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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NICKEL

IN THE EARTH'S CRUST

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 205-A

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERI6& 

Harold L. Ickes, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W. E. Wrather, Director

Professional Paper 205-A

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NICKEL 

IN THE EARTH'S CRUST

BY

ROGER CLARK WELLS

Shorter contributions to general geology, 1943

(Pages 1-21)

UNITED STATES

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

WASHINGTON : 1943

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Price 10 cents
CONTENTS

Abstract ___ ___-_____-_-_-_____-___-__--___---_____

Introduction _____________________________________

General properties "of nickel. ____________________

Associations and distribution of nickel_.___ ______

Methods for the separation and determination of nickel. 

General considerations __ . _______-_______-._-_-_

Basic acetate method._ _ .____'____.____________

Ordinary procedure ___---___--_-.__________

Brunk-Funk modification. _________________

Mittasch procedure ----____________________

Barium carbonate method. ________________ _____

Blum's method. _.___. _________________________

Ardagh-Broughall method. .___.._____-________

Fairchild's method_ ___________________________

Ether method. -__.-_-_-_--________-_______-__

Dimethylglyoxime method. _-_-_____-_-_______.

Rollet's method _ ___-___-_-_-_____-_____-_____

Sandell-Perlich method. _________________________

Electrolytic method. __________________________

Nickel content of different rocks and minerals. _______

Igneous rocks _________________________________

Granite _ __ 

Dacite __ __ 

Granodiorite 

Trachyte _-- 

Syen ite _____

Latite ______

Monzonite_ _ 

Andesite_ _ __

Diorite _____

Phonolite_ __ 

Shonkinite_ _ 

Basalt _ ___

Diabase ____

Gabbro _ ._ 

Pyroxenite. _ 

Peridotite —

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Nickel content of different rocks and minerals — Con. 

Sedimentary rocks__----------__-------------

Sandstone. _ _ .___-_______-_-.__-__---__-

Shale and clay____-__-___-_---_-------__-

• Limestone __________________-__-_---___-

Metamorphic rocks _ _____-..___________---____

Gneiss _ ________________________________

Schist. __ -,-.-_-- _ _ ____ ___________

Minerals _ ________-_____-_______-_-___---_-____

Anthophyllite ______________________________

Chromite_ ________ _________--_-_-_-___-_-_.

Iron ore minerals ___-___--_-_--_______.___-_-

Kryptomelane _ _____________ _______________

Lignite _____________________________________

Nontronite _ ___ ___________________________

Olivine_ ______ _ _-_.___-.__-_-_--__ _ _ _

Polianite. __ _____-_-__-____-- __ _.._..._.

Pyrite— -_-------------_- .______-_-_-______

Serpentine __________-__-__----____---___---

Talc. _.__-____-__---___------_--_---------

Nickel content of the earth's crust _-----___---________

Methods of calculation _______ ___________________

Results by older methods _-__--___-_--______-

Factors influencing new calculations _ ________

Density of rocks and nickel content__-____

Distribution of different kinds of material in the earth's crust ____________

Evidence from earthquake wave3.. 

Evidence from isostasy___ _______

Uncertainties of extrapolation-...,..- 

Altitude and nickel content. _____________

Distribution of sedimentary and igneous 

rocks at different altitudes. _ _...____

New calculations for the relative abundance of 

nickel in the 10-mile crust_________________

Summary and conclusions_______.________________

Index. _ ________ _ ____.-_--_.__ ____ _ _ _ __ . _

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ILLUSTRATIONS

Page 

FIGURE 1. Relation of nickel content to density of rock. ._____________________.-___-._-___-___-____-__-_-_--_-_-___ 14

2. Density-altitude gradients _____ ____.__..__ ._______-__________-_________-_-_-_-_-____-_--__---_--___---_ 15

3. Curve showing increase of nickel content with decrease of altitude, assuming a uniformly increasing density

gradient._-.______-___________.__-_.____-_.__-__________. .._-______________I__-___-_____-_-__.-_— 16

4. Curve showing increase of nickel content with decrease of altitude, assuming an S-shaped density gradient-— . 17

n
SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GEOLOGY, 1943

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NICKEL IN THE EARTH'S CRUST

By KOGEE CLARK WELLS

ABSTRACT

Nickel has heretofore been considered to be about the twentysecond element in order of abundance in the earth's crust, but 

the results of improved analytical methods have raised some 

doubts about the accuracy of earlier estimates. The excellent 

method of Sandell and Perlich, using dimethylglyoxime as a 

reagent and solution of the nickel salt in chloroform as an essential step, makes it possible to determine nickel to ten-thousandths of a percent with a gram or less of material in a relatively short time. This method compares very well with the 

spectrographic method.

More than 150 new determinations of nickel were made on 

samples of rocks previously analyzed in the chemical laboratory 

of the Geological Survey, and they accordingly supplement the 

previous analyses in respect to nickel, an element that is of 

interest as one of the so-called strategic metals.

Nickel was determined in all the common types of rock, including the more silicic as well as the highly ferroniagnesian, but it is 

decidedly more abundant in the ferroniagnesian rocks, the content 

being markedly high in dunite, peridotite, and other rocks containing olivine. It is present in most shales and in many silts 

and clays, including abyssal oceanic red clay. It is also found in 

sea water, in some peat and petroleum, and in minor quantities 

in several minerals not generally classified as nickel minerals.

The new analyses usually showed the nickel content to be less 

than that indicated in the older determinations for the lighter 

rocks but of the same order for the heavier rocks. In general the 

percentage of nickel increases with the density of the rock. 

These new data afford a basis for recalculating the amount of 

nickel in the crust. The average of all new determinations of 

nickel in igneous rocks is about 0.008 percent, disregarding the 

probable increase in density of rocks with depth. This figure 

is believed to be a decided minimum. Instead of merely averaging 

the results, however, the nickel content has been correlated with 

density of the rock, and the distribution of ocean, sedimentary 

material, and igneous rock in the 10-mile crust has been given 

consideration. If the density of rocks in the 10-mile crust increases rapidly with depth, as indicated by Washington, the 

nickel content may possibly be as high as 0.033, although this 

figure is believed to be a maximum. It is difficult to make an 

accurate estimate under present limitations of knowledge, but 

0.016 percent of nickel is considered a reasonable figure for the 

relative abundance of this element in the whole 10-mile crust.

INTRODUCTION 

GENEEAL PEOPEETIES OF NICKEL

Although nickel has been found to be about the twentysecond element in order of abundance in the earth's

crust,1 recent advances in the analytical chemistry of 

nickel have cast some doubt on the older figures for the 

percentage of nickel in many of the rocks used in computing its relative abundance, so that a revaluation seems 

appropriate.

The element nickel is of interest for several reasons. 

Based on analogy to meteorites, the core of the earth is 

supposedly rich in nickel, yet this element does not seem 

to have worked outward as far as the crust to any marked 

extent. Even stony meteorites, which are believed to 

have contributed to the earth's surface to some extent, 

contain far more nickel than the earth's crust. It is 

therefore evident that the processes that have produced 

the rocks of the crust have tended to leave nickel behird, 

presumably at depths in the earth.

So far as known nickel consists of a mixture of five 

isotopes whose mass numbers are 58, 60, 61, 62, and f4, 

giving a mean atomic weight of 58.69. This atomic 

weight is slightly less than that of cobalt, 58.94, although 

in its properties nickel falls in the periodic arrangement 

beyond cobalt. It is the third element in the triad, ircn, 

cobalt, and nickel. The atomic number of nickel is 28, 

and accordingly the element is neither very common nor 

very rare. The atomic radius of the nickel ion is 0.78 

Angstrom units, which is identical with that of magnesium and comparable with 0.83 A. for iron and 1.06 A. 

for calcium.

In analytical operations nickel falls in the "ammonium 

sulfide group" with cobalt, manganese, and zinc, which 

for the most part remain in solution after the hydroxides 

of aluminum, iron, and several other elements are precipitated by ammonium hydroxide. The failure to obtain a good separation in such analyses is one reason for 

the present contribution and will be discussed more fully 

later.

A second doubt as to the correctness of the figures for 

the relative abundance of nickel now in current use aris?s 

from the fact that estimates have been obtained chiefy 

by averaging available analyses without giving any -con1 Clarke, F. W., and Washington, H. S., The composition of the 

earth's crust: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 127, p. 34, 1924. Fersman, 

A. E., Geokhimiiit, tome 1, p. 145, Leningrad, 1933.
SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GEiOLOGY, 1943

sideration to the volumes of the earth's crust occupied by 

the rocks analyzed—that is, to the actual relative abundance of nickel. Nor has any special consideration been 

given to the effect of altitude or to the tendency toward 

gravity differentiation in different flows of traps, lavas, 

and dikes. A third objection relates to the method of 

averaging the nickel content, as some analyses in which 

nickel was not determined have been included with those 

in which it was determined.

ASSOCIATIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF NICKEL

Nickel is a fairly common minor constituent of igneous 

rocks. It has been classed among the "petrogenic" 

elements but seems to be concentrated chiefly with the 

"metallogenic" elements, and thus in fact is a kind 

of transition element.

Native nickel is rare and is found mainly as a minor 

constituent of native iron, the best known occurrences 

of which are in western Greenland, though small quantities have been noted elsewhere in basalts. Awarite, 

FeNi2 , occurs in the drift of the Gorge River, southern 

New Zealand. Josephinite, FeNi3 , is found in stream 

gravel in Oregon. The nickel antimonide, breithauptite, 

NiSb, has been found in Sardinia, at Cobalt, Ontario, 

and elsewhere.

Practically all meteorites contain nickel. In iron 

meteorites the nickel content ranges from 5 to 15 percent; in stone meteorites the metallic nickel content is 

much smaller or altogether lacking, but small percentages of a nickel silicate are always present.

Nickel is found in commercial, quantities chiefly as 

the sulfide pentlandite (Fe,Ni)S, or as nickeliferous 

pyrrhotite. Pentlandite is found at Sudbury, Ontario; 

Espedalen, Norway; Funter Bay, Alaska; Floyd 

County, Va.; and numerous other localities. Millerite, 

NiS, though found in many localities, is far less common 

than pentlandite and usually occurs as haiiiike crystals 

in cavities among other minerals.

The arsenides, niccolite, NiAs, and chloanthite, NiAs2, 

occur in the Cobalt district, Ontario; and their alteration products, including the nickel arsenate annabergite, 

Ni3 (AsO4 ) 2 .8H2O, result from weathering and oxidation. The sulfate morenosite, NiSO4 .7H2O, is probably 

formed by the oxidation of sulficles, but in most places 

is soon carried away because it is markedly soluble in 

water. It has been noted by the writer in association 

with annabergite and gersdorffite, NiAsS, from the 

Table Mountain district, Nevada.

The principal silicates of nickel are garnierite, 

H2 (Ni,Mg)SiO4 .aq, and other minerals allied to 

serpentine, such as genthite, Ni2Mg2Si3O10 .6H2O, which 

is usually found in serpentine or associated with talc 

and other magnesium silicates. At Webster, N. C., 

veinlets of nickel silicate ores occur in dunite. Similar 

deposits of nickel silicates have been found near Riddle, 

Oreg.; Frankenstein, Silicia; and Los Jarales, Malaga,

Spain. In New Caledonia a serpentine is capped with 

red "clay" containing from 1.64 to 3.14 percent c f nickel 

oxide, and stringers of richer silicate ore occur through 

the serpentine.

Nickel has been found in pumice (0.01 percent), and 

nickeliferous magnetite has been reported from Hosanger, Norway. Trevorite, whose formula is believed to 

be NiFe2O4, occurs in the Transvaal aaid has been 

described by Crosse.2

The associations of nickel minerals have been described briefly by W. H. Emmons.3 It is not necessary 

to list here the rare or doubtful minerals containing 

nickel, descriptions of which may be found in most 

mineralogies.

Commercial deposits of nickel ores obviously owe their 

origin to some type of concentrating process, which possibly depends on a series of favorable condition. The 

exact mechanism of concentration in different deposits 

has been the subject of considerable speculation and discussion, but it is not the purpose of this paper to summarize the voluminous literature on this subject. Magmatic segregation was for a long time considered the 

chief mechanism, but more recently the effects of segregation are believed to have been conjoined vdth the 

action of fluids and solutions. Factors initiating deposition may be cooling, changing pH, shifting reversible reactions, or mingling of different solutions. Other 

concentrations of nickel may have been accomplished by 

adsorptive processes or, in some instances possibly, by 

organisms.

Nickel has been determined in sea water and reported 

in the ashes of marine plants. As previously indicated 

it is distributed in minute quantities in all hinds of 

rocks. Measurable quantities are found in clay, shale, 

and slate, but very little is found in limestone and sandstone. In silicate rocks nickel predominate? in the 

f erromagnesian varieties, being definitely allied to rocks 

whose magnesium content is high and whose density is 

greater than 2.85. These facts require consideration in 

the calculation of the average relative abundance of 

nickel in igneous rocks and in the earth's crust.

METHODS FOR THE SEPARATION AND DETERMINATION 

OF NICKEL

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

A general criticism that may be made of most of the 

older analyses for nickel in rocks is that tile determinations of nickel were incidental. Attention was f ocussed 

on the major constituents, which had to be determined 

anyway; and consequently the methods were seldom or 

never modified to yield correct 'results for the minor 

constituents, though figures were obtained that passed

2 Crosse, A. F., A rich nickel ore: Chem. Met. Min. Sic. South 

Africa Jour., vol. 21, p. 126, 1921.

3 Emmons, W. H., The enrichment of ore deposits: U. S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 625, 1917.
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE1 OP NICKEL IN THE EARTH'S CRUST

for determinations. The usual procedure was to precipitate the zinc group—including nickel, cobalt, and 

manganese—with ammonium sulfide after the removal 

of iron and aluminum. It was not then known that 

small quantites of nickel tend to be strongly occluded by 

the ammonium hydroxide precipitate. This source of 

error, however, has been noted by several analysts.4 

Recently the author, not fully realizing the source of 

error, found that as many as ten precipitations of a large 

excess of iron were necessary to extract completely a 

small quantity of nickel from the precipitate when an 

excess of ammonia was used as in the usual older method 

of rock analysis. The material was a sulfide ore containing 0.29 percent of nickel. The conclusion from this 

series of tests was that many of the older determinations 

of nickel may be low.

Another source of error has recently been pointed 

out by Rankama,5 whose studies show that small percentages of nickel are frequently retained by silica. If 

the residue left after evaporating silica with hydrofluoric acid is not brought into solution and added to 

the main filtrate, this nickel will be lost. Somewhat 

similar behavior in these respects is shown by cobalt, 

manganese, and zinc, but nickel only will be considered 

here.

There are several ways of avoiding the difficulties 

referred to above, although it should be said that in 

aiming at the nickel some of these methods are not very 

well adapted to simultaneous determination of the 

usual major constituents. Some methods are applicable when both aluminum and iron are in large excess 

over nickel; others are applicable for separating iron 

only, which is likely to be the main problem in analyzing sulfide ore minerals. In the following discussion 

of methods it is assumed that silica has been removed 

and that the bases are present as chlorides, although 

some of the methods are applicable to sulfate solutions.

BASIC ACETATE METHOD

One method aims at the separation of the trivalent 

metals as basic acetates. Some time is required to bring 

the cold solutions exactly to a point where no precipitate persists before the heating and adding of the 

sodium acetate. Aluminum is not precipitated as completely as iron, but this will not interfere if nickel alone 

is being sought. The folowing directions are taken 

for the most part from Hillebrand and Lundell.6

Ordinary procedivre.—For solutions containing about 

a gram of metals in 200 ml., add dilute ammonia (1: 3)

* Noyes, A. A., and Bray, W. C., A system of qualitative analysis" for 

the rare elements, p. 389, New York, Macmillan Co., 1927. Harwood, 

H. F., and Theobald, L. T., The determination of small quantities of 

nickel in rock analysis : Analyst, vol. 58, pp. 673-682, 1933.

6 Rankama, Kalervo, On the composition of the residue from silica 

in rock-analysis: Comm. geol. Finlande Bull. 126, pp. 1-35, 1939.

a Hillebrand, W. F., and Lundell, G. E. F., Applied inorganic analysis, 

p. 71, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1929.

slowly in the cold, stirring constantly until the solution 

begins to turn red but has not formed a permanent precipitate. Next add in the same way a standard solution 

of ammonium carbonate until a slight turbidity seems 

to persist indefinitely, then add 1 or 2 drops of 1:1 hydrochloric acid. Now add boiling water until the volume is 

about TOO ml., heat to boiling, and add a solution of about 

5 grains of sodium acetate in 10ml. of water and continue 

boiling for 3 minutes. Filter, as soon as the precipitate 

has settled, on a paper supported by a cone. Wash moderately with a hot 1:100 solution of sodium acetate. 

Finally drain the precipitate by suction. One or more 

reprecipitations should be made until it is certain that 

no more nickel can be extracted.

Most of the nickel in the filtrates can be separated 

from the other salts as the sulfide, if desired. Add 

ammonium sulfide to the solution in a flask, stopper, and 

allow to stand over night. Filter off the sulfides o^ a 

small filter, wash slightly with a 1:50 solution of rmmonium chloride containing a little ammonium sulfide, 

ash in a fairly large porcelain crucible, cool, dissolve 

in aqua regia, evaporate slowly to avoid loss by spattering, take up in hydrochloric acid, and determine the 

nickel with dimethylglyoxime as described on page 5.

Brunck-Funk modification.—The procedure of 

Brunck 7 slightly modified and extended by Funk 8 is 

claimed to effect a complete separation of iron, at least, 

from nickel in one precipitation. Considerable aluminum, if it is present, and even some iron may remain 

with the nickel, but this is of no consequence.

To the metallic chlorides add about three or four 

times their weight of potassium chloride and evaporate 

on the steam bath nearly to dryness, stir, and leave the 

dish on the bath for 5 to 10 minutes longer. Take up 

the residue with 20 ml. of cold water, add 1.5 parts of 

sodium acetate crystals for each part of iron, dilute to 

make a volume of 500 ml. to 1 liter, heat gradually, while 

stirring, to at least 70° C., let settle, decant, wash g,nd 

drain the precipitate, and determine the nickel as in the 

ordinary procedure.

> Mittaschprocedure?—The procedure used by Mittasch 

is a slight modification of the ordinary procedure. It 

differs In that 10 ml. of 2 N acetic acid, instead of 1 or 

2 drops of hydrochloric acid, are added before introducing ammonium acetate and heating. After heating add 

a mixture of 5 ml. of 2 N acetic acid and 10 ml. of N 

ammonium acetate solution and boil a minute or so. 

Treat further as described under ordinary procedure.

7 Brunck, O., Jahresberichte der angewandten Chemie und verwandter 

Gebiete. Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der Metallanalyse: Chem.- 

Zeitung, Band 28, p. 514, 1904.

8 Funk, W., Die Trenung des Eisens von Mangan. Nickel, Kobalt und 

Zinc durch das Azetatverfahren: Zeitschr. anal. Chemie, Band 45. p. 

181, 1906.

8 Mittasch, Alwin, Ueber die Genauigkeit. der Acetatemethode bei der 

Trennung von Eisen und Mangan: Zeitschr. anal. Chemie, Band 42? 

p. 492, 1903.
SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GE.OLOGY, 1943

BARIUM CARBONATE METHOD

An old method consists in shaking the solution with 

a suspension of barium carbonate. The separation of 

the trivalent metals from manganese is said to be better 

than their separation from nickel and cobalt.10 Freshly 

precipitated barium carbonate is more active than old or 

dry material. It may be prepared by adding 26 grams 

of sodium carbonate and 90 grams of barium chloride 

crystals to about 1 liter of water, shaking, and washing 

a few times by decantation. Barium carbonate solutions yield a pH of about T.25, which seems a little high 

for the separation of nickel. The method has not been 

studied by the Geological Survey in connection with 

determining small quantities of nickel.

SLUM'S METHOD

Blum's method n was devised for the purpose of satisfactorily separating aluminum, but as no excess of ammonium hydroxide is involved and the precipitation of 

aluminum hydroxide depends in part on hydrolysis, the 

method effects a satisfactory separation of both aluminum and iron from nickel.

Add ammonium hydroxide to the boiling acid solution 

until the methyl red color changes to yellow. Iron 

precipitates first. At the proper stage the precipitate 

settles, and the color of a final drop of indicator is 

easily seen on the surface of the solution. Two precipitations are sufficient to extract all nickel, according to 

Blum's tests. The precipitated hydroxides are rather 

bulky and require large funnels if more than 1 gram 

of material is being analyzed.

ARDAGH-BROUGHALL METHOD

After testing most of the known methods for separating a little nickel from a relatively large proportion 

of iron, Ardagh and Broughall 12 pointed out the errors 

likely to arise in other methods and devised a radically 

different procedure based on precipitation from a concentrated solution and washing of the filtrate with relatively concentrated ammonia and ammonium chloride. 

Their procedure is as follows:

Evaporate the nickel solution containing hydrochloric acid to a volume of 2 or 3 ml. Add 5 grams 

of NHLtCl and stir. Add 10 ml. of concentrated ammonia, break up lumps, add 25 ml. of cold water and 

filter. Wash back the bulk of the precipitate, using 

a wash solution containing 10 percent NH4C1 and 10 

percent NH4OH. Wash six or eight times or until the

10 Hillebrand, W. F., and Lundell, G. B. F., Applied inorganic analysis, 

p. 74, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1929.

11 Blum, William, The determination of aluminum as oxide: Am. 

Chem. Soc. Jour., vol. 38, pp. 1282-1297, 1916.

' 12 Ardagh, B. G. R., and Broughall, G. M., A simple, rapid, and economical method of separating nickel and copper from iron: Canadian 

Chemistry and Metallurgy, vol. 7, pp. 198-200, 1923,

volume of the filtrate is about 100 ml. in all. Concentiate the nickel in the filtrate by precipitating as sulfide, and allow to stand overnight. Filter, ignite the 

paper in a porcelain crucible, dissolve the ash in aqua 

regia, and finally determine the nickel by rreans of 

dimethylglyoxime.

Results obtained by the authors of this method are 

shown in the table below:

Reparation of nickel from iron by the method of Ardagh and 

Broughall

Test

1

2 _____ _

4

5

Materials used in mixture tested

NH4C1 

added

(grams)

10 

10 

10 

5 

5

Concentrated 

NH4OH 

added (milliliters)

20 

20 

20 

10 

10

Iron 

taken 

(grams)

0 1

1

5 

5 

5

Nickel 

taken 

(grams)

0 0259 

0259 

0259 

0518 

0518

Nickel in 

filtrate 

(grams)

0 0259 

0259 

0259 

0518 

0518

Error 

(grams)

0. 0000 

.0000 

.0000 

.0000 

. 0000

FAIRCHILD'S METHOD

The method described by Fairchild 13 is applicable to 

the separation of iron from nickel. It will work fairly 

well for separating aluminum and also probably will 

remove titanium and phosphates. Add potassium sulfate to the mixture of sulfates; then ammonir. until a 

precipitate begins to persist in a volume of about 300 

ml.; and, finally heat the mixture overnight in a flask 

immersed in a steam bath. The basic sulfates of iron, 

aluminum, and potassium are precipitated ir a relatively dense form; and they do not carry down nickel 

to the same extent that the usual ammonium hydroxide 

precipitate does, if at all. The iron is not entirely precipitated, but this does not interfere with the subsequent 

determination of nickel. It may be advantageous to 

perform the hydrolysis in two stages, making the pH 

about 2.8 (just yellow to thymol blue) for th<?, second 

stage. The method is especially recommended for the 

removal of a great excess of iron from a little nickel.

Some results obtained by Fairchild are shown in the 

table below:

Separation of nickel from iron* and aluminum, "by J. G. Fairchild

Test

1_ __ _____ _

2__ . _ _ .

3. ____________

4_---___-_._._

5 _ __--___._-

Metallic oxides used in mixture 

tested (grams)

Fe2 O3

0 5000 

7500 

5000 

3000 

3000

A13O3

0. 3000 

.3000

NiO

0 0020 

0100 

0200 

0020 

0200

NiO 

recovered 

(grains)

0 0026 

0096 

0204 

0015 

0202

Error 

(grams)

+ 0. 0006 

-. 0004 

+. 0004 

-. 0005 

+. 0002

13 Fairchild, J. G., Basic sulfates of iron and aluminum in analytical 

separations : Ind. and Bng. Chemistry, Anal, ed., vol. 13, p. 83, 1941.
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NICKEL IN THE1 EARTH'S CRUST

ETHER METHOD

Ether free from alcohol dissolves ferric chloride from 

hydrochloric acid solutions of specific gravity 1.1 to 

1.115. No nickel is dissolved by ether unless the nickel 

concentration is high, which is not the case under consideration in this investigation. This method of separating iron, however, is rather tedious; it requires special 

apparatus; and it still leaves aluminum, if present, with 

the nickel. It may be useful in some circumstances. 

Details in regard to metals that do or do not accompany 

iron in the extraction are given by Hillebrand and Lundell,14 and they need not be repeated here.

DIMETHYLGLYOXIME METHOD

The solution should not contain more than 0.03 gram 

of nickel. Palladium is the principal metal that may 

interfere in this method, but it is seldom present. Metals 

of the hydrogen sulfide group, if present in considerable 

quantity, should be removed before precipitating the 

nickel. Oxidize iron to the trivalent state. Add three 

or four times as much ammonium tartrate as the weight 

of trivalent salts present and enough ammonium chloride 

to hold bivalent metals in solution when it is made ammoniacal. Heat to 60° or 80° C. For every 0.01 gram 

of nickel present add 5 ml. of a filtered 1 percent solution 

of dimethyglyoxime in alcohol. An even larger amount 

of the dimethylglyoxime solution may be needed for a 

small quantity of nickel. Then add ammonia until a 

faintly alkaline reaction is obtained. Digest on the 

steam bath for several hours. If the quantity of nickel 

is very small, it may be necessary to wait several days 

for the nickel to precipitate. In a volume of 100 ml. or 

less, 0.1 mg. of nickel should show up definitely, an 

amount equal to 0.002 percent in a 5-gram sample of 

rock. If the nickel is concentrated by some means into 

a small volume so that the final test can be made in 1 or 2 

ml., 0.01 mg. of nickel is easily recognizable qualitatively 

by the dimethylglyoxime test. Filter on a Gooch or 

glass filter, dry at 110°-120° C. for 45 minutes, cool, and 

weigh. The precipitate contains 20.31 percent of nickel. 

This appears to be the best method for determining 

moderate percentages of nickel, and it is also applicable 

for as little as a few hundreds of 1 percent if from 2- 

to 10-gram portions of sample are used. For very small 

quantities of nickel, the colorimetric method of Rollet 

described in the next section is preferable.

ROLLET'S METHOD

The colorimetric method devised by Rollet 15 is a 

very sensitive test for small quantities of nickel and is 

based on the fact that after oxidation an alkaline soluM Hillebrand, W. F., and Lundell, G. E. F., Applied inorganic analysis, 

p. 106, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1929.

15 Rollet, A. P., Sur un nouveau dosage colorime'trique du nickel: 

Acad. Sci. Paris Comptes rendus, tome 183, pp. 212-213, 1926,

tion containing nickel dimethylglyoxime turns pink or 

red in proportion to the quantity of nickel. The simplest 

procedure is to add about 5 drops of bromine water to 

a hydrochloric acid solution containing the nickel, then 

3 or 4 drops excess of ammonia after the color of the 

bromine disappears, then about 10 drops of a 1 percent 

solution of dimethylglyoxime in alcohol. A series of 

standard colors should be made up at the same time for 

comparison. A distinct color is produced by 0.001 mg. 

of nickel in 1 ml.

SANDELL-PERLICH METHOD

The method described by Sandell and Perlich 16 involves the extraction of nickel dimethylglyoxime by 

means of chloroform from an ammoniacal citrate solution of the rock sample. By shaking the chlorofcrm 

extract with dilute hydrochloric acid, the dimethylglyoxime compound is decomposed and the nickel is brought 

into the aqueous phase in which it is then determined by 

Rollet's method. Their procedure, results, and comments are as follows:

Weigh 0.25 gram of finely powdered basic rock (0.01 to 0.05 

percent nickel), or 0.5 gram or more of acidic rock, into a 

platinum dish, add a few milliliters of water, 0.5 ml. of 70 percent perchloric acid, and 2.5 ml. of hydrofluoric acid (for a 

sample greater than 0.25 gram these amounts should be wreepondingly increased). Evaporate the mixture to dryness, take 

up the residue in 0.5 ml. of perchloric acid and 2 or 3 ml. of 

water, and again evaporate to dryness. To the residue add 0.5 

to 1 ml. of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 5 ml. of water. 

Heat to bring all soluble material into solution, add 5 ml. of 

10 percent sodium citrate solution, neutralize the cold solution 

with concentrated ammonium hydroxide using litmus paper, 

and add a few drops in excess. If there is an appreciable amount 

of precipitate or residue in the solution at this point,, fl^er 

through a small paper, wash with small portions of water, and 

ignite the paper and its contents. Fuse the residue with approximately 0.1 gram of sodium carbonate, add an excess of dilute 

1 ydrochloric acid to the cooled melt, and heat to effect as complete solution as possible. Add 2 or 3 nil. of 10 percent sodium 

citrate solution, make slightly ammoniacal, and reserve the 

solution.

To the main solution (filtrate from any insoluble material) 

add 2 ml. of 1 percent alcoholic dimethylglyoxime solution, and 

shake vigorously for one-half minute with two or three portions 

of reagent-quality chloroform, each having a volume of "2 cr 3 

ml. In a similar manner extract the ammoniacal solution of 

the sodium carbonate melt. Combine all the chloroform extracts 

and shake vigorously with 10 ml. of 1 to 50 ammonium hydroxide 

solution. Draw off the chloroform, taking care that no drops 

of the aqueous phase accompany it, and shake the water layer 

with a milliliter or two of chloroform to recover any suspended 

drops of chloroform solution.

Shake the chloroform solution of nickel dimethylglyoxime 

vigorously for 1 minute, with two portions1 of 0.5 N hydrochloric 

acid, each having a volume of 5 ml. (or slightly less if the solution 

is finally to be made up to 10 ml.). Transfer the hydrochloric 

acid solutions to a volumetric flask of suitable size or a flat-bot16 Sandell, B. B.; and Perlich, R. W., Determination of nickel and 

cobalt in silicate rocks : Ind. and Eng. Chemistry, Anal, ed., vol. 11, 

pp. 309-311, 1939.
6 SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GElOLOGY, 1943

tomed color comparison tube (1.8X15 cm.), taking care that no 

appreciable amount of chloroform is carried over. For color 

comparison in a colorimeter the nickel concentration of the final 

solution should be at least 1 microgram per ml. For most acidic 

rocks the standard series method of color comparison will usually 

have to be applied because of low nickel content. A suitable 

series of standards for a silicic rock is 0, 1, 2 ... 10 micrograms of nickel for a 0.5-gram sample. Whether a colorimeter 

or tubes are used, the final nickel concentration should not exceed 

5 micrograms per ml. or else a precipitate of nickel dimethylglyoxime may be produced.

The unknown nickel solution and the standard solution diluted 

to about 10 ml. with 0.5 N hydrochloric acid are treated simultaneously as follows: Add 5 drops of freshly prepared saturated 

bromine water, mix, and then add concentrated ammonium 

hydroxide dropwise with shaking until the color of bromine 

disappears; finally add an excess of 3 or 4 drops. Next add 0.5 

ml. of 1 percent alcoholic dimethylglyoxime solution, mix, and 

dilute to volume with water if a volumetric flask is used. The 

color intensity of the solutions increases slowly on standing; 

the unknown and standard solution should therefore be treated 

with the reagents at the same time.

If necessary apply a correction for nickel in the reagents.

Determination of nickel

No.

1

2 

3

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12

Sample

Extracted ' solution of granite.

Extracted solution of synthetic basic rock.

_.._-do-__._ — ..............

.....do...... — .-_._—— —

.....do— _..- — .„—- — ..

.....do— ...„ — . — -- — -

... -do.. ........ ...j... ......

. __do-_ .................

..—do -.... — .-.-.-.—--

. do..-. ... .............

Addition 

(percent)

1.0 Mn.... ..........

0.2CrVi, .06 VV....

Ni taken » 

percent)

0.0003

.0020 

.0020

.0060 

.011 

.021 

.042 

.0030 

.010 

.009 

.011 

.020

Ni 

found 

(percent)

0.0003

.0018 

.0019

.0060 

.011 

.020 

.041 

.0028 

.010 

.010 

.011 

.020

Error 

(percent)

0.0080

-.0002 

-.0001

.0000 

.000 

-.001 

-.001 

-.0002 

.000 

+.001 

.000 

.000

<• Includes nickel originally present in synthetic basic rock (0.0010 percent). 

6 Solution of sample extracted with chloroform after addition of dimethylglyoxime 

o remove nickel originally present, and nickel then added to extracted solution.

The results obtained by applying the foregoing directions are 

given in the table. One-fourth gram samples were used and 

the color comparison was made in a Duboscq colorimeter when 

the nickel content was 0.005 percent or greater. The sensitivity 

of the method is great enough to allow the detection of less than 

0.0001 percent of nickel when a 0.5-gram sample is taken.

Copper, cobalt, manganese, chromium, and vanadium in the 

amounts that are likely to be encountered in most igneous rocks 

do not interfere. It may be expected that much copper and 

cobalt will lead to high results. One hundred micrograms of 

cobalt carried through the procedure gave a color corresponding 

to about 1.5 micrograms of nickel, and 100 micrograms of copper 

gave no color. Manganese in large quantities may cause trouble 

by oxidizing nickel to the nickelic condition in the ammoniacal 

solution during shaking, and the results for nickel will then be 

low, because nickelic dimethylglyoxime is not extracted by 

chloroform.

Under the conditions specified above for the final detex'mination of nickel, Beer's law is closely followed up to a concentration of about 6 micrograms of nickel per milliliter. Al ive this 

concentration a precipitate may separate.

The solubility of nickel dimethylglyoxime in chloroform at 

room temperature corresponds to approximately 50 micrograms 

of nickel per milliliter.

The only minerals not easily brought into solution, in 

the writer's experience with this method, were sillimanite and manganese oxides.

ELECTROLYTIC METHOD

Although nickel in a pure salt—for example, nickel 

sulf ate—is easily precipitated completely by electrolysis 

in solutions containing ammonium sulfate, ammonium 

hydroxide, or ammonium acetate, its electrolytic separation from other metals is not generally feasible; and 

preliminary separations by other methods are necessary. 

In solutions containing considerable nickel but no other 

metals, very accurate electrolytic determinations of 

nickel are possible. The methods described previously 

are generally necessary or suitable for rocks and minerals in which nickel is generally a minor constituent; 

and, except in very rare instances, they are sufficiently 

accurate for such materials.

NICKEL CONTENT OF DIFFERENT ROCKS AND 

MINERALS

The chemical laboratory of the Geological Survey is 

fortunate in having on file small samples of many rocks 

that have been studied petrographically and analyzed 

chemically by its staff. A wide range of rock types 

and an extensive geographical distribution are represented in these samples, thereby affording an excellent 

opportunity to make new or original determinations of 

nickel in a great variety of rocks. Only small portions 

were needed for the determination of nickel. Practically all the new determinations were made by the 

Sandell-Perlich method. The densities of th°, rocks 

were also determined from these samples, wit! out loss 

of material. The descriptions of the rocks give citations to the complete analyses in Geological Survey 

Bulletins 591 17 and 878.18

The densities given in this paper were determined by 

the Jolly balance if lumps were available, unless the 

specimen had a visible porosity. For such pore us specimens and also for about half the samples for witch only 

crushed material was available, the density was determined in a pycnometer on the powder. There was generally very little difference between the densities determined in the two ways.

17 Clarke, P. W., Analyses of rocks and minerals from the laboratory 

of the United States Geological Survey, 1880 to 1914: TJ. S. Geol. 

Survey Bull. 591, 1915.

is \YeiiSi R. c., Analyses of rocks and minerals from the laboratory 

of the United States Geological Survey, 1914-36: U. S. G*ol. Survey 

Bull. 878, 1937.
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NICKEL IN THE EARTH'S CRUST

IGNEOUS ROCKS 

RHYOLITE

Washington,19 in Geological Survey Professional Paper 99, gives 21 analyses of rhyolite in which nickel is 

mentioned. Of these, 14 analyses record "none" for 

NiO; 3 others show 0.10, 0.04, and 0.03 percent, respectively ; 2 contain 0.01 percent; and the average is 0.009 

percent. It may be said at this point that the word 

"none" in an analysis is just about as unsatisfactory as 

the word "trace." Ordinarily it probably means not 

more than 0.01 percent, but the nickel content may be 

anything less than that.

The following are new determinations of nickel in 

rhyolite:

No.

1

2

Locality

Boundary Cone, Oatman district, Ariz. 

(Bull. 878, p. 10, R). .......... ....

Piedra rhyolite, Bennett Creek, San Christobal quadrangle, Colo. (Bull. 878, p. 18, G-?)_

Altitude 

(feet)

3,000

11,000

Specific 

gravity

2.42

NiO

(percent)

0.0026

.0024

In view of these results it seems fair to conclude that 

the average NiO content of rhyolite is about 0.002 percent, a figure considerably less than Washington's 

average. But if his one high result is excluded, his mean 

becomes 0.004 percent.

GRANITE

The determinations of nickel in granite reported by 

Washington resemble those for rhyolite in that 46 out 

of 57 analyses specify "none" for NiO. Among the 

analyses listing NiO, three specimens are reported to 

contain 0.23, 0.15, and 0.03 percent respectively, and two 

specimens to contain 0.02 percent. The figure 0.23 appears to be exceptional; and if that result is excluded, 

the average falls from 0.009 to 0.005 percent. These 

figures are about the same as those for rhyolite.

New tests for nickel were made in granite from the 

following localities:

No.

1

2

Locality

Rockport, Mass. (Bull. 878, p. 29, E). ..............

Idaho batholith, Mayfield Creek, Casto quadrangle,

Idaho. (Bull. 878, p. 26, B) ...... __ ..... ...

Altitude

(feet)

20-40

5,800

Speity

2.63

2.65

NiO

(percent)

0.0025

.0017

The average for granite is 0.002 percent of NiO, about 

the same as for rhyolite and less than the older figure.

DACITE

Washington, in 14 analyses of dacite reported no nickel 

in 9,0.06 in 2, and 0.08,0.03, and 0.02 percent of NiO in 3 

others—an average of 0.017 percent. The average MgO 

content is 1.37 percent.

18 Washington, H. S., Chemical analyses of igneous rocks published 

from 1884 to 1913, inclusive, with a critical discussion of the character 

and use of analyses : U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 99, 1917. 

520454—i3———3

Three new determinations of nickel in dacite gave the 

following results:

No.

1

•2

3

Locality

Mount Lassen, e/uption of May 22, 1916. (Bull. 

878, p. 12, E).... — .................... ...... — ...

5 miles northwest of Riddle, Oreg. (Bull. 591, p. 

198, C) ............ ................................

Silver Peak Range, Esmeralda. County, Nev. (Bull. 

591, p. 163, E).... _ .... __ . _ . ___ . _ . __ ...

Altitude 

(feet)

10,000

2,500

5,500

Specific 

gravity

2.62

2.70

2.42

NiO (percent)

C.0095

.0008

.0002

The dacite of the Mount Lassen eruption is distinctly 

higher in nickel than specimens from the other two localities and may represent material from greater depth. 

However, the average of the three new determinations, 

0.0035 percent of NiO, is considerably lower than Washington's average and probably of the right order.

GRANODIORITE

Washington, in listing 12 analyses of granodiorfte, 

reported no NiO in 7, a trace in 3, and 0.20 and 0.19 

percent in 2—an average of 0.033 percent. The two high 

figures, both by Melville, are so exceptional that they 

must be discarded, leaving an average of "trace."

New determinations are as follows:

No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

Locality

1J4 miles west of Haystack Mountain, Livingston

East fork of Rock Creek, Anaconda Range, Mont. 

(Bull. 591, p. Ill, B)____._... __-._-——— .... ...

Silver Wreath mine, Boise County, Idaho. (Bull. 

591, p. 115, J). .......... -—-.—————— —

About 5 miles north of Yellow Pine, Valley County, 

Idaho. (Bull. 878, p. 27, E).....— .....— ....—. .

Near Silver Lake, Eldorado County, Calif. (Bull. 

591, p. 183, B)..-— ................................

Paradise Range, Nev., near brucite deposit. (Bull. 

878, p. 32, J).._---.— —--.--—- — -—- — — -

Altitude 

(feet)

9,000

9,000

3,000

7,000

7,300

5,800

Specific 

gravity

2.69

2.68

2.71

2.71

2.70

2.70

NiO (percent)

0.0095

.0027

.0012

,0011

.0017

.0070

These results average 0.0039 percent of NiO, which 

differs appreciably from the average of the older determinations. The individual results, however, are more 

nearly of the same order, a "trace."

TRACHYTE

The average NiO content for 16 analyses of trachyte 

reported by Washington is 0.018 percent, including 7 

with "none." The average of 5 new determinations 

given in the following table is considerably lower, only 

0.0039 percent.

No.

1

3

3

4

5

Locality

Goldroad mine, It miles east of Mohave, Ariz. (Bull.

Same locality as No. 1. (Bull. 591, p. 157 L). ........

Near Lahaina, Maui. (Bull. 591, p. 211, G, or P. P. 

88, p. W). .............................. —.....-.-

Gold Mountain, Humboldt Range, Rochester district, Nevada. (Bull. 878, p. 31 C).... .... — — ~

Deep Creek, Gold Hill quadrangle, Utah. (Bull.

070 n A(\ T>— 91

Alti-. 

tude 

(feet)

2,500

2,500

100

6,000

•5, 400

Specific 

gravity

2.55

2.63

2.87

2.63

2.51

NiO (percent)

0.0053

.0086

.0018

.0008

.0032
8 SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GElOLOGY, 1943

SYENITE

Washington's average for the NiO content of syenite 

is 0.024; and for the MgO content, 1.20 percent. The 

following determinations are new:

No.

1

2 

3

4

5

Locality

Hueco Tanks, El Paso County. Tex. (Bull. 591,

p. 60, V). ...——.............— ..................

Northwest of Gem, Idaho. (Bull. 591, p. 115, O)_... 

Burkettville, Knox County. Maine. (Bull. 591, p.

26, B)___._ .........................................

South side of Clear Creek, near Soda Creek. Idaho

Springs, Colo. (Bull. 591, p. 127, A)— ... — ..——

Near Merriman mine. 3 miles east of Organ, N. Mex.

(Bull. 591, p. 151, F). ..............................

Altitude

(feet)

4,500

4,000

300

8,000

5,300

Speity

2.46

2.75

2.88

2.65

2.69

NiO

(percent)

0.0014

.0016

ft CO

.0019

.0029

The average of NiO in these five samples of syenite is 

0.0132 percent. The rock from Burkettville, Maine, 

however, seems to be exceptionally high in nickel; and 

if it is excluded, the average falls to 0.0020 percent, a 

much lower figure than Washington's. The norm of the 

rock from Maine shows some olivine. This rock comes 

from a low altitude; and, considering erosion, it may 

represent material from even a lower altitude than its 

present position.

LATITE

In 10 analyses of latite, Washington reported no NiO 

in 6, a trace in 2, and 0.06 and 0.04 percent, respectively, 

in. the remaining 2—an average of 0.01 percent, but a 

wide spread. The rock with 0.06 percent was from Victoria and contained 4.03 percent of MgO and had olivine 

in the norm.

New determinations are tabulated below:

No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Locality

Portland mine, Cripple Creek district, Colorado. 

(Bull. 591, p. 121, S) ..........

Southeast of Devil's Lake, Cannibal Plateau, Uncompahgre quadrangle, Colorado. (Bnll. 591, p. 

134, A-2)-_ — - — __-. — _-. — ___- .--—.....

Same locality as No. 2. (Bull. 591, p. 134, B-2) ——— 

Nellie Creek, Lake City quadrangle, Colorado. 

(Bull. 591, r>. 135. C) ________„„ .. „

Near head of Middle Fork of Cimarron Creek, Ouray 

quadrangle, Colorado. (Bull. 591, p. 136, A).. _ ..

East slope of Trout Creek, San Cristobal quadrangle, 

Colorado. (Bull. 591, p. 139. I).......... ...........

Superior mine, Bonanza district, Colorado. (Bull. 

878, p. 13, B-3).. — .... . ————————————__

East slope of Caldwell Mountain.'Conejos quadrangle, 

Colorado. (Bull. 878, p. 15, B)... ........ ......

Head of Willow Creek, eastern part of Creede quadrangle, Colorado. (Bull. 878, p. 16, H) „ . .

Bear Creek in northwestern part of Del Norde quadrangle. Colorado. (Bull. 878, p. 17, D) ..

South side of Saguache Creek, Saguache quadrangle, 

Colorado. (Bull. 878. p. 18)........ ...

Altitude 

(feet)

7,000

12,000

12.000 

10, 000

11,500

10 000

11, 000

8,800

10,500

8,400

Specific 

gravity

2 fif\

9 77

2.75

2 65

2.45

2 69

2

KQ

2.68

2.48

2.58

NiO (percent)

0.013

0005

.0042 

.0015

0012

.0013

.0021

.0006

.0015

fWVl

.0012

The average of the 11 new determinations of NiO 

in latite is 0.0025 percent. Excluding the first, which is 

exceptionally high, the average is 0.0014 percent. 

Neither of these figures differs much from the average 

of the other rocks so far considered.

MONZONITE

Out of 14 analyses of monzonite, Washington reported 

no NiO in 5, a trace in 6, and 0.09,0.10, and 0.07 percent, 

respectively in 3—an average of 0.019 percent. The 

rock containing 0.07 percent was from Scotland and had 

12.48 percent MgO, olivine being in the norm.

New determinations were made on the following 

specimens:

No.

1

3

4

5

Locality

About 4 miles west of Nederland, Colorado. (Prof.

Paper 94 and Bull. 591, p. 126, C-2). ....... ..........

Dike half a mile northeast of Tungsten, Nederland

district, Colorado. (Bull. 878, p. 18,1)————

Lower tunnel of Yellowstone Pine mine, 1 mile east of

Wall Street, Colo. (Bull. 878, p. 23, N)...—— ... -

1 mile north of Kelly, Magdalena district, New

Mexico. (Bnll. 878, p. 36).. —— .:—————— ——

Altitude

(feet)

10,300

7,000

8,000

7,000

7,500

S?ei'-.y

2,78

2.80

2.71

2.71

2.82

NiO

(percent)

0. 0014

.0006

.0014

.0004

.0089

The average for the five samples of monzonite tested 

is 0.0025 percent of NiO, a figure essentially the same 

as that found for latite.

ANDESITE

Iii the 45 analyses of andesite listed by Washington, 

NiO is reported as "none" in 26 and as "trace" in 8; 

and the average of all is 0.0076 percent of NiO. The 

highest figure is 0.07 percent in andesitic ash from St. 

Vincent, West Indies. This rock, however, may represent material from a low altitude that should be high 

in nickel.

The following are new determinations:

No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Locality

Ridge west of east fork of Woodfern Creek, San Cristobal quadrangle, Colorado. (Bull. 591, p. 139, J)._

Hill northwest of Vindicator Mountain, Goldfleld district, Nevada. (Bull. 591, p. 159, B).___._ —— — .

Naches Vallev, near Sand Creek, Snoqualmie quadrangle, Washington. (Bull. 591, p. 204, B)_..__._.

Ravine south of Kaupo Gap, crater of Haleakala,

Maui. (Bull. 591, p. 211, H)... ... — .^.. ..... ... .

From central plateau, east of Hat Mountain, Lassen 

National Park, Calif. (Bull. 878, p. 12, K)_. ......

North of the Saguache River, near head of Spanish

Creek, Cochetopa quadrangle, Colorado. (Bull.

878, p. 14, A-2). —— .——— . ————————— —

Carnero Canyon, Del Norte quadrangle, Colorado.

(Bull. 878, p. 20, A)——— — ———— — — ———— —

Upper floor on north slope of Santa Clara Canyon, 

Abiquiu quadrangle, New Mexico. (Bull. 878,

p. 33,A)——— —. ———— ——— ———————

Point Farfan, across the Canal from Balboa, Panama.

(Bull. 878, p. 39, E) — — — — — —— — — — — -

Boring in Bermuda. (Bull. 878, p. 11) ————————

Altitude

(feet)

11,000

5,900

3,100

1,000

7,000

11,000

8,000

10,000

100 -910

Spegravity

2.72

2.46

2.57

2.88

2.70

2.69

2.78

2.82

2.57"

2.99

NiO

(percent)

0.0014

.0010

.0011

.0006

.0031

.0016

.0042

.0117

.0013

.013

The average of the 10 determinations is 0.003S percent 

of NiO, a figure appreciably less than Washington's 

average for andesite.

DIORITE

In 48 analyses of diorite in which nickel wrs determined, Washington reported "none" in 15. The highest
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NICKEL IN THE EARTH'S CRUST 9

figure is 0.09 percent of NiO, which was found by W. H. 

Melville in a sample from Electric Peak, Yellowstone 

National Park; and the average of all is 0.017 percent 

of MO.

In the following 11 new determinations of nickel in 

diorite the average is only 0.0022 percent of NiO.

No.

1

2

3 

4

5

6

7

8

9 

10

11

Locality

Burra Burra mine, Ducktown, Term. (Bull. 591, 

p. 54, A-2). ................

North of Haystack Mountain, between Blue and 

Mud Lakes, Mont. (Bull. 691, p. Ill, G)... ...-.

Quarry half a mile southwest of Cable mine, Philipsburg quadrangle, Montana. (Bull. 591, p. Ill, C) . 

^Wellington mine, Breckenridge district, Colo. (Bull. 

591, p. 128, E)._ —._—..__._.______ ......

East side of Trout Creek, San Cristobal quadrangle, 

Colorado. (Bull. 591, p. 140, N) .

2 miles north of Kelvin, Eay district, Arizona. (Bull. 

591, p. 153, D)....... ...............................

Minnesota mine, Shasta County, Calif. (Bull. 591, 

p. 169, L). .......................... ______ ....

Jumbo Basin, Copper Mountain, Prince of Wales 

Island, Alaska. (Bull. 591, p. 207, A-2)..—

Cocovi Island, Bay of Panama. (Bull. 591, p. 214, O)_ 

Southeast of Buckle Lake, Summitville quadrangle, 

Colorado. (Bull. 878, p 20, C) ....................

Sec. 9, T. 8 S., E. 43 E., Baker County, Oreg. (Bull. 

878, p. 37, H)-...— ................. ..............

Altitude 

(feet)

1,700

8,000

7,000 

10,000

10,000

2,000

1,500

1,700

20 

10, 500

3,900

Specific 

gravity

2.78

2.84

2.80 

2.83

9 R4

3.02

2.87

2.76

2.52

2.78

2.85

NiO (percent)

n nniq

.0069

.0005 

0008

nnio

.0006

.0008

.0006

.0008 

.0075

.0027

PHONOL.ITB

In 11 analyses of phonolite, Washington reported no 

nickel in 5, a trace in 2,0.04 percent of NiO in 3, and 0.05 

percent in 1—an average of 0.015 percent of NiO.

Only one sample was available for a new determination.

Locality

Mine Creek, 4 miles north of Nashville, Tenn. 

(Bull. 878, p. 11, A) _ —_————_—..——

Altitude 

(feet)

500

Specific 

gravity

2.96

NiO

(percent)

0. 0010

SHONKINITB

Washington reported nickel in several analyses of 

shonkinite. With these the writer has grouped a number of analyses of rocks closely related to shonkinite in 

chemical composition, although they were classified by 

Washington under other or unusual names, making 

altogether a group of 28. Washington reported no 

NiO in only 6 analyses, a trace in 10, and from 0.01 to 

0.07 percent in the remainder—an average of 0.016 

percent.

The three new determinations for shonkinite tabulated below give an average 0.028 percent of NiO.

No.

1

2

3

Locality

Walsen dike, at intersection with Walsenburg-Gardner road, Walsenburg quadrangle, Colorado.

(Bull. 878. p. 19, B-2)._— _— — --.--_——— —

Dike near Walsenburg-La Veta road, Colorado.

(Bull. 878, p. 19, C-2)—— ..-.._—__...—-——

Wildcat Gulch, Uncompahgre quadrangle, Colorado. 

(Bull. 878, p. 21, G).... __ .. _ . __ .... _ . .„„

Altitude 

(feet)

6,250

6,500

8,100

Spegravity

2.86

2.87

2.97

NiO (percent)

0.028

.019

.038

BASAI.T

Washington reported on'nickel in 182 analyses of 

basalt. Two of these, 0.75 and 0.41 percent of NiO, 

probably represent segregations, but they serve to offset 

41 specimens reported as containing "none" and 27 reported as having a "trace," giving an average for all of 

0.039 percent of NiO.

The 21 new determinations tabulated below give an 

average of 0.037 percent NiO.

No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8 

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

Locality

8 miles east-northeast of North Eattlesnake Butte. 

Apishapa quadrangle, Colorado. (Bull. 591, p. 123, D). 

Top of Breeze Mountain, 4 miles southeast of Craig, 

Colo. (Bull. 878, p. 22, H). .._..... ..........—...

South rim of Barilla Mesa, Colfax County, N. Mex. 

(Bull. 591, p. 150. J)— .............................

Headwaters of Little Ash Creek, Bradshaw Mountains quadrangle, Arizona. (Bull. 591, p. 155, C)__. 

6 miles north of Silver Peak, Nev. (Bull. 591, p. 163, 

G)..-.. .....-.-__-..-...___...._.__..-..._-.._.-..

1H miles from Franklin Hill, Plumas County, Calif. 

(Bull. 591, p. 177, M) ---_-——— .-.--.—.-.—

West peak of the Dardanelles, Alpine County, Calif. 

(Bull. 591, p. 195, H)—- .— ——.—————

2 miles south-southeast of-Naches Pass, Snoqualmie 

quadrangle, Washington. (Bull. 591, p. 204, D)... 

Eim of caldera of Kilauea, Hawaii. (Bull. 591, p. 

212, E)-..... ....................... _.-.-..._...—

East branch of Makaweli Canyon, Kauai. (Bull. 

591, p. 212, L)-_...... _ -............. — ......-„.

Post-Pahala basalt, pahoehoe on floor of Makanao 

Valley, at southwest end of Pakua graben fault, 

Hawaii. (Bull. 878, p. 25, A)— —————.—

Mauna Loa aa flow, cut on Government road at south 

boundary of Waiakea National Forest. (Bull. 878, 

p. 25, E). ...... ............ ...._.. .................

Eeservoir at Piihonua, Mauna Loa pahoehoe flow. 

(BuJLl. 878, p. 25, F)... ...... .......................

National Park quarry on Hilo road 1 mile from observatory, Kilauea pahoehoe flow. (Bull. 878, p. 

25, G)... .-._-—_--_-—.__—.. -.—-—-..- — -,

Halemaumau, splash from lava lake, 1917. (Bull. 878, 

p. 25, H)...... ........-.....-.-........- — ........

Halemaumau, splash from lava lake, 1919. (Bull. 878, 

p. 25, 1)................................— .........

Halemaumau, pahoehoe from northeast edge of floor

Halemaumau, pahoehoe from south edge of floor of 

Kilauea Crater, 1919. (Bull. 878, p. 25, K). .........

Flow, sec. 24, T. 25 S., E. 4 W., Douglas County, 

Oreg. (Bull. 878, p. 38, D)......... ............—.

Younger basalt from Cupola Eock, 10 miles west of 

Three Sisters Mountains, Oreg. (Bull. 878, p. 38, 

G)..— ....... — .-....-.-....-—..——.—..—

Border facies, Stillwater complex, Mont. (Supplied

Altitude 

(feet)

5,700 

6,990

8,450

4,500 

4,900

5,000

8,000

4,500 

3,600

1,400

1,400

290

900

4,000

3,600

3,600

3,600

3,600

1,300

3,000

«7,500

Specific 

gravity

3.04 

2 82

2.80-

2.93 

2.76

2.93

2.81

2.99 

3.09

3.15

3.17

•3.09

»3.05

"3.05

"2.85

» 3. 05

• 2.90

»3.06

2.89

2.86

3.04

NiO (percent)

0.042 

.035

.016

.011 

.018

.011

.021

.042 

.053

.140

.174

.049

.013

.015

.016

.015

.014

.021

b.015

.015

.039

• Determination by J. G. Fairchild.

b Determination by F. S. Grimaldi.

<> Geologic evidence suggests that this rock was emplaced at considerable depth, 

at least 10,000 feet below sea level; hence the altitude might be considered to be 

-17,000 feet.

DIABASE

The average of 29 determinations reported by Washington is 0.061 percent of NiO; but one relatively 1 igh 

determination, 0.73, is from an exceptional dike in Victoria County, Ontario. Excluding this figure the average for 28 analyses of diabase reported by Washington 

is 0.037 percent of NiO, a result of the same order as 

that for basalt.

Only six samples of diabase were available for new 

determinations of nickel. The individual results are 

is 0.020. 

given below, and the average percentage of NiO foMnd
10 SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GEOLOGY, 1943

No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

i

Locality

Greenstone Cliff, Keweenaw Point, Mich. (Bull.

591, p. 64, A)______ .......... ... ... —— ——— ———

"Ashbed" diabase, bed 65, Eagle River section, Keweenaw Point, Mich. (Bull. 591, p. 64, B). .......

Dike, sec. 29, T. 25 S., R. 4 W., Douglas County,

Oreg. (Bull. 878, p. 38, C) _ ......... .............

Analcite diabase, forming part of 80-foot sill, just

north from Starvation Wash, T. 26 S., R. 6 E.,

Emery County, Utah. (Bull. 878, p. 41, A)________

Palisade sill, 700 feet above lower contact, Hudson

River, N. J. (Walker, Geol. Soc. America Bull.,

vol. 51, p. 1080, 1940).----. ———— —— _ — —————

Palisade sill, olivine layer, 60 feet above lower contact. (Laboratory No. D-1624)... .................

Altitude

(feet)

620

620

1,000

6,000

700

60

Speity

2.96

2.93

2.97

2.92

2.91

3.15

NiO

(percent)

0.028

.0090

.012

.034

.0038

.036

GABBRO

New determinations of nickel in gabbro are given in 

the table below:

No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Locality

1 mile east of Preston post office, Connecticut. (Bull. 

591, p. 38, K)_—-— ————— — — — _—.-..

Elkhorn mining district, Montana. (Bull. 591, p. 109, 

H).— ———— — ————.— -—— — ....

Half a mile northeast of Haystack Mountain, Mont. 

(Bull. 591, p. 110, D). - ————————— ———— _.

Central -City quadrangle, Colorado. (Bull. 591, p. 

127.D) —— ———— — ... —— ——— —————.„

Uncompahgre quadrangle, Colorado. (Bull. 591, p. 

134, D-2)..—— ........ ............................

Waiale Canyon, near Waimea Canyon, Kauai. 

(Bull. 591, p. 212, M)-. — .........................

Mount McKensie, north of Los Cerillos, N. Mex. 

(Bull. 591, p. 151, C)..—— ....... ...... ...........

Top of Whifeface Mountain, Adirondacks, N, Y. 

(Bull. 591, p. 38, B). ...............................

300 feet N. 10a E. of southwest corner Glasgow claim, 

Profile Gap, Edwardsburg district, Idaho. (Bull. 

878, p. 27, D)..— ———..————.————.,—..._

Duluth, Minn. (Laboratory No. D-1010) _____ .

Altitude 

(feet)

250

6,500

10,000

9,000

9,000

1,200

6,500

4,500

7,000

650

Specific 

gravity

"2.98

3.05

a O Qfi

"3.06

"2.70

3.03

a9 SB

2.81

"2.75

3.05

NiO

(percent)

b 0.011

b.0022

b.013

1-.0049

.0049

.0042

.0026

.0018

.0036

«.032

» Determination by J. M. Axelrod. 

b Determination by F. S. Grimaldi. 

° Determination by E. B. Sandell. Personal communication.

The average of the 10 new determinations of NiO in 

gabbro is only 0.0080 percent, which is much lower than 

that found in basalt and diabase. It is also much lower 

than the average, 0.041 percent, of 61 analyses reported 

by Washington, who gives 36 results ranging from 0.01 

to 0.27 percent and 25 containing a "trace" or "none." 

The differences between the old and the new determinations are comparable to those found in the analyses of 

diorite. These differences are attributed to the rocks 

themselves, rather than to any errors in analysis. Most 

of the rocks analyzed in this study are from the United 

Sta'tes, whereas those reported by Washington include 

rocks from many foreign countries. As samples of 

foreign rocks were not available, a more comprehensive 

survey will have to be left for future investigations. It 

seems probable, however, that the average NiO content 

in gabbro should be higher than 0.008, though not so 

high as 0.041 percent—possibly about 0.02. A change 

in the nickel content of this rock alone would have very 

little effect on the final figures for relative abundance of 

nickel, as computed in this paper. According to Daly, 

gabbro is not an abundant rock. The calculation based 

on density, given on page 14, includes the full effect of 

rocks of higher density.

PYROXENITE

Determinations of nickel are reported by Washington 

in 10 samples of pyroxenite, the average being 0.10 percent of NiO. The 5 new determinations reported below 

yield an average of only 0.023 percent of NiO.

No.

1

2

3

4

5

Locality

Prospect Hill, west of Litchfield, Oonn. (Bull. 591,

p. 37, Q).,... ......................................

W mile south of Honeybrook, Pa. (Bull. 591, p. 45,

S)_— —— ————— — — .- ———————— -

2 miles north of Libby, Mont. (Bull. 591, p. 113, D)_.

Central City quadrangle, Colorado. (Bull. 591, p.l27,E). 

Same locality as No. 4. (Bull. 591, p. 127, G)—— ...

Altitude

(feet)

1,200

700

2,500

10, 300 

10,200

Speitv

3.21

3.11

3.42

3.28 

3.56

NiO

(percent)

0.011

.047

.0068

.011 

.038

PERIDOTITE

Washington reports nickel in 47 analyses of peridotite, which average 0.11 percent of NiO. TA^O new 

determinations were made by the writer, the "average 

content of NiO being 0.061 percent.

No.

f

Locality

Stony Point, N. Y. (Bull. 591, p. 41, 1)....... ......

Yosemite National Park. (Bull. 591, p. 189, 1) __ ..

Altitude 

(feet)

100

5,000

Specifo 

gravity

3.22

3.12

NiO (percent)

0.066

.056

In Kimberlite from South Africa (laboratory No. 

D-1343) 0.095 percent of NiO was found, and in kimbeiiite from Murfreesboro, Ark. (laboratory ] To. D1345), 0.078 percent.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 

SANDSTONE

The following new determinations of nickel in sandstone yield an average of 0.0013 percent of NiO, which, 

on account of the relative minor importance of sandstone, is sufficient for the present purpose. It is evident 

that nickel has no marked tendency to accumulate in 

sandstone.

No.

1

2

3

Locality

Boscobel, Wis. (Bull. 591, p. 218, C-2).._ ...........

Red clayey sandstone, east of Spearfish, S. Dak.

(Bull. 591, p. 267, B) ———— ...... ..- — — ——— ...

Tuscaloosa formation, Russelvilk district, Alabama.

(Bull. 878, p. 65, B)....— ... ......................

Altitude

(feet)

1 ' 000

4,000

800

Spv

itr

O Aft

2.71

2.67

NiO

(percent)

n nnio

.0020

SHALE AND CI^AY

The average of the following 12 new determinations of 

NiO in shale and clay is 0.0089 percent, a figure of the 

same order as the average percentages of NiO in inorganic rocks. This is about what it should be, a^ shale 

and clay are the main weathering products of igneous 

rock, and the percentage of nickel in sandstone and limestone is very small.
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE) OF NICKEL IN THE1 EARTH'S CRUST 11

No.

1 

2

3

4

5

6

7

8 

9

10 

11

12

Locality

Shale, Hermosa, N. Mex. (Bull. 591, p. 256, B) . . . . 

Diatomaeeous shale near Hollywood Country Club. 

(Bull. 878, p. 63, A-2). —-————_—_——-

Composite sample of 10 Miocene siliceous shales,

Composite of 235 samples of river silt, delta of the 

Mississippi River. (Bull. 591, p. 264)...-...-.....

Composite of 52 samples of terrigenous clay collected 

on the Challenger. (Bull. 591, p. 271, C-2). . ... _

Oceanic red clay, composite of 51 Challenger samples__ 

Swedish kolm. (Bull. 878, p. 64, A-3) ..........

Red glacial till, Oshkosh, Wis. (Bull. 591, p. 266, H) 

Bentonite, Bighorn Basin, Wyo. (Bull. 591, p. 267, 

E). — „.——-—.- ———.—.——..-—..-

Hot Springs district, Arkansas (Bull. 591, p. 267, M) 

Bauxitic clay, sec. 18, T. 2 S., R. 13 W., Saline County, Ark. (Bull. 878, p. 65, B-2)_. .__-._-.__-.. .

Clay residue from limestone, Iowa. (Bull. 878, p. 

67)....— .-...._._.„...__....__.-... .............

Altitude 

(feet)

5,000 

500

500

0

-1,000

-15,000,

750

500 

500

800

Specific 

gravity

2.63 

2.16

2.23

2.58

2.51

2.56 

1.76

2.58

2.70 

2.59

2.65

NiO (percent)

0.0111 

.0074

.0039

.0045

.0070

.028 

.020

.011 

.0016

.0031

.0085

A sample of clay material^ derived from nickeliferous 

vermiculite collected at Webster, N. C., by C. S. Koss, 

of the Geological Survey, was found by the writer to 

contain 11.3 percent of NiO. This is, of course, an 

unusually large percentage of nickel and is explained by 

the association of the clay with nickel ores.

LIMESTONE

Only two determinations of nickel in limestone were 

made, but of these one sample was a composite of 19 

separate samples from 18 States and 1 foreign country. 

The average NiO content is 0.0010 percent.

No.

1 

2

Locality

Bore hole at Key West, Fla. (Bull. 591 , p. 229, M-2) . 

Composite of 19 samples from 18 States and 1 forAltitude

(feet)

-2,000

Speity

2.69

2.75

NiO

(percent)

0.0009

.0011

METAMORPHIC ROCKS 

GNEISS

The first 6 samples of gneiss (one a composite of 33) 

all proved to be relatively low in nickel, containing an 

average of only 0.0015 percent of NiO. The seventh, 

which came from a nickeliferous district but not from 

the mine itself, is much higher in NiO and suggests a 

different kind of gneiss.

No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Locality

Composite Becket gneiss from 33 localities in the

Sheffield quadrange, Massachusetts (Bull. 591, p.

34. T)... ...........................................

Pochuck gneiss, Greenwood Lake quadrangle, New

Jersey (Bull. 591, p. 42, E)....... ..—---... .......

Byram gneiss, 1 mile west of Hibernia, N. J. (Bull.

591, p. 42, F)... — .... —„ — ---„-...-...-_. ..

Baltimore gneiss, East Branch of the Brandywine,

2 miles north of Downingtown, Pa. (Bull. 591 , p.

4*. M)._~ — — --- — — — - — - — . — — .-.-.

Marquette region, Michigan. NWH sec. 35, T. 47 N.,

R. 26 W. (Bull. 591, p. 62, D— — -- — -—-— —

Qneissic pre-Cambrian quartz monzoriite, Coldsprrng

tungsten mine, fifth level, 3 miles northeast of

Hornblende gneiss, Key West nickel area, Nev.

(Collected by Ward C. Smith) ..... ...... .........

Altitude

(feet)

2,000

600

QfKl

400

1,300

7,500

4,000

Speity

9 79

3.20

2.63

2 RC

2 7ft

2.67

3 11

NiO

(percent)

0 001 2

t

ftft9R

.0005

.0010

.0034

.014

SCHIST

The average NiO content for the following nine new 

determinations in schist is 0.0041 percent.

No.

1

4

5 

6

7

8

9

Locality

Pine Grove Furnace, South Mountain, Pa. (Bull. 

591, p.44,J).--....-..———— — —————

Ladiesburg, Md. (Bull. 591, p. 50, F)...... .........

AragoQ iron mine, Menominee River, Mien. (Bull. 

591, p. 66)...-.....-............ — ...... —.......

Cripple Creek district, Colorado. (Bull. 591, p. 121, Y) . 

1 mile south of Black Hawk, Central City quadFinal schist, half a mile southwest of Vitoria, Bay 

district, Arizona. (Bull. 591, p. 154, E)... .........

2}4 miles S. 60° E. of Jamestown, Colo. (Bull. 878, 

p. 18, G)...— —._—.—.—— —._—.— — —

Half a mile southeast of Springdale, Colo. (Bull. 

878, p. 23, R).__ ...................... ..—-..-..—

Altitude 

(feet)

900

500

1,700

900

10,000 

8,300

2,500

7,500

6,600

Specific 

gravity

2.75

2.82

2 74

2.53

2.77 

2.77

2.69

3.03

2.84

NiO

(percent)

0.0009

.0054

.0021

.0036

.0062 

.0056

.0021

.0052

.0058

Matveiev 20 reported 0.04, 0.06, and 0.11, percert of 

NiO in biotite schist from the Tyrol, the Urals, and the 

Transvaal, respectively.

SLATE

Two determination of nickel in slate were made, and 

the results are shown below. The average is 0.0074 

percent of NiO.

No.

1

2

Locality

Average sample of "Virginia slate," Mesabi iron district, Minnesota. (Bull. 591, p. 254, A-2). .........

Cambrian slate near Field, British Columbia. (Bull. 

591, p. 258)...................— ——.—..—.—

Altitude 

(feet)

1,500

4,000

Specific 

gravity

2 72

2.82

NiO (percent)

0.0066

.0083

MINERALS 

ANTHOPHYULITE

Sahaina 21 gives the NiO content of a cordieriteanthophyllite-garnet rock from Finland as less than 

0.001 percent. However, in view of the supposed derivation of anthophyllite from olivine in many places, a 

somewhat higher percentage of nickel would net be 

surprising.

CHROMITE

Nickel was determined in several samples of chrartite. 

One sample from Casper Mountain, Wyo. (laboratory 

No. D-996), containing 42.7 percent of Cr2O3 and 4.1 

percent of MgO, gave 0.13 percent of NiO. Another 

from Grant County, Oreg. (laboratory No. D-994), containing 51.6 percent of Cr2O3 and 13.4 percent of 3%O, 

gave 0.15 percent of NiO. Still another collected by 

J. W. Peoples from the lowest part of the Stillruter

20 Matveiev, K. K., The occurrence of nickel In the biotite sch'sts of 

the Ural emerald mines and other emerald deposits: Acad. gci. U. E. 

S. S. Comptes rendus (Doklady), vol. 14, pp. 123-126, 1037.

21 Sahama, T. G., Akzessorische elemente in der granuliten vo^ Finnishch-Lappland: Comm. ge"ol. Mnlande Bull. No. 115, pp. 267-274, 1935.
12 SHORTEB CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GEOLOGY, 1943

complex, Mont, (laboratory No. D-1160), gave the 

following complete analysis.

Percent

Cr2O3____________ 46. 20 

A12O3____________ 15. 60 

Fe2O3____________ 8. 46 

FeO____________ 16. 66 

MgO ____________ 11. 67 

CaO____________ . 28

MnO 

NiO_

SiO2 _ 

TKV

100.04

Chromite from Chester, Pennsylvania, contained 0.10 

percent of NiO, according to Dana.22

IRON ORE MINERALS

F. J. Pope 23 noted significant percentages of nickel in 

titaniferous iron ores, and special analyses of different 

concentrates lead him to conclude that the nickel is present in a spinel cell of the titaniferous ores. In magnetite from a dike in Victoria County, Ontario, Pope 

found 1.87 percent of Ni+Co, and in titaniferous iron 

ores from several other different localities he found percentages of nickel ranging from 0.08 to 0.39.

Genth 24 found 0.33 percent of NiO in spinel from 

Madison County, N. C.

KRYPTOMELANE

Most specimens of kryptomelane,25 contain little or no 

nickel. However, one specimen from Oriente Province, 

Cuba (laboratory No. D-1175), submitted by Charles 

Park, Jr., of the Geological Survey, was found by Victor 

North to contain 1.27 percent of NiO.

LIGNITE

Shadlun 26 reports from 3 to 15 percent of nickel in 

the ash of a peculiar altered lignite occurring near the 

Novo-Cheremshansky mine, Ural Mountains, Russia. 

In this connection may be mentioned the well-known fact 

that nickel is present in petroleum.

NONTRONITE

Three samples of nontronite were analyzed for nickel, 

but the average percentage of NiO found was only 0.0018. 

The individual results were as follows:

No.

1

9:

3>

Locality

Woody. Calif. (Bull. 878, p. 108, A-2) ...... ..... ..... * ........

Sandy Ridge, N. C. (Bull. 878, p. 109, D) ....... ................

NiO

(percent)

0.0014

.0025

.0015

28 Investigation of magnetic iron-ores from eastern Ontario. Am. Inst. 

Min. Eng. Trans., vol. 29, pp. 372-405, 1899.

^Genth, F. A., Contributions to mineralogy, XX: Am. Philos. Soc. 

Proc., vol. 20, pp. 381-404, 1882.

25 Richmond, W. E., and Fleischer, Michael, Kryptomelane, a new 

name for the commonest of the "psilomelane" minerals: Am. Mineralogist, vol. 27, pp. 607-610, 1942.

26 Shadlun, N. A., Nikkel: AfcademiiS. nauk, Kommissifa po izuchenifu 

estestvennykh proizvodetel'nykh sil Rossii, Estestvennye proizvoditel'nyla sily Rossii, torn. 4, no. 5, 7 pp., 1923.

OL.IVINE

The following determinations show the range of 

nickel content in different samples of olivin*?!. NiO 

averages 0.23 percent, which clearly indicates that in 

general if olivine is a constituent of a rock, the presence 

of nickel may be inferred. In rocks of magmatf'} origin 

nickel tends to segregate in the silicate olivine, or as a 

sulfide. In ore deposits, however, it may be further 

concentrated as a sulfide, a silicate, or one of the other 

well-known nickel minerals.

Percent

Source of olivine of NiO 

Peridotite, Riddles quadrangle, Oreg. (Bull. 591, p.

198, B)______________________________ 0.26 

Elliott County dike, Ky. (Bull. 591, p. 53, C-2)_____ Trace 

Gabbro, west side of Birch Lake, SE%, sec. 19, T. 63 1 T.,

R. 4 W., Minn. (Bull. 591. p. 72 E)______________ . 20 

Mauna Loa, flow of 1852. (Bull. 591, p. 213, C) ______ . 34 

Meteorite, Kiowa County, Kans. (Bull. 591, p. 274, B-3)_ .02 

Dunite, Webster, N. C. (Econ. Geology, vol. 23, p. 545,

1928) _______________________________ .S4-.44 

Purified sample from Shasta County, Calif, (collected by

F. G. Wells; analyzed by Michael Fleischer; laboratory

No. D-1181)__________________________ .19

POI/EANITE

Shadlun 27 has reported the presence of 5 to £ percent 

of NiO in polianite from the Novo-CheremshansVy mine.

PYRITE

According to Thomson and Alien 28 nickeliferous 

pyrite from Ontario contains on the average about one 

atom of nickel to two unit cells of Fe4S8 and has a faint 

violet color and specific gravity of 4.81.

In faintly tinted pyrite from Pitcher, Okla. (laboratory No. D-1164), carefully selected by E. T. McKnight, 

of the Geological Survey, the writer found 0.22 percent 

of NiO. Marcasite was found to contain mucl less.

SERPENTINE

Serpentine near Orsk in the southern Urals contains 

from 0.01 to 0.13 percent of NiO.29

Serpentine and other related minerals containing 

nickel from Webster, N. C., have been described by Ross, 

Shannon, and Gonyer.30 Among these minerals—talc, 

actinolite, kammererite, amphibole, chromite, and vermiculite—the nickel content ranges from very small 

traces to 0.61 percent NiO, depending on the extent of 

concentration from the original dunite to the different 

secondary minerals.

2V Shadlun, N. A., Nikkel: AkademifiH nauk, Kommissifa po izuchenifu 

estestvennykh proizvodetel'nykh sil Rossii, Estestvennye proizvoditel'nyfa sily Rossii, torn 4, no. 5, 7 pp., 1923.

28 Thomson, Ellis, and Alien, J. S., Nickeliferous pyrite from the 

Denison mine, Sudbury district, Ontario: Toronto Univ* Strdies, Geol. 

ser., No. 42, pp. 185-139, 1939.

29 Bogitch, Basile, Nickel oxide deposits in the Urals: Acad. scl. Paris 

Comptes Rend us, tome 209, pp. 652-653, 1939.

80 Ross, C. S., Shannon, B. V., and Gonyer, F. A.,,The origin of nickel 

silicates at Webster, N. C.: Econ. Geology, vol. 23, pp. 528-552. 1928.
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OP NICKEL IN THE1 EAETH'S CRUST 13

TALC

Genth found 0.23 percent of NiO in talc from Webster, 

N. C.,S1 and 0.16 percent of NiO in the same mineral from 

Delaware County, Pa.32

THE NICKEL CONTENT OF THE EARTH'S CRUST 

METHODS OF CALCULATION

As stated in the introduction, figures for the nickel 

content of igneous rocks published heretofore are largely 

arbitrary averages of available determinations without 

reference to the type of rock, its origin, or relative 

abundance. Of course such averages have a value as 

preliminary estimates. Some investigators, in order to 

save time by making only a single analysis, have prepared "standard mixtures" of many samples. Thus 

the mixture used by Hevesy,33 in determining the relative abundance of columbium, tantalum, zirconium, and 

hafnium in the igneous rocks of central Europe, consisted of 133 samples of granite, 9 of quartz diorite, 35 

of chlorite, 82 of gabbro and norite, and 23 of highly 

f erromagnesian rocks. The rocks in this composite were 

collected by Osan.

It would seem that first consideration should certainly 

be given to the relative abundance of the different types 

of rock. This method was used by Knopf,34 who employed figures computed by Daly for the percentage 

distribution of the main types of igneous rocks; however, both Daly and Knopf considered only the areal 

surface distribution of such rocks, rather than the 

distribution with respect to depth. The latter is difficult 

to evaluate, but either some attention should be paid to 

it or the figment of a 10-mile crust should be abandoned. 

An attempt is made in this paper to take into account

81 Genth, P. A., The minerals of North Carolina: U. S. Geol. Survey 

Bull. 74, p. 61, 1891.

w Genth, F. A., Contributions to mineralogy, XX: Am. Philosophical 

Soc. Proc.. vol. 20, pp. 381-404, 1882.

38 Hevesy, Georg von, Chemical analysis by X-rays and its applications, 

p. 270, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1932.

84 Knopf, Adolph, The composition of the average igneons rock: Jour. 

Geology, voL 24, p. 620, 1916.

the distribution of different kinds of rocks with respect 

to depth.

RESULTS BY OLDER METHODS

The earliest published estimate of the relative al^mdance of nickel in the earth's crust appears to be that 

of Clarke,35 who states it is less than 0.01 percent of 

metallic nickel. Vogt 36 in 1898 calculated 0.005 penent 

of nickel. These low figures are caused partly by the 

inclusion of too many analyses of the more siliceous 

rocks. In 1924 Clarke and Washington 37 found 0.018 

percent of nickel, or 0.020 for the igneous rocks alone. 

Fersman,38 Berg,39 and Vernadsky 40 obtained prrctically the same figures as Clarke and Washington.

The following table contrasts the results of two sets 

of calculations—one based on the average percentage of 

NiO in various rocks as computed by the writer from 

Washington's tables; 41 the other, based on the averages 

of new determinations reported by the writer in this 

paper. Daly's figures 42 for the areal distribution of 

different kinds of igneous rocks are used in both calculations; but with Washington's data the total is 0.016 

percent of NiO, or about 0.012 of Ni; whereas with the 

writer's new averages the result is 0.011 percent of IfiO, 

or about 0.008 of Ni.

35 Clarbe, F. W., The relative abundance of the chemical elements: 

Philos. Soc. Washington Bull., vol. 11, p. 135, 1889.

86 Vogt, J. H. L., Ueber die relative Verbreitung der Element, b?sonders der Schwermetalle. und ueber die Concentration des urspiinglich 

fein vertheilten Metallgehaltes zu Erzla'gerstatten: Zeitschr. prakt. 

Geologie, Band 6, pp. 225-238, 314-327, 377-392, 413-420, 1898; and 

Band 7, pp. 10-16, 1899.

ST Clarke, F. W., and Washington, H. S., The composition of the earth's 

crust :U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 127, p. 34, 1924.

38 Fersman, A. E., Geobhimifa, tome 1, p. 142, Leningrad, 1933.

88 Berg. G., Neue Versuche zur Festellung der relative Verbre?tung 

seltener Elemente : Zeitschr. prakt. Geol., Band 33, pp. 73-79, 1925.

40 Vernadsky, W. J. Geochemie, translated by E. Kordes, p. 21, Le'nsig, 

1930.

°- Washington, H. S., Chemical analyses of igneous rocks publ'^hed 

from 1884 to 1913, inclusive, with a critical discussion of the character 

and use of analyses: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 99, 1917.

42 Daly, R. A., Igneous rocks and the depths of the earth, p. 35, New 

York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1933.

Percentage of nickel in average igneous rock

(1)

Rock

Andesite __ _ _____ ____ ____________ ___ _____________:_

Granite ___ _ ___ __ ___ -___-___-__ _____ __ _________

Basalt _____ _ _. __________ ___ _ __ __ _________

Rhyolite _ ___________ _____ ______ _____ _______ ___ _

Granodiorite------ _ ----- _____ _______ ____ ___________

Gabbro __ _____ ___ __ _____ _____________ ____________

Diorite--__---_--__---_---_-_-_ ______________________

Diabase- ______ __ ____________ __ ______________________

Dacite.------------ _______________ ___________________

Peridotite _ ____ __ __-_______„__________ ___ _________

Syenite _ __ __ __________ _ ____________________ _______

Quartz monzonite ___ ___________ ____ _ _______________

(2)

Relative 

abundance

0 2380 

2315 

2072 

1280 

1216 

0222 

0180 

0160 

0053 

0043 

0038 

0031 

0010

1. 0000

From Washington's analyses

(3)

Number of 

analyses

45 

57 

182 

21 

12 

15 

48 

28 

15 

47 

17

10

(4)

Average 

NiO 

content 

(percent)

0 008 

009 

039 

009 

Trace 

048 

017 

037 

017 

110 

024

.012

(5)

Integrated 

NiO 

content 

(percent) 

(2)X(4)

0 00190 

00208 

00808 

00115

00106 

00030 

00059 

00009 

00047 

00009

. 00001

0. 01582

From Wells' analyses

(6)

Number of 

analyses

9 

2 

21 

2 

6 

10 

11 

4 

2 

2 

5

(7)

Average 

NiO 

content 

(percent)

0.004 

.002 

.037 

.002 

.004 

.008 

.002 

.020 

.003 

.061 

.013

(8)

Integrated 

NiO 

content 

(percent) 

(2)X(7)

0 0^095 

00047 

00767 

07026 

07049 

00018 

00004 

07032 

00002 

00026 

00005

0. 01071
14 SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GEOLOGY, 1943

The new average is considerably lower than that based 

on the older data. The difference is traceable mainly 

to the writer's lower figures for the nickel content of 

andesite, granite, basalt, rhyolite, and gabbro. The 

table is presented chiefly for comparsion and summary, 

as farther on in the paper (see p. IT) the amount of 

nickel in the 10-mile crust is computed by other methods, 

which in general yield higher figures.

The preceding table reveals in a striking way the extreme dependence of -the calculated average on the 

analyses used as well as on the relative abundance of different kinds of rocks. Rather wide variations appear 

in some of the analytical results. For example, the 

writer's figure for the nickel content of gabbro is much 

lower than Washington's, but the final effect of this difference is small on account of the small quantity of 

gabbro. In contrast, the lower figures for granite and 

andesite have an appreciable effect. The figure that 

counts most is that for basalt. These results show, at 

least, the relative amount of nickel in the different kinds 

of rocks. It is clearly more abundant in the ferromagnesian rocks, especially in the high-magnesium or 

olivine-bearing rocks. The calculation can easily be 

corrected as further data become available.

FACTORS INFLUENCING NEW CALCULATIONS 

DENSITY OF ROCKS AND NICKEL CONTENT

As shown by the determinations of nickel on previous 

pages, the nickel content of igneous rocks is more or 

less proportional to the magnesium content. Consequently the nickel content is also related to the density 

of the rocks; and insofar as this relation can be evaluated, it will assist in the determination of the amount 

of nickel in the 10-mile crust. Only the fresh silicate 

rocks are considered, not the ores or segregations.

3.4

NiO CONTENT, PERCENT

FIG0EH 1.—Relation of nickel content to density of rock. Black dots, 

author's determinations; crosses, Washington's determinations.

The relation between the average nickel content of 

the igneous rocks in which nickel has been determined 

by the author and the average density is showr in the 

table following. A number of the average determinations of nickel by the writer and by Washington are 

plotted against the density in figure 1. Washington's 

nickel averages for the lighter rocks are all higher than 

the writer's, but those for the heavier rocks are generally 

of the same order. The curve clearly indicates an increasing nickel content with increasing density, a relation somewhat independent of the kind of rock; and the 

nickel content increases rapidly for densities greater 

than 2.83, approximately. This progressive increase is 

one of the most important features brought out in the 

study, and it leads definitely to higher estimates of nickel 

in the deeper rocks and in the suboceanic rocks.

Average MgO and NiO content and average 

igneous rocks

er vanous

Rock

Granite. __-___-_-__ ___ _

Dacite__- _ ..__ _ __ _

Syenite 1 . ___ __- __-_ __

Diorite ____ ___ __ - ____

Phonolite 2.- __ __ __ _

Shonkinite- ________ ____

Peridotite. __ _____ __ _

MgO 

(percent)

0.05

.23

1.08

1.48

.89

2. 71

2. 00

2. 13

3.42

3.00

. 54

9. 57

8. 33

7.54

5. 22

13.43

16. 93

NiO 

(percent)

0. 0025

.0021

.0035

.0039

.0039

.0132

.0025

.0025

.0039

.0022

.0010

.028

.037

.020

.0080

.023

.061

Density

2.44

2,64

2.58

2.70

2. 64

2.86

2. 60

2. 76

2. 72

2. 72

2.96

2.90

2. 96

2.95

2.93

3.32

3. 17

1 One rock with exceptionally high figures included in the average of five. 

! One rock only.

DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF MATERIAL IN THE" EARTH'S

CRUST

Clarke and Washington 43 compute the mass composition of the 10-mile crust of the earth on the following 

percentage of distribution of matter:

Atmosphere__-___—————_—__-_ 0. OS 

Hydrosphere _——________——_______—___ 7. 00

Shale_____________^_____„___ 3.72

Sandstone __—_____—_____~_ . 70 

Limestone ___-____-__—_—______ . 23 

Igneous rock-——___——_—__________ 88. 32

Of course, as far as nickel is concerned, the atmosphere and hydrosphere require merely a small allowance 

in the final mathematical calculation, as they contain no 

nickel. The sedimentary rocks contain some nickel but 

are negligible because they form only a small proportion 

of the 10-mile crust. The chief problem is to evaluate

48 Clarke, F. W., and Washington, H. S., op, cit, p, 34.
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NICKEL IN THE EARTH'S CRUST 15

the percentage of the different kinds of igneous rocks 

in the crust.

The figures for the areal distribution of igneous rocks 

computed by Daly have already been used in calculat- 

- ing a preliminary estimate for the relative abundance 

of nickel. It is rather remarkable that the amount ol 

nickel calculated from Daly's figures is very nearly the 

same as that obtained by simply averaging all available 

determinations of nickel. The writer feels, however, 

that attention should also be given to the distribution of 

different kinds of rocks with respect to depth, as well 

as to their distribution over continental and oceanic 

areas.

It is not the intention to speculate here about the composition of the earth at great depths, a subject that has 

been discussed by Williamson and Adams.44 There 

seems to be general agreement that at some depth the 

constituents merge into a basaltic layer, and farther 

down even into one of peridotitic or semimetallic composition. With this change in composition must go an 

increase in the percentage of nickel. The main question 

is whether these changes are recognizable within a 10- 

mile crust, either on the continents or below the oceans. 

Two lines of evidence may be considered briefly.

Evidence from earthquake waves.—The fact that the 

velocity of earthquake waves increases with depth, indicates the presence in depth of peridotite, which is the 

only rock having a composition that will give a velocity 

as high as that observed. After considering this matter 

Bowen 45 stated.:

The conclusion most commonly reached is that there is a 

granitic layer variously estimated at from 6 to 25 kilometers in 

thickness, which gradually changes through intermediate to 

basic rocks, and these give place rather abruptly to an ultrabasic 

layer at a depth anywhere from 37 to 60 km. The geologic 

evidence as obtained in the deepest eroded sections indicates a 

preference for the larger of these figures.

Bowen also wrote:

We have seen that basaltic substance would give rise by 

selective fusion to nonbasaltic liquid and that, at a time when 

there was enough liquid to render its intrusion possible, the liquid 

would be considerably more salic than basalt.

It appears from these views that the physical, geologic, 

and petrologic evidence all points in a general way to 

the existence of a basaltic substratum. It is also suggested by Bowen that with increasing depth the composition of the upper granitic layer should change more 

or less progressively to that of basalt or peridotite.

Evidence from isostasy.—Another guide is the theory 

of isostasy, which is based on considerations of the relative density of the rocks. It is generally recognized that 

the rock masses under the oceans are on the average more 

dense than those forming the continental segments and

44 Williamson, E. D., and Adams, I/. H., Density distribution in the 

earth : Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., vol. 13, p. 413, 1923.

** Bowen, N. I/., The evolution of the igneous rpcks, p. 305, Princeton 

University Press, 1928,

that the density of these masses varies inversely with the 

altitude of the surface.48

Many writers have assumed also that density increases 

more or less uniformly with depth. This greater density 

would represent in part a decrease in the percentage of 

quartz and orthoclase but mainly an increase in the percentage of plagioclase and possibly also in the proportions of pyroxene and olivine. The particular problem 

of the distribution of the different kinds of rocks in a 

10-mile crust is difficult because of the uncertainty as to 

whether any property, such as density, can be assumed 

to vary regularly and continuously with depth, or 

whether a stepwise variation is more probable. It is a 

general practice for purposes of calculation and averaging, to assume uniform variation, although some objections to it may be raised.

UNCERTAINTIES OF EXTRAPOLATION

The density-altitude gradient arrived at by Washington 47 was obtained by considering the densities of ro?ks 

actually available for measurement and by assuming 

that rocks from certain Pacific islands represented the 

composition of the earth's crust at the oceanic depths 

involved. This gradient is shown in figure 2, a. If extrapolated linearly, however, it leads to an impossibly 

high density at a depth of 10 miles. A lower gradient, 

figure 2, b, would be obtained by using Washington's

3.1

3.0

*

U 2.9 

O

tr

2.8

2.7

2.6

2.5 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10

ALTITUDE, IN MILES 

FIGURE 2.—Density-altitude gradients, 

a, Washington's gradient based on Pacific island rocks, 

b, Gradient based on Washington's densities for Atlantic island rocks, 

c, No gradient (uniform density), 

cl, Uniformly increasing gradient, 

e, Upper part of an S-shaped gradient extending to a depth of 37 miles.

46 Washington, H. S., Isostasy and rock density: Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., Vol. 33, pp. 375-410, 1922.

47 Washington, H. S., Isostasy and rock density: Geol, goc, America 

Bull., vol. 33, pp. 375-410, 1922.
16 SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GE,OLOGY? 1943

densities for Atlantic island rocks, but even this gradient 

is too steep if it is assumed to continue uniformly to the 

basaltic substratum. One may well question whether 

the rocks of the oceanic islands are really typical of the 

ocean bottoms and should be used to determine a density 

gradient, or whether they are outpourings from far 

greater depths than the upper part of the ocean bottoms.

The density distribution commonly assumed for great 

depths rests mainly on observations of the velocity of 

earthquake waves. Williamson and Adams,48 considering all the factors involved, assume that the density 

arid ferromagnesian content of rocks must increase with 

depth, although the increase need not necessarily be regular. They deduce the existence of a layer that corresponds roughly in composition to a peridodite of 3.3 

density, and that begins at a depth of about 37 miles and 

extends possibly to 1,000 miles. They say nothing concerning changes in composition in the ferromagnesian 

layer with depth, and we are not concerned with that 

here, but they refer to the outer layer as material that 

changes "more or less gradually from granitic to something more basic than a gabbro."

The average density of the igneous rocks at the surface is of fundamental significance in estimating the 

nickel content of the 10-mile crust. Williamson and 

Adams 49 consider the average density of the igneous 

rocks at the surface to be 2.8, but allowing for a small 

proportion of sedimentary rocks they assume the surface density to be 2.7. Inasmuch as the sedimentary 

rocks play out well within 5 miles and their nickel content can be estimated separately, a density gradient 

based on the igneous rocks is particularly needed in this 

problem. The density calculated by the writer from 

Daly's average igneous rock is 2.73. As a compromise, 

2.76 will be used here for the average density of continental igneous rocks at sea level. This figure falls 

between Washington's calculations 50 for the water-free 

rocks and the analyzed specimens.

The density selected, it may be noted, refers to continental igneous rocks, but from the isostatic relations 

it is easy to calculate that corresponding suboceanic 

rocks would have a density of approximately 2.90. This 

is an increase in density of 0.14, which must obtain 

whatever the absolute densities may be. The density of 

the average igneous rock of the whole upper rocky crust 

would thus be about 2.85 (taking account of the relative 

areas of land and sea). The theory, tacitly assumed in 

previous methods of estimating the relative abundance 

of the elements, is that rock of essentially the same composition extends downward for at least 10 miles.

18 Williamson, B. D., and Adams, L. H., Density distribution in the 

earth : Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., vol. 13, p. 413, 1923.

49 Williamson, E. D., and Adams, L. H., op. cit., p. 413.

60 Washington, H. S., Isostasy and rock density : Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., vol. 33, pp. 375-410, 1922,

Several reasons may be advanced, however, for assuming the existence of a density gradient even in the 

10-mile crust. Segregation by gravity is a common 

process. There may be a stratum, then, characterized 

by a particular average density, for example, s. batholith or a sill, in which the density is greater at the 

bottom than at the top. Again there may be above or 

below the first, another sill in which similar or overlapping ranges of density will be found. In general, 

however, broadly speaking, the density probably tends 

to increase with depth.

Using 2.82 for the density at sea level and 3.3 for the 

density at 37 miles, a uniformly increasing density 

gradient would be that shown as figure 2, d. Even this 

gradient, 0.0129, is steeper than the over-all gradient, 

0.0018 per mile, indicated by Williamson and A dams 51 

for a depth of 1,000 miles, but it offers a guide for calculating a figure for the nickel content of the 10-mile 

crust. Such a calculation is made on page 18.

Lastly, if Washington's higher densities for Pacific 

island rocks and Atlantic island rocks are taken as 

representative for rocks at these altitudes, an S-shaped 

curve for the density gradient is indicated. This gradient cannot reasonably rise above the mean density of 

the 37-mile layer, which is almost certainly less than 

3.1. The upper part of such as S-shaped gradient, 

figure 2, e, has been assumed and is used as a basis for 

calculating a maximum nickel content of the 10-mile 

crust.

ALTITUDE AND NICKEL CONTENT

With the information shown in figures 1 and 2 it is a 

simple matter to draw curves showing the relation to 

be expected between nickel content and altitude (or 

depth below sea level) for any particular density gradient. One such curve is shown in figure 3, based on the 

uniform gradient, figure 2, d, and the author's determinations plotted in figure 1. It should be noted that this

Hg .03

DC 

tu 

a

H

-Z. .02

u

H 

Z. 

0

u 

o .01, 

iz

0 

+ 2

FIGURE 

altitud

^^

^

s

^

Y<\

S

/

> 0 -2 . -4 -6 -Q -l(

ALTITUDE, IN MILES

3. — Curve showing increase of nickel content with decrease < 

e, assuming a uniformly increasing density gradient (fig. 2, d).

61 Williamson, B. D., and Adams, L. H., op. cit.( p. 413.
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE! OF NICKEL IN THE1 EARTH'S CRUST 17

o

+ 2 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10

ALTITUDE, IN MILES

FIGURE 4.—Curve showing increase of nickel content with decrease of 

altitude, assuming an S-shaped density gradient (fig. 2, e).

is a theoretical rather than a practical relation under certain conditions. The approximate altitude from which 

each sample came has been recorded, but obviously these 

figures are not generally the altitude at which the rock 

was formed. A rock mass may have been elevated, 

depressed, eroded, or covered by sediments. Further, 

lavas originate at different depths, and the composition 

of any one flow represents the magma or differentiate at 

that depth. For this reason the density rather than altitude has been chosen as a basis of reference. Nevertheless, the altitude has a certain significance because in any 

given mass, for example a sill, the heavier minerals tend 

to separate by gravity and are found at lower altitudes 

than the lighter minerals in the main part of the sill. 

In the Palisade diabase along the Hudson River only 

0.0036 percent of NiO has been found 700 feet above the 

lower contact, whereas the olivine layer 60 feet above 

the contact contains 0.034 percent of NiO.

A similar curve based on the S-shapecl gradient (fig. 

2, e) is shown in figure 4, and corresponding calculations 

for nickel are given on page 18.

DISTEIBUTION OF SEDIMENTARY AND IGNEOUS BOOKS AT DIFFERENT 

Al/TTTTJDES

For the final calculations it remains to evaluate the 

mass of rock in each mile of the earth's outer 10-mile 

shell. The value for any 1-mile layer differs slightly 

from 10 percent of the whole on account of the volume 

of the ocean and the slight increase of density with 

depth. As already shown the percentage of nickel is 

found to increase with depth. ;

Some estimate must be made of the relative proportions of sedimentary and igneous rock. It will be assumed that the sedimentary rocks practically vanish 

at a depth of 5 miles. Clarke and Washington 52 assume 

that the sedimentary rocks amount to 5 percent of the 

whole rocky crust. The proportions of the two kinds 

of rock as shown in the table below are based on all 

available evidence and have been adopted for use in 

this paper. It is quite unnecessary for the purpose of 

the present study to have an exact figure for the ratio 

of igneous to sedimentary rock in any one of the layers 

referred to in the table, as a displacement from one 

layer to another would have only slight effect on the 

final estimate of nickel; but the fact that the sedimentary rocks are in the upper'layers of the crust throws 

greater emphasis on the higher percentages of nickel in 

the lower silicate layers.

Proportions of sedimentary and igneous rock in different layers of 

the rocky crust

Layer of crust (miles)

Above 0_ ___________ _ _ _________

Oto-1 ____ _ _______ _ ________

-ito-2 __ ____ __ ____ _

-2to-3 _ ________ _ _ _ __

-3 to -4_ ___ ___________ _

-4 to -5__. ___ ___. _ __ _ ______

-5 to -10_________ _ _____________

Fraction of 

sedimentary 

rock

0 80

80

13

025

006

002

None

Fractior of 

igneous 

rock

0.20

.20

.87

.975

.,994

.998

1.000

The average NiO content found for the sedimentary 

rocks is 0.0073 percent. This is slightly less than the 

figure for the igneous rocks, 0.0107 percent. The difference may be either accidental or real. Possibly nickel 

is retained in intermediate products, or by repeated 

cycles it may have passed preferentially into the igneous 

rocks. In any event this difference is of practically no 

consequence in estimating the nickel content of the crust 

of the earth because the sedimentary rocks constitute so 

small a proportion of the 10-mile crust.

NEW CALCULATIONS FOR THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE 

OF NICKEL IN THE 10-MILE CRUST

The first of three new calculations of the abundance 

of nickel is made without reference to a density gradient, 

but it takes into account the distribution of ocean, 

igneous rock, and sedimentary material for each mile 

layer. The distribution of rock and ocean in the various 

depth zones was estimated by the writer from a graph 

based on figures given in Murray 63 and other available 

hydrographic information.54 The results are showr in 

the following table. The greater density of the suboceanic rocks throws a greater weight on the percentages 

of NiO in the deeper layers (see column 3) and this has 

a slight effect on the integrated NiO content (see column

62 Clarke, F. W., and Washington, H. S., op. cit., p. 2.

53 Murray, John, The ocean, a general account of the science of the 

sea, p. 87, New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1914.

61 Clarke, F. W., The data of geochemistry: U, S. Geol. Survey Bull. 

770, p. 22, 1924.
18 SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GEiOLOGY, 1943

5). The NiO content of the sedimentary rocks is assumed to be 0.0073 percent, and that of the igneous rocks 

0.0107 percent.

Nickel content of the 10-mile crust, without considering a 

density gradient

(1)

Altitude (miles)

Oto-1——— ........

-Ito -Z.. ............

-3 to -4.......— .....

-4 to -5-....— .... -.

-6 to -7--— — — - ..

-8to-9— — — —— .

-9 to -10.-.— — ....

(2) 

Material

(3)

Fraction of 

the whole 

crust

0.011

.003

.027

.027

.007

.024

.006

.037

.020

.002

.054

.010

.001

.087

.110

.113

.114

.115

.116

.116

1.000

(4)

Average 

NiO 

content 

(percent)

0.0073

.0107

.0073

.0107

.0073

.0107

.0073

.0107

.0073

.0107

.0107

.0107

.0107

.0107

.0107

.0107

(5)

Integrated 

NiO 

content 

(3)X(4) 

(percent)

0.0001

.0002

.0001

.0004

.0006

.0009

.0012

.0012

.0012

.0012

.0012

.0012

0.0095

The integrated total calculated above, 0.009 percent 

of NiO, or 0.008 percent of Ni, is considered a minimum 

estimate for the relative abundance of nickel in the 10- 

mile crust. It is slightly lower than the writer's average for igneous rocks. The next two more elaborate 

calculations, however, gave final results that differ appreciably from the figures for the average igneous rock.

The preceding table indicates the relatively small 

proportion of the earth's crust available for observation 

either above sea level or slightly beneath the surface of 

the solid part.

The second calculation has been made on the basis of a 

uniformly increasing density gradient in the crust. (See 

fig. 2, d, and fig. 3.) As might be expected, the final 

result shown in the table below is appreciably higher 

than that of the calculation based on a uniform NiO 

content. The total of 0.020 percent of NiO, or 0.016 

percent of nickel, is only slightly less than Clarke and 

Washington's figure.

Nickel content of the 10-mile crust, assuming a uniformly 

increasing density gradient

[See fig. 2, d, and fig. 3]

(1)

Altitude (miles)

-Ito -2..... _ ---...

-2 to -3—,——— —

(2) 

Material

Igneous.. —— .. ——

(3)

Fraction of 

the whole 

crust

0.011

003

.027

.027

.007

.024

.006

.037

.020

.002

.054

(4)

Average 

NiO 

content 

(percent) .

0.0073

.0093

fifl7Q

.0117

.0073

.0122

.0073

.0130

(5)

Integrated 

NiO 

content 

(3)X(4) 

(percent)

n iwii

fW19

.0001

.0005

.0007

Nickel content of the 10-mile crust, assuming a uniformly 

increasing density gradient—Continued

(1)

Altitude (miles)

-3to -4. ...————_

-4 to -5... ...........

-5 to -6... — .——..

-6 to -7- — — . — ....

-7to-8... — .... ... .

-8 to -9———————

-9 to -10...————

(2) 

Material

(3)

Fraction of 

the whole 

crust

0.010

.001

.087

.110 -i-to

.114

.115

.116

.116

1 nnn

(4)

Average 

NiO 

content 

(percent)

6. 0073

.0150

.0177

.0204

.0236

.0268

.0300

.0335

(5)

Integrated 

NiO 

content 

(3)X(4) 

(percent)

0.0013

.0019

ftft9^

.0027

.0031

.0035

.0039

.0203

It remains to consider a similar calculation Insed on 

the third possibility—the S-shaped density gradient, 

figures 2, e, and 4. The integrated total is 0.042 percent 

of NiO, or 0.033 percent of nickel, which is certainly 

a maximum figure, though not entirely impossible.

Nickel content of the 10-mile crust, assuming an S-shaped 

density gradient

[See fig. 2, e, and fig. 4]

(1)

Altitude (miles)

Oto-1-——————

-lto-2-—— — — —

-3 to -4--. — —— ——

-4to-5_—— —— ——

-fito-7--— —— ——

-7to-8_ ——— .......

-8 to -9.-.. — — — -

-9 to -10-———-—,

(2) 

Material

(3)

Fraction of 

the whole 

crust

0.011

.003

.027

.027

.007

.024

.006

.037

.020

.002

.054

.010

.001

.087

.110

.113

.114

.115

.116

.116

1.000

(4)

Average 

NiO 

content 

(percent)

0.0073

.0104

.0073

.0125

.0073

mon

.0073

.0285

.0073

.0385

.0463

.0505

.0526

.0545

.0562

.0580

(5)

Integrated 

NiO 

content 

(3)X(4) 

(percent)

0.0001

nnn9

.0001

f¥V17

.0015

.0033

.0051

.0057

.0060

.0063

.OOB5

.0067

^.0422

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The percentages of nickel (Ni) in the crust of the 

earth calculated by previous investigators and by the 

present writer in the course of this study are as follows:

Percent

Clarke, 1889_______________-___— Less fran 0.01 

Vogt, 1898____________———————————————— . 005 

Clarke and Washington, 1924—___———————_———— . 018 

New computations based on—

(1) Washington's figures for the nickel content of 

various rocks and Daly's figures for areal distribution__________——._—_———_——— . 012

(2) Wells' determinations of the nickel content in 

various rocks and Daly's figures for areal dig tribution .————————__„———„__——__^_ . OQ8
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NICKEL IN THE EARTH'S CRUST 1ft

New computations based on—Continued. Percent

(3) Average nickel content of the ocean, the sedimentary rocks, and the continental and suboceanic 

igneous rocks and on the relative amounts of 

these materials in the crust___________ . 008

(4) Increase of nickel content with depth (uniform 

density gradient) and relative amounts of ocean, 

sedimentary rocks, and igneous rocks in the 

crust__—_____________________ . 016

(5) Increase of nickel content with depth (S-shaped 

density gradient) and relative amounts of 

ocean, sedimentary rocks, and igneous rocks in 

the crust________________________ . 033

It is difficult to choose the most representative figure 

for the percentage of nickel in the crust. When the 

investigation was begun, better methods of analysis were 

expected to raise the figure, but this expectation was not 

fulfilled; the writer's determinations of nickel in many 

common rocks were lower than those of Washington, 

the average being about 0.008 percent of nickel. On 

the other hand, computations that included consideration of the probable density gradient in the crust gave

higher percentages. With these in view 0.016 is considered a minimum and 0.033 a maximum. The most 

likely figure appears to be 0.016, which is only very 

slightly less than Clarke and Washington's figure of 

1924.

The general methods used jn this investigation vdll 

prove valuable in the study of other elements.

At present a comparison of the relative abundance of 

nickel with that of such elements as zinc, boron, copper, 

and rubidium, which are of the same order of abundaroe, 

is omitted both because the percentage of nickel is not 

known with exactness and because similar and comparably extensive studies have not been made for the other 

elements. If the percentage 0.016 is accepted, nickel 

would be the twenty-fourth element in order of abundance and occupy essentially its present position. If the 

lower figure, 0.008 percent, involving no extrapolation 

of any sort is considered to be more comparable to 

figures for the other elements, nickel would fall to about 

the twenty-sixth place in order of abundance.

INDEX

Abstract ____—————————————————————————————— 1 

Altitude in relation to nickel content—————————————————— 16-17 

Aluminum, separation of nickel from—————————————————— 3-5 

Andesite, nickel in—__——————___——————————————— 8,13,14 

Anthophyllite, nickel in___————____——_——————————— 11 

Ardagh-Broughall method for separation of nickel—————————— 4

Barium carbonate method for separation of nickel—————————— 4 

Basalt, nickel in—_———____——_——_————_————————— 9,13,14 

Basic acetate method for separation of nickel————————————— 3 

Blum's method for separation of nickel__———-—————————— 4 

Bowen, N. L., quoted——___——_———__—'——_————————— 15 

Brunck method for separation of nickel—————_———————— 3

Chromite, nickel in__——___________________—————_—— 11-12

Clay, nickel in——________________________——_—— 10-11 

Colorimetric method for determination of nickel——_———————— 5

Dacite, nickel in______________________________ 7, 13,14 

density-altitude gradient____——____________________ 15-18

Density of rocks in relation to nickel content_____——__ 7-11,14-16 

Diabase, nickel in————__————_______________—— 9-10,13,14

Dimethylglyoxime method for separation of nickel__————-—— 5 

Diorite, nickel in__________________________—_ 8-9,13,14

Earthquake waves, evidence of character of rocks from__——_—— 15 

Earth's crust, nickel in, calculations of _______________—_ 13-19 

Electrolytic method for determination of nickel_________—- 6 

Ether method for separation of iron from nickel-_————___ 5

Pairchild's method for separation of nickel____. 

Funk method for separation of iron from nickel.

Gabbro, nickel in_______________________________ 10,13,14

Gneiss, nickel in———___————____________________ 11 

Granite, nickel in_____i_______________________________ 7,13,14

Granodiorite, nickel in_____—__________________ 7,13,14

Igneous rocks, density of_________•________________ 15-17

distribution of___________________________ 13,15,17

nickel in—————__————______________ 7-10,13,14,18

Iron, separation of nickel from______________________ 3-5

Iron ore minerals, nickel in________________________ 12

Isostasy, theory of——————————_————____________ 15

Kryptomelane, nickel in520454—43

12

Page

Latite, nickel in__—————————————,———————————————— 8. 14 

Lignite, nickel in__———————————————————————————— 12 

Limestone, nickel in————————————————————————————— H

Metamorphic rocks, nickel in—————————————————————— H 

Minerals, nickel in__—————————————————————————— 2,11-13 

Mittasch method for separation of nickel———————————————— 3 

Monzonite, nickel in————————————————————————————— 8,14

Nickel, associations of——————————————————————————— 2

determination of, methods for_———————————:——————— 2-6

distribution of, general——————————————————————— 2

in igneous rocks____________——__ 2, 7-10,13,14,18

in metamorphic rocks—————————————————————— 11

in minerals—____—_———————————————————— 2,11-13

in sedimentary rocks————_—————————— 10—11,13,14,18

properties of——_——————————————————————————— 3-2

total in earth's crust, methods of calculation of———————— 13-18

summary of conclusions———————————————————— 18-19

Nontronite, nickel in————————————————————————————— 12

Olivine, nickel in. 12

Peridotite, nickel in_____——______—__——____————— 10,13,14 

Poiianite, nickel in____._—————_—————————————————— 12 

Pyrite, nickel in——————————————————————————————— 12 

Pyroxenite, nickel in_——_—————————_————————————— 10,14

Rbyolite, nickel in—————____—————_————————————— 7,13,14 

Reliefs method for determination of nickel_————————————— 5

Sandell-Perlich method for separation of nickel——_——————_- 5-6 

Sandstone, nickel in———————————————————————————— 10 

Schist, nickel in__———__——————————————————————_— 11 

Sedimentary rocks, distribution of___—_————__——_———— 17 

nickel in_________________________ 10-11,13,14,18 

Serpentine, nickel in———————————————————_———————— 12 

Shale, nickel in_______________________________ 10-11 

Shonkinite, nickel in__——————————————————__————__ 9,14 

Silica, separation of nickel from——._——________—_——_ 3 

Slate, nickel in______________________________ 11 

Syenite, nickel in—__________________:________ 8.13

Talc, nickel in__——_———_——_—_————__________, 13 

Trachyte, nickel in————————————————————_—_——___ 7,14

21

O