Subcontract Report

NREL/SR-520-47582

March 2010

Barrier Coatings for 

Thin Film Solar Cells 

Final Subcontract Report

September 1, 2002 – January 30, 2008

L.C. Olsen

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Richland, Washington
National Renewable Energy Laboratory

1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393

303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov

NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

Contract No. DE-AC36-08-GO28308

Subcontract Report

NREL/SR-520-47582

March 2010

Barrier Coatings for 

Thin Film Solar Cells 

Final Subcontract Report

September 1, 2002 – January 30, 2008

L.C. Olsen

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Richland, Washington

NREL Technical Monitor: B. von Roedern

Prepared under Subcontract No. DAX-4-44239-01
This publication was reproduced from the best available copy

Submitted by the subcontractor and received no editorial review at NREL

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iii

ABSTRACT

 This program has involved investigations of the stability of CdTe and copper-indiumgallium-diselenide (CIGS) solar cells under damp heat conditions and effects of barrier 

coatings. CdTe and CIGS cells were subjected to environmental conditions characterized 

by 60oC and 90% relative humidity (60/90), and to some extent 85oC and 85 % relative 

humidity (85/85). Barrier coating technology developed at PNNL for OLEDs was used 

to investigate approaches to encapsulation of the two types of thin film solar cells. 

Moisture barriers consisting of multi-layer coatings involving alternating layers of 

polymer and aluminum oxide were deposited directly onto the front surface of CIGS cells 

and the rear surface of CdTe devices, with the front surface defined by the light receiving 

side of the cell. Most of the studies were conducted with directly deposited barrier 

coatings. The CIGS cells were provided by Shell Solar, Industries (SSI) in the form of 10 

cm x 10 cm and 5 cm x 5 cm mini-circuits, and by the Institute for Energy Conversion 

(IEC) in the form of small laboratory cells grown on a 2 in x 2 in glass substrate. The 

SSI devices were actually CIGSS cells since they contained sulfur as well as selenium, 

but they are referred to as CIGS cells in this report. CdTe cells were provided by Dr. 

Sampath at Colorado State University (CSU). Current voltage characteristics of cells 

were taken periodically when under damp heat stress. Photoluminescence studies were

also utilized for characterizing the effect of damp heat stress. An approach to 

encapsulation by direct deposition was determined for each type of cell that allowed the 

device to survive 1000 hours in a 60/90 damp heat environment. SSI cells were also 

tested under 85/85 conditions. The efficiencies of SSI thin-film CIGS cells with directly 

deposited barrier coatings subjected to 85/85 stress were found to degrade to 60% of their 

beginning-of-life value. The decline in efficiency versus time was independent of the 

number dyads (polymer/alumina pairs) used to form the moisture barrier. The result 

suggests that moisture ingress was either occurring at the edges, or a directly deposited

multi-layer barrier is inadequate for the SSI circuits under the 85/85 stress condition. 

IEC cells were encapsulated by directly deposited, five dyad coatings. One device 

survived 2000 hours in 85oC/85%RH without any degradation in efficiency. More 

recently, very good results were achieved with laminated SoloPower cells using PNNL 

coated PET. These reslts are briefly discussed. CdTe cells were tested with and without 

encapsulation. Uncapsulated CdTe degraded in an environment of 60oC/90%RH, but 

were found to be quite stable when encapsulated with PNNL barrier coatings.
iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1. Introduction....................................................................................................................1

2. Barrier Coating Technology ..........................................................................................2

2.1 Multi-Layer Barrier Coatings ...............................................................................2

2.2 Barrier Coating Facilities......................................................................................3

3. Encapsulation Studies of Thin Film CIS and CIGS Cells .............................................6

3.1 Damp Heat Studies with SSI Mini-Circuits..........................................................6

3.2 Damp Heat Studies with IEC CIGS Solar Cells.................................................13

3.3 Damp Heat Studies in 85C/85%RH with Laminated CIGS Cells......................15

4. Encapsulation Studies of Thin Film CdTe Cells..........................................................17

5. Conclusions..................................................................................................................19

References..........................................................................................................................20

Acknowledgements............................................................................................................20
1

1. INTRODUCTION

 A key issue facing thin film photovoltaic manufacturers is the need for an effective 

approach to module encapsulation. In order for photovoltaic modules to satisfy a goal of 

providing affordable power for more than twenty years with less than 10% degradation of 

power outputs, new low cost approaches to module encapsulation are required. The

international standard IEC61646 requires that all modules survive 1000 hours in an 

environment of 85oC and 85% relative humidity. Meeting this requirement has been a 

major concern for thin film CdTe and CIGS cells, since both types of cells degrade under 

these conditions if they are not protected from moisture ingress. This report concerns 

studies of approaches to encapsulate these two thin film cells. The effort began in 

September, 2002. Initially, there was interest in barrier coatings for both of these cell 

types, but as time has passed CdTe is primarily being considered for flat plate modules 

with glass-to-glass construction. On the other hand, CIGS cells on flexible substrates are

being considered seriously for building-integrated-photovoltaics (BIPV) as well as for 

flat plate module applications. Thus particular emphasis was given to studies of moisture 

barriers for CIGS. This program focused on the development of low cost barrier 

coatings that can be a component of an advanced, effective approach to module 

encapsulation.

 Investigations have involved studies with CIGSS cells supplied by Shell Solar, 

Industries (SSI), CIGS cells provided by Dr. Shafarman at the Institute for Energy 

Conversion (IEC) and CdTe cells from Dr. Sampath at Colorado State University (CSU).

This program has benefited greatly from the barrier coating technology developed at 

PNNL in the 1990s for organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs). Moisture barriers are 

based on a multi-layer coating comprised of alternating polymer/Al2O3 films. Battelle 

helped establish Vitex Systems in the year 2000 for purposes of commercializing the 

barrier technology. PNNL still carries out research and development concerning 

applications of the multi-layer coating technology.

 The barrier coating technology is discussed in more detail in Section 2, followed by 

discussion of results obtained with CIGS cells in Section 3 and CdTe cells in Section 4. 

Finally, conclusions are presented in Section 5. 
2

2. BARRIER COATING TECHNOLOGY

2.1 Multi-Layer Barrier Coatings

The barrier properties of multilayer, thin-film organic/inorganic barrier layers are 

treated in detail in Reference 1. Both transient and steady-state vapor permeation 

measurements were combined with classical Fickian diffusion models to interpret 

experimental data for water vapor transport through multilayer coatings. For example, 

data reported for multilayer coatings on polyethylene terephtalate substrates that 

indicated water vapor permeation rates of < 10-5 g/m2

/day at 25oC and 40%RH were 

utilized. Two key results of the work by Graff and coworkers are: (1) permeation 

through organic/inorganic multilayer coatings is controlled by the spatial density of 

defects and defect sizes in the vacuum deposited inorganic layers; and, (2) the long 

apparent diffusion path induced by the multilayer structure results in a long lag time, that 

is, the time required for a vapor molecule to pass through the barrier multilayer film. 

 The approach to deposit barrier coatings at PNNL involves a vacuum process for 

deposition of acrylate-based polymer films combined with sputter deposition of oxide 

layers to fabricate a multilayer barrier film structure. This approach is referred to as a 

Polymer Multi-Layer (or PML) process. These coatings are deposited either in an in-line 

coater or a vacuum web coater available at PNNL. These coatings are extremely 

effective in preventing oxygen and water penetration. This is a result of the inorganic 

layers providing the barrier properties, while the polymer layers planarize surface 

topography/defects, decouple defects/pinholes, and prevent damage (cracking) in 

adjacent inorganic layers. A tortuous path through the inorganic layers and polymer 

layers limits diffusion of gases and water vapor. Since physical vapor deposited layers 

replicate the surface topology of the substrate, high points in the underlying substrate 

cannot be smoothed by an oxide layer. These features are also subject to mechanical 

damage during a coating process, which lead to defects in the deposited coating. 

Ideally, the initial polymer layer effectively covers defects and provides a smooth 

surface for inorganic film deposition (see Figure 1). The initial polymer layer (referred to 

as the P1-layer) provides a smooth surface for deposition of the adjacent inorganic layer

with a minimum density of defects, which in turn increases the probability that the layer

can effectively inhibit water or oxygen diffusion. The required initial polymer layer 

thickness will vary with the type of solar cell, depending on the roughness of the cell

surface. Multilayer coatings generally have several polymer/inorganic film pairs (referred 

to as dyads), and are extremely effective in preventing oxygen and moisture penetration. 

This is a result of the inorganic layers providing the barrier properties, while the polymer 

layers planarize the surface topography, decouple defects/pinholes, and prevent damage 

(cracking) in adjacent inorganic layers. As depicted in Figure 1, a tortuous path through 

the inorganic layers and polymer layers limits diffusion and increases lag time of gases 
3

Figure 1. Basic approach to achieve an effective barrier coating with the ML process. 

and water vapor passing through the multilayer structure. It is very difficult or 

impossible to deposit a single inorganic layer that can act as an effective barrier to water 

diffusion. Such a film replicates the surface defects which will provide entry points for 

water diffusion. Surface features will also introduce mechanical damage during the 

coating process, which leads to defects in the deposited inorganic layers.

 As indicated in Figure 1, the substrate can either be a solar cell or a polymer sheet such 

as PET. If the coating is deposited directly onto a cell, we refer to the process as 

encapsulation by direct deposition. Barrier coated PET sheets, or other polymeric sheets, 

are used for lamination. Most of the studies discussed in this report involved barrier 

coatings directly deposited onto cell structures. 

2.2 Barrier Coating Facilities

 PNNL has two facilities for deposition of barrier coatings, a vacuum in-line coater

(see Figure 2) and a vacuum roll-to-roll coater (see Figure 3). The in-line coater is a 

high quality batch coating system with sample size being as large as 8" x 12". Either 

rigid or flexible substrates can be used, and the substrate temperature remains below 60oC 

during film growth so that the film temperature is always significantly below the 

softening point of polymers. This system is used for directly depositing barrier coatings 

onto solar cells and also for coating polymer sheets to be used for lamination. Barrier 

coatings typically involve deposition of a relatively thick polymer layer (P1) followed by 

deposition of the first inorganic film to form the first dyad, and the growth of additional 

dyads to grow a multi-layer coating. After growing the first dyad with the in-line coater, 

the substrate is 'turned around' and returned to the polymer growth station to initiate 

growth of the second dyad. The process is repeated until the desired multi-layered 

moisture barrier is formed. Barrier coatings are currently made with an acrylate 

polymer and Al2O3 films. The polymer films are grown by first depositing a liquid,

acrylate monomer followed by a curing step. Al2O3 films are grown by reactive 

sputtering.

Oxide Layer

First Polymer Layer

Substrate 

(CIGS or PET)

H2O Enters Through Defect

Multilayer 

Coating
4

 

Figure 2. The PNNL in-line coater allows deposition of alternating layers of polymer 

 and inorganic layers.

 

Figure 3. Vacuum roll coater at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

sputtering. 

Glove

Box Load

Lock

Slit

Valve

Polymer

Layer 

Process

Ceramic

 Layer

Process Turnaround

Chamber
5

 The PNNL vacuum roll coater accommodates 7-inch wide, 2000 meter long flexible 

substrates. Coatings can be grown at a speed of 2 to 3 meters/minute with reactive 

sputtering of aluminum being the limiting step. Although it is possible to utilize a roll of 

polymer 2000 meters long in the system, barrier coatings are currently grown on the roll

coater system in a batch mode. For example, multi-layer barrier coatings are deposited 

onto 39 inch long, 7 inch wide straps of PET for use in a lamination process. The PET 

straps are placed on the cylindrical drum of the system and rotated through the deposition 

stations to form the multi-dyad coatings. A barrier coated polymer sheet such as PET is 

referred to as 'Flexible Glass' (FG).
6

3. ENCAPSULATION STUDIES of CIGSS and CIGS Solar Cells

 Thin-film solar cells based on CIGS are being considered for large scale power plants 

as well as building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) applications. Since CIGS cells are 

very sensitive to moisture, they must be effectively encapsulated in order to satisfy the 

international standard IEC 61646 which requires the efficiency to degrade less than 10 % 

after 1000 hours in an environment of 85oC and 85% relative humidity (85/85). 

Beginning in 2002, we worked with Shell Solar Industries (SSI) to determine the effects 

of damp heat on their copper-indium-gallium-diselenide (CIGSS) solar cells. At that 

time, PNNL had one environmental chamber that was normally maintained at 60oC and 

90% relative humidity for OLED applications. It was determined that testing at 

60oC/90%RH would be adequate for the initial studies with SSI devices. Damp heat 

studies were carried out on uncoated and barrier-coated SSI mini-circuits. Towards the 

end of this program PNNL purchased another environmental chamber and damp heat 

studies were then conducted at 85C/85%RH. Unfortunately, Shell Solar, Industries had 

been sold by that time, and we were only able to carry out studies at 85C/85%RH with 

SSI devices that had been exposed to ambient conditions for several years. In the final 

stages of this program, CIGS cells supplied by the Institute for Energy Conversion were 

investigated. Results of damp heat studies with SSI mini-circuits and laboratory cells 

from IEC are presented in Sections 3.1 and 3.2. 

 PNNL continued to investigate damp heat studies with CIGS cells after the NREL 

program concluded. In particular, CIGS cells from SoloPower were laminated with PET 

coated with PNNL barrier coatings, and subjected to damp heat investigations in an 

environment of 85oC/85%RH. Results of these studies are discussed in Section 3.3. 

3.1 Damp Heat Studies with SSI Mini-Circuits

 A collaborative effort was carried out with SSI to develop barrier coatings for CIGSS 

circuits. This work resulted in an approach that allowed circuits to survive over 1500 

hours in a 60°C/90%RH environment with less than 10% loss in efficiency. As noted 

above, at the time these studies were conducted it was necessary to test at 60oC instead of 

85oC. SSI provided monolithically integrated thin-film CIGSS circuits, each of which 

consisted of ten cells connected in series on a 10 cm x 10 cm glass substrate as shown in 

Figure 4A. Each cell is approximately 0.69 cm x 8.3 cm. A border region of 

approximately 0.8 cm was depleted by SSI for the purpose of these studies to allow a 

smooth coating at the edge of the circuit. Before coating devices, the structures were

cleaned since any debris on the surface may result in a pathway for water or oxygen 

diffusion after the coatings are applied. Since SSI cut the circuits out of larger modules, 

particles of glass constitute one type of debris. Shipping and handling the circuits can 

also lead to debris on the surface of these structures. These problems would not exist in a 

production process. Thus, prior to coating CIGSS circuits, the surfaces were cleaned to 

remove any loose debris. In addition to loose debris, however, we found that CIGSS 

surfaces contained relatively large nodules (see Figure 4B) which can penetrate coatings 
7

(A) (B) 

 

 

Figure 4. (A) A picture of 10 cm x 10 cm SSI CIGSS circuit described in the 

 text. (B) Electron micrograph illustrates the effect of thick polymer 

 planarizing layer (P-Layer).

and provide pathways for moisture ingress. It was determined that the first, polymer 

layer needed to be several microns in order to prevent nodules from causing problems 

with the barrier coatings. The electron micrograph in Figure 4B shows a typical nodule on 

CIGSS cells and also the effect of the thick polymer layer to planarize the surface. 

 

 Once the surface nodules became apparent, additional characterization studies were carried 

out. An electron micrograph of a nodule on an as-received mini-circuit is shown in Figure 5. 

Analysis of composition of the nodule indicated that the outer surface was ZnO resulting from 

the deposited ZnO TCO, but that interior contained Cu, In, Se and sulfur. Thus, the nodule 

apparently existed prior to ZnO deposition. We determined, therefore, that effective barrier 

coatings for the SSI mini-circuits required relatively thick P-layers.

Figure 5. Electron micrograph showing nodule in as-received film surface.

ZnO

CIGSS
8

Damp Heat Studies in 60oC/90%RH

 The effects of multilayer coatings deposited onto SSI mini-modules were investigated 

by subjecting coated modules to temperature and humidity stress. In particular, currentvoltage characteristics were taken periodically for coated mini-circuits stored in a Tenney 

environmental chamber at conditions of 60°C and 90% relative humidity. Efforts 

focused on the use of coatings consisting of five pairs (or dyads) of polymer/Al2O3

The general structure of the barrier coatings was similar to that used by PNNL for OLED 

encapsulation. The first dyad consisted of a 3.5 μm polymer layer and a 1000 Å alumina 

layer, while the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th dyads were comprised of 1000Å of polymer and 

500Å of alumina. Results for coated mini-modules with two thicknesses for the P-layer 

and an uncoated module are shown in Figure 6. The efficiency of an uncoated circuit 

degrades very rapidly, becoming less than 1% within 400 hours. Moisture ingress affects 

all cell parameters. The main effects of moisture on CIGSS cells are to affect both the 

sheet conductance of the ZnO TCO and also to some degree the effective J

films.

o of the 

junction [2]. It is clear that a five dyad coating with a P-layer of several microns 

provides very good encapsulation for SSI circuits under 60oC/90%RH stress. If the Player is too thin water will penetrate the coating. In the extreme case, water spots will 

appear on the cell surface. The regions along mechanical cuts made as steps in the 

monolithic integration process are particularly important areas. It is imperative that the 

p-layer be relatively thick in order for the barrier coating to be effective. 

Figure 6. Efficiency versus time for three encapsulated circuits and an uncoated circuit 

 stressed at 60oC/90%RH. 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

4.0 μm P-Layer

0.5 μm 

P-Layer

Uncoated

Circuit

Hours @ 60oC / 90%RH

Efficiency (%)
9

 The effect of moisture on the ZnO TCO was investigated by measuring sheet 

resistance of the ZnO film on one of the single cells of the mini-circuit. Figure 7 

indicates the location of applying a four point measurement. This measurement gives a

reasonable approximation to the sheet resistance of ZnO since the underlying CIGSS/CdS 

junction would block current flow into the CIGSS. Table 1 gives results for the sheet 

resistance of a mini-circuit stressed at 60oC/90%RH. The sheet resistance increases as a 

result of the 60/90 stress.

 

Figure 7. Picture of a 10 cm x 10 cm circuit and indication of the location of application 

 of a 4 point measurement.

Table 1. ZnO Sheet Resistance for Stress SSI Mini-circuit

 

 Beginning of Life 18 ohms/sq.

After 1000 hours 180 ohms/sq.

 at 60oC/90%RH

Current voltage studies were also carried out for stressed SSI circuits [2]. We found 

that if one fits the I-V characteristics in the range of voltages greater than 0.3 volt with an 

expression given by 

J = Jo exp (V/AkT) for V >> kT

Location of 4 Point 

Measurement
10

the A-factor would change very little while the Jo value increased by two orders of 

magnitude. The relatively constant A-factor suggests that the dominant recombination 

center is the same in both cases, but the increase in Jo indicates the density of 

recombination centers increased by two orders of magnitude. 

 Two encapsulated circuits with appropriate P-Layers were returned to SSI for 

measurement with their simulator after being subjected to 1000 hours at 60oC/90%RH. 

I-V characteristics of these circuits were measured by SSI before sending them to PNNL. 

Barrier coatings were then applied to the circuits and then they were stressed in an 

environment of 60oC/90%RH for 1000 hours. The devices were then returned to SSI 

where they were characterized. In both cases, the circuit efficiencies increased, even 

after being stressed at 60oC/90%RH for 1000 hours (see Table 2). SSI also subjected 

these encapsulated circuits to UV testing. Although some blistering occurred, circuit 22-

9 actually improved in performance as the power increased to 0.688 watts. The power 

produced by Circuit 22-4 decreased to 0.498 watts. More studies are required before we 

can characterize the effects of UV, but these results were very encouraging. However, 

the effect of light-induced transients has to be better characterized.

Table 2. Measurements By Shell Solar

 Circuit Pmax (Watts) 

 Bare Circuit 22-4 0.525

 Encapsulated 

 (and 1000 hrs @ 60/90) 22-4 0.582

 Bare Circuit 22-9 0.592

 Encapsulated

 (and 1000 hrs @ 60/90) 22-9 0.631

 

Damp Heat Studies in 85C/85%RH

 As this program progressed, it became clear that damp heat conditions defined by 

85oC and 85 % relative humidity were being established as the appropriate stress 

conditions. In fact, the international standard IEC16646 includes the requirement that 

modules must survive 1000 hours at 85oC/85%RH (85/85) with less than 10% 

degradation in efficiency. However, the SSI CIGSS work had been transferred to 

Germany by this time. Thus, during the last two years of the NREL program, efforts 

were made to acquire 85/85 data on SSI mini-circuits. Unfortunately, the only SSI 

devices available were ones that had been provided early in the program, but had been 

stored in an uncontrolled environment. CIGS cells were also obtained from IEC for

investigations of the effects of 85/85 stress conditions. Results for IEC cells are 

discussed in the next section. 
11

 SSI provided 5 cm x 5 cm mini-circuits early in the program. These 5x5 cm minicircuits had unfortunately been stored under uncontrolled conditions for 3 years before 

we initiated 85/85 studies. Nevertheless, studies were carried out to acquire some data 

that might be of interest. Current-voltage characteristics plotted as current per unit area 

versus voltage are given in Figure 8 for a typical mini-circuit at beginning of life, after 3 

years under ambient conditions, and after subjecting a circuit to 85/85. The SSI 

 

Figure 8. Current-Voltage characteristics of bare 5 cm x 5 cm SSI mini-circuits. 

CIGSS cells utilized ZnO TCOs. Even though the ambient humidity was low during the 

3 year period, and the temperature was only at room temperature, the cells degraded 

significantly during the 3 year period. Subjecting a bare device to 85/85 caused 

additional degradation as shown. Relative efficiency is plotted versus time for bare cells 

subjected to 60/90 and 85/85 conditions are shown in Figure 9. The 85/85 case is for one 

of the 5x5 cm SSI min-circuits which had already degraded as described in Figure 8. 

Even though the 5x5 cm devices had already degraded, it is apparent that the increase of 

temperature from 60oC to 85C has a very significant effect on the rate of degradation. 

 Even though the small mini-circuits had degraded, studies of the effects of 85/85 

stress on coated devices were initiated. Four mini-circuits were coated with barrier 

coatings. The thickness of the P1 layer was varied for barrier coatings applied to the 

devices. Two of the circuits were coated with a relative thick multi-layer coating. One 

of those circuits was subjected to conditions of 85oC and dry conditions (see Figure 10), 

while the other circuit was subjected to 85/85 along with two other coated devices. 

Results for the device subjected to 85oC/ Dry conditions indicates that the increase in 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Current (mA/sq cm)

Volts

Typical BOL I-V

After 3 Years 

at Ambient

After 70 hrs

@ 85C/85%RH
12

Figure 9. Relative efficiency for bare SSI mini-circuits.

 

Figure 10. Relative efficiency versus time for a coated circuit in 85oC/Dry stress.

 

temperature from 60oC to 85oC is not by itself the cause of degradation. The results 

plotted in Figure 11, however, indicate that the directly deposited barrier coatings on 

these particular SSI mini-circuits are not adequate to completely prevent degradation. 

Note the linear behavior of the decrease in relative efficiency, regardless of the thickness 

of the P1 layer. This type of behavior could suggest that the moisture ingress is 

occurring at the edges. Additional studies would be required to develop an adequate 

direct deposited barrier coating for the SSI mini-circuits to meet the IEC61646 

requirements.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Relative Efficiency

Environmental Test

60oC / 90%RH

85oC / 85%RH

Hours

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Relative Efficiency

Hours @ 85oC and Dry

85oC -- Dry

Module with 10 μm Coating
13

Figure 11. Circuits with varied P1 layers in 85/85 stress.

3.2 Damp Heat Studies with IEC CIGS Solar Cells

 IEC provided arrays of six 0.5 cm x 0.9 cm cells defined on 1"x1" glass substrates for 

encapsulation studies [3]. The cell structure is based on the following: 

Glass/Mo/CIGS/CdS/ZnO/ITO/(NiAl Grid). These cells are grown by multiple source, 

film deposition on glass substrates. As a result, the cells are relatively 'smooth.' To 

establish a baseline performance, uncoated cells were subjected to the 85/85 

environment. Figure 12 gives results for two uncoated cells that represent the range of 

observed cell performance. The results are very unusual. We are accustomed to 

observing very rapid degradation in CIGS cell performance when they are not 

encapsulated. One of the bare IEC cells devices survived almost 1000 hours before 

 

Figure 12. Estimated AM1 efficiency of bare IEC cells.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Hours @ 85oC/85%RH

10 micron coating

8 micron coating

3 micron coating

Bare

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Efficiency (%)

Hours @ 85oC/85%RH

Cell 

Cell 
14

degrading very rapidly. These exceptional results are apparently due to the ITO coating 

deposited on a very smooth surface. We surmise that when the bare cell did degrade 

abruptly, water may have penetrated the ITO layer and began to react with ZnO. 

 Properties of the second bare IEC cell (referred to as Cell #2) that began to degrade 

at 400 to 500 hours changed in a typical manner for CIGS cells – but much more slowly. 

Cell parameters vs time are tabulated in Table 3. Initially, the fill factor degrades 

followed by the Voc, and then Jsc. In previous studies of SSI cells, I-V analyses 

indicated that initially the sheet resistance of ZnO increased followed by an increase in 

Jo, apparently due to water penetrating the junction region. In the case of Cell #2, it 

appears that moisture passes through the ITO layer sooner than for Cell #1 causing an 

increase in ZnO sheet resistance an also begins to penetrate the junction region.

Table 3 – Properties of bare IEC Cell #2

 Jsc Voc 

 (mA/cm

 FF Est AM1 Hours @

2

) (Volts) (%) Efficiency 85/85

 28.7 0.632 71.8 13.1 0 

 29.8 0.627 69.6 13.0 306 

 28.3 0.617 63.6 11.1 642

 27.3 0.615 55.0 9.22 738

 IEC cells were also encapsulated and tested in an 85oC/85%RH environment. Cells 

were encapsulated with five dyad multilayer coatings, and using the advanced polymer 

formulation. Figure 13 shows a picture of a substrate with critical features that are 

required for the tests identified. In order to contact cell collector grids, a polymer bridge 

was first deposited followed by the deposition of silver leads as shown, and then the 

complete structure is encapsulated with a PML coating. Points for contacting the silver 

leads are protected so that they are not covered by the PML coating. During exposure to 

85/85 the points for probing the collector grids are protected with vacuum grease to 

Figure 13. Picture of coated IEC cell with contacts for I-V measurement.

Test 

Cell

Polymer 

Bridge

Indium Contact

To Back

Front Contact
15

Figure 14. Estimated AM1 efficiency vs hours at 85C/85%RH.

prevent corrosion. Figure 14 gives results for encapsulated IEC cells subjected to 85/85 

for 3250 hours. The results are extraordinary. The coated devices are essentially stable 

in the 85/85 environment for much longer than 1000 hours. In fact, no degradation was 

evident at 1500 hours. After 3200 hours in the 85/85 environment moisture began to 

penetrate at the coating edges and causing the efficiency to decline to 8.2 %. 

 Results obtained for encapsulated IEC cells represent a benchmark for encapsulated 

CIGS cells by direct deposition. The encapsulated IEC cells are stable for more than 

1500 hours. The encapsulated IEC cells have three key features:

- ITO top layer

- Smooth surface 

- PNNL multi-layer barrier coating

All of these features contribute to this outstanding result. 

3.3 Damp Heat Studies in 85C/85%RH with Laminated CIGS Cells

 Approaches to encapsulation of flexible CIGS cells from SoloPower by lamination 

were investigated subsequent to the NREL program [4]. The SoloPower cells were grown 

on metal foil. Barrier coatings were deposited on PET with the PNNL roll coater and 

supplied to SoloPower for lamination. Damp heat studies were carried out with 

laminated SoloPower cells at both PNNL and SoloPower. In all cases the laminated cells 

passed the IEC16461 requirement. The results clearly demonstrated that lamination with 

PNNL barrier-coated PET allows SoloPower CIGS cells to survive an environment of 

85C/85%RH for 1000 hours with less than 10% change in efficiency. Results for one 

cell stressed at PNNL are shown in Table 4. 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Hours at 85C/85%RH

AM1 Efficiency 

(%)
16

Table 4 - Encapsulated SoloPower Flexible, CIGS Cells

 Efficiency (%)

 Cell Substrate Area TCO Encapsulation

 (cm2

) BOL1

 

 Laminated with

 1000 Hours @

 85oC/85%RH

SoloPower Foil 102 ZnO PNNL Coating 8.8 8.8

 on PET 

 by SoloPower2

 

 

1. BOL refers to beginning-of-life.

2. The Barrier Film used for lamination was grown with the PNNL Roll Coater.
17

4. ENCAPSULATION STUDIES of THIN-FILM CdTe SOLAR CELLS

 A collaborative investigation of barrier coatings for CdTe cells was carried out with 

Dr. Sampath at Colorado State University. The CSU CdTe cells are fabricated with a 

superstrate configuration [5]. CSU used a Ni-C contact that is deposited as a slurry, and 

then cured. This contact is relatively thick as described in Figure 15. The back contact is 

also very rough as shown by the SEM micrograph in Figure 16. Cells received from CSU 

have back contacts and an indium pad in the corner of the square glass substrate for 

contacting the TCO as depicted in Figure 17. The glass substrates are typically 2 x 2 in.

(A) (B)

Figure 15. Description of CSU cell as received by PNNL: (A) Cross-section; (B) Top 

view.

 

Figure 16. SEM micrograph showing the surface Figure 17. Contact configuration and 

 boundary of the CSU Ni/Carbon contact. approach to encapsulation of CSU cell. 

Glass

Ni-C Back 

Contact (75 μm)

CdTe (1.5 μm)

CdS (.05 μm)

TCO

CdTe Cell 

With Ni-C 

Back Contact

Indium

TCO

Indium

Outline of 

Barrier 

Ag

Polymer 

Bridge

Indium

Ni/Ag

+
18

 After receiving cells from CSU, encapsulation involved the following steps: (1) deposit 

a silver ring contact onto the TCO coated glass; (2) deposit a polymer bridge; (3) deposit 

a Ni strip for contacting the back of the CdTe cell; (4) deposit a multi-layer coating (ML) 

coating over the complete structure (see Figure 15). Initial emphasis was 

placed on determining the effectiveness of multilayer layer coatings. Since the CdTe 

cells and modules fabricated by companies such as First Solar are based on a superstrate 

structure, barrier coatings on the back side need not be transparent. Thus, we also 

investigated barrier coatings based on an aluminum film combined with a single dyad. If 

an effective approach is developed to encapsulate the back surface of thin film CdTe cells 

based on a superstrate structure, the back glass sheet can be eliminated.

 Data for cell efficiencies vs time are given in Figure 18 for bare CSU devices and 

encapsulated CSU cells subjected an environment of 60oC and 90% relative humidity 

(60/90). The three bare cells were all grown in the same run. These cells were grown at a 

time when CSU was adjusting process parameters, which explains the variation in 

properties. One of the encapsulated cells was actually exposed to 60oC and dry 

conditions to establish the effect of a stress of 60oC. The performance of the bare cells in 

the 60/90 environment is actually very impressive compared to results we have obtained 

for other thin film devices that have no encapsulation. However, it is clear that 

encapsulation is required. Data for two encapsulated CSU CdTe cells subjected to 60/90 

are given in Figure 18B. One cell was encapsulated with a five dyad coating and the 

other with the aluminum based coating. The decline in efficiency is due almost entirely 

(A) (B)

Figure 18. Efficiency vs Hours of Stress for Bare CSU cells and for devices fabricated 

 as described by Figure 10. 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 500 1000

Hours of Stress

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0 200 400 600 800

Bare Cells in 60oC / 90% RH

Efficiency (%)

Hours of Stress

Efficiency (%)

5 Dyad - Dry

5 Dyad - 60/90

1 Dyad / Al - 60/90

Hours of Stress
19

to a decrease in the fill factor, or specifically, to increased series resistance. It appears 

clear that the degradation is due to the effect of 60oC. Since the bare cells degrade very 

rapidly in the 60/90 environment, one can conclude that both types of barrier coating are 

effectively preventing moisture ingress under 60/90 conditions. The primary motivation 

for this effort was to provide an alternative for the back surface glass sheet for superstrate 

CdTe modules. However, according to Dr. Sampath, effects of the back sheet on 

mechanical strength must also be considered.

5. CONCLUSIONS

 The barrier coating technology developed at PNNL for OLEDs and other devices 

sensitive to moisture and oxygen has been considered for approaches to encapsulation of 

thin film solar cells. The PNNL multi-layer technology can be used to encapsulate cells 

by direct deposition and by lamination. In the case of lamination, the coatings are 

deposited onto a polymer sheet such as PET and the coated sheet is used for lamination. 

This program focused on studies involving directly deposited barrier coatings. Studies 

were carried out for CIGSS cells from Shell Solar, CIGS cells from IEC and CdTe 

devices from Colorado State University.

 An approach was developed for encapsulating SSI mini-circuits by direct deposition 

that allowed cells to survive 1000 hours in an environment of 60oC and 90%RH with 

minimal degradation. Due to Shell Solar being sold, which ended the availability of 

appropriate devices, an approach to encapsulation to allow survival in 85C/85%RH was 

not developed. However, studies in 85C/85%RH were carried out on CIGS provide by 

the Institute for Energy Conversion. Uncoated IEC cells exhibited significantly more 

tolerance to 85/85 environmental conditions than typical CIGS cells. For example, one 

cell remained stable for nearly 1000 hours before decreasing rather abruptly to essentially 

zero efficiency. Typical behavior of IEC cells resulted in gradual decrease in efficiency 

beginning between 500 to 700 hours. It is hypothesized that the top TCO structure and 

the fact that the IEC cells are grown by multiple source deposition on glass substrates 

resulting in a very 'smooth' surface accounts for the behavior of bare IEC devices. The 

TCO structure involves a thin layer of ZnO and an ITO layer as the top surface film. We 

suggest that the ITO layer is acting as a very good barrier layer, but when it is penetrated 

by moisture the ZnO layer rapidly increases in resistivity, and junction properties 

deteriorate as well. Encapsulated IEC cells exhibited extraordinary stability. One IEC 

cell with a directly deposited barrier coating survived > 1700 hours in an 85oC/85%RH 

environment with very little decrease in efficiency. 

 Finally, investigations were also conducted with CdTe cells supplied by Dr Sampath 

at Colorado State University. These studies only involved stress at 60oC/90%RH. The 

CSU cell structure like most CdTe cells is based on a superstrate configuration. The back 

contact is a relatively thick Ni/C layer. Bare CSU cells were determined to degrade in 

60oC/90%RH. However, they were stable for 1000 hours in the 60oC/90%RH 

environment when coated with a 5 dyad coating. The devices were also stable for 1000 
20

hours when encapsulated with an aluminum film and one dyad of PNNL coating. No 

testing was done at 85C/85%RH. It should be noted that First Solar as well as new 

companies planning to produce CdTe modules utilize a glass to glass package, and 

therefore would apparently not be interested in using barrier coatings as studied in this 

work. However, if interest in eliminating the back glass sheet were to develop, an 

effective approach to encapsulating the back contact side of the module will become 

important. 

REFERENCES

1. Graff, G.L., Williford, R.E., and Burrows, P.E., "Mechanisms of vapor permeation 

through multilayer barrier films: Lag time versus equilibrium permeation," J. Appl. 

Phys. 1840 (2004).

2. L.C. Olsen and S.N. Sambhu, "Effects of Moisture on CIGSS Solar Cells," Proc. 31st 

IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 487- 490 (2005). 

3. L.C. Olsen, M.E.Gross, S.N. Kundu, G.L. Graff and W.N. Shafarman, "Properties of 

Encapsulated CIGS Cells in 85oC/85%RH," Presented at 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic

Specialists Conference, San Diego, California, May 11-16, 2008.

4. LC Olsen, ME Gross, GL Graff, SN Kundu, Xi Chu and Steve Lin, "Approaches to 

Encapsulation of Flexible CIGS Cells," Proc. of SPIE Vol 7048, pages 7048O1-O8. 

5. W.S. Sampath, Kurt Barth and Al Enzenroth, “Stability, Yield and Efficiency of 

CdS/CdTe Devices,” Final Report for September 2001 – September 2004, Subcontract 

ADJ-1-30630-07, National Renwable Energy Laboratory. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

 This work was supported by the NREL Thin Film Partnership. We acknowledge the 

guidance provided by Dr. Bolko von Roedern and Ken Zweibel. We particularly are 

appreciative of their foresight in identifying the importance of encapsulation technology 

for thin film solar cells.
F1146-E(10/2008)

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March 2010

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1 September 2002 – 30 January 2008

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Barrier Coatings for Thin Film Solar Cells: Final Subcontract Report, 

September 1, 2002 – January 30, 2008

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DE-AC36-08-GO28308

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L.C. Olsen

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NREL/SR-520-47582

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PVB9.1199

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Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Richland, WA 99352

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National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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NREL

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14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 Words)

This program has involved investigations of the stability of CdTe and copper-indium-gallium-diselenide (CIGS) solar 

cells under damp heat conditions and effects of barrier coatings.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

PV; CIGS; barrier coatings

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