PRIDE, PROGRESS,AND PROSPECTS

The Marine Corps' Efforts

to Increase the Presence

of African-American Officers

(1970-1995)

by

Colonel Alphonse G. Davis

U.S. Marine Corps, Retired

HISTORY AND MUSEUMS DWISION

HEADQUARTERS, U.S. MARINE CORPS

WASHINGTON, D.C.

2000
PCN 190 003153 00

For sale by the U.S. Govrremcei Ptinting Office

Soperinteadec olDocuments, Mail Stop SSOP. WahiagLon. DC 2lO2-9328

ISBN O-16•050474-O
Foreword

In today's Marine Corps,African-Americans constitute almost 10 percent of the officer corps. The fact

that this was not always the case deserves explanation, as do the Marine Corps efforts to remedy this deficiency. This monograph presents a straightforward and personalized account of the Corps' efforts during

the last three decades to increase the presence of African-Americans within its officer ranks.

Originally presented as an executive research project at the Industrial College of the Armed Forces,

National Defense University, the paper has been revised and illustrated for incorporation into the History

and Museums Division's Occasional Papers series. Except for minor editorial and format changes, the

words and opinions expressed are those of the author. In the interests of accuracy and objectivity, the

author and the History and Museums Division welcome comments on this account from interested individuals.

Colonel Alphonse G. l)avis most recently served on the Joint Staff as a J-7 division chief. He is a native

of New Orleans, Louisiana, who graduated from Southern University in 1972 with a bachelor of arts degree

in marketing. He earned a master's degree in business administration fromAverett College in 1992 and also

was granted a master's degree by the Industrial College of the Armed Forces in 1998. Following Basic

School, he was assigned to the 2d Marine Division and served as a rifle platoon commander and company executive officer with the 3d Battalion, 6th Marines. Additional assignments included legal officer; officer selection officer in Dallas, Texas; weapons company commander with the 2d Battalion, 5th Marines;

and aide-de-camp to the commanding general, 1st Marine Division. Following an assignment as the 8th

Marine Corps District's assistant for officer procurement, he reported to the 3d Force Service Support

Group on Okinawa. Upon his return to the United States in 1989, he assumed the duties of head, Officer

Procurement Branch, Headquarters Marine Corps. Assignments with the 2d Force Service Support Group,

as advisor to the Commandant on equal opportunity matters, and as head, Equal Opportunity Branch, followed.With promotion to colonel in 1995, he assumed command of Officer Candidates School, Quantico,

Virginia. Colonel Davis retired in July 1999 and is now Chief Executive Officer, New Orleans Public

Schools, New Orleans, Louisiana.

JOHN W. RIPLEY

Colonel, U.S. Marine Corps (Retired)

Director of Marine Corps History and Museums

in

Preface

This has been a labor of love for me. Since my entry into the Marine Corps in July 1972, 1 have been

blessed to be in the presence of Marine officers who looked like me. It started with my Officer Selection

Officer, First Lieutenant Henry Ferrand. At Officer Candidates School, it continued with First lieutenant

Clifford L. Stanley and Major Clay Baker. At the Basic School, it was Captain Archie Joe Biggers. In my first

assignment, as an infantry platoon leader in the Fleet Marine Force, it was my company commander,

Captain Willie J. Oler. While I was a young captain and company commander with the 1st Marine Division,

it was Lieutenant Colonel George Ford. As a major and company commander with the 3d Force Service

Support Group on Okinawa, it was Colonel Fred Jones. While a lieutenant colonel and battalion commander in the 2d Force Service SuppOrt Group, it was my group commander, Brigadier General George

Walls, Jr. As a colonel and commanding officer of Officer Candidates School, it was Brigadier General

Clifford L. Stanley. To the casual observer, this may not be important; however, role models are important,

because they provide hope to one's goals and aspirations and they add perspective and temperance to the

views, visions, and impatience of untested youth.

The writing of this 25-year account of the Marine Corps' efforts to increase the presence of AfricanAmerican officers was not as difficult as that experienced by Ralph W. Donnelly and Henry I. Shaw, Jr.,

when they undertook the task of compiling Blacks in the Marine Corps, in 1975. This is because there

have been a number of significant initiatives, events, and achievements by African-American officers during the last three decades. With that said, however, I do not dare say this task was easy. There is an abundance of information regarding the Marine Corps' efforts in this area; the challenge was in locating it and

compiling the information within a finite period of time, given that! undertook this project while assigned

as a student at National Defense University's Industrial College of theArmed Forces. The challenge in completing this effort was somewhat eased as a result of my previous assignments as an officer recruiter at the

local, district, and national levels. Also, my assignments at Headquarters Marine Corps in the Manpower

Plans and Policy Division as the head of the Equal Opportunity Branch and as the Equal Opportunity

Advisor to General Alfred M. Gray, Commandant of the Marine Corps, afforded me access to valuable corporate knowledge couplcd with an insider's view of the various initiatives and events that shaped the

Marine Corps' efforts to increase the presence of African-American officers. Lastly,the information and historical continuity provided by a number of retired Marines was of great value and assistance. Among them

were Colonel Kenneth H. Berthoud,Jr., Mr. Frederick C. Branch, and Generals Frank E. Petersen,Jr.,Jerome

G. Cooper, and George H. Walls. Perhaps most importantly, the support provided by the Defense

Manpower Data Center, the Marine Corps' Equal Opportunity Branch, the OfflcerAssignments Branch and

the Marine Corps Recruiting Command provided the foundation and component parts of this document.

Without their assistance, this record of the noteworthy accomplishments of a number of Marines and the

Marine Corps would not exist.

I am certain that there are some Marines, and perhaps others, who may not agree with the facts of this

account as presented. These disagreements are expected and healthy. History is always subject to the interpretations and opinions of many instead of the views of one. Accordingly, I alone take full responsibility

for the facts as presented, subject to my interpretation and recall of the events as I have read, observed,

and experienced them.

I could not have accomplished this task without the help of a number of people. First, I wish to thank

Major General John S. Cowings, USA, Commandant of the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, for

accepting me into the Research Fellowship Program. Secondly, my appreciation goes to Dr. Joseph

V
Goldberg for his inspiration and professional advice. My advisoT, Dr. Man Gropman, kept me focused on

the relevant pieces of information through his reviews of my drafts. Faculty members Dr. Nedra HugginsWilliams and Colonel Kenneth Dunn, (JSMC, provided timely guidance and suggestions. Ms. Judy Clark

deserves a special thank you for her editorial suggestions and for teaching me the basics of typing. Also,

Mrs. Iris Boon went above and beyond the call of duty in furthering my skills in word processing.This project was supported by a grant from the Marine Corps Heritage Foundation.

There are a number of people at Headquarters Marine Corps assigned to recruiting, advertising, officer

assignments, and equal opportunity who quickly responded to my phone calls for information and copies

of documents; I thank all of you very much. Finally, to my more than supportive wife and daughters who

shared me with the computer and the paperwork for 10 months—as usual, I owe you.

ALPHONSE G. DAVIS

Colonel, U.S. Marine Corps, Retired

vi
Table of Contents

Foreword .i

Preface v Table of Contents

Introduction

vii

Chapter 1 A Look at the Past

Soldiers of the Sea

Pride . . .The Beginnings

The Efforts of the 1970s

Towards Progress—Solving the Problem

Department of Defense Interest

Looking for A Few Good Men and . .Women

A Change of the Guard

Passing the Word

Assessing the Results

Highlights of the Decade

Quality Begets Quality

Chapter 3 The Efforts of The 1980s

Forging a Consensus

Department of the Navy Interest.

I

3

4

6

8

9

10

10

13

14

17

17

19

19

20

The Efforts of the 1990s 28

A Microcosm of Society .. 28

The Total Quality Approach 32

Enlightening the Leadership 34

Confronting a Crisis 35

Secretary of thç Navy Interest 36

Employing New App roaches 37

Assessing the Results 38

Significant Accomplishments 42

Chapter 5

Notes

Bibliography

Prospects

Enhancing the Prospects..

Conclusion

46

46

49

50

53

"ii

Chapter 2

Chapter 4

Implementing New Strategies 21

Assessing the Results 23

Signs of Change Emerge 24

Introduction

This narrative represents an account of the Marine Corps' efforts to increase the presence of AfricanAmericans in its officer ranks during the period from 1970 to 1995. The word "presence' is used instead

of the term "number" in the tide of this effort because it transcends the singular focus of quantity.

"Presence" underscores the relative importance of certain areas that contribute to the career progression

of commissioned officers, Among those areas are accessions, military occupational specialties, assignments, and promotions. The primary focus will be on unrestricted and restricted commissioned officers

(warrant officers are not included); however, I will briefly review the service of all ranks of AfricanAmericans from colonial times to the Korean War.

Various race and ethnic terms are used when racial references are made. Terms such as "colored,"

"negro," "black," and "African-American" capture the relationship between time and racial references. The

terms "black" and "African-American" are used interchangeably. Also, the term "minority" appears throughout encased in quotation marks. This represents my personal efforts to avoid its use when it is necessary

to refer to an individual or group of individuals who are non-white, because the root meaning of the term

connotes a value judgement of less than or not equal to. When it is necessary to make racial references,

specific race and ethnic terms are used.

The motivation for undertaking this account lies in two legendary Marines; one enlisted and the other

an officer. They are Sergeant Major Edgar R. Huff, USMC, now deceased, and former Lieutenant Frederick

C. Branch, USMC. Both are African-Americans of the Montford Point Marine legacy.

ix

CHAPTER 1

A Look at the Past

The representation of Mrican-Americans in the

officer ranks of the nation'sArmed Forces emerged

as a matter of national interest at. the end of the

Civil War. As early as 1866, there were efforts to

admit African-Americans to the United States

Military Academy at West Point. Prior to that period, a few individuals occasionally were admitted to

the Naval Academy only to leave later on their own

or as a result of the machinations of a racially

biased system that reflected the nation's attitude

and beliefs regarding race and racial equality,

Efforts during the 1970s and 1980s to increase

the representation ofMrican-Americans as officers

in the military service were prompted by a number

of interests pursuing the same end, but for different reasons. Militarily, there was a need for manpower. Socially, civil rights organizations saw the

military as a means for pursuing one of the inherent rights of citizenship. Politically, presidential or

other political aspirants garnered support in the

form of backing and votes from civil rights organizations and their constituents.

The military was not alone in its practice of bias

and discrimination. During the World War II era,

racial discrimination was widely practiced in the

federal and civilian sectors supporting the war

effort. As a result, two presidential directives concerning equal opportunity and treatment in the

federal government were issued. The first was

Executive Order 8802, signed by President

Franklin D. Roosevelt in June 1941, which established the Fair Employment Practices Commission.

This presidential directive was issued based on the

premise that "it is the policy of the United States to

encourage full participation in the national defense

program by all citizens of the United States, regardless of race, color, or national origin." Specifically,

Executive Order 8802 ordered: all departments

and agencies of the government concerned with

vocational training for defense production to take

measures to ensure that the programs were administered without discrimination on the basis of race,

I

creed, color, or national origin; all contracting agencies of the government to include provisions in all

defense contracts to prohibit discrimination

against any worker because of race, color, creed, or

national origin; and the establishment of a Committee on Fair Employment Practice in the Office

of Production Management to receive and investigate complaints of discrimination.1

A second presidential directive concerned with

equal treatment and opportunity in the federal

workplace focused exclusively on the mffitary.

Executive Order 9981 was signed by President

Harry S. Truman in July 1948, and directed the

Armed Forces to provide equal treatment and

opportunity for black servicemen. Based on the

premise that "it is essential that there be maintained in the Armed Forces of the United States the

highest standards of democracy, with equality of

treatment and opportunity for all those who serve

in our country's defense;' Executive Order 9981

addressed six different areas:

• A policy of equal treatment and opportunity without regard to race, color, religion,

or national origin, be implemented rapidly

with due regard for the time it takes to effect

changes without impairing efficiency or

morale.

• The creation of a seven-member presidential advisory committee on equal treatment and opportunity in the Armed Services;

members to be designated by the President.

• The presidential authority of the committee to examine rules, procedures, and

practices of the Services for the purpose of

recommending modifications to reflect the

intent of the executive order.

• The requirement for all executive

departments and agencies of the federal government to cooperate with the conmiittee in

its work, and to furnish such information and

the services of such persons as may be
I.

I'-r

required in the performance of its duties.

• The requirement that persons in the

Armed Services, the executive departments,

and agencies of the federal government testify before the conunittee if requested and

make available such documents and other

information the committee may require.

• The existence of the committee, which

can be terminated only by presidential executive order.2

Generally, the different branches of the Armed

Services devised their own efforts to integrate

their enlisted ranks, and responded to Truman's

order in their own ways. Nonetheless, Executive

Order 9981 was significant for several reasons: it

represented presidential interest and action; it

responded to the concerns of a segment of society;

it addressed the strategic concern of manpower

with the onset of the Cold War emanating at the

end of World War II; and it expanded opportunities

for Negroes serving in the military. Similarly, on 26

July 1948,Truman issued a presidential directive,

Executive Order 9980, which dealt with equal

treatment and opportunity in the Civil Service. The

order was issued the same day he signed Executive

Order 9981.

Off-hase equal treatment and opportunity

efforts in the 1940s dealt primarily with civilian

problems related to housing and other off-base

establishments. These problems reflected the segregationist policies and attitudes prevalent in the

United States during that time. On-base efforts of

equally important concern dealt with the location

and integration of training facilities and the use of

on-base facilities such as clubs and messes. In several instances, confrontations and riots took place

between black servicemen attempting to integrate

on-base facilities and white servicemen attempting

to enforce segregation. During the early 1940s, several camps and bases located in California, Georgia,

Ladiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Texas were the

sites of "riots of racial character," according to John

J. .McCloy, Assistant Secretary of War and head of

Enlisted Marines broke the "color barrier" in the Marine Corps in World War II. Trained at segregated

Mon fford Point, North carolina, they were assigned to Fleet Marine Force units including the 1st

Marine Division on the beach at Peleliu in September 1944

Department of Defense (UST.IC) Photo 0285

2
the War Department's Advisory Committee on

Racial Matters.3 Similar scenarios of racial unrest

took place at military bases during the late I 960s

and early 1970s.

The initiatives implemented to achieve the

intent of Executive Order 998] varied. All of the

Services, however, were opposed to Negroes serving alongside white Americans in combat or peacetime. A number of unjustified and unsubstantiated rationalizations were advanced to support the

widely held belief that the black man was not

ready to serve beside his white counterpart, ranging from black intellectual inferiority to the lack

of social development. The true reason was

racism.

Military historians have more than adequately

documented the issues and events that relate to

the contemporary challenge of racial diversity

within the officer ranks. This effort is based upon

the work of a number of those historians and the

verbal and written accounts of several AfricanAmericans who served during the "Jim Crow" en

and during the period follow ing the passage of the

Civil Rights Act of 1964. Collectively, their

accounts provide the basis for recalling the Marine

Corps' earlier initiatives to enlist African-Americans

and ultimately integrate and broaden the opportunities for African-Americans, to satisfy manpower

needs, and to meet the appeals of civil rights proponents and the intent of President Truman's

Executive Order 998].

Soldiers of the Sea

Among all the Services, the Marine Corps was

the staunchest opponent of accepting blacks within its ranks. There is some evidence of several

black men serving in the Continental Marines in

1776 and 1777. However, when a separate Marine

Corps was created in July 1798, the first Commandant, Major William W. Burrows, issued explicit

guidance barring the enlistment of blacks, mulattos, and Indians. This policy of exclusion continued until World War 1. Immediately prior to World

War II, the Secretary of the Navy directed the Navy

to take steps to increase its enlistment of Negroes.

This pronouncement also applied to the Marine

Corps and the Coast Guard, as both were part of

the Navy Department (the Coast Guard by virtue

of a special requirement that it operate as part of

the Navy during times of war).

Major General Thomas Holcomb, Commandant

of the Marine Corps, was allowed to devise his

3

Department of Defense (USMC) Photo 500043

On 10 November 1945, 2dLt Frederick C Branch

of charlotte, North Carolina, had insignia of

rank pinned on by his wife, Peggy. Lieutenant

Branch became the first African-American commissioned officer after completing fully integrated training

own plan to satisfy the conceptual intent of the

Secretary; however, he fell short in the numerical

goals that were being pursued by the Navy and the

Army. The Army used the representative percentage of blacks in the general population as a benchmark for increasing black representation, but Malor

General Holcomb proposed the "enlistment of
'0

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"AZ' -

C?

I-..

.tcc

4

a?

Department of Defense (USMQ Photo 173312

Enlisted Marines continued to pioneer integration during the Korean Wafightlng on the front lines

overseas as well as In the United States. A recoilless rifle gunner shfts location after firing his weapon

on an enemy position at Taewl-dong in 1953.

1,000 Negroes because the inevitable replacement

and redistribution of men in combat would prevent the maintenance of necessary segregation."4

Despite the Marine Corps' eventual enlistment of

Negroes, individual base commanders could refuse

to accept Negro troops, if their presence were contrary to the wishes of the local populace.

Pride . . . The Beginnings

In June 1942, the first black Marine recruits

reported for their initiation in the "best and toughest outfit going," according to Sergeant Major Edgar

R. Huff. The entry of blacks into the Marine Corps

was a result of President Roosevelt's directive to

end racial discrimination. These pioneers would

come to be known as "The Montford Point

MorrlsJ. McGregor,Jr., in Integration in the Armed Threes,

1940-1945 (Washington, D.C.: The Center of Military History.

1981), plovides detailed documentation of the experiences of

the Marine corps and other services in the evolution of the

integration issue.

4

Marines." Despite the resistance of Major General Holcomb, better judgement prevailed, as

blacks, just as their white counterparts, would

make significant contributions to the legacy of the

Marine Corps.

The Marine Corps' plan for complying with the

Secretary of the Navy's desire for a black battalion

was to recruit approximately 1,000 Marine hopefuls, most of whom would come from the South.

Segregated training would be conducted at a camp

in North Carolina originally known as Mumford

Point and later renamed Montford Point.

Among the first recruits were former sailors and

soldiers and college graduates who would form the

first black Marine Corps unit upon completion of

recruit training, the 51st Composite Defense

Battalion. The battalion's primary mission was to

Ralph Donnelly and Henry 1. Shaw, Jr., in Blacks in the

Marine Corps (Washington, D.C.: History and Museums

Division, 975), provide an indepth account of the assimilation

of these Marines into a Corps accustomed to a heretofore

exclusively white membership.
cj1e, gLI!II &IartitiJ

4

•1'

train additional black recruits. Later, a second

defense battalion, the 52d Composite Defense

Battalion, was formed. Both battalions were slated

to become antiaircraft defense units. Mthough the

units were designated combat units and were

formed during World War II, to the disappointment

of their Marines, neither experienced actual combat. Future manpower plans would call for the

activation of a number of depot and ammunition

companies. As indicated by their designations,

plans for the employment of these units did not

include combat; rather, they were intended for the

laborious jobs of unloading ships and moving

ammunition. However, because of their use in

Though the Korean War was fought after the

1948 Executive Order 9981, only two AfricanAmerican officers served, including fighter pilot

2dLt Frank E.Fetersen,ji': Here he climbs from an

aircraft while assigned to 1st Marine Aircraft

Wing.

Department of Defense (LJSMQ Photo 01236360188

5

direct support of combat units, a number of the

ammunition and depot companies did experience

combat. The long-term plans for the military

employment of all black Marines on active duty

during World War II was to place them in reserve

status at the end of the war.

The Marines who initially challenged previously

uncharted rough seas were those of the Montford

Point legacy. In March of 1945, three Montford

Point Marines entered Officer Candidates School

(OCS) at Quantico,Virgjnia, but were unsuccessful

in their quest to be commissioned Marine lieutenants. Not to be denied, however, was Frederick

C. Branch, a member of the 51st Defense Battalion.

A native of Hamlet, North Carolina, Branch entered

OCS in the summer of 1945 and was commissioned on 10 November 1945, the 170th birthday

of the Marine Corps. The commissioning of three

others in .1946 followed Branch's groundbreaking

accomplishment. As were the others who followed him, Lieutenant Branch was released to inactive duty after commissioning. He was recalled for

duty during the Korean War and served at Camp

Pendleton, California. As an infantry officer, he held

billets as a platoon leader, company executive officer, and battery commander in an antiaircraft

artillery battalion. Branch was a member of an

integrated unit with four white officers under his

command.5

The utilization of Negro Marines during the

Korean War differed from that of World War II.

While there are several accounts of individual

Negro Marines in combat, tracing the evolution of

the military use of the Negro Marine is difficult due

to the absence of detailed records. What is certain,

however, is that service in Korea included a tandem of"firsts." Lieutenant William K.Jenkins would

lead Marines into combat and Lieutenant Frank F.

Petersen would become the first Negro Marine aviator.

Following the conunissioning of Branch and

others, the door was partially opened for more

blacks to pursue commissions within the Marine

Corps. The remaining chapters of this account will

address the Marine Corps' efforts to increase the

presence of African-Americans in its officer ranks.

It will focus on those who sought membership in

an elite, exclusive military organization motivated

and distinguished by "pride"; recall the various pivotal events that enhanced or impeded the

"progress" of their efforts; and examine the future

"prospects" of building an officer corps that

reflects the racial and ethnic diversity of the nation

it serves.
CHAPTER 2

The Efforts of the 1970s

The attitudes, progress, and intergroup relations

which manifested themselves in the decade of the

1970s, from a racial perspective, were principally a

result of the social and political events that took

place in the 1960s:

• The 1962 review of the progress made

by "minorities" in the Armed Forces since the

implementation of President Truman's

Executive Order 9981, 14 years earlier. The

review was directed by President John E

Kennedy (believed by some blacks to be one

of the most progressive presidents on the

issue of racial equality).

• The protests, demonstrations, and sit-ins

by black Americans as a sign of opposition to

the segregationist policies in effect throughout the nation affecting employment, housing, and other civil issues.

•The 1963 March on Washington, D.C.

• The Civil Rights Act of 1964.

• The assassination of Reverend Dr. Martin

Luther King, Jr., in Memphis, Tennessee, in

March 1968.

•The riots in response to the assassination

of Dr. King.

• The resurgence, growth, and symbols of

"Black Power" in the neighborhoods, on college campuses, and in the literature, poetry,

and music of black America.

During the 1960s, the Armed Forces faced a

number of challenges that were not much different

from those of society at large. Realizing that the

military was a microcosm of the larger society

from which it draws its members, the relevance of

those mutual interests was understandable.

Presidents John F Kennedy and Lyndon l3.Johnson

were interested in promoting better race relations

among members of the Services and ensuring fairness and equality in promotions and assignments.

The degree of difficulty encountered in addressing

6

and solving these issues was driven by the attitudes of society• at large, because every individual

joining the military brings with him or her beliefs,

biases, -and prejudices to which the individual was

exposed while a civilian. Further, the messages of

racial superiority or inequity to which they were

exposed played a role in how they viewed their fellow soldiers, individually and collectively. The

Marine Corps faced problems similar to those of

the other Services. However, the Marines believed

they were different; there was a mystique to being

a Marine. .ithd the Corps enjoyed a special reverence from Americans. As such, its racial problems

received intense scrutiny.

According to some Marines who served during

the Vietnam en, the Vietnam War was a defining

experience and period for the Marine Corps in the

areas of race relations and increasing the number

of black officers in its ranks. Saddled with the

unintended second- and third-order effects of

Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara's

"Project 100,000," the returning veterans from

Vietnam unveiled some issues that required innovative thinking and approaches.' Among the issues

were:

• The increasing occurrence of interpersonal confrontations and conflicts primarily

between black and white Marines, to include

assaults and gang attacks.

• The disproportionate number of nonjudicial punishments and courts martial

The MeNaniara project called for the induction of 100,000

enlistees under revised enlistment standards. The downward

revision qualified a sizeable number of individuals who previously failed to meet the original enlistment criteria; black enlistment failures dropped by 20 percent, while white Failures fell

by 11.7 percent. Between 1966 and 1968, 240,000 enhistees

qualified under the new standards and 37 percent were

assigned to combat arms specialties.
a . 2es'?sJ1!&*i

Department of Defense (TJSMC) Photo A372852

The Vietnam War achieved integration at all levels, but African-American enlisted Marines greatly outnumbered commissioned officers. GySgt Earl L.Jones, left, and lstLt John I?. Rabb, right, coordinate fire

support for Company I, 3d Battalion, 26th Marines.

affecting black Marines (in the vast majority

of cases by white commanding officers).

• The racial polarization of black and

white Marines at on- and off-base facilities

and establishments.

• The appearance and use of signs and

symbols of black solidarity and pride, such as

wrist bracelets, crosses fashioned of black

boot laces worn in uniform, and the "DAY'

handshake, ritually also known as "checkingin."

• The emergence of the "Mro" haircut and

its challenge to the traditional Euro-centric

orientation and interpretation of Marine

Corps haircut regulations and grooming standards.

Bases and stations on the East and West Coasts

had their share of incidents that were primarily the

7

result of racial differences. John McGowan, a former enlisted Marine, officer, and infantry platoon

leader with the 1st Battalion, 7th Regiment, located

at Camp Pendleton, California, offered this observation:

While the town of Oceanside and the surrounding areas didn't practice the discrimination the Marines on the East Coast endured

from the town of Jacksonville, believe me,we

had the same type of on-base problems,

the muggings, the fights, the unbelievable

number of non-judicial punishments and

courts martial awarded to black Marines, and

McNamara's 100,000. . . . The problems we

had on the West Coast were the same as

those on the East Coast and overseas. Then

we tried to fix it with the Human Relations

Program.2
Department of Defense USMQ Photo 127NA419Q47

Al,ove, Maf Hurdle L Maxwell, the first black officer to command an infantry battalion, is shown in

Vietnam in 1966 during a visit wit!, Vietnamese villagers. Below, Frank E. Petersen, iben a lieutenant

colonel, commanded a fighter squadron during the Vietnam War He is shown being Interviewed

combat photograp her Sgt Eddie L. Cole.

1)eparlnent of Defense (USMC) Photo A416704 The response and reaction to these developInents were mixed along racial, gender, age, and

rank lines. The older and more senior black

Marines, enlisted and officer, acknowledged that

there were problems that needed to be remedied,

but did not agree with the response to these issues

chosen and implemented by the younger generation. The reaction and response of the senior

white Marine officer and enlisted man characterized these occurrences as divisive to the Corps.

They blamed the McNamara project and the civil.

ian judiciary system, which tended to view the

Marine Corps, and the other Services, as a viable

means of "squaring away" many a wayward youth.

In realitç the young black Marines viewed these

two groups (their leadership) as parts of the prob1cm rather than the solution.

Towards Progress—Solving the Problem

In response to the challenge presented by racial

problems, a number of ideas and initiatives were

explored at the local command level and at

Headquarters Marine Corps. On the East Coast,

where discriminatory off-base practices were as

daunting and divisive as the on-base challenges, the

8

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/

H

J

1/

Department of Defense (USMC) Photo A415451

Ma) Gen Raymond c7. Davis awards the Navy Commendation Medal with Combat W"to LtCol Kenneth

H.Berthoudfor Vietnam service. The presentation was made at Headquarters, Marine Corps. Berthoud

was the first SpecialAdvisor for Minority Officer Procurement.

Commanding General, 2d Marine Division, Major

General Michael P Ryan, launched an investigation

in April 1969 to uncover the reasons for the racial

problems and to formulate responses. A result was

the publication of a division order and pamphlet

on building unit pride and esprit de corps.3 In less

than one month after the initiative, Camp Lejeune

experienced one of its more publicized racial incidents when a riot ensued between black and white

Marines of the same battalion. The outcomes of

that incident included the death of a white Marine,

the courts martial of a number of black Marines,

and the relief of the battalion commander—the

first black Marine to command an infantry battalion, Lieutenant Colonel Hurdle L. Maxwell.

Following hearings held at Camp Lejeune by a

House Armed Services Subcommittee, General

Leonard F Chapman, Commandant of the Marine

Corps (CMC), took a number of steps to solve the

9

racial problems and to eliminate discrimination

from the Marine Corps. The assistant commandant

and Chapman's successor, General Robert E.

Cushman, would continue these changes.

Department of Defense Interest

During the late 1 960s, the issue of Negro officer

representation within the Marine Corps and the

Navy became a matter of concern for the

Department of Defense. In a May 1967 memorandum from Assistant Secretary of Defense Cyrus

Vance to Secretary of the Navy Paul H. Nitze, concern was expressed regarding "the distressingly

low Negro officer content of the Marine Corps and

the Navy." While acknowledging the increase in

Negro enrollment at the Naval Academy and in

Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps units, Vance

suggested that "at a minh urn, the Navy Depart-
ment should double the number of Negro officers,

by pursuing the senior enlisted ranks and the

establishing of NROTC units at predominantly

Negro 4*

Looking ForA Few

Good Men . . . and Women

As a result of the racial disorders that occurred,

and outside interests, the Marine Corps pursued

several major initiatives: a Human Relations

Training Program; a Commandant's Advisory

Committee on Minority Affairs, composed of

prominent civilians of various races; an Equal

Opportunity Staff Section; and an officer recruiting

and retention strategy devised to increase the number of Negro officers. An advisory billet also was

created to keep the Marine Corps' manpower

chief, and the Commandant, abreast of the progress

of these initiatives and related matters. Among the

related matters were Negro officer recruiting,

assignments, and retention. The advisory billet was

initially named Special Advisor to the Deputy Chief

of Staff (Manpower) for Minority Officer Procurement and was occupied by a black officer.The first

officer to occupy the special advisor position was

Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth H. Berthoud,Jr., a former Navy corpsman.

Berthoud began his Marine Corps career as a

combat arms officer in the tank military occupational specialty (MOS). He later changed his MOS

to the supply occupational field. Berthoud became

the third black officer to command at the battalionlevel when he commanded the 9th Motor

Transport Battalion for five months in the early

1970s.

The Marine Corps' strategy to improve the possibilities for advancement of Negro officers during

General Chapman's tenure emphasized three

areas: increasing the number of Negro officers; assigning Negro officers to high-visibility, career-enhancing billets; and improving the retention rate of

Negro officers. One of the first initiatives iinplemented in 1968 was the Negro Officer Selection

Officer (NOSO) concept; the title was later

changed to Minority Officer Selection Officer

ln his memorandum,vance extolled the efforts of the Navy

Department regarding the increase in Naval Academy enrollment, but expressed concern over the number of Negro officers in thc Marine corps and the Navy compared to other

Services, describing it as distressingly low. He s-uggested that a

minimum numerical objective should be to double the number

of Negro officers.

10

(MOSO).5* Six black officers with the rank of captain were assigned to the six Marine Corps Recruiting Districts to assist white officer selection

officers in recruiting black officer candidate applicants. The MOSOs were not precluded from recruiting whites, but their primary purpose and

focus was black prospects. As Berthoud later stated:

This strategy was to augment the number

of black officer candidates we [the Marine

Corpsl were trying to get from the Enlisted

Commissioning Programs (ECP) and the

Broadened Opportunity for Officer Selection

Training program (BOOST). Also, we needed

to increase the visibility of black officers at

the Naval Academy, The Marine Barracks at

8th & 1, Naval ROTC units, and at Headquarters Marine Corps.At that time [19681,1 was

the only black officer assigned there. Despite

the tendency to lower standards, the black officers who initially worked on this issue

wanted to make sure the standards were the

same as they were for the white officer applicants.6

The lowering of standards to attain numerical

goals was implied in a June 1967 memorandum

from Assistant Secretary of Defense Thomas D.

Morris to the Undersecretary of the Navy Recalling the intent of Vance's previous memorandum of

May 1967 and a discussion with two members of

his staff (of flag and general officer rank), Morris

repeated that "it was indicated that the establishment of an NROTC unit at a predominantly Negro

institution appeared feasible with possible alterations to present standards:' 7,*

A Change of the Guard

In 1970, another pioneer, Lieutenant Colonel

Frank E. Petersen, replaced Berthoud. A former

George H,Walls,Jr., was one of the first African-American

officers in the Marine corps assigned to officer selection officer duty. He was assigned to the 4th Marine corps District

located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. One of his subsequent

assignments was as a Marine officer instructor at North

carolina cents University.

"The memorandum was a follow-on to vance's memos-artduin approximately one month earlier. Morris mentions a previous discussion on the subject with a major general and an

admiral who suggested that establishing NltoTc units at Negro

institutions could be accomplished with possible alterations to

present standards and procedures.
Leaders who marked the changing of the guard included LtGol Frank E. Peterson, who rose to lieutenant general before retiremenL As Special Adviso be instituted changes in the direction of acquiring African-American officers that were not being met by existing practices. He is shown with officer

selection officer Capt Henry j Ferrand.

11
Navy Seaman Apprentice, Petersen became the

first black Marine to earn the wings of a naval aviator, the first black to command a tactical air

squadron, and the first black to reach general officer rank. Petersen's initial assignment placed him

under the staff cognizance of the Marine Corps

personnel chief; shortly afterwards, he was assigned as the Special Assistant for Minority Affairs

to the Commandant, General Robert E. Cushman.

The continuation of energy emphasis, and focus

Petersen brought to the task at hand were the

result of his thoughts regarding the direction the

Marine Corps should take while a young captain

studying at the Marine Corps'Amphibious Warfare

School!

One of the first recommendations Petersen

made was to expand the MOSO concept by assigning 11 additional black officers to recruit officer

candidates in cities having sizeable populations of

young black men and women attending college.

The cities subsequently selected as MOSO sites

were: Atlanta; Chicago; Kansas City; Los Angeles;

New Orleans; New York City; Philadelphia; Raleigh;

Richmond; San Francisco; and Washington, D.C.9

The officers assigned to these locations began

their tours with the title of Minority Officer

Selection Officers and were co-located with white

officers designated as officer selection officers. In

1974, the title MOSO was abandoned and all officers assigned to the officer recruiting billets were

designated as officer selection officers with no

racial distinction attached to their title or duties.

Also, one black officer was assigned to each Marine

Corps District Headquarters to assist OSOs nationwide. According to Lieutenant Colonel Anthony

Ambrewster, "two major concerns were establishing a common understanding that it was not our

[black OSOs] sole responsibility to recruit more

black officers. Also, we were concerned about the

short-term, career-damaging impact of being assigned away from the Fleet Marine Force so early

in our careers."10"

'Lieutenant General Peterson later recalled that while a student at the Amphibious Warfare School he wrote a paper focusing on increasing the number of black officers.A number of the

initiatives presented in the paper were implemented when he

occupied the special advisory billet.

Lieutenant colonel Ambrewster was among the first black

officers assigned to officer selection officer duty. He later cited

a concern of among those officers regarding tlae promotional

and career impact of being assigned out of their military occupational specialties and away from the Meet Marine Force so

early in theft careers. According tuAmbrewster those concerns

were addressed satisfactorily hy Lieutenant colonel Peterson

while he was special advisor.

12

Petersen's successor was Major Edward L.

Green, a communications officer turned infantryman. During Green's tenure, the Marine Corps

began to expand its approach and emphasis on the

black officer retention issue to include areas such

as performance at The Basic School and command

assignments.tl*Arnong his many assignments prior

to retirement in December 1980 were the Naval

Academy, where he was instrumental in attracting

a number of midshipmen to the Marine Corps, and

the 3d Marine Division, where he became the second black Marine officer to command an infantry

battalion. Green's successor, Major Solomon P Hill,

an infantry officer, was the last officer to occupy

the special assistant billet until August 1993. Hill

also served as the executive officer of the Corps'

Officer Candidates School during the 1970s.

In addition to increasing the number of black

officers working on college campuses and in communities as OSOs, emphasis was placed on assigning black officers to duties in the remaining two

major Marine officer accession sources, the Naval

Academy and the various NROTC units. In 1976,

the Chief of Naval Operations and the

Commandant of the Marine Corps executed a

memorandum of agreement allocating the Marine

Corps a 16 2/3 percent share of the NROTC scholarships.12 A Navy and Marine Corps agreement

consummated in July 1972 had allocated a similar

share of the senior class at the Naval Academy."

The number, however, was not a guarantee. The

Marine Corps had to "attract" its share of potential

Marine officers. Accordingly, the Marine Corps

assigned some of its best officers to these billets.

The focus of the NROTC program assignments was

the historically and predominantly black colleges

and universities. This was in conjunction with the

Navy's eflbrt to increase its visibility on black college campuses and increase its black officer population (consistent with the Vance Memorandum of

May 1967). Five black colleges and universities

were selected for NROTC unit locations: Florida

A&M University (activated in 1972); Prairie View

'Lieurenant colonel Green was a former aide-de-camp to

Assistant commandant, General Samtiel Jaskilka, and also special advisor, where he played a pivotal role in the Marine Corps'

early efforts to increase the presence of black officers.

"On [5 July 1972, the Chief of Naval Personnel and the

Marine Deputy Chief of Staff (Manpower and Reserve Affairs)

executed the original agreement covering the accession of

Naval Academy graduates into the Marine Corps. A follow-on

memorandum of 22 April 1983 modified the initial agreement

capping the accessions at one-sixth of the graduating elass.Also

several other provisions of the original agreement were revised

and/or clarified.
,

t1

(

A group portrait of the recruiting pioneers in the officer selection effort includes future senior Marine

Corps leaders. Little did they know that their actions would result in success in facing the accessions

challenge.

A&M University (activated in 1968); North Carolina

Central University (activated in 1972); Savannah

State University (activated in 1971); and Southern

University (activated in 1971).

Two additional areas of focus for assignments

having to do with the accession of new lieutenants

were Officer Candidates School and The Basic

School. In 1972, two black officers were assigned

to duties in those areas, Major Clay Baker to Officer

Candidates School as executive officer and Captain

Archie Joe Biggers to The Basic School as an

A chief of Naval Education and Training command information paper discusses the history behind the establishment of

NIR0Tc units at hlack colleges. The paper cites the Vance

Memorandum of May 1967 as thc precedent setter. In 1970. the

cNo set a goal that 10 percent of all units would be on }IBCU

campuses by 1975. In addition to the five original units, two

additional units were opened as consortiums in 1982 and 1987;

the units were Norfolk State University and Morehouse college,

respectively. Norfolk State formed a consortium with Old

Dominion called the Hampton Roads consortium. Morehouse

worked closely with Georgia Technical University to form the

Atlanta consortium.

13

instructor. Both Marines were infantry officers and

veterans of the Vietnam War, when Biggers was

awarded the Silver Stat

Passing the Word

Consistent with its need to get the word out and

to develop target markets in communities and on

college campuses, the Marine Corps initiated discussions with various community; social, and professional organizations. The National Association

for the Advancement Colored People (NAACP), the

National Newspaper Publishers Association, and

the Montfort Point MarineAssociation were among

the organizations contacted.3

Relationships of this nature would later prove to

be critical elements in the Marine Corps' attempts

to publicize its efforts, generate interest and applicants, and receive valuable "grass roots" response

as to the effectiveness of its strategy. Years later

this idea would he expanded, producing varying

degrees of success.
P7/'

• 'H

'I.,

'S :7

Capt Henry J Ferrand, as New Orleans NOSO, adnzinsters the oath of office to a newly commissioned

second lieutenant early In the 1970s. The directed grass-roots effort was successful in attracting new

qualified offi cers from previously overlooked sources.

Assessing the Results

Logically, the effectiveness of the Marine Corps

new initiatives had to be assessed. How effective

were these initiatives in attracting new black officers? The Marine Coi-ps' progress can be viewed

with respect to two areas, accessions and composition.

In 1970, the initial goals for the recruitment and

accession of black officers were established in a

CMC memorandum, which prescribed "minority'

accession goals for the five-year period, 1972

through 1976. Accessions is defined as the number

of second lieutenants commissioned each year as a

result of fulfilling pre-commissioning training

and/or educational requirements. Prior to 1972,

there were no black officer recruiting and accession goals established as targets or measures of success. However, in 1971 the Marine Corps did

14

access 48 black officers. Table 2.1 portrays the

accession results from 1972 through 1976. It

reveals that the Marine Corps was successful in

meeting its black officer accession goals from 1972

through 1976; however, a number of subsequent

developments affected future attainment

prospects.

In October 1976, the Assistant Secretary of the

Navy (Manpower and Reserve Affairs) levied a formal requirement for yearly "minority" officer accession goals. In 1977, the Department of Defense

authorized the Marine Corps to include hispanic

accessions in its total minority accession goal calculations.14 The Marine Corps' "minority" officer

accession figures for 1977 through 1979 (Table

2.2) reveal that the Corps failed to reach its combined black and Hispanic accession goals for the

remainder of the decade.

In 1970, blacks comprised 1.3 percent of the
Marine Corps' officer population in the grades of

second lieutenant (0-1) through general (O1O).1b

That percentage reflected about 301) officers in an

officer corps of approximately 23,000. In 1971,

the total number of officers was reduced to

19,905; with the reduction, black representation

decreased to approximately 1.2 percent.Among a

total of 234 black officers, the highest grade represented was lieutenant colonel. Five black women

were also among that number; their highest rank

was captain. Table 2.3 contains black officer demographics as of 30 June 1971.

As the Marine Corps progressed through the

1970s, post-Vietnam War manpower reductions

Table 2.1 Black Officer Accessions (1972- 1976)15t

Fiscal Year

Total Accession Goal

Black Goal

Percent of Accession Goal

Total Accessions

Total Black Accessions

Percent of Total Accessions 5.8

Minority accessions prior to fiscal year 1977 included blacks only; however, when

'mlnority" was used.

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

1,924 2,325 1,900 2,275 2,175

100 100 100 100 100

5.2 4.3 5.3 4.4 4.6

1,763 2,262 1,927 2,367 2,193

103 101 152

4.5 7.9 5.8 6.4

referring to blacks, the term

138 141

Table 2.2 Minority Officer Accessions (19771979)17*

1977 1978 1979

2,312 1,850 1,903

185 174 174

8.0 9.4 9.1

Fiscal Year

Total Accession Goal

Minority Goal

Percent of Accession Goal

Total Accessions

Total Minority Accessions

Percent of Total Accessions

Minority numbers reflect black and Hispanic accessions and there is no information available for determining minority goals.

2,022

145

1,873

143

1,919

126

7.2 7.6 6.6

15
reflected a decrease in its officer corps strength of

approximately 3,000 officers during the period

June 1971 to June 1979. Despite this reduction in

total officer strength, the black officer population

grew in percentage and in actual numbers.

Overall, black officer composition rose from 1.3

percent in 1970 to 3.7 percent in September

l979J This percentage increase reflected modest

gains in the total number of black female officers

and increases in the number of black male officers

in the field-grade ranks (0-4 to 0-6). Conversely,

only one black female was in the field grade rank

structure. That distinction belonged to Major

Gloria Smith, a supply officer.

Although the Marine Corps was showing signs

of progress, it still lagged behind the Army (6.9 percent) and the Air Force (4.3 percent). Only the

Navy's black officer composition (2.2 percent) was

lower.20 Table 2.4 contains the black officer population as of 30 September 1979.

Although the Marine Corps does not promote

its officers based on occupational requirements, it

is a widely held belief that the maximum opportunities for command assignments and promotions

reside within the combat arms occupational fields

(aviation, infantry, artillery, and armor), as opposed

to combat support and combat service support

fields. The latter two occupational fields include

Rank Total (all Races)

0-10 2 0

0-9 9 0

0-8 0

0-7

0-6

0-5

0-4

0-3

0-2

0-1

Total

Table 2.3 Black Officer Population (As of 30 june 1971)18

Total Black Percentage of Total Black Females

0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 -

12

2

5

25

38

742

1,638

3,328

5,609

6,039

2,485

19,915

0

0

11

59

121

40

234

0.0

0.0

0.2

0.3

1.. 1

2.0

1.6

1.2

Table 2.4 Black Officer Population (As of 30 September 1979)21

Rank Total (All Races) Total Black Percentage of Total Black Females

0-10 2 0 0.0 - 0-09 7 0 0.0 - 0-08 23 0 0.0 - 0-07 33 0 0.0 - 0-06 576 1 0.2 - 0-05 1,495 7 0.5 - 0-04 2,668 36 1.3 1 0-03 4,722 195 4.1 3

0-02 4,446 259 58 8

0-01 2,962 135 4.6 3

Total 16,934 633 3.7 15

16
specialties such as communications, combat engineer, supply, maintenance, motor transport, and

logistics. A review of September 1979 occupational field data reveals that more than one-third

(approximately 36 percent) of the black officers

on active duty were in combat arms occupational

fields, against more than one-half (approximately

54 percent) of the white officers. The combat service support occupational fields contained about

18 percent of the black oftlcer strength against 15

percent for white officers. The combat support

occupational fields comprised the remaining 46

percent of blacks, against 31 percent for white officers.The occupational fields absorbing the bulk of

the combat arms disparities were aviation, infantry,

artillery and armor.22

Highlights of the Decade

The 1970s can best be characterized as the

beginning of monumental change in the racial

composition of the Marine Corps' officer corps.

Nearly 15 years after the integration of its ranks

and 22 years after the commissioning of the first

black Marine officer, the Marine Corps began to

reap modest benefits from the various officer

recruiting and accession implemented 10 years

earlier. Black officers were beginning to be

assigned to billets previously assigned to white

officers, such as officer selection officers in predominantly white populated areas, The Basic

School, naval test pilot, and command at the battalion and squadron levels. The most significant historical highlight of the era was the selection of

Colonel Frank E. Petersen as the first black Marine

to attain the rank of brigadier general in February

1979,204 years after the birth of the Marine Corps.

This event represented a significant first for the

Marine Corps.

In November 1973, Lieutenant Colonel Clarence

L. Davis assumed command of YMA -214, the famed

"Black Sheep" squadron. As an alumnus of Texas

Southern University, Davis became the second

black officer to command a tactical aviation unit.

While seasoned veterans made their presence

felt, a young lieutenant and graduate of Hampton

University made history in the area of marksmanship- In May 1974, First Lieutenant Charles I-I.

Thorton,Jr., became the first black officer to earn

the Distinguished Marksman Badge. In 1978, he

added to his noteworthy accomplishments when

he achieved another first by earning the

Distinguished Pistol Shot Badge. Young black

t7

Marine Corps Historical Collection

A noted leader and role model, M/ James

Capers, Ji, was commissioned on the battlefield

in Vietnam and commanded a Marine Guard

Detachment and Force Reconnaissance Company. This picture was on board a submarine

whose crew was coordinating the underwater

landing and recovery of recon teams at

Guananamo Bay, Cuba, in the 1970s.

Marine officers were also establishing their presence in international athletic competition. First

Lieutenants Uoyd Keaser and Bert Freeman represented the United States as Olympic athletes during the decade, Keaser as a wrestler and Freeman

as a fencer Freeman was the first black athlete to

compete in fencing competition on the Olympic

level. Both were graduates of the Naval Academy.

Quality Begets Quality

Those assigned to the various "groundbreaking"

officer accessions programs during the 1970s were

proven performers with excellent records. Among

them were Major George Walls, Major Clay Baker,

Major Clifford Stanley, Major James May, Major

Edward Green, Captain Del Costin, Captain Fred

Jones, Captain Charles Bolden, Captain Ramon
Johnson, Captain Jim Allen, Captain Solomon Hill,

Captain Archie Joe Biggers, Captain Bifi Jones,

Captain Dave Saddler, Captain Gill Robinson,

Captain Al Whittaker, Captain Clarence Willie,

Captain Tony Ambrewster, First Lieutenant Hank

Ferrand, First Lieutenant Chris Baker, First

Lieutenant Al Davis, and many others. All of these

officers, as well as a number of others, went on to

have highly successful careers in the Marine Corps

18

and in the civilian sector. Among them are active

duty and retired generals, colonels, lieutenant

colonels, astronauts, educators, doctors, lawyers,

entrepreneurs, and corponte officers. The point to

be made is two-fold: the quality of officers entering

the Corps who were selected to pioneer change

and the demonstrated level of commitment of the

Marine Corps to assign some its finest officers to

challenging assignments.
CHAPTER 3

The Efforts of the 1980s

Following a decade characterized by a host of

initiatives that were catalysts for significant change

in the officer corps, at a cursory glance the 1980s

seemed to pale in comparison to the 1970s. After

making considerable progress in improving the

racial diversity of an officer corps which now

looked different from that of the late 1960s and

1970s, the Marine Corps' officer recruiting and accessions focus expanded, encompassing other

challenging areas such as replenishing the inventory of lawyers and pilots. These requirements

broadened the focus of the officer recruiting strategy, bitt diluted the concentrated efforts to

increase the number of black officers and officers

from other under-represented racial and ethnic

groups. Several of the initiatives that were implemented to enhance racial understanding and race

relations and to improve the racial diversity of the

officer corps were discontinued as a result of an

improved racial climate. Among these initiatives

were: the Human Relations Training program; the

Special Advisor for Minority Affairs billet; the

Minority Officer Selection Officer concept; and

the Commandant's Advisory Committee on Minority Affairs.

Fortunately for the Corps, the racial climate

improved significantly. The enhanced state of race

relations could rightfully be attributed to a number

of factors, among which were enlightened leadership and an increase in understanding and tolerance among Marines of different races. Also, a

more racially diverse officer corps contributed to

that state of affairs. Despite this progress, the issue

of black officer recruiting and accessions continued to be a challenge to the leadership and commitment of the Marine Corps.

The Marine Corps entered the new decade with

less than optimal results from its officer recruiting

and accessions strategy During the 1977-1979

period, the Marine Corps failed to attain its expanded "minority" (e.g.,black, Hispanic, and other racial

and ethnic groups) officer accession goal. The

19

early 1980s were characterized by this same lack

of success in the area of "minority" accessions.

Although the total numerical officer accession

requirements for the period 1980 through 1982

were accomplished each year (at times exceeding

100 percent), the race and ethnic accession goals

for the same period were not attained. The total

number of black and Hispanic officers accessed in

each of those years ranged from approximately 60

to 70 percent of the yearly goals.1 Perhaps indicating a reversal of the trend, accession statistics

for fiscal year 1983 reveal that 121 (6.4 percent) of

the 1,890 lieutenants accessed that year were

black; for black officer accessions, this represented

a goal attainment in excess of 125 percent.2

In addition to the continued emphasis on black

officer accessions, the Marine Corps expanded its

focus to include career development and progres

sion. Areas such as military occupational fleld

selection, Basic School performance, assignments,

promotions, and performance evaluations were

added to the many issues requiring examinatiori

and analysis. This was to ensure those black officers, and other under-represented groups, received

the same opportunities for advancement.3 For

example, in 1986 the Marine Corps complete4 the

first phase of the Black Officer Career

Development Plan. This plan focused on a number

of professional development areas that were

stressed in the 1970s and the eventual objects of

repeated emphasis in the years ahead. Among

those areas were Basic School performance,

increasing the number of role models in the entrylevel screening and training programs, and increasing the number of black lieutenants in combat

arms occupational fields.4

Forging a Consensus

The accessing of new officers is the foundation

for increasing racial diversity in the officer corps.
A related matter that emerged as a major point of

discussion in the effort to attract more black officers was the selection of a suitable benchmark

upon which the black officer accession goals

should be based. There were a number of divergent views. Among the factors considered were:

• The black enlisted Marine composition

percentage (approximately 20 percent in

l985).

• The percentage of minority males possessing a bachelors degree (based on the

1980 U.S. Census, approximately 12.1 percent).6

• The percentage of blacks in the natiotial

population (based on the 1980 U.S. Census,

approximately 8.5 percent).7

• The percentage of new accessions

required to achieve black officer strength

equal to 12 percent of the total officer corps

in 1992 (factoring in historical black officer

retention rates).

From 1983 to 1989, the Marine Corps employed

a modified version of two of the factors as a basis

for establishing racial and ethnic accession goals.

As a starting point, black officer accession goals

were based on the percentage of black males possessing a bachelor's degree; that figure was adjusted to consider retention rates for each group. The

ultimate goal was to build an officer corns wherein the total of blacks, Hispanics, and other racial

and ethnic groups comprised 1 1 percent of the

total number of unrestricted officers by the beginning of fiscal year 1992.8 That methodology for

determining accession goals resulted in "minority"

officer accessions equating 11 percent of the total

yearly accessions—six percent blacks, three percent

Hispanics, and two percent for other racial and ethnic groups.

Department of the Navy Interest

During the 1983-1985 period, the Department

of the Navy developed a heightened interest in the

racial composition of the officer rank structures of

the Navy and the Marine Corps. T1iat interest genEfforts to involve national groups included close liaison with community leaders, with such meetings

as that of BGen Clqford 11. Stanley and Julian Bond, center left and right. The occasion was the annual NAACP conference and community recognition program. Photo courtesy of Joe Ceezer lEt

20
Photo courtesy of Joe Geezer 111

BGen Leo V Williams Ill meets with Congressman Kweisi Mfume, the present head of the

NAACR one of the oldest civil rights organizations in the United States.

erated the assignment of two officers to the staff of

the Secretary of the Navy for the purpose of tracking the efforts of the Naval Services.9 The Marine

Corps assigned lieutenant Colonel Clifford L.

Stanley to the billet. Stanley's official title was

Marine Corps Aide to the Assistant Secretary of the

Navy (Manpower and Reserve Affairs) and Special

Assistant for Officer Programs. As a result of the

Marine Corps' efforts to attract black midshipmen,

Stanley was assigned to the Naval Academy in the

mid-1970s to teach leadership and psychology.

Implementing New Strategies

Intent on increasing the number of black officers and regenerating the momentum of the early

1970s, the Marine Corps, under the leadership of

three successive Commandants, Generals Robert

R. Barrow, Paul X. Kelly, and Alfred M. Gray, implemented two major initiatives: the addition of

"minority" officer recruiting billets in the 6th and

8th Marine Corps Recruiting Districts; and the

assignment of racial and ethnic category recruiting

and accession goals. Both initiatives revived the

long-term lbcus and emphasis on the black officer

recruiting and accessions effort.

The "minority" officer-recruiting billet was officially designated the Assistant for Minority Officer

21

Procurement (AMOP) and was occupied by a black

captain. Two recruiting districts were selected and

designated as sites for the AMOP billets, the 6th

Marine Corps District headquartered in Atlanta,

Georgia, and the 8th Marine Corps District headquartered in New Orleans, Louisiana. These districts were selected based upon theft black coLlege

student populations. The job of the Assistant for

Minority Officer Procurement was to assist officer

selection officers throughout the district primarily

in their black officer recruiting efforts. Through

this initiative, the Marine Corps began to target and

canvass black churches, fraternities, and sororities

to assist in getting the word out regarding commissioning opportunities and for potential applicants. The first two officers to serve in the billet

were Captain David Jones, a supply officer

(Atlanta), and Captain W. Clyde Lemon, a combat

engineer (New Orleans). Lemon developed a

minority recruiting action plan that provided guidance and ideas for accessing and developing the

target markets. The plan is still in use today by officer selection oftjccrs nationwide. The results

achieved as a result 'oftthcAssistant for Minority

Officer Procurement initiative were directly related to the support and leadership provided by the

commands and the intended utilization and

employment of the AMOP. The encouraging results

achieved in the 8th District were a direct result of

the support rendered by Brigadier General Jarvis

I). Lynch,Jr., the district director, and Colonel John

F.Juul, the assistant director for personnel procurement. The AMOP concept was utilized from 1983

through 1989.

The second major initiative that positively

affected the black officer recruiting efforts of the

1980s was the implementation of racial and ethnic

category recruiting goals. Colonel Robert C. Lewis

generated this idea. Lewis was the director of the

9th Marine Corps District, headquartered in Kansas

City, Kansas. The concept involved the assignment

of officer recruiting "quotas" (a generic recruiting

term with no racial connotation) to each recruiting

district for black, Hispanic, and "other" ethnic

groups (e.g., Asian-Americans), based upon the

demographics of each district's college population

and other qualitative and quantitative factors.

The method of allocating numerical black

recruiting quota allocations to each district was

developed by the Center for Naval Analyses (CNA)

and encompassed the following factors: historical

black accessions data by Service; local recruiting

conditions; the geographic distribution of college

entrance examination test scores; and estimates of
the available qualified population,based upon tests

scores of 1,000 and higher on the SAT and 45 and

higher on the ACT10 This method of computing

officer candidate recruiting quotas was implemented in November 1989; prior to that time, officer recruiting quotas were assigned on the basis of

white and "minority applicants." The CNA study

allocated the largest black percentage share, 28.6

percent, to the 6th Marine Corps District (Atlanta,

Georgia). The district's territory included the

states of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and North

and South Carolina. The second highest allocation,

21.6 percent,was assigned to the 4th Marine Corps

District, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Its area induded the states of Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. The smallest share was allocated

to the 12th Marine Corps District headquartered in

San Francisco, California. The south and southwest

regions of the country reflected a 13.1 percent

share assigned to the 8th Marine Corps District,

headquartered in New Orleans; Louisiana and

Texas were among its areas of responsibility

The impact of this change caused the officer

selection officers to work harder at canvassing,

prospecting, and qualifying potential applicants,

but this method of "quota" assignment intensified

the focus on black officer recruiting and increased

the number of black officer program applicants. In

addition to these major initiatives several other

concepts were implemented to augment the general "minoritr' recruiting effort.

Some examples were:

22

• The assignment of newly Basic Schooltrained black and Hispanic lieutenants to

temporary Officer Selection Officer (OSO)

duties for 14-thy increments to assist permanently assigned OSOs in their prospecting

efforts for "minority" candidates.

• The development of officer program

advertisements featuring black officers.

• The targeting of press releases towards

minority campuses and communities highlighting the accomplishments of minority

officers.11

Underlying the various initiatives, two general

officers, Carl E. Mundy, Jr., and Jerome G. Cooper,

provided critical leadership and guidance to the

black officer recruiting effort. Mundy, a former officer selection officer and future Commandant, as

the Director of the Marine Corps Personnel

Procurement Division, provided top-level attention

and support to the black officer recruiting and

accessions issue in the form of personnel and

resources. The Assistant for Minority Officer Procurement concept was implemented while he

headed the Personnel Procurement Division.

Cooper, a pioneer in his own right, a reservist and

future Director of the Personnel Procurement

Division, consistently and vocally brought black

officer recruiting and accessions inequities to the

attention of several Commandants.

Fiscal Year

Table 3.1 Black OfficerAccessions (1983-1989)

Total Accession Goal

Black Goal

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

1,890 1,544 1,443 1,563 1,364 1,542 1,458

Percent of Accession Goal

Total Accessions

95 93 87 94 82 93 87

5.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

Total Black Accessions

1,890 1,544 1,443 1,563 1,364 1,542 1,458

121 103

Percent of Total Accessions 6.4

91 80 77 88 90

6.7 6.3 5.1 5.6 5.7 6.2
Assessing the Results

The Marine Corps' recruiting efforts from 1983

to 1989 reflected a 23 percent decrease in new

lieutenant requirements (from 1,890 to 1,458),

accompanied by a corresponding decrease of

approximately 25 percent in black officer accessions (121 in fiscal year 1983 to 90 in fiscal year

1989). Black officer accession goals for six years of

the seven-year period were set at six percent of the

yearly accessions goals.12

Black officer composition reflected a 40 percent increase in the number of black officers from

1980 to 1989, increasing from 627 to 880. During

the same period, the total officer corps increased

by 8.7 percent from 16,974 to 18,466. The increase in black officers represented a net gain of

more than 250 officers, averaging 25 per year during the 10 year period.13 Of historical significance

Helicopters

424

23

was the addition of a black general officer to the

Marine Corps' officer ranks in 1980; the first since

the birth of the Corps some 205 years earlier.

The emphasis placed on increasing the number

of black officers in the combat arms fields (i.e.

infantry, artillery, armor, and aviation) in the early

1980s produced modest gains in the aviation and

ground combat arms fields. These particular areas

were targeted for a number of reasons. First and

foremost, these specialties represented the ethos

of the Marine Corps; therefore, the best opportunities for command and promotion were in these

areas. Secondly, the Marine Corps believed it was

important to have role models in these fields for

the benefit of its enlisted Marines. Occupational

field distribution statistics for the September 1979

to September 1989 period revealed that the number of black pilots increased from 35 in 1979 to 76

in 1989; this represented a net gain of just over

41

Table 3.2 Black Officer Population (As of 30 September 1989)

Rank Total Total Black Percentage of Total Black Females

0-10 2 0 0.0 - 0-9 8 0 0.0 - 0-8 25 0 0.0 - 0-7 35 0 0.0 - 0-6 642 9 1.4 0

0-5 1,625 38 2.3 0

0-4 3,226 141 4.4 6

0-3 6,192 284 4.6 19

0-2 4,110 255 6.2 10

0-1 2,601 153 5.9 16

Total 18,466 880 4.8 51

Table 3.3 Marine Corps Pilot Demographics by Race (As of 30 september 1989)

Race/Ethnicity White

Fixed Wing 1,082

Fighters & Bombers

Other Fixed Wing

2,391

Totals 3,897

Black Hispanic Other

11 7 8

7 6 7

48 41

66 54 56
three black aviators per year. In an aviation component that totaled nearly 4,000 pilots in 1989,

black officers represented slightly fewer than two

percent of that number. Statistics for Hispanic

pilots reveal a similar distribution, totaling 54 officers, 11 less than the total of blacks.14

Ground combat arms occupational specialties

presented a similar situation. The net gain for the

same 10-year period reflected three officers per

year, totaling 201 blacks out of approximately

4,800 officers; this represented about four percent

of ground combat arms officers, while Hispanics

represented approximately three percent. In

1989, black officers were 4.8 percent of the officer

force while Hispanic officers were 2.2 percent.'5

Signs of Change Emerge

Accession and composition statistics indicated

that much work was yet to be done to achieve the

organizational goals articulated in the Marine

Corps' yearly Equal Opportunity Assessments.

Then-Maf Charles F Bolden 's selection as a

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

astronaut and shuttle pilot made him an opinion maker and role model essential to the successful recruiting effort. Bolden was later the

first Marine deputy commandant of the Brigade

of Midshipmen in Annapolis, Maryland.

24

Department of Defense (USMC) Photo 01246920186

LtGen Frank H Petersen commanded the Marine

Corps Combat Development Command at

Quantico, Virginia, the "Crossroads of the Corps."

He also became naval aviation's "Gray Eagle," as

the longest serving naval aviator on active duty.

However, the Marine Corps began to show some

indications that perhaps black officers would be

afforded the same opportunities for success as

their white counterparts. Several significant

strides were made in the areas of promotions and

assignments.

After being selected for advancement to

brigadier general in February 1979, Frank E.

Petersen was advanced to major general and lieutenant general in May 1983 and June 1986, respectively. Adding to a long list of personal " firsts,"

Lieutenant General Petersen also was given command of Marine Corps Combat Development

Command, Quantico,Virginia. During his tenure as

commanding general, he was the convening

authority for perhaps two of the most highly publicized courts martial in the history of the Marine

Corps, the Sergeant Clayton Lonetree espionage

trial and the racially charged Corporal Lindsey

Scott sexual assault proceedings. En August of

1987, by virtue of his date of designation as a naval

aviator, the general was designated as the "Gray

Eagle," the senior aviator on active duty in the

entire Department of Defense. Petersen retired in

July 1988.
1*

A breakthrough assignment was that of Maj L. Stanley to the prestigious Marine Barracks,

Washington, D.C, known for its evening parades and ceremonies. Stanley and his parade staff are pictured in front of the Marine Corps War Memorial in Arlington, Virginia.

Another significant accomplishment was

achieved in the field of aviation during the I 980s

when Major Charles F. Bolden, Jr., was selected as

an astronaut and subsequently qualified as a space

shuttle flight pilot. A Vietnam veteran and former

test pilot, Bolden's first space mission took place in

1986 on board the Space Shuttle Columbia.

While two of the Marine Corps' aviation pioneers were charting new waters, throughout the

1980s a number of ground officers in the combat

arms, combat support, and combat service support

fields were tearing down the barriers to command

infantry, supply, and combat service support units.

Among them were Lieutenant Colonels John W.

Moffett aM Henry L. Reed, who were given command of infantry units, while Lieutenant Colonel

George H. Walls, Jii, commanded Wing Engineer

Support Squadron 17. In the combat service support arena, Lieutenant ColonelAnthony E. Manning

and Colonel Fred L. Jones commanded the 3d

Supply Battalion and the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing

Support Group, respectively. In addition to these

officers commanding at the battalion, squadron,

and group level, the 1985 Marine Corps Equal

25

Opportunity Assessment indicated that black officers represented five percent (62) of all commanding officers in the Marine Corps and nearly

four percent (32) of executive officers. In 1985,

black officers represented 4.4 percent (816) of the

Marine Corps' officer force.16 Absent from among

the number of company and battalion commanders, however, were aviation unit commanders.

This was a clear indication that there was work yet

to be done.

In the supporting establishments and posts and

stations of the Corps, change was also evident as

groundbreaking assignments were made at the historic Marine Barracks at 8th and I, Washington,

D.C., and at Headquarters, Marine Corps. In the

summer of 1980, history was made when Major

Clifford L. Stanley was assigned as Parade Adjutant

of the ceremonial unit that performs in front of

thousands of Americans at the weekly evening

parades held on the grounds of the barracks.

Stanley was assigned to that coveted position as a

result of his professionalism, performance, and

knowledge of the intricacies of ceremonial drill.

In the officer recruiting area at the headquarters
N

Marine Corps Historical Collection

Above, leadership opportunities presented leadership risks associated With the Marine Corps' combat

role in the world since the end of the Cold War Capt Gerald Gaskins receives reports froni subordinates

while commanding Company D, 2d Light Armored Infantry Battalion, Panama, in 1989 during

Operation Just Cause. Below, increased focus on acquiring the right candidates coincided with the promotion of Jerome G Cooper to general officer rank, a breakthrough that made the prospects of

increased service more apparent. A reserve officer Cooper later commanded the 4th Marine Division

as a major general.

level, a black officer was assigned to head the

Marine Corps national officer recruiting and procurement efforts in July 1989. Lieutenant Colonel

Alphonse G. Davis, a former officer selection officer and assistant for officer procurement at the 8th

Marine Corps District, achieved that distinction.

Davis also became the first officer in the history of

the Marine Corps to serve in an officer recruiting

billet at every level (i.e., Station, district, and national) with this assignment. Davis served in that

assignment untilJuly 1992. In the command arena

of recruiting, Major Willie J. Oler, an infantry officer

and former sergeant, became the first black officer

to command a Marine Corps Recruiting Station

when he assumed command of Recruiting Station

Long Island, New York, in June 1981.

While progress was being made in the active

duty component, the Marine Corps Reserve also

showed signs of change with the advancement of

Jerome G. Cooper to the rank of brigadier general.

Cooper, an infantry officer and Vietnam veteran,

was also the first black officer to lead an infantry

unit in combat (1967) and the first to command a

26

I
Marine Reserve unit. He was advanced to the rank

of major general in June 1988. Cooper also served

as the Director of the Marine Corps Personnel

Procurement Division while on active duty from

mid-June 1988 until October 1988. During this

period he was responsible for the Marine Corps'

enlisted and officer recruiting operations.

27

Collectively, these "firsts" in assignments, promotions, and personal achievements were certain

signs that the Marine Corps was indeed beginning

to level the playing field for all. Further, these officers were only a few of the many who possessed

the professionalism, motivation, and desire to

excel, if given the opportunity
CHAPTER 4

The Efforts of the 1990s

The first half of the 1990s was a period of significant accomplishments for the Marine Corps

and African-American Marine officers. However, it

was also a time that generated issues that resembled the ongoing debates in the civilian sector

regarding equal opportunity, affirmative action, and

racial diversity. Despite this, several catalysts produced a number of significant achievements that

cumulatively render the decade as one of the most

memorable since the enlistment of the Montfort

Point Marines. Those catalysts represented the

interests of individual Marines, the civilian leadership of the Department of Defense, and the general officer leadership of the Marine Corps.

The focus on racial issues generated during the

decade was the result of a combination of issues,

initiatives, and events. Among them were:

• The Commandant's Task Force on Equal

Opportunity

• Officer Candidates School attrition and

the fIling of a class action suit by a former

Asian-American officer candidate alleging discrimination.

• The inclusion of an Ethnic Diversity

Seminar in the 1993 General Officers'

Symposium.

• A segment on African-American officer

discrimination within the Marine Corps featured on the CBS television show 60

Minutes.

• The publishing of numerous articles in

professional journals and Service news

sources regarding the recruiting, assignment,

and discrimination against "minority" Marine

officers.

• The convening of Quality Management

Boards on OCS attrition and the career development of Marine officers.

• The implementation of racial and ethnic

category recruiting goals established by the

28

Center for Naval Analyses study of 1989.

• The implementation of racial and ethnic

category accession goals.

The progress attained during the 1990s was preceded by costly lessons learned in several areas,

effective communications and the impact of media

among them. Also, the Marine Corps addressed the

existence of bias and institutional discrimination,

two issues previously categorized as perceptions

and misconceptions instead of stark realities. The

leadership of the Marine Corps at various levels,

comprised of officers of all races banded together

to confront a problem that had the potential of

dividing the Marine Corps along racial lines.

A Microcosm of Society

An expression often used by sociologists and

military historians when referring to the military

depicts it as "a microcosm of society." When examining the various issues confronted by the Marine

Corps during the 1990s that characterization is

quite appropriate. While federal, state, and local

governments addressed the rationale for racial and

gender diversity and the relevance of affirmative

action, the Marine Corps' efforts to remedy the

inequity among its officer ranks began to be publicly and privately debated and questioned by

some active duty and retired Marines. A common

theme, reminiscent of unsubstantiated comments

during earlier attempts at integration, linked efforts

aimed at leveling the playing Reid with the lowering of mental aptitude entrance standards and the

erosion of quality in the officer corps.

The Marine Corps' first attempt at addressing

the race and equal opportunity issues of the

decade came in the form of a Commandant's Equal

Opportunity Task Force convened in May 1990 by

the Commandant of the Marine Corps, General

Alfred M. Gray. Among Gray's reasons for conven-
S.

sentation On promotion boards and promotion

board precepts addressing the effects of. bias and

the disparate assignment of "minorities" outside of

their occupational fields; the support of organizations such as the NAACP, NNOA, and Montfort

Point Marines Association, to include general officer attendance at annual conferences and conventions; and the implementation of progressive specific racial and ethnic category recruiting and

accession goals.2

Further examples of the discord on race and

equal opportunity that existed can be found in several articles that appeared in publications primarily catering to Marines. One of those publications

was the Marine Corps Gazette, a popular, privately funded magazine with extensive Marine officer

readership and institutional backing. The public

debate on the Corps' efforts ensued with the publication of an article in the April 1993 issue entitled, "An Equal Opportunity Misconception and

the Accession/Selection Paradox." The author, a

white captain assigned to Headquarters, Marine

Corps as a manpower analyst, asserted that the

Marine Corps' policy of recruiting "minorities"

who scored between 115 and 119 on the Armed

Services Aptitude Battery (ASYAB) destined them

for failure. In the article the author stated:

Marine Corps Historical collection

The last decade of the century continued to make

demands on the Corps, including the largest

combat deployment since the Vietnam War In the

1990-1991 Gulf War; officer and enlisted Marines

served once more in the forefront of American

conflicts.

ing the task force was "the pervasive perception

among minority officers that they are not being

afforded an equal opportunity to compete for promotion."1 This perception was not limited to

General Gray, but was prevalent among the general officer leadership of the Marine Corps. Among

the areas Gray wanted the task force to examine

were recruiting and accessions, promotions, professional military education, occupational field

imbalances, and assignments. Gray, a former enlisted Marine, provided a summary of the task force's

results and his intent in a "White Letter" to all general officers, commanding officers, and officers-incharge. The areas targeted for improvement related to increasing the presence of African-American

officers were: assignments, to include recruiting,

schools, and staffs; promotions, to include repre29

There exists a paradox in the Marine

Corps' equal opportunity philosophy with respect to officer accessions and selections

(promotions).The paradox is simply that the

Corps accesses the "best" qualified within

race/ethnic/gender group guidelines; however, it selects only the "best" qualified for advancement to the next highest grade, irrespective of race/ethnic/gender group. The

consequence of these two policies, what I

like to call the accession/selection paradox,

is the crux of an equal opportunity misconception. 3

Regardless of the validity of its thesis, the article

ignited a firestorm of debate that ultimately would

be underscored in the national media.

A companion article, written by a former white

officer selection officer and published in the same

issue, addressed the issue of "minority" recruiting

from an organizational development and human

resources perspective. lii "Minority Officer Procurement and the OSO," the author asserted that

"the Corps' minority officer recruiting process is

seriously flawed, and if the Corps is to get the best,

some changes are needed."4 In December 1993,
F 0 C U S 0 N

'pill dP1

Targeted advertising was used to raise the image of the Marine Corps in college communities. in this

example, BGen Clifford L. Stanley Is featured on the front of The Black Collegian. The issue went on to

explore career options available in the Marine Corps.

30
-.:- t-. zz—.

- s 'sz

II

4

/

the Gazette published a response to both articles,

written by the Head of the Officer Procurement

Branch, Lieutenant Colonel Reynolds B. Peele, an

infantry officer, former enlisted Marine, and the

second black to head the Corps' officer recruiting

operations. In "Quality Minority Officer Recruitment: An Issue?" Peele addressed the history and

relevance of the ASVAB test, the issue of quality as

compared to test scores, and the concerns of those

tasked with the job of recruiting officer candidates. Peele maintained that:

There is not a quality problem in officer

recruiting. The officers that are recruited

possess the requisite skills to be competitive,

beginning with their experience at The Basic

School. It is essential that this "quality" issue

be critically evaluated in light of the dangerous misconceptions and stigmas that may

develop when reading the two articles published in April, especially as they relate to the

EL [electronic score] Composite and the

Scholastic Aptitude Test scores.5

The final salvos on the subject were fired from

the Gazette in March 1994, where another article

and a host of letters to the editor appeared. The

letters were written by a racially diverse group of

active duty and retired Marines, supporting both

sides of the issue. The article,written by a Hispanic

officer and entitled, "The Minority Controversy:

Enough is Enough," conceded that racism did exist

in the Marine Corps. However, the author concluded that: "The Marine Corps is a fighting machine,

not a social experiment in political correctness. I

really doubt the majority of Americans want this

fine organization to mirror society."6

In addition to the articles featured in the Gazette, the Navy Times, another popular, privately

funded, and widely read military-oriented publication featured two pieces that addressed the existence of institutional bias within the Marine Corps.

In June 1992, the Navy Times featured a commentary and an article, each written by black captains

questioning the sincerity of the Marine Corps'

efforts to eliminate bias and to create an organizational climate of equal opportunity for all Marines.

In "Is the Corps Keeping Blacks from Jts Senior

Officer Ranks?" the author questioned what he

described as the Marine Corps' historical lack of

leadership in dealing with racial matters. He assessed the impact on the recruiting effort as follows:

When a young black college graduate

MajGen Leslie M. Palm headed several boards which addressed the issue of officer accessions, and that

eventually caused ma/or changes to the way business was done.

31
looks for examples of blacks who have had

successful careers as officers in the military;

Army General Cohn Powell, Chairman of the

Joint Chiefs of Staff, represents a service that

concerns itself with racial matters without

sacrificing quality. As that same individual

looks to the Marines, the service is lacking In

representation and willingly sacrifices quality

black officers.7

One week later, another article appeared in the

Navy Times and addressed the issue of institutional bias. En "Bias and the Corps: Looking for

Leadership," the author asserted that: "The Marine

Corps is laden with institutional racism, intentional or unintentional, that is slowly and systematically destroying the morale of every common

Marine."8

In response to the latter piece published in the

Naty Times, Brigadier General Leslie M. Palm, the

Marine Corps' Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for

Manpower and Reserve Affairs, wrote a commentary that appeared in the publication. 1n "Corps is

Working Hard to Eliminate Racism," Palm agreed

with the writer's premise that the Marine Corps

was not a perfect institution, but strongly disagreed

that it was laden with "institutional racism." Palm

also provided a synopsis of recent and future initiatives that had been and were to be implemented

to ensure equality of opportunity for all Marines.

In closing, Palm pledged:

Our ultimate objective is to be a leader in

"minority" representation at every level, not

only among the services, but also as an institution in American society I assure [the captainl, Marines everywhere and your readers

that the Marine Corps' leadership is committed to ensuring every Marine is given an

equal opportunity to achieve goals and to be

recognized both by assignment to positions

of increasing responsibility and by selection

for promotion.9

The articles and commentaries added another

perspective to the ongoing debate. The foregoing

sampling of opinions provide not only a glimpse of

the divergent views, but also perhaps a basis to

equate the Marine Corps, and the other Armed

Services, to the larger society when such volatile

and misunderstood issues as race, gender, and

equality of opportunity are addressed.

Well aware of the potentially negative impact of

the race issue, lieutenant General Charles C.

32

Krulak confronted the problem. In May 1993,

while assigned as the commanding general of the

Marine Corps Combat Development Command,

Quantico, Virginia, the cradle of Marine officer

training and education, he hosted a two-day forum

on "minority" and racial issues. Officers permanently assigned to the area and those attending the

various schools at Quantico—The Basic School,

Amphibious Warfare School, and the Command

and Staff College—attended the session. Participants spanned the rank and racial and ethnic spectrums. Among the recurring issues discussed were:

promotions and the promotion process; school

selection; command selection; affirmative action

and equal opportunity efforts; and long-range plans

to increase minority officer representation.

The results of the forum revealed that the lack

of cultural diversity arid racial understanding were

the root causes of a number of the issues confronting the officer corps. There was a consensus

that the Marine Corps needed to increase the number of "minority" officers. There also was unanimous agreement among all in attendance that lowering standards or "special" treatment for minority

officers, real or perceived, were not in the best

interests of either the Marine Corns or the individual officer. Among the follow-on actions recommended was to be the chartering of a Quality

Management Board tasked with reviewing the

processes pertaining to the professional development of Marine officers.

The Total Quality Approach

In March 1992, prior to the Quantico forum, the

Marine Corps launched a review of its Officer

Candidates School (OCS) and officer recruiting

operations as a result of "minority" attrition rates

and an allegation of racial and ethnic discrimination made by an Asian-American officer candidate.

The charter of the OCS Quality Management Board

tasked its members with studying the process of

accessing and screening officer candidates in the

Marine Corps to determine "why with an apparent

increase in the quality of officer candidates, (a)

OCS attrition has increased and (b) in particular,

among 'minority' and women candidates, where

attrition exceeds the OCS average, what factors

influence this variation."1 The composition of the

board, chaired by Colonel David A.Vetter, consisted

of colonels who held assignments in the various

areas being examined. Initially, the board was comprised of only white males. Some months later, a
black officer, Colonel James Booker, an artilleryman

and former battalion commander, was appointed

to the board upon being assigned to Headquarters

Marine Corps.

Historically, the Marine Corps was accustomed

to high OCS attrition rates. An entry-level training

program, known for its tough screening and

demanding physical regimen coupled with mental

challenges, OCS had a long-standing reputation for

"weeding out" the faint of heart. Race was not a

factor, or was it? Attrition data for the five-year

period, 1989 to 1993, revealed that hlack officer

candithte attrition ranged from one percent to 12

percent higher than the attrition rates for white

officer candidates.11

The information included in Table 4.1 is not

intended to be a complete or conclusive representation of minority attrition rates; there have been

instances where black officer candithte attrition

was lower than the overall attrition rate. Exit surveys conducted at OCS revealed that candidates

attributed their failure to either inadequate physical preparation or a lack of focus. Further, a variety

of physical injuries were contributing factors.

Among the many issues examined by the OCS

Quality Management Board was the relevance or

statistical correlation of standardized test scores on

success or failure at OCS. In this area the board discovered there was no correlation. It concluded

that "in several years, the avenge Scholastic

Aptitude Test (SAT) score and/or Grade Point

Avenge (GPA) for OCS failures were actually higher than for successful candidates."12

The Vetter Board completed its deliberations in

May 1993. Among the recommendations the board

made to the Commandant were:

• That more highly qualified "minority"

and female officers be assigned to the OCS

permanent staff.

• That the Marine Corps Affirmative

Action Plan be reviewed and updated with

consideration given to developing a more

comprehensive and aggressive plan.

• That the mentoring concept, under the

broader dimensions of a leader's basic

responsibilities, be further developed and

implemented; [however,] these programs

should not be designed exclusively for

"minorities."

• That the Marine Corps raise the minimum officer EL score requirement to 120,

but only after an expanded enlisted commissioning program with a special emphasis on

"minorities" is in place.

• That the Marine Corps demonstrate

institutional awareness, recognition, and sensitivity to the fact that minorities face certain

"special challenges" that need to be

addressed.

• That the Marine Corps undertake a high

priority coordinated effort with the overarching goal of improving the opportunities of

"minorities" and women for success . Process Action Teams to develop specific

plans of action in the following areas: performance evaluation system; officer assignment/MOS patterns; commissioning programs (civilian and enlisted); education and

awareness programs relating to cultural

diversity/"special challenges"; and the Marine

Corps Affirmative Action Plan. 13

While the positive intent of the Quality

Management Board was widely recognized, there

were some questions and concerns regarding a

number of the conclusions which generated the

recommendations, for example, the implication or

meaning of "minorities face special challenges."

Second, did the recommendation to expand commissioning opportunities for "minority" enlisted

Marines imply that the traditional sources for civilian officer candidates were no longer viable?

Lastly, does the expansion of opportunities for

Table 4.1 Selected OCS Race/Ethnic Attrition Rates

Black 20 30

Hispanic 40 43

White 21

25 50

21 24

19

Other

Total

Fall (FY93) Winter (FY93) Fall/Winter Average (FY89-92)

44

40

32

47

34

33
'minority" enlisted Marines restrict opportunities

for whites? These are but a few examples of the

questions and concerns generated by the hoard's

recommendations. However, there were some

valuable opportunities for improvement uncovered that had the potential of bettering the organizational climate for equal opportunity.

Brigadier General Leslie M. Palm chaired the follow-on Quality Management Board. Palm was a

recognized leader on issues of equal opportunity

and mentor of a number of African-American officers. This board learned a valuable lesson from its

predecessor; racial and gender diversity among its

membership was to be achieved at the outset.

Chartered on 2 July 1993, the Palm Board was

tasked with "analyzing the processes by which we

[the Marine Corps] access, train, educate, assign,

augment, promote, and professionally develop our

officers with the overarching goal of improving the

opportunities of minorities and women for success."14 Among the criteria for a successful career

included attaining the rank of colonel.

The Palm Board's six areas of emphasis reflected those that were recommended by the Vetter

Board and comprised the core of the process

action teams. Later in its deliberations, the board

combined the efforts of the commissioning program teams and added two areas of emphasis, the

swimming requirements at The Basic School and

mentoring. The ultimate objective of the board

was to produce a campaign plan on minority

issues by 1 October 1994.'

The plan, labeled Operation Order 1-95

(Campaign Plan to Increase Diversity Within the

Officer Corps of the Marine Corps), was published

on 17 March 1995. It represented the work of the

various process action teams, Headquarters Marine

Corps staff agencies, Marine Corps Recruiting

Command, and Marine Corps Combat

Development Command. The initial conclusions

and recommendations of the Palm Board were

"war-gamed" using active duty officers and college

students who included current officer candidates

and potential applicants. The active duty officers

included lieutenants and captains assigned to the

operational forces at nearby Camp Lejeune, North

Carolina. This racially diverse group provided

comments and data that would prove useful in

The QMB chairman's interpretation of the specific tasking

relating to the Affirmative Action Plan generated the idea to

develop Operation Order 1-95 (campaign Plan to Increase

Officer Diversity).

34

determining the strengths and weaknesses of the

campaign plan. The final plan presented to the

Commandant, General Carl E. Mundy,Jr., was crafted to accomplish his vision and intent:

A Marine Corps that will access quality

officers from different ethnic and racial

groups who will be motivated to remain

because they are proud to be Marines, and

because they have the opportunity to establish a viable careei commensurate with their

potential.

We must attack this challenge. [The goal

isi a Marine Corps which reflects the racial

composition of America and that continues

to treat all Marines fairly and affords them an

equal opportunity for success. 16

The campaign plan reflected a three-phased

approach: Phase I (Accessions); Phase II (Commissioning and MOS selection); and Phase III

(Retention and Career Development). Among the

tasks assigned to the supporting staff agencies and

the Recruiting Command were: 17

• The implementation of an officer accession plan (exclusive of warrant officers) that

yielded accessions totaling 12 percent black,

12 percent Hispanic, and 5 percent other

racial or ethnic categories by Fiscal Year

2000.

• A training and education pLan to support

the Commandant's vision.

• An analysis of the fitness report (performance evaluation system) to ensure it supported the Commandant's intent.

Although the plan represented nearly three years

of concentrated effort, the real tasks were ahead: a

committed, well coordinated, focused attack on

the impediments to achieving an officer corps

numerically representative of the nation and free

of racial bias and "glass ceilings"

Enlightening the Leadershz

In August 1993, the yearly General Officers'

Symposium included a day-long seminar on the

various racial issues that were being discussed

Marine Corps-wide. Major General Jerome Ci.

Cooper, at the request of the Commandant, introduced and moderated the discussion on a number

of issues that were overdue for "some frank dis-
Pt I

I

'4

'1

a

cussion." Included among the issues were: racial

representation in the rank structure; the findings

and recommendations of the Quality Management

Boards; the Krulak 'Minority' Officer Symposium;

the articles appearing in the Marine Corps Gazette

and Navy Times; and racial diversity18 In addition

to the seminar, the Commandant provided the genera! officers with a book each quarter on a subject

relating to race in America. Included were books

by widely read authors such as Roosevelt Thomas,

Cornell West, and Benjamin Hacker. The seminar

and readings prepared the general officer leadership of the Marine Corps for their roles in implementing the numerous initiatives that were developed, informing their subordinate commanders,

and facilitating discussions within their commands.

Confronting a Crisis

Amid the efforts begun in the early 1990s

intended to energize the black officer recruiting

Commanding Officer Col Alphonse G. Davis

inspects candidates at the Officer Candidates

School at Quantico, Virginia. This was a critical

leadership post at what is known as the

"Crossroads of the Corps" and provided tangible

proof of challenges met

35

effort, a crisis ensued that not only had the potential of derailing the efforts to attract new officers,

but also the efforts to inculcate the organizational

ethos of teamwork, acceptance, and mutual

respect. On the heels of a series of events that reopened the healing wounds of race and equal

opportunity (i.e., the series of Marine Corps

Gazette and Navy Times articles, the Quantico

Forum, and the Yamashita Class Action Suit), now

national television was the medium for surfacing

the race and equal opportunity issue. This time,

however, the stakes were higher. Individual names,

faces, andreputations became part of the equation.

In late October 1993, the CBS television magazine show 60 Minutes featured a segment on bias

and discrinilnation against black officers within

the Marine Corps. The pre-recorded segment featured a number of black company-grade officers, a

former black Marine officer turned Navy pilot, and

one Hispanic female officer, all alleging that institutional bias and discrimination against black officers existed within the Marine Corps. The official

response featured the Commandant, General

Mundy, defending the allegations and responding

to a series of frank, probing questions from the

host of the segment. During the exchange, the

televised portion of General Mundy's response to a

question regarding the performance of black lieutenants at The Basic School, portrayed him generalizing about the blacks' lack of ability in the areas of

swimming, marksmanship, and land navigation.

Mundy refuted the allegation and attributed the

unfavorable characterization to comments taken

Out of context. The network stood by its assertions. The airing of the segment reverberated

throughout the active duty, Reserve, and retired

communities, and rekindled the firestorm on race

and the lack of equal opportunity for black officers

within the Marine Corps.

The comments attributed to General Mundy

were not consistent with the popularity and

respect he enjoyed among black officers (and

enlisted Marines) and not characteristic of his positions on equal opportunity and increasing the

number of black officers in the Marine Corps.

Indicative of his support for the latter issue was his

advocacy of the Assistant for Minority Officer

Procurement initiative during the 1980s. Despite

the temporary setback caused by the 60 Minutes

episode, Mundy continued pursuing the initiatives

that would improve the racial climate within the

Corps and increase the racial diversity within the

officer ranks. In response to the comments aired

in the segment,he immediately issued a message to
all Marines reaffirming his position on equal

opportunity and laid out his plan for improving

diversity and opportunities in the officer corps.

Among the follow-on actions implemented by

Mundy was the reestablishment of the

Commandant's Special Advisor on Equal

Opportunity Matters billet instituted in late 1960.

The officer selected to fill the position was

Lieutenant Colonel Alphonse G. Davis,a battalion

commander with the 2d Force Service Support

Group and a former infantry officer turned logistician and head of the Marine Corps officer recruiting operations. Davis served in the billet from

September 1993 to May 1995. In addition to the

special advisor billet, Mundy also established a

group composed of individuals from the civilian

coniniunity to act as an advisory and feedback

mechanism for policies and initiatives pertaining

to increasing racial diversity in the officer ranks.

Referred to as the Diversity Interest Group, it contained a mix of retirees, reservists, and civilians

with backgrounds in academic, corporate, and government personnel and leadership matters.

Among the group's membership were several pioneers in the efforts of the 1970s, such as retired

Brigadier General George H. Walls, Jr., and retired

Lieutenant Colonel Edward L.Green.

Another area of interest for Mundy was the organizational location and effectiveness of the Equal

Opportunity Branch. In addition to his special

advisory duties, Davis was tasked with heading an

organizational development focused structure

study, assisted by Mrs. DeAnna Sosnowski, a civil

servant with extensive background in officer

recruiting and a Women's Executive Leadership

Program graduate. The results of the structure

study contained a number of recommendations

that increased the relevance of the Equal

Opportunity Branch. Included among the recommendations were:

• Changing the organizational location of

the branch from the Human Affairs Division

to the Manpower Policy Department.

• Increasing the rank of the branch head

to that of colonel, instead of lieutenant

colonel.

• Increasing the size of the staff.

• Mandating a racially diverse staff with

proven records of performance and competitiveness for future promotion.

• Establishing and expanding the responsibilities of the branch relative to the coordination and communication with other

36

Headquarters staff agencies (to include

Recruiting, Advertising, and Public Affairs).

The recommendations not only served to

increase the branch's input on manpower policy

and recruiting matters, but also were particularly

important in the efforts to increase the racial and

gender mix within the officer corps. En addition,

they enhanced the quality of the Marine Corps'

participation in conferences and conventions identified as potential sources for black applicants

while also establishing the presence of the Marine

Corps in the various communities. lastly, the recommendations presented an opportunity to integrate the specific goals and objectives of the Equal

Opportunity Branch, the Public Affairs Branch, and

the Officer Recruiting Branch. The result was a

synergistic, comprehensive organizational strategy

for conference and convention participation. With

the approval of the Commandant, the recommendations were implemented and Davis was tabbed

to assume the position of branch head in addition

to his special advisory duties.

Secretary of the Navy Interest

Shortly after the 60 Minutes flap, Secretary of

the Navy John H. Dalton communicated his interest in improving opportunities for "minorities"

within the Department of the Navy. In a 12

November 1993 memorandum to the Comniandant of the Marine Corps and the Chief of Naval

Operations, Dalton stated that he wanted to "realize the Department's goal of equal and maximum

participation of minorities."19 Secretary Dalton

tasked the Assistant Secretary of the Navy for

Manpower and Reserve Affairs with heading the effort. In a foliow-on letter to the Assistant Commandant and the Vice Chief of Naval Operations,

Assistant Secretary of the Navy Frederick Y. Pang

established an Executive Policy Group to assess

minority career progression and representation

within the rank structure and all career fields.

The Assistant Secretary's focus included six

familiar areas: accessions; officer commissioning

programs; assignments and promotions; the perforThe sub ject of the memorandum was enhancement opportunity for minorities.The secretary cites the significant progrcss

made and the need to accomplish more. He also tasks the

Assistant Secretary for Manpower and Reserve Affairs, Frederick

Y. Pang, to review the Marine corps and Navy programs to

ensure maximum contribution of all.
mance evaluation system; retention; and affirmative action plans.20* These six areas of emphasis

were similar to those of the Palm Quality

Management Board. Despite this, the Marine Corps

was a major participant in the Department of the

Navy's review that began in January 1994.Among

the major directives issued as a result of the

Executive Planning Group's findings were the

need for a format mentoring program and recrt.1ting and accession goals that would produce an officer force that was racially reflective of the nation

in the year 2000. The directives required the

Marine Corps and the Navy to implement officer

recruiting and accession plans that would yield 10

to 12 percent black, 10 to 12 percent Hispanic, and

3 to 5 percent other racial and ethnic categories by

the beginning of the millennium. This requirement

became known as the "12/12/5 Plan." The plan did

not include warrant officer accessions.

Employing New Approaches

The decision to improve racial diversity in the

officer corps by implementing several specific

racial and ethnic category recruiting and accession

goals instead of a single collective "minority" category, mandated the requirement for an innovative

supporting strategy. The staff agency responsible

for officer recruiting and accessions (MRO) was

expanded to include a section whose primary afea

of focus was "minority" officer recruiting. The

newly added section (MROM) developed strategies, tracked and analyzed "minority" application

trends, and provided advice and support to the

Recruiting Districts and officer selection officer

teams. In addition, a training module was developed to provide market and prospecting expertise.

The first officer to head the section was Major

Keith Sewell, a former officer selection officer.

SeweD, a white officer, was setected for the job

because of his previous success in this area. His

selection also proved to be of value in convincing

a group comprised mostly of white mates that race

'The letter to Lieutenant General Walter E.Boomer,Assistatst

Commandant, was a follow-up to Secretary Dalton's memorarldum to the commandant and Chief or Naval Operations. It

included a timeline projecting the review to last for four

months, beginning the week of 3 January- t994 and cndisig the

week of 2 May 1994. Assistant Secretary Pang headed the

review until his appointment to another position within the

Department of Defense. His replacement, Richard Danzig. took

a personal interest in the outcome of the review and had a particular interest in the mentoring aspect.

37

was not a limiting factor in the recruiting of

Mrican.-American officer candidates. In short, it

was the ageold "I did it and so can you" theory at

work.

Efforts in advertising and marketing would

require laioring to locate and appeal to the target

market. This requirement was achieved by developing productive relationships with organizations

and publications targeted towards the AfricanAmerican college undergraduate and graduate markets. Headquarters staff agency coordination

between Officer Recruiting, Recruit Marketing,

Public Mfairs, and Equal Opportunity was the key

to maximizing effectiveness.

Publications such as Ebony, Black Enterprise,

and The Black collegian proved to be effective

print mediums for advertisements featuring

African-American officers while extolling the beneflt of becoming a Marine officer. The Black

Collegian relationship was especially effective in

distinguishing the difference between service as

an officer and that of an enlisted Marine.This point

was of particular importance in the AfricanAmerican community because of the low percentage (in comparison to whites) of parents and other

relatives who may have served as officers in the

Marine Corps or the other Services. The Collegian

regularly featured articles about African-American

officers, many of whom were graduates of historically black colleges and universities. Also, the publication developed special edition calendars and

brochures to assist officer selection officers in

their recruiting efforts.

Another opportunity, which extended the

appeal of the Marine Corps, was developed

through its advertising agency,J.WalterThompson,

with a well-known broadcasting conglomerate

having nationwide Affican-American appeal. In

1.991, the Marine Corps teamed with several well

known companies to co-sponsor the American

Urban Radio Networks' Black College FootballAllAmerican Weekend. This yearly activity linked the

Marine Corps with excellence in sports and citizenship. Thc Corps' participation was expanded to

a "Leaders to Leaders" radio spot, featuring AfricanAmerican officers and the awarding of an annual

Marine Corps leadership prize to an athlete who

best exemplified leadership in the classroom, on

campus, and in the community This relationship

provided an opportunity to impact black colleges

and universities and black college football nationwide.

In addition to the contacts developed with the

print and broadcast media, relationships were also
appeal, to publicize its needs for African-American

officers, and to develop sources for prospective

candidates.

Assessing the Results

LtCol Henry T Go bar receives command supervision from Gen Robert H Barrow during a command visit, increased viibilitv in command

positions was an essential draw to attracting

prospective officers for inpiring juniors.

developed and/or expanded with military and professional organizations such as the National Society

of Black Engineers (NSBE), the National Naval

Officers Association (NNOA), and the National

Association for the Advancement of Colored

People (NAACP). These mutually beneficial relationships which culminated in annual national

conference and convention participation, provided

the Marine Corps an opportunity to expand its

The revamped recruiting strategy implemented

by the Marine Corps was a move in the right direction; however, the success of any good plan is

always dependent upon its execution. A look at

the results in four essential areas provides the basis

for an analysis of the plan coupled with its implementation. Those important areas are accessions,

composition, retention, occupational field distribution, and command assignments.

The Marine Corps Affirmative Action Plan. for

1988 and 1989, published 17 November 1988,

established racial and ethnic accession goals that

placed black officer accessions at six percent per

year from 1990 through 1992. Hispanic officer

accessions were Set at three percent while total

accessions for all other racial and ethnic categories

ranged from 3.2 to 3.4 percent for the same threeyear period. As noted earlier, the Commandants

Equal Opportunity Task Force, established by

General Alfred Gray, increased black accession

goals to seven percent in 1991 and then, increasing

by two-tenths of a percent a year, reaching a goal of

7.8 percent in 1995. This requirement was published on 6 September 1990 in the Marine Corps'

Affirmative Action Plan (FY 9 1-95). Accession goals

were also increased for all other racial and ethnic

categories. The long-term implication of this move

required that the recruiting service place more

Percent of Total Accessions 4.7 4.6 5.7 7.1 7.8 7.4

Table 4.2 Black OfficerAccessions (1990-1995)

Fiscal Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Total Accession Goal 1,404 1,305 1,350 1,026 1,204 1,479

Black Goal 84 91 97 76 92 115

Percent of Accession Goal 6.0 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8

TotalAccessions 1,404 1,305 1,350 1,026 1,204 1,479

Total Black Accessions 66 60 77 73 95 110
Table 4.3 Black Officer Accession Sources (1991- 1995)*

emphasis on accessions from its undergraduate

programs. In the short term however, more accessions would be required from enlisted ranks and

civilian source graduate programs (the Officer

Candidates Course and the Enlisted Commissioning Program).

The first five years of the 1990s brought about a

decrease in the Marine Corps' requirement for new

lieutenants .Yearly requirements from 1990 to 1994

decreased by approximately 8.5 percent, from

1,404 to 1,204.The impact on the accessioning of

African-American lieutenants was revealed in yearly total accessions that never exceeded 100. Black

officer accessions ranged from a low of 60 in fiscal

year 1991 to a high of 94 in fiscal year 1994. In

1995, however, new lieutenant requirements nearly reached a level of 1,500 officers. The result of

this increase yielded 110 African-American lieutenants.21

39

In four of the six years from 1990 to 1995, the

majority of black officer accessions were from the

Officer Candidates Course (0CC), the conmüssioning program available to enlisted Marines with

college degrees and civilian college graduates who

were not enrolled in the various undergraduate

commissioning programs. This was an indication

that the Marine Corps was not tapping the full

potential of its undergraduate Platoon Leaders

Class (PLC) program, the Naval Academy (USNA),

or the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps

(NROTC).22

Historically, of all the commissioning programs

requiring attendance at OCS (0CC, PLC, and

NROTC), the 0CC program presented the lowest

probability for successful completion (i.e., higher

attrition rates). The various factors that contributed to that probability were age, motivation

for joining, and a lack of opportunity for the stoicFiscal Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Programs

0CC 35 42 23 13 42

PLC 30 21 38 48 25

NROTC 22 10 16 12 10

USNA 03 14 14 17 09

ENL 10 13 09 10 14

The figures reflect percentages, are rounded to the next whole number, and include women.

OENI] denotes thc enlisted commissioning programs.

Table 4.4 African-American Officer Population (As of 30 September 1995) 23

Rank Total African-American Percentage of Total Black Females

0-10 3 0 0.0 - 0-9 9 0 0.0 - 0-8 22 0 0.0 - 0-7 34 2 5.9 0

0-6 626 18 2.9 0

0-5 1,637 73 4.5 5

0-4 3,161 112 3.5 6

0-3 5,457 249 4.6 11

0-2 2,859 182 6.4 08

0-1 2,044 165 8.1 13

Total 15,852 801 5.1 43
'C I

tured mental and physical preparation regimen

characteristic of the undergraduate programs.

Between 1990 and 1995, the Marine Corps

experienced a 12 percent reduction in its officer

force, from 18,105 to 15,852. During that same

period, the percentage of African-American officer

representation increased from 4.6 percent in 1990

to 5.1 percent in 1995, despite a decline in the

total number of African-American officers (834 to

801). Although the representation of AfricanAmerican officers did not reflect the percentage

within the general population, there were some

obvious signs of progress amid the statistics.

First, there were two general officers in the

active component; this was a significant "first" in

the history of the Corps. Second, from 1990 to

1995, the number of colonels doubled to a total of

18. And, five African-American women were

among the lieutenant colonel population.

Somewhat less encouraging was that the number

of African-American women officers remained relatively stable during this five-year period (46 in

1990 to 43 in 1995).

A key component of the Marine Corps' efforts

to racially diversify its officer force was in its retention and augmentation efforts. The needs of the

service with regard to occupational specialty

requirements, coupled with an officer's overall

documented performance, are the primary determinants of who is selected for augmentation. For

example, in several years, pilots and lawyers apply40

LtCol DebraA. Woodard, director of the Financial

Management School, works with a staff member

She was one of the first women Marines to command a major activity.

ing for augmentation and retention enjoyed a

selection rate of nearly 100 percent. In the broader context, several of the initiatives explored by the

Commandant's Equal Opportunity Task Force and

the Palm Board had a direct singular or combined

impact on improving the augmentation and retention of black officers. Items such as mentoring,

Table 4.5 Black Officer Augmentation Rates Versus Total Population Rate?

Applied Selected Selection

Percentage

1990 43/714 11/248 26/35

1991 43/635 25/352 58/55

1992 67/1066 13/307 19/29

1993 68/1151 22/349 32/30

1994 70/1268 45/648 67/51

1995 53/1114 34/736 63/65

'Total population includes officers of all nnks who applied for augmentation, including females.
occupational field selections, the performance

evaluation system, promotions, and professional

military education were all relevant. During the

1990-1995 period, augmentation rates for black

officers exceeded those of the total population

considered dithng three of the six years.24

Racial diversity in military occupational fields

was an organizational concern since the beginning

of the Marine Corps efforts to attract more AfricanAmerican officers. The need for role models

throughout the Corps coupled with increased

opportunity for command were the prime determinants. However, for various reasons, the vast

majority of African-American lieutenants did not

consider the various combat arms fields when

making their choices at The Basic School. The reasons were varied and understandable. Socially, the

Vietnam experience did little to convince the

neighborhood "elders" or parents that the life of an

infantryman improved the social status and treat41

ment of black Vietnam veterans. Professionally,

there was a general belief that the infantry and

other combat arms fields offered no marketable

skills. Culturally, many of the black officers recruited in the early 1970s were first generation college

graduates. Their parents and grandparents desired

a better quality of life for their offspring, one that

was better than their own. A college education

that was later put to good use was considered the

optimum way of achieving that goal.

To a degree the Marine Corps bears some of the

blame for the scarcity of African-Americans in the

various combat arms fields. The pressures of finding and convincing the prospective young AfricanAmerican officer that the Marine Corps is his calling is certainly increased when the recruiting pitch

dwells on the virtues and adventures of life as an

infantry, artfflery or tank officer. Instead, the residual benefit of "Marine officer" on a resume sounds

more impressive.

Table 4.6 Officer Combat Arms Representation25t

White/Percent Black/Percent

Total in OF

Total Officers

Hispanic/Percent

1992

Total Aviators

9,358/61.84

15,132

4,867

Other/Percent

291/38.65

753

99

Total in OF

Total Officers

258/55.72

463

117

1993

Total Aviators

23 1/61.76

374

123

9,276/58.10

15,965

4,785

309/33.59

920

108

Total

Total

Total

273/51.03

535

124

in OF

Officers

Aviators

1994

235/57.60

408

123

8,964/56.3

15,871

4,700

332/33.57

989

120

285/48.22

591

137

Total in OF

Total Officers

Total Aviators

1995

233/54.44

428

120

8,569/56.75

15,098

4,134

282/29.3

968

77

247/40.65

609

85

Total in occupational fields (OF) pertains to all combat arms specialties (i.e., infantry, artillery, armor, aviation, etc.).

194/46.52

417

92
Col GildaA. Jackson's promotion marked a milestone for Marines and African-Americans. She

was one of the pioneers to command Marine

units when restrictions involving women assignments were removed.

The Palm Board addressed the occupational

field diversity dilemma from several directions.

African-American officers with varied occupational specialties assisted officer selection officers as

role models and proof sources. The Basic School

staff was targeted as a priority organization for the

assignment of African-American officers. rn 1994,

a mentoring program was established that focused

exclusively on African-American lieutenants. Staff

officers were paired with the lieutenants for the

purpose of informing them of the opportunities

available in combat arms fields, to include aviation.

These combined efforts effected the beginning of

a significant change in the racial make-up of the

various occupational fields.

In addition to the increase of African-American

officers in the field grade and general officer ranks,

command assignments loomed as one of the most

visible signs of change. Unlike the 1970s and

1980s, when African-American officers occupied a

limited number of command assignments, the

1990s witnessed an increase in the number of

colonels and lieutenant colonels in command billets in many areas and occupational fields.

In July 1992, the Marine Corps implemented a

42

system of selecting lieutenant colonels and

colonels by formal selection board. The command

selection and screening process incorporated two

interdependent activities, screening for probable

command assignment based upon the needs of the

Marine Corps and command slating. The slating

process involved the actual assignment to specific

commands. The major factor for consideration was

an officer's documented record of performance.

Prior to then, commanders at the battalion or

squadron and regimental or group levels were normally selected by the commanding general. The

results of the command screening and slating

boards for the period July 1992 through September

1995 reflected 25 African-American officers in the

ranks of colonel and lieutenant colonel slated for

command.26 The commands included armor,

artillery, aviation, combat support, combat service

support, enlisted and officer entry-level training

and schooling, headquarters and service units,

logistics and supply centers, and security forces.

Included among those selected for command were

three African-American women, Lieutenant Colonels Doris A. Daniels, Gilda A. Jackson, and Debra

A.Woodard.

A number of other black lieutenant colonels and

colonels commanded units throughout the Marine

Corps. In the infantry Lieutenant Colonels JohnT.

Boggs,Jr., Ronald L. Bailey,Walter E. Gaskin, Sr., and

Reynolds B. Peele commanded battalions. Artifiery

battalion commanders included Lieutenant

Colonels Kenneth D. Dunn and Henry T. Gobar.

Among the numerous combat service support

commanders were Lieutenant Colonels Ronald S.

Coleman, Alphonse G. Davis, Marshall Hampton,

and Colonel James E. Smith. Support group and

wing commanders included Lieutenant Colonels

Ervin Rivers, Samuel E. Roberts, and Willie J.

Williams. In the supporting establishment,

lieutenant Colonel Anthony L. Jackson commanded a security force, while lieutenant Colonels

Thomas E. Minor and Ernest E. Hickson commanded Inspector-Instructor units. The educational

backgrounds of all these officers included the

Naval Academy and a number of historically black

colleges and universities.

Significant Accomplishments

The 1990s was a period of many notable firsts

forAfrican-American Marines on the battlefield and

in garrison. During Operation Desert Storm, a

young captain received the Navy Cross for combat
¶1

Marine Corps Security Force King's Bay served as the site for an address by the Honorable John Dalton,

Secretary of the Navy. Commanding Officer ItColAnthony Jackson stands to the right.

bravery. While serving as a company commander

in tile light armored infantry battalion on 25

February 1991, Captain Eddie S. Ray used his leadership and knowledge of coordinating arms to lead

his unit in decisively defeating several Iraqi counterattacks. The heroics of Captain Ray and his

Marines led to the capture of more than 250 Iraqi

soldiers during the 10-hour battle.27

In addition to Captain Ray and the other young

company grade officers answering the call of duty

during Operation Desert Storm, Lieutenant

Colonel Arnold Fields, an infantry officer and graduate of South Carolina State Universitç gained

prominence while commanding the 3d Battalion,

6th Marines. In the 1st Tank Battalion, another

black officer made history on the smoke-filled battlefields of the Persian Gulf. Lieutenant Colonel

Alphonso B. Diggs,Jr., attained the dual distinction

of becoming the first black officer to command a

tank battalion while leading that unit in combat.

Prior to these significant accomplishments during

the Persian Gulf War, Colonel Clifford L. Stanley, an

infantryman and another South Carolina State graduate, became the first African-American to command at the regimental level, assuming command

of the 1st Marine Regiment on 29 February 1992.

In June 1991, the Marine Corps advanced

Colonel George H.Walls,Jr.,to the rank of brigadier

43

general. With the promotion, Walls became the

third African-American to attain flag rank in the

216-year history of the Corps. Prior to his voluntary retirement to pursue his interest in the field of

education, Brigadier General Walls commanded the

2d Force Service Support Group from July 1.991

until his retirement in July 1993. During his tenure

as commanding general of the group, he was apBGen George H Walls, Jr., addresses personnel of

the 2d Force Service Support Group at Camp

Lejeune, North Carolina. Walls headed Joint Task

Force Operation Gitmo that supported Haitian

refugees.

4

.7 — E!.1. — .- alt__I

—
'0

7.—a

•

____

• :.. •

s-I •• •'-,

.--• .;I,,

pointed Commanding General jointlask Force operation Gitmo, the humanitarian relief effort for

Haitian migrants at Guantanamo Naval Base, Cuba.

In August of 1994, Colonel Clifford Stanley

added to an illustrious career when he became the

fourth African-American to don the stars of a

Marine Corps general. During his years as a

brigadier general, he served successively as the

Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and

Reserve Affairs (Manpower Plans & Policy) and as

the Director of Public Affairs, Headquarters Marine

Corps. Both assignments added to the growing list

of significant "firsts" achieved by Stanley.

In the aviation field, a Marine astronaut continued to make history while assigned to the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Colonel Charles F. Bolden, a Naval Academy graduate and native South Carolinian, flew four space

missions, three of which he commanded. Among

his contributions while at NASA were the Hubble

Telescope experiment; Space Shuttle Atlantis,

which included the Atlas-I experiments; and the

joint U.S.-Russian Space Shuttle Discovery mission.

Upon his return to the ranks of the Corps, his first

assignment was to his alma mater as Deputy

Commandant of Midshipmen. In September 1995,

Bolden teamed with Stanley for another significant

milestone, when he was advanced to the rank of

brigadier general. Together, they became the first

African-American general officers to simultaneously serve on active duw. Shortly afterwards, he was

assigned as the assistant wing commander of the

3d Marine Aircraft Wing.

There were other areas of significant accomplishment in the Marine Corps occurring outside

of the operational Fleet Marine Forces. In June

1995, for the first time, an African-American was

assigned to Officer Candidates School as its commanding officer. Colonel Alphonse G. Davis, a graduate of Southern University and a veteran of three

previous officer recruiting assignments, served

successfully in that billet until July 1997.

Commanding General BGen Clifford L. Stanley of the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Cente

Twentynine Palms, Calff'ornla, receives the colors from the command sergeant major

44
In addition to Davis' assignment, a number of

other "high visibility" assignments were occurring

around the Marine Corps. For example, at

Headquarters, Marine Corps, successive Commandants had African-American officers as aide-decamps. Major Christopher M. Bourne, an infantry

officer and early selection to the rank of major,

served during the tenure of General Mundy.

Captain Patrick R.Wilkes, a former enlisted Marine,

was selected as an aide-de-camp to Mundy's suc45

cessor, General Krulak. In addition, African-American officers served in the various staff sections at

Headquarters, Marine Corps to include recruiting,

manpower (planning, policy, and officer assignments), fiscal, administration, and logistics. Collectively, these assignments reflected a significant

change in assignment policies and practice and

contributed to the Marine Corps' efforts to demonstrate its long-term commitment to equal opportunity for all Marines.
CHAPTER 5

Prospects

As the Marine Corps enters the new millennium, its prospects of increasing the presence of

African-American officers are replete with challenges and opportunities. The conditions fomenting a broad array of challenges include:

• In the post-Desert Storm en, a 50-percent decline in the propensity of AfricanAmerican males to join the military.1

• A general perception that military advertising is focused on the economically disadvantaged, featuring the military as a rational

solution to the lack of funds for college.2

• A perception among some that the civilian work force offers better opportunities.3

• A categorization of the military by some

as a "fullback" position if other options do not

materialize.4

• A combination of national economic

trends requiring an elevation of educational

standards.5

• A rise in the avenge age of the population, accompanied by a reduction in the pool

of young workers.6

• And predictions that question the competence and skills of new entrants into the

workforce.7

A number of forecasts for the future present

opportunities for increasing the racial diversity of

the Marine Corps, the other military Services, and

the private sector. These opportunities for enhancing racial diversity include:

• Blacks, Hispanics, and other racial and

ethnic groups will be a larger share of the

new entrants into the labor force.8

• Black women will comprise the largest

share of the increase in the non-white labor

force.9

46

• An increase in the percentage of black

college males possessing bachelor's degrees

as compared to the 19805.10

It is obvious that the foregoing challenges and

opportunities will in some fashion affect the various labor markets and subsequently the economy.

Similarly, these fuctors will affect the recruiting

efforts of the military The character and results of

those singular and combined factors depend upon

the action taken to minimize the potentially negative outcome of the challenges and to maximize

the potential benefits of the opportunities.

Enhancing the Prospects

The solution for minimizing the potentially negative effects of the challenges and maximizing the

promise of the opportunities lies in a number of

areas addressed by the Marine Corps during the

last three decades. Those areas are recruiting and

accessions, advertising and marketing, mentoring,

and equal opportunity education.

Based on past results, trends, and tendencies, the

logical direction for the Marine Corps' officer recruiting efforts includes increasing output from its

undergraduate accession sources. The Platoon

Leaders Class Program represents a service-unique

opportunity to counter the internships and summer job opportunities offered by corporate

America.

Further, Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps

scholarships offer a defmite motivation for the top

all-around African-American high school students.

Even more, the Naval Academy represents a pool of

some of the finest African-American talent this

nation has to offer. The Marine Corps' targeted

efforts to gain the interest of those midshipmen

prior to their First Class (senior) year will enhance

the potential of maximizing the number of AfricanAmericans under the current system.
WE'LL GIVE YOU 10 WEEKS.

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The Fep.; The Proud. MARINE OFFICIR

The Journal. Kappa Alpha Psi, February 1998

By decade's end the efforts of many paid off in the acceptance of the Marines as source of opportunity as well as service. The image became realily Jbr those willing to accept the challenge

47
e\aJ.afl, .a (U ' '

in,

e

C

The Corps strategy to attract and recruit

African-American women must include a method

of discerning why the Marine Corps is not routinely considered as a viable career option. As of

31 January 1998,69 African-American women officers were on active duty; only one of those women

is among the 22 African-American colonels in the

active component.

In addition, the immediate requirement for

numbers to satisfy near-term goals and that lessen

OCS attrition should not be entirely focused on

enlisted accession sources. This over-reliance

tends to lessen the presence on campus afforded

to the undergraduate programs and essentially

cedes the college market to corporations and the

other military services. Smart prospecting coupled

with effective supporting strategies and proper

and comprehensive preparation for OCS, maximizes the opportunity for successful completion

and an increase in accessions.

The advertising efforts focused on AfricanAmericans should reflect a strategy that includes

the unique culture. Also, the perceptions about the

Marine Corps that embody thoughts of a lack of

opportunity need to be addressed. The use of

African-American role models featured in national

and local advertisements and commercials will

contribute to self-actualization and increase awareness, potentially enhancing the reputation of the

Marine Corps and correct a number of misperceptions. Opportunities abound in televised collegiate

and professional sporting events and other venues

featuring black excellence.

The marketing efforts of the Marine Corps

should incorporate the relationships which already

exist with the various social and professional organizations to include fraternities, sororities, the

NAACP NNOA, and others. This comprehensive

approach could position the Marine Corps as the

Armed Service of choice for those young AfricanAmericans considering a career option as a military officer

The benefits of a comprehensive mentoring

effort can be realized as early as an individual is

identified as a prospective officer program applicant. Pairing the potential officer candidate with

an active duty or Reserve officer who shares one

or more common bonds such as race, gender,

hometown, fraternity, sorority and other interests

can aid in influencing a variety of areas related to

increasing the presence of African-American officers. Simccessful completion of OCS, acceptance of

The naming of Branch Hall at the Officer Candidates School in 1997 marked thefts/i circle in a journey that began in 1945. Honored by the Marine Corps for his pioneering effort, Frederick C. Branch

credited his 35 years in education as his real legacy.

48
commissions, the proper mental attitude and focus

for TBS, MOS selection, and augmentation and retention are among those areas. The gender matching strategy could be particularly helpful in increasing the number of African-American women

officers.

The final area, and perhaps most important to

sustaining the Marine Corps' efforts to increase the

long-term presence of African-American officers, is

a progressive racial diversity education effort that

will foster a paradigm shift. African-American

Marines no longer face the blatant acts of racial

injustice suffered by Frederick Branch, Edgar R.

Huff, and other Montfort Point Marines. The racial

problems of the late 1960s are remnants of the

past. However, the Corps still has a need to inculcate a pervasive organizational attitude and atmosphere that does not equate efforts to ensure equality of opportunity and enhance the racial diversity

of its leadership with the lowering of stanthrds

and the erosion of quality. The thoughts and words

of those who view African-Americans and others as

individuals or groups facing "special challenges"

and the objects of "paradoxical" actions should not

be adopted as the organization's official position in

its timely and proper efforts to increase the presence of African-American officers in America's

Marine Corps.

Conclusion

Today's Marine Corps can step forward and

boast a myriad of achievements in its efforts to

increase the presence ofAfrican-American officers.

There is still work to be done, but role models do

abound. If "a picture is worth a thousand words,"

49

then the photograph featured on the cover of this

pamphlet is truly an indication of progress.

Today, there are four African-American general

officers in the Marine Corps, three in the active

component and one in the Reserves. Those officers, and a host of others from the same cultural

background, are only a sampling of the talent and

potential that exists. There are others like them

who possess the potential to equal or exceed their

achievements. The fiscal year 1999 colonel command slate included two graduates of historically

black colleges and universities as a future commander of an artillery regiment and a Marine

Expeditionary Unit. In January 1998, the first

African-American woman in the history of the

Marine Corps donned the rank of colonel. In July

1997, the Marine Corps honored its first AfricanAmerican officer by dedicating a building in his

honor at the Officer Candidates School. The first

African-American commander of OCS assisted him

in cutting the ceremonial ribbon as a proud and

and tearful Marine bride of the honoree said: "L'm

so grateful that the Marine Corps gave him his

flowers while he still lives."

Things are changing. Those young AfricanAmerican Marine officers, the lieutenants, the captains, and the majors have an abundance of role

models to aspire to be like as they are poised to follow in their footsteps and make their contribution

to and mark on the Corps. They only ask for and

require an opportunity equal to that of their peers,

who may or may not be of the same culture, economic, social status, or educational background.

Despite those differences however, they all share a

common bond: Marine! Not, however, all green.

They are red, yellow, black, white, and brown; different, but nonetheless, they are stifi Marines.
Notes

CHAPTER 1

A Look at the Past

1. Samuel I. Rosenam, Public Papers and

Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Volume 10

(New York: Harper & Brothers Publishing, 1941),

pp. 216-217, 233-237.

2. Congressional Record Service, 80th Congress,

2nd Session, 13 ER.4313,p. 2673.

3. Bernard C. Nalty, Strength for the Fight (New

York:The Free Press, 1986), pp. 156,159.

4. Morris J. McGregor Jr., Integration of the

Armed Forces (Washington, D.C.: The Center for

Military History, U.S.Army, 1981), p.110.

5. Frederick Branch intvw with author, 27Jan98.

CFIAPTER 2

The Efforts of the 1970s

1. George Q. Flynn, The Draft, 1940-1973

(Lawrence, Kansas:The University of Kansas Press),

1993), p. 209.

2. MajGen John McGowan, USMC (Ret), intvw

with author, 17Jan98.

3. Henry I. Shaw, Jr., and Ralph W. Donnelly,

Blacks in the Marine Corps (Washington, I).C.:

Marine Corps History and Museums Division,

1973), p.72.

4. Secretary of Defense Cyrus Vance memo to

Secretary of the Navy Paul H. Nitze, dtd 8May67.

5. BGen George H. Walls, Jr., USMC (Ret), intvw

with author, 10Feb98.

6. Cot Kenneth Berthoud, USMC (Ret), intvw

with author, 11Feb98.

7. Assistant Secretary of Defense Thomas D.

Morris memo, dtd 9Jun67.

8. LtGen Frank E. Petersen, USMC (Ret), intvw

with author, 13Feb98.

9. Author's conversations with former officer

selection officers: LtCol Anthony Ambrewster,

USMC (Ret); LtCol Clarence E. Willie, USMC (Ret);

lstLt Henry Ferrand, USMC (Ret); Gen Frank E.

50

Petersen, USMC (Ret); and BGen George H. Walls,

Jr.,USMC (Ret).

10. LtCol Anthony Ambrewster, USMC (Ret),

intvw with author, 11Feb98.

11. LtCol Edward L. Green, USMC (Ret), intvw

with author, 12Feb98.

12. End I to Bureau of Naval Personnel memorandum Pers-21 1/tsb, Series 211/213, dtd 1Mar76.

13. LtGen Frank E. Petersen, USMC (Ret), intvw

with author, 13Feb98.

14. Marine Corps Personnel Procurement Division file document, "Minority Accessions by Fiscal

Year."

15. Ibid.

16. Warren L.Young, Minorities and the Military.

A Cross-National Study in World Perspective.

(Westport, Connecticut/London, England: Greenwood Press, 1982), p.227.

17. Marine Corps Personnel Procurement Division file document, "Minority Accessions by Fiscal

Year."

18. Defense Manpower Data Center. Distribution

of Active Duty Forces by Service, Rank, Sex and

Ethnic Group. DMDC-3035, 30Jun71.

19. Ibid., 30Sep79.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

22. Defense Manpower Data Center. Distribution

ofAciive Duly Forces by Service, Occupation, Sex,

and Ethnic Group. DMDC-3690, Sep79.

CHAPTER 3

The Efforts of the l9SOs

1. Marine Corps Personnel Procurement Dlvision. file document, "Minority Accessions by Fiscal

Year"

2. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps (Code

MROA), "Officer Accessions Report for FiscalYears

1983-1990, Annual Minority OfficerAccessions (As

of 30 Sep 90)."

3. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "Military
Equal Opportunity Assessment, FY86," Executive

Sunmuryp.3.

4. Ibid.

5. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "Military

Equal OpportunityAssessment, 1W 84," p.i-3.

6. Ibid.,p.2-l.

7. Statistical Abstract of the US. (Washington,

D.C.: U.S.Departnient of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, 1997), p.18.

8. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "Military

Equal Opportunity Assessment, FY 84," p. 2-1.

9. ElGen Clifford L. Stanley, USMC (IRet), intvw

with author, 4Mar98.

10. Peter E Kostiuk, Minority Officer Recruiting

Goal Allocations, (Alexandria, Virginia: Center for

Naval Analyses, 1989), pp. 1-5.

11. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "Military

Equal Opportunity Assessment, FY84," p.2-4.

12. Ibid., p.2-2; Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps

(MROA), "Officer Accessions Report, Fiscal Years

1983-1990."

13. Defense Manpower Data Center. Distribution

of Active Duty Forces by Service, Rank, Sex and

Ethnic Group. (DMDC-3035) 9/30/80 & 30Sep89.

14. Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, "Military

Equal Opportunity Assessment 1W 85:' p.4-2.

15. Defense Manpower Data Center. Distribution

of Active Duty Forces by Service, Occupation, Sex

and Ethnic Group. (DMDC-3694) 30Sep79 &

30Sep89.

16. Defense Manpower Data Center. Distribution

of Active Duty Forces by Service, Rank, Sex and

Ethnic Group. (DMDC-3035) 30Sep85.

CHAPTER 4

The Efforts of the 1990s

1. Comments from a draft copy of Gen Alfred

Gray's White Letter on the subject of Equal Opportunity Goals and Oblectives.

2. Ibid.

3. Daniel Harrington, "The Equal Opportunity

Misconception and the Accession/Selection

Paradox," Marine Corps Gazette ,Apr93, p. 38.

4. Samuel J. Strotman, "Minority Officer Procurement and the OSO," Marine Corps Gazette,Apr93,

p.43.

5. Reynolds B. Peele, "Quality Minority Officer

Procurement: An Issue?," Marine Corps Gazette,

Dec93, p48.

6. EugeneA. Herrera, "The Minority Controversy:

Enough is Enough," Marine Corps Gazette, Mar94,

p.37.

7. Marcus U. Hartman, "Is the Corps Keeping

51

Blacks from Senior Ranks?" The Navy Times,

22Jun92, p.29

8. Gerald H.Gaskins, "Bias and the Corps: Looking for Leadership," The Navy Times, 28Jun92,

p.32.

9. Leslie M. Palm, "Corps is Working Hard to

Eliminate Racism," The Navy Times, 19Jul93, p.31.

10. OCS Quality Management Board Report,

Jun93, p.2.

11. Ibid.,p.27.

12. Ibid.,p.11

13. Ibid., pp. iv-iv.

14. Executive Steering Committee Tasking Letter,

5000/C061, dtd 2Jul93 in Officer Career Development Quality Management Board.

15. Ibid.,p.5.

16. Marine Corps Operation Order 1-95,

(Campaign Plan to Increase Officer Diversity), p.2.

17. Ibid.,pp.3-4.

18. Marine Corps 1993 General Officer's Symposium Brochure, Ethnic Diversity in the USMC.

19. Secretary of the Navy Memorandum to Chief

of Naval Operations and Commandant of the

Marine Corps, dtd 12Nov93.

20. Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Manpower

and Reserve Affairs) Memorandum to the Assistant

Commandant of the Marine Corps, Gen Walter E.

Boomer, dtd 10Dec93.

21. Marine Corps Recruiting Command (OA),

"Officer Accession Data, Fiscal Years 1991-1997."

22. Ibid.

23. Defense Manpower Data Center, Distribution

of Active Duty Forces by Service, Rank, Sex and

Ethnic Group. DMDC-3035. 9/30/95.

24. "Marine Corps Military Equal Opportunity

Assessments, Fiscal Years 1992 and 1995:' pp.6-i

and 6-2.

25. "Marine Corps Military Equal Opportunity

Assessments, FiscalYears 1992-1994:' pp.9-i to 9-2;

9-i; 9-2 to 9-3, in Defense Manpower Data Center,

Distribution of Active Duty Forces by Service,

Occupation, Sex and Ethnic Group. DMDC-3694.

30Sep95.

26. Msgs announcing results and command

assignments of the Marine Corps Lieutenant

Colonel and Colonel Command Screening Hoards

for Fiscal Years 1993-1995.

27. Capt Eddie S. Ray Navy Cross citation.

CHAPTER 5

Prospects

1. Susan G. Berkowitz, Shelley Perry, Pamela

Giambo, Michael J. Wilson and Jerome D. Lehnus,
An In-Depth Study of Military Propensity: Followup Interviews with 1995 }outh Attitude Tracking

Study Respondents, (Arlington, Virginia: Defense

Manpower Data Center, 1997), p. 1-1.

2. lbid.,p.2-5

3. lbid.,p.2-7

4. lbid.,p.4-19

5. William B. Johnston and Arnold H. Packer,

52

Work Force 2000; Work and the Workers for ihe

21st Century (Indianapolis, Indiana: Hudson

Institute, 1987), p. xiv

6. Ibid., p.75

7. Ibid., p.102

8. Ibicl.,p.89.

9. Ibid., p.89.

10. Ibid.,p.89.
Books

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ISBN 0-16-050474-0

90000

9 780160 504747

54