resources. 

2006 NPS Management Policies: The NPS will manage watersheds as complete 

hydrologic systems, and will minimize human disturbance to the natural upland 

processes that deliver water, sediment, and woody debris to streams. The NPS 

will achieve the protection of watershed and stream features primarily by 

avoiding impacts to watershed processes to proceed unimpeded. 

 

Executive Order 11990: Wetlands Protection requires the NPS to 1) exhibit leadership and 

act to minimize the destruction, loss, or degradation of wetlands; 2) protect and improve 

wetlands and their natural and beneficial values; and 3) to refrain from direct or indirect 

assistance of new construction projects in wetlands unless there are no feasible alternative 

to such construction and the proposed action includes all feasible measures to minimize 

damage to wetlands. 

NPS 2006 Management Policies: The NPS will manage wetlands in compliance 

with NPS mandates and the requirements of Executive Order 11990 (Wetland 

Protection), the Clean Water Act, and the Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act 

of 1899, and the procedures described in D.O. 77-1. The service will 1) provide 

leadership and take action to prevent the destruction, loss, and degradation of 

wetlands; 2) preserve and enhance the natural and beneficial values of wetlands; 

and 3) avoid direct and indirect support of new construction in wetlands unless 

there are not practicable alternatives and the proposed action includes all 

practicable measures to minimize harm to wetlands. The NPS will implement a 

“no net loss of wetlands” policy. 

Executive Order 11988: Floodplain Management has a primary objective ...to avoid to the 

extent possible the long- and short-term adverse impacts associated with the occupancy 

and modification of floodplains and to avoid direct and indirect support of floodplain 

59
development wherever there is a practicable alternative. For non-recurring actions, the 

order requires that all proposed facilities must be located outside the boundary of the 100-

year floodplain. Barring any feasible alternatives to construction within the floodplain, 

adverse impacts are to be minimized during the design phase of project planning. NPS 

guidance for this executive order can be found in D.O. 77-2. 

2006 NPS Management Policies: In managing floodplains on park lands, the NPS 

will 1) manage for the preservation of floodplain values; 2) minimize potentially 

hazardous conditions associated with flooding; and 3) comply with the NPS 

Organic Act and all other federal laws and executive orders related to the 

management of activities in flood-prone areas, including Executive Order 11988 

(Floodplain Management), NEPA, applicable provisions of the Clean Water Act, 

and the Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899. Specifically the NPS will: 

• Protect, preserve, and restore the natural resources and functions of 

floodplains; 

• Avoid the long-and short-term environmental effects associated with 

the occupancy and modifications of floodplains; and 

• Avoid direct and indirect support of floodplain development and 

actions that could adversely affect the natural resources and functions 

of floodplains or increase flood risks. 

Clean Air Act of 1970 (as amended in 1990) regulates airborne emissions of a variety of 

pollutants from area, stationary, and mobile sources. The amendments to the act were 

added primarily to fill gaps in earlier regulations pertaining to acid rain, ground level 

ozone, stratospheric ozone depletion and air toxics, and also to identify 189 hazardous air 

pollutants. The act directs the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to study these 

pollutants, identify their sources, determine the need for emissions standards and develop 

and enforce appropriate regulations. 

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) requires that any action proposed by a 

federal agency that may have significant environmental impacts shall utilize a systematic, 

interdisciplinary approach which will insure the integrated use of the natural and social 

sciences and the environmental design arts in planning and in decision making which 

may have an impact on man’s environment. 

Endangered Species Act of 1973 requires the NPS to identify all federally listed endangered, 

threatened and candidate species that occur within each park unit and promote their 

conservation and recovery. The act requires that any activity funded by federal monies 

that has the potential to impact endangered biota must be consulted through the Secretary 

of Interior. It requires agencies to protect designated critical habitats upon which 

endangered and threatened species depend. Although not required by law, it also is NPS 

policy to identify, preserve and restore state and locally listed species of concern and 

their habitats. 

Invasive Species (Executive Order 13112): enhances and furthers the existing authority of the 

federal government to assist in preventing and controlling the spread of invasive species. 

60
Paleontological Resources Preservation Act of 2009 (PRPA), 16 U.S.C. Section 470aaa et 

seq., directs the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture to implement a comprehensive 

paleontological resource management program on federal lands. The Act’s requirements 

will result in increased protection, enhanced management tools, and greater scientific and 

public understanding of NPS fossil resources. PRPA requires the agencies to: 1) 

promulgate regulations as soon as practical; 2) develop plans for fossil inventories, 

monitoring, and scientific and educational use; 3) manage and protect paleontological 

resources on Federal land using scientific principles and expertise; 4) establish a program 

to increase public awareness about the significance of paleontological resources; 5) allow 

casual collection of common invertebrate and plant fossils on BLM, Forest Service and 

Bureau of Reclamation lands where consistent with the laws governing those lands; 6) 

manage fossil collection via specific permitting requirements; 7) curate collected fossils 

in accordance with the Act’s requirements; 8) implement the Act’s criminal and civil 

enforcement, penalty, reward and forfeiture provisions; and 9) protect information about 

the nature and specific location of fossils where warranted. The Act authorizes 

appropriations necessary to carry out these requirements. 

2006 NPS Management Policies: Geologic Resource Management - the NPS will preserve 

and protect geologic resources as integral components of park natural systems. As used 

here, the term "geologic resources" includes both geologic features and geologic 

processes. The Service will (1) assess the impacts of natural processes and human-related 

events on geologic resources, (2) maintain and restore the integrity of existing geologic 

resources, (3) integrate geologic resource management into Service operations and 

planning, and (4) interpret geologic resources for park visitors (NPS, 2006 §4.8). 

2006 NPS Management Policies: Soil Resource Management - the NPS will actively seek to 

understand and preserve the soil resources of parks, and to prevent, to the extent possible, 

the unnatural erosion, physical removal, or contamination of the soil, or it’s contaminate 

of other resources. Park will obtain surveys of soils adequate for the management of park 

resources. All soil surveys will follow National Cooperative Soil Survey Standards. 

Products will include soil maps, determination of the physical and chemical 

characteristics of soils, and the interpretations needed to guide resource management and 

development decisions (NPS, 2006 § 4.8.2.4). 

State of New Mexico 

Water quality standards relative to WHSA are guided by the Clean Water Act as promulgated by 

the State of New Mexico (New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission, 2007). Details to 

these standards were provided earlier in this report. 

Restoration plans called Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) are prepared for impaired waters 

in New Mexico. The objective of the TMDLs is to restore impacted waters to where they meet 

their respective state designated uses. Water listed as impaired in 

61
Executive Order 05-033 (2005) established the New Mexico Climate Change Action Council and 

the New Mexico Climate Change Advisory Group (CCAG). The CCAG shall review and 

provide recommendations to the Governor’s office regarding climate change policy. 

Water Rights 

New Mexico water law follows the doctrine of prior appropriation. The right to use water is 

established by placing it to beneficial use and is maintained as long as water use continues. 

Rights established earlier in time are senior, and must be satisfied before, those rights established 

later. State law requires a permit for any water use other than small domestic or stock wells or 

small stock reservoirs. WHSA has water rights to surface diversion and groundwater extraction 

for the Dog Canyon area. 

WHSA had state water rights to surface-water diversion and groundwater extraction for the Dog 

Canyon area. Since 1956, Holloman Air Force Base has supplied all water needs for the 

monument. In 1999, these rights were transferred to HAFB who agreed to meet the water supply 

needs of the monument in perpetuity. 

62
Literature Cited 

Allmendinger, R. J., and F. B. Titus, 1973. Regional Hydrology and Evaporative Discharge as a 

Present-day Source of Gypsum at White Sands National Monument, New Mexico. New 

Mexico Bureau of Geology Open File 55. 

Barud-Zubillaga, A., 2000. A Conceptual Model of the hydrogeology of White Sands National 

Monument, south-central New Mexico [M.S. Thesis]: University of Texas at El Paso 

Bennett, J. 2004. Grasslands not Badlands; grassland restoration and soil conservation in Big 

Bend National Park. 6th Symposium on the Natural Resources of the Chihuahuan Desert, 

Chihuahuan Desert Research Institute. Sul Ross State University. Alpine, Texas October 15-

16, 2004. 

Burns, A. W., and D. L. Hart, Jr., 1988. Simulated water-level declines caused by ground-water 

withdrawals near Holloman Air Force Base, Otero County, New Mexico: U.S. Geological 

Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 86-4324, 44 p. 

Bustos, D. 2008/2009. Personal Communication. White Sands National Monument, Chief of 

Resource Management. Alamogordo, New Mexico. 

Chapin, C. E., 1971. The Rio Grande Rift, pt. 1: modifications and additions: New Mexico 

Geological Society, Guidebook 22, pp. 191-202. 

Clemons, R. E., 1996. A trip through space and time, Las Cruces to Cloudcroft: New Mexico 

Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, Scenic Trip 15, 194 p. 

Davey, A. D., K. T. Redmond, and D. B. Simeral, 2007. Weather and Climate Inventory 

National Park Service, National Park Service Natural Resource Technical Report 

NPS/CHDN/NRTR-2007/034, 87 pp. 

El Paso Water Utilities, 2004. Hueco Bolson Groundwater conditions Report, El Paso Area. 

http://www.epwu.org/water/hueco_bolson.html. 

Finch, S. T., 2009. Personal Communication. John Shomaker and Associates, Inc. WaterResource and Environmental Consultants. Albuquerque, New Mexico. 

Finch, S.T., 2006. Predicted drawdown effects and evaluation of potential saline encroachment 

due to pumping under city of Alamogordo. Permit #’s T-3825 through T-3825-S-9. John 

Shomaker and Associates, Inc. Water-Resource and Environmental Consultants. 

Albuquerque, New Mexico. 

Fryberger, S. G., 2001. Geological Overview of White Sands National Monument: Southwest 

Parks and Monuments Association and NPS website, 9 chapters with illustrations. 

(http://www.nps.gov/archive/whsa/Geology%20of%20White%20Sands/GeoHome.html) 

63
Gleick, P.L., and D. B. Adams, 2000. Water: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability 

and Change for the Water Resources of the United States. The Report of the Water Sector 

Assessment Team of the National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate 

Variability and Change [For] the U.S. Global Change Research Program. 

Guo, Y., J. Zhao, X. Zuo, S. Drake and X. Zhao, 2008. Biological soil crust development and its 

topsoil properties in the process of dune stabilization, Inner Mongolia, China. Environmental 

Geology, Volume 54, Number 3/April, 2008 

Healy, D. L., R. R. Wahl, and F. E. Currey, 1978. Gravity Survey of the Tularosa Basin and 

Adjacent Areas, New Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey, Open-file Report 78-309, 56 pp. 

Herrick, C. L., 1904. Lake Otero, an Ancient Sal Lake Basin in Southeastern New Mexico: 

American Geologist, no. September, p. 174-189. 

Huff, G. F., 2004. Simulation of Ground-Water Flow in the Basin-Fill Aquifer of the Tularosa 

Basin, South-Central New Mexico, Predevelopment through 2040, U.S. Geological Survey 

Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5197, 98 pp. 

Huff, G. F., 1996, Analysis of Ground-Water Data for Selected Wells near Holloman Air Force 

Base, New Mexico, 1950-95, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 

Report 96-4116, 37 pp. 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, 

and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Parry, Martin L., Canziani, Osvaldo F., 

Palutikof, Jean P., van der Linden, Paul J., and Hanson, Clair E. (eds.)]. Cambridge 

University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1000 pp. 

KellerLynn, 2008. Geologic Resource Evaluation Scoping Summary, White Sands National 

Monument, National Park Service, Geologic Resources Division, 20 pp. 

KellerLynn, 2003. Geoindicators Scoping Report for White Sands National Monument, Strategic 

Planning Goal Ib4, National Park Service, 85 pp. 

King, W. E., and V. M. Harder, 1985. Oil and gas potential of the Tularosa Basin-Otero 

platform- Salt Basin graben area, New Mexico and Texas. 

Kocurek, G., M. Carr, R. Ewing, K. G. Havholm, Y. C. Nagar, and A. K. Singhvi, 2007. White 

Sands dune field, New Mexico: Age, dune dynamics and recent accumulations. Sedimentary 

Geology 197 (3–4): 313–331. 

Livingston Associates and John Shomaker and Associates, 2002. Tularosa Basin and Salt Basin 

Regional Water Plan, 2000-2040, South Central Mountain RC&D Council, Inc. 

www.livingston-associates.com/planningstudies.html. 

64
Love, D., 2008/2009. Personal Communication. New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral 

Resources. New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology. Socorro, New Mexico. 

Love, D., 2008. Written Communication, August, 2008. New Mexico Bureau of Geology and 

Mineral Resources. New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology. Socorro, New Mexico. 

Martin, C. O., R. A. Fischer, D. E. Evan, M. P. Guilfoyle, and D. W. Burkett, 2004. Ecological 

Importance of “Water of the United States” and associated Wetlands to Wildlife at the U. S. 

Army White Sands Missile Range New Mexico, Environmental laboratory, U. S. Army 

Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi. 

McCauley, J. F., 1973. Mariner 9 Evidence for Wind Erosion in the Equatorial and Mid-Latitude 

Regions of Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 72, p. 4123–4137. 

McKee, E. D. (ed.). 1979. A study of global sand seas. Geol. Survey Professional Paper 1052. 

Mckee, E. D., and Douglass, J. R., 1971. Growth and Movement of Dunes at White Sands 

National Monument, New Mexico, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 750-D, p.108-

114. 

Meinzer, O. E., and R. F. Hare, 1915. Geology and Water Resources of the Tularosa Basin, New 

Mexico: U.S. Geological Society, Water-Supply paper 343, 317 pp. 

National Park Service, 2007, Paleontological Resources Inventory and Monitoring – Chihuahuan 

Desert Network, TIC#D-500. 

National Park Service, 2006, Management Policies. U.S. Department of the Interior. Washington 

D.C. 168 pp. 

National Park Service, 2004. NPS Park Planning Program Standards, August 2004. 

http://planning.nps.gov/policy.cfm 

National Park Service, 1997. Baseline Water Quality Inventory and Analysis, White Sands 

National Monument, Technical Report,NPS/NRWR.NRTR-97/139, U.S. Department of the 

Interior, Washington D.C. 

Neher, R. E. and O. F. Bailey, 1976. Soil Survey of White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. 

U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service. 1-64. 

New Mexico Geological Society, 2002. Geology of White Sands. Eds. V.W. Lueth, D.A. Giles, 

S.G. Lucas, B.S. Kues, R. Myers, D.S. Ulmer-Scholle. 

New Mexico State Engineer Office, 2007. Settlement Agreement between the New Mexico State 

Engineer and the City of Alamogordo regarding Permit No. T-3825 et al. 

http://www.ose.state.nm.us/legal_index.html

65
New Mexico State Engineer Office, 1997. Tularosa Underground Water Basin Administrative 

Criteria for the Alamogordo-Tularosa Area. http://www.ose.state.nm.us

Orr, B. R., and R. G. Myers, 1986. Water resources in basin-fill deposits in the Tularosa basin, 

New Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigations Report 85-4219, 94 p. 

(for a groundwater model) 

Pellant, M., P. Shaver, D. A. Pyle and J. Herrick, 2000. Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland 

Health, U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Technical Reference 1734-6, 119 pp. 

Porter, S. D., R. A. Barker, R. M. Slade, Jr., and G. Longley, 2009. Historical perspective of 

surface water and groundwater resources in the Chihuahuan Desert Network, National Park 

Service. Edwards Aquifer Research and Data Center, Texas State University. 

Reiser, M. H ., J. P. Ward, Jr., and J. T. Richie, 2008. Chihuahuan Desert Network Vital Signs 

Monitoring Plan: Draft Phase III. National Park Service, Chihuahuan Desert Network, Las 

Cruces, New Mexico. 

Reid, W. H., and M. H. Reiser, 2006, General Summary on the Climate of Chihuahuan Desert 

Network Parks and some nearby Protected Lands, Chihuahuan Desert Network, Las Cruces, 

New Mexico. 

Reid, W. H., and H. Reiser, 2005. Chihuahuan Desert Inventory and Monitoring Network, Water 

Resource Information and Assessment Report, Phase 1. 

Rosentreter, R., M. Bowker, and J. Belnap, 2007. A field guide to biological soil crusts of 

western U.S. drylands. U.S. Government Printing Office, Denver, Colorado. 

Schulze-Makuch, D., 2002. Evidence for the discharge of hydrothermal water into Lake Lucero, 

White Sands National Monument, Southern New Mexico. [In] Geology of White Sands, New 

Mexico Geological Society. Eds. V. W. Lueth, K. A. Giles, S. G. Lucas, B. S. Kues, R. 

Myers and D. S. Ulmer-Scholle. Fifty-third Annual Field Conference, October 3-5, 2002. pp 

325-329. 

Seager, W. R., G. H. Mack, and T. F. Lawton, 1997. Structural kinematics and depositional 

history of a Laramide uplift-basin pair in southern New Mexico. Geological Society of 

America Bulletin 109: 1389–1401. 

Seager, W. R., J. W. Hawley, F. E. Kottlowski and S.A. Kelley, 1987. Geology of east half of 

Las Cruces and northeast 1 x 2 sheets, New Mexico: New Mexico Bureau of Mines and 

Mineral Resources, Geologic Map 57, scale 1: 125,000. 

Szynkiewicz, A., Pratt, L. M., Glamoclija, M., Moore, C. H., Singer, E. and Bustos D., 2008. 

Sulfur Isotopes Signatures in Gypsiferous Sediments of the Tularosa and Estancia Basins as 

Indicators of sulfate sources and the local Holocene Hydrologic Cycle. 

66
U.S. Geological Survey, 2009. National Hydrography Dataset, Geodatabase. 

http://nhdgeo.usgs.gov/viewer.htm. 

Waltemeyer, Scott D., 2001. Estimates of Mountain-Front Streamflow Available for Potential 

Recharge to the Tularosa Basin, New Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources 

Investigations Report 01-4013. 

Weeks, D., 2007. Water Resource Foundation Report, Bandelier National Monument. Natural 

Resource Technical Report NPS/NRPC/WRD/NRTR-2007/060. National Park Service, Fort 

Collins, Colorado. pp. 53. 

67
68
Appendix A: CHDN Paleontological Resources Inventory 

Report – WHSA section 

Chihuahuan Desert I&M Network Paleontological Resource Summary—Santucci Kenworthy 

and Visaggi 2007 

WHITE SANDS NATIONAL MONUMENT 

White Sands National Monument (WHSA) was established on January 18, 1933 in order to preserve one of the 

world’s largest gypsum sand dune fields. The monument lies at the northern end of the Chihuahuan Desert in the 

Tularosa Basin of south-central New Mexico. The gypsum dune field encompasses 143,733 acres in south central 

New Mexico. 

BASELINE PALEONTOLOGICAL RESOURCE INVENTORIES 

The NPS Geologic Resources Division has not yet completed geologic scoping sessions for White Sands National 

Monument. No formal paleontological resource inventories have been completed for WHSA and no fossils can be 

substantiated from within the monument. However paleontological discoveries are documented from an area 

adjacent to the monument boundary (Conrod, personal communication, 1997). Future paleontological field work 

may yield other paleontological resources both in and around White Sand National Monument. 

Herrick (1900) provides one of the earliest descriptions for the geology of the White Sand of New Mexico. Jicha 

(1954) and Kiver and Harris (1999) present more recent geologic interpretations of the White Sands. Herrick (1961) 

produced a geologic map for the White Sands area. 

The gypsum dunes have accumulated in a large graben that extends southward to the Texas border and northward to 

the Malpais basalt flows. The graben is part of a major structural feature known as the Rio Grand Rift. The local 

graben is referred to as the Tularosa Basin graben and is bounded on the west by the San Andres Mountains and by 

the Sacramento Mountains on the east (Baldridge and Olsen 1989). The Tularosa Basin graben is 37 miles (60 km) 

wide. Tularosa Basin is a true bolson, a desert area with internal drainage and no discharge outside of the basin. 

The northern part of the White Sands dune field grades into yellowish, wind-deposited, quartz sands. The source of 

the gypsum has been the subject of some scholarly debate, however, the most likely source of the White Sands 

gypsum seems to be the local Paleozoic formations (LeMone 1987). During the Paleozoic shallow seas advanced 

(transgression) and retreated (regression) over the New Mexico area. Thick evaporate deposits were deposited 

during the Permian including the Yeso Formation which consists of over 500 feet (152 m) of gypsum. The Permian 

Yeso (Spanish for gypsum) Formation is suggested by LeMone (1987) as the most reasonable source for the gypsum 

at the monument. 

The gypsum sand is primarily medium-grained, ranges from angular to subrounded, and has fair to good sorting 

(LeMone 1987). A wide variety of dune morphologies are documented at the monument including: dome-shaped, Vshaped, U-shaped, blowout, parabolic, barchan, and transverse dunes. Dune heights and rates of movement are 

directly related to morphology. The tallest dunes rise to 65 feet (20 m) in some areas. Winds blow almost constantly 

from the southwest with velocities reaching gusts of 55 mph. 

Paleontological Resource Potential 

There is a limited potential for the discovery of fossils at White Sands National Monument in the future. Historical 

reports and recent archaeological and geological surveys suggest the possibility of some fragmentary fossils from 

within the monument and confirmed paleontological resources from outside park boundaries. These fossil-bearing 

deposits include vertebrate trace fossils from a locality which should be periodically monitored for preservation of 

paleontological resources. 

Vandiver (1936) reports on the possible occurrence of fossil bones and teeth of a mammoth from within the 

boundaries of the monument. He personally visited the locality referenced for the mammoth remains and was able to 

find only fragmentary bones. Vandiver (1936) also describes some external molds of plants at WHSA. These appear 

to be the remains of cacti and other plants which have become replaced or encrusted by gypsum crystals. 

69
Bill Conrod (personal communication, 1997) reports the presence of Pleistocene mammalian trackways on the 

nearby White Sands Missile Range managed by the Department of Defense. A site visit to a fossil track locality on 

the White Sands Missile Range, referred to as the “Big Footprints” locality, on September 11, 1981. Geologists John 

Hawley, David Love (USGS) and Donald Wolberg participated in this site visit. The field party encountered three 

different types of vertebrate tracks which were preserved as pedestals above the ground surface. The tracks were 

determined to be mammalian in morphology and likely ascribed to camel, proboscidian, and some other 

undetermined mammalian track maker. 

REFERENCES CITED 

Baldridge, W.S. and K.H. Olsen. 1989. The Rio Grande Rife. American Scientist 77: 240-247. 

Herrick, C.L. 1900. The geology of the White Sands of New Mexico. Journal of Geology, vol. 8, p. 112-128. 

Herrick, E.H. 1961. Geologic map of White Sands Missile Range Headquarters area, Dona Ana County, New 

Mexico, showing location of wells, contours on the water table, and location of proposed dams, reservoirs and 

recharge-discharge wells. U.S. Geological Survey, Hydrologic Investigations Atlas. 

Jicha, H.L. 1954. The White Sands, a short review. New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, 5th Field 

Conference, p. 88-92. 

Kiver, E.P. and D.V. Harris. 1999. Geology of U.S. Parklands. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 902 pp. 

LeMone, D.V. 1987. White Sands National Monument, New Mexico. Geological Society of America Centennial 

Field Guide, Rocky Mountain Section. P. 451-454. 

Vandiver, V.W. 1936. Geological Report on White Sands National Monument. Southwestern Monuments Special 

Report No. 5. Department of Interior, National Park Service, p. 381-400. 

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES 

Blair, T.C., J.S. Clark, and S.G. Wells. 1990. Quaternary continental stratigraphy, landscape evolution, and 

application to archeology: Jarilla piedmont and Tularosa graben floor, White Sands Missile Range, New 

Mexico. Geological Society of America Bulletin 102: 749-759. 

Botkin, C.W. 1933. White Sands National Monument. Pam American Geologist, 60: 304-305. 

Brady, F.W. 1905. The White Sands of New Mexico: Formation of nearly pure gypsum sand. Mines and Minerals 

Publication, p. 529-530. 

Gould, C.N. 1939. The Great White Sands [of New Mexico]. Mines Magazine, vol. 29, p. 379-381. 

Jones, B.R. 1959. A sedimentary study of dune sands, Lamb and Bailey counties, Texas and White Sands National 

Monument, New Mexico. Master’s Thesis, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, 95 pp. McKee, E.D. 1966. 

Structure of dunes at White Sands National Monument, New Mexico. Sedimentology, vol. 7 69 pp. 

McKee, E.D. and R.J. Moiola. 1975. Geometry and growth of White Sand dune field, New Mexico. Journal of 

Research U.S. Geological Survey, 3: 59-66. 

McKee, E.D. and J.R. Douglass. 1971. Growth and movement of dunes at White Sands National Monument, New 

Mexico. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, D108-D114. 

Russell, C.P. 1935. The White Sands of Alamogordo. National Geographic Magazine, vol. 64, no. 2. 

Simpson, E.L. and D.B. Loope. 1985. Amalgamated interdune deposits, White Sands, New Mexico. Journal of 

Sedimentary Petrology. Vol. 55, p. 361-365. 

Talmadge, S.B. 1933. Source and growth of the White Sands of New Mexico. Pan American Geologist, 60: 304. 

Weir, J.E. 1965. Geology and availability of groundwater in the northern part of the White Sands Missile Range and 

vicinity, New Mexico. U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper, 78pp. 

DATA SETS DS-WHSA-XXX White Sands National Monument Paleontological Archives. 5/1985–

present. (hard copy data; reports; electronic data; photographs; maps; 

publications). Originated by Santucci, Vincent; status: Active. 

DS-WHSA-XXX White Sands National Monument Museum Collections. 1/1933–present. 

(museum specimens, collection records, specimen notes, ANCS+ records). 

Originated by WHSAstaff; status: Active. 

70
The Department of the Interior protects and manages the nation’s natural resources and cultural heritage; provides scientific and 

other information about those resources; and honors its special responsibilities to American Indians, Alaska Natives, and 

affiliated Island Communities. 

NPS 142/100371, November 2009

71
National Park Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Natural Resource Program Center 

1201 Oakridge Drive, Suite 150 

Fort Collins, CO 80525 

www.nature.nps.gov 

EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICA TM