April 2010 

NASA/TM-2010-216684 

Power MOSFET Thermal Instability Operation 

Characterization Support 

John L. Shue and Henning W. Leidecker 

Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland 
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April 2010 

NASA/TM-2010-216684 

Power MOSFET Thermal Instability Operation 

Characterization Support 

John L. Shue and Henning Leidecker 

Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland 
Available from: 

NASA Center for AeroSpace Information 

7115 Standard Drive 

Hanover, MD 21076-1320 

443-757-5802 

The use of trademarks or names of manufacturers in the report is for accurate reporting and does not 

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 
iii 

Table of Content 

1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1

2.0 Background .................................................................................................................................. 1

2.1 MOSFET Failures Inside the Advertised SOA............................................................................................. 2

3.0 A Derivation of the Stability Criterion for Thermal Runaway, and the Spirito Effect ........ 5

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 5

3.2 Uniform cross sections ................................................................................................................................. 5

3.2.1 Thermal resistance: part one ......................................................................................................................... 6

3.2.2 Curve traces .................................................................................................................................................. 7

3.2.3 Derivation of the condition of thermal runaway ........................................................................................... 7

3.2.4 Hot Spots ...................................................................................................................................................... 9

4.0 Effect of  on the Spirito Criterion for Thermal Runaway of a Power MOSFET .............. 10

4.1 Apply Power: the MOSFET Heats ............................................................................................................. 10

5.0 MOSFET Testing Results and Information Dissemination ................................................... 12

5.1 Nondestructive Test for MOSFET Thermal Instability .............................................................................. 12

5.1.1 Assumptions Made ..................................................................................................................................... 12

5.1.2 Data Needed From Test .............................................................................................................................. 12

5.2 Test Data Development of Data ................................................................................................................. 15

5.2.1 Alpha .......................................................................................................................................................... 15

5.2.2 Beta ............................................................................................................................................................. 15

6.0 Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. 15

7.0 References .................................................................................................................................. 16

List of Figures

Figure 1. Aluminum sphere formed from overheating. ............................................................................. 2

Figure 2. Failure area of first MOSFET. .................................................................................................... 2

Figure 3. VGS – VDS Planes. ......................................................................................................................... 3

Figure 4. Maximum safe voltage. .............................................................................................................. 3

Figure 5. Standard SOA chart. ................................................................................................................... 4

Figure 6. Standard SOA chart including region of instability. ................................................................... 5

Figure 7. A typical plot of junction-to-case thermal resistance of a power MOSFET (IRF510). The 

horizontal axis is ‘time t in seconds’ when a constant power is dissipated; the vertical axis is 

‘temperature rise at the time t of the cells of the die per power deposited,’ in 

oC/W; and the various curves are for various ‘duty cycles’. ....................................................... 6

Figure 8. Illustration of the rise in Tj as the drain voltage Vd is increased in steps from 5 V to 15 V, and 

the gate voltage Vg at each step is held constant at a value that makes the initial value of drain 

current Id ൌ 90 W/Vd. Note that Tj diverges when Vd is between 12 V and 13 V. Also shown is 

the rise in Tj at a constant power of 90 W: Tjሺtሻ ൌ 18oC ൅ ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · 90 W. Values are for 

‘device 1’ in Reference [4].. ....................................................................................................... 8

Figure 9. Simplified schematic for intrinsic diode temperature measurement. ........................................ 13

Figure 10. Simplified schematic for Id current measurement. .................................................................... 14
 iv

Nomenclature 

FET Field-Effect Transistor 

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center 

IEEE Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, Incorporated 

IR International Rectifier 

JPL Jet Propulsion Lab 

JWST James Webb Space Telescope 

MMS Magnetospheric Multiscale 

MOSFET Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor 

PC Printed Circuit 

SOA Safe Operating Area 
1.0 Introduction 

Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) are used extensively in flight hardware 

and ground support equipment. In the quest for faster switching times and lower “on resistance,” the 

MOSFETs designed from 1998 to the present have achieved most of their intended goals. Unfortunately, 

along with the good (higher power efficiencies and lower total mass in DC – DC converters, and high 

speed switches) has come the bad. In the quest for lower on resistance and higher switching speeds, the 

designs now being produced allow the charge-carrier dominated region (once small and outside of the 

area of concern) to become important and inside the safe operating area (SOA). The charge-carrier 

dominated region allows more current to flow as the temperature increases. The higher temperatures 

produce more current resulting in the beginning of thermal runaway. While the problem may start with 

the entire part, as the runaway progresses, a hot spot starts to form then becomes smaller in size. With 

more power in a smaller area the temperature rises even higher and faster. The smaller hot spot produces 

higher temperatures resulting in the failure of the part. Temperatures above 450oC on any location within 

the part will cause the metals to begin migrating causing a fatal short. 

Earlier MOSFETs were primarily run in the mobility-charge dominated region. While maintaining the 

same gate voltage, the mobility-charge dominated region cuts back on the current as the temperatures 

increase, in turn decreasing the current allowing for the system to have negative feedback away from the 

thermal runaway. Indeed when the new power MOSFETs have high gate voltages the parts are mobilitycharge dominated. It has been the unspoken intent of the manufacturers to keep the MOSFETs in the 

mobility-charge dominated region, as they are when used as a high speed switch. The older parts have a 

charge-carrier dominated area. The area, however, is outside the normal SOA and failures occur for other 

reasons. 

2.0 Background 

During a recent board-level test of a radiation protection circuit in a power supply being built for the 

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), a MOSFET quickly failed. The protection circuit should have 

sheltered the MOSFET instead of causing it to fail. Since the test was unusual, it was originally believed 

that the test itself induced the failure. A replacement MOSFET was installed and the test was rerun. The 

second MOSFET failed during diagnostic electrical probing. Review of the parts revealed that both had 

failed from thermal stress caused by an apparent thermal runaway. Temperature internal to the parts had 

to have exceeded 450oC as indicated by melted internal aluminum spheres (Figure 1) and discoloration of 

the parts’ die in localized areas (Figure 2). 
 2

Figure 1. Aluminum sphere formed from overheating. 

Figure 2. Failure area of first MOSFET. 

The “bulls-eye” pattern in the photographs led to suggestion that the failure mode for the two 

MOSFETs were common and was caused by the MOSFETs being placed in a thermal runaway condition 

when the gate voltage was low yet well within the SOA for the MOSFETs. This problem, known as 

“thermal instability,” has been known to the automotive industry since the year 1997 (when advanced 

very fast switching MOSFET devices became available). Numerous published articles in MOSFET 

engineering literature acknowledge the problem, but is not recorded in application notes or in the parts’ 

data sheets from the manufacturers. When questioned, the manufacturer, International Rectifier (IR), 

responded that they believed their parts were only being used in a switching mode operation (high gate 

voltage) and not in areas where the gate voltage was low. 

2.1 MOSFET Failures Inside the Advertised SOA 

A consultant was requested to review the problem felt to be involving the thermal runaway. This same 

problem was observed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in 2003 and was labeled as a “Thermal 

Instability inside the advertised SOA.” The 2003 JPL failure had built a “Protection Circuit” and 

destroyed the MOSFET every time the circuit was tested. JPL looked into this destruction, talked to the 
 3

manufacturer, and discovered the auto industry had found the problem in 1997. JPL then reverted to 

“older parts,” and trusted the manufacturer to advertise the problem; however, this never occurred. 

The automobile industry found MOSFETs would short when used in protection circuits and variable 

speed fan controllers. Manufacturers, the automobile industry, and the Institute of Electrical & Electronics 

Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) produced papers on the problem from 2000 to present. 

Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) identified the problem in October 2008 during two different 

projects. Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) learned of the thermal runaway inside the advertised SOA 

during an MMS Spacecraft Power Review. JWST learned of this problem during bench testing of a power 

supply “protection circuit.” 

Thermal runaway is a problem affecting a wide range of modern MOSFETs from more than one 

manufacturer. Older parts also show thermal runaway, but well outside the SOA. Thermal runaway is 

currently over a larger area of the Vd  – Id plane and inside the advertised SOA affecting most modern 

power MOSFETs. Refer to Figures 3 and 4. 

Figure 3. VGS – VDS Planes. 

Figure 4. Maximum safe voltage. 

From Figures 3 and 4 it can be seen that as the VDS, or the thermal resistance, goes up and the SOA 

goes down. 
 4

If the VDS and thermal resistance of the system is low enough no problem occurs. However, for any 

given VDS as the system moves away from the ideal, the thermal resistance increases and the thermal 

instability begins to be a problem. 

All of the above has been made with the assumption that time is not involved and that the system is 

static. This is the starting point for the first analysis; however, the thermal resistance is time dependant. 

The failure mechanism reverts to a single cell reaching a temperature that causes the part to fail. If the 

pulse of power is short enough, the temperature does not have time to reach a dangerous level. This is 

effectively why the part can withstand being turned on and off repeatedly; its intended function. If, 

however, the pulse of power is longer, the part has time to reach failure temperatures, even with lower 

power levels. 

With knowing the thermal resistance and where the voltages become critical, it is possible to begin 

review of the SOA for the parts in question. The standard SOA chart (see Figure 5) is composed of four 

sets of boundaries. They are: 

1. The boundary defined by the internal resistance of the part which is physically impossible to 

exceed. 

2. The maximum allowable current the part can tolerate (bond wire fusing being a limiting factor). 

3. The maximum reverse voltage, mainly limited by the voltage breakdown of the diffusion layer. 

4. Maximum allowable power in the part caused by normal switching mode operation and heat 

dissipation. 

Figure 5. Standard SOA chart. 

In Figure 5, the area showing a thermal instability has not been included. To show the region of 

instability requires a fifth boundary, as shown in Figure 6, and changes the shape of the maximum power 

limit. 
 5

Figure 6. Standard SOA chart including region of instability. 

At low gate voltages, conduction in MOSFETs is charge-carrier dominated. Charge-carrier 

concentration increases at higher temperatures and positive feedback allows thermal runaway. At high 

gate voltages, MOSFETs are mobility dominated. The charge-carriers mobility decreases as temperature 

increases. 

Mobility carriers are less mobile at high temperatures. In older devices, the mobility effect “RULED” 

over the SOA. Today, charge carriers effect spill over from the right side of the SOA. 

3.0 A Derivation of the Stability Criterion for Thermal Runaway, and the 

Spirito Effect

3.1 Purpose 

The purpose of this section is to discuss the conditions under which thermal runaway can happen to a 

power MOSFET. 

Subsection 3.2 considers only the case that the die is perfectly uniform over each vertical cross 

section. 

In following sections, localized imperfections are shown to result in the formation of a ‘hot spot’ — a 

zone extending over only a few neighboring cells — that rapidly heats to destruction. 

3.2 Uniform Cross Sections 

If the device, and especially the die inside, is uniform from edge-to-edge over each vertical cross 

section in all its material properties and construction properties, There is particular interest in the 

temperature of the top surface of the die, Tj, where the Field-Effect Transistor (FET) channels occupy the 

upper few micrometers.1

 

1 Many semiconductor devices have a pn-junction, whose temperature affects the device’s behavior; the ‘junction temperature’ 

Tj.  An n-type FET has an n-conduction channel connecting an n-source to an n-sink; the cross-sectional area of this channel is 

changed by the electrical action of the gate. Hence, only material of the same type is active, and there is no ‘junction’ involved in 

this conduction. 
 6

3.2.1 Thermal resistance: part one 

The temperature of the top surface of the die containing the ‘sea’ of FET-cells has an important effect 

on the behavior of the power MOSFET. Applied power deposits heat into this surface, while the thermal 

conductance of the die (and die attach, etc.) conducts heat from this surface: its temperature at the time t

is a function of the history of the power applied up to the moment t. One particular history is to fix the 

case temperature Tc to a constant value (using sufficiently aggressive thermal clamping of the case) and 

wait until the entire device is at this case temperature. Then, apply a constant power P to the device, 

starting at t = 0 and continuing. The ratio of the rise in temperature of the top surface, Tj, to the applied 

power P is defined as the thermal resistance between ‘junction’ and case of the device: 

                                                                          ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ ൌ  

ܶ௝ሺݐሻ െ ܶ௘

ܲ                                                                          ሺ1ሻ 

This must begin at zero since Tjሺt ൌ 0ሻ ൌ Tc. It typically rises as √ݐ until the thermal pulse reaches the 

bottom of the case (this takes roughly h2/D where h is the thickness of the die and D is the thermal 

diffusivity of silicon), after which it saturates to a constant value that is typically within a half-order of 

magnitude of 1oC/W. 

Another particular history is to apply the power as a sequence of identical pulses with a fixed duty 

factor D. A duty factor of zero, D ൌ 0, returns the ‘single pulse’ resulting in: Rthሺt|D ൌ 0ሻ ൌ Rthሺtሻ. For a 

larger duty factor, the surface of the die is still somewhat heated by the previous pulses as the ‘reference’ 

cycle starts, as a result the value of Rthሺt|D ൐ 0ሻ starts at a higher value than zero; and Rthሺt|D ൌ 1ሻ is 

constant at its saturated value. 

Most data sheets offer a plot of the thermal resistance for a sequence of ‘constant power’ pulses of 

various duty factors from D ൌ 0 (the single pulse case) upward. See Figure 7 [1] for an example. 

Figure 7. A typical plot of junction-to-case thermal resistance of a power MOSFET (IRF510). The horizontal axis is 

‘time t in seconds’ when a constant power is dissipated; the vertical axis is ‘temperature rise at the time t of the cells 

of the die per power deposited,’ in oC/W; and the various curves are for various ‘duty cycles.’ 

Other power-histories result in other behaviors of the temperature of the top surface Tjሺtሻ: see section 

(below). 
 7

3.2.2 Curve traces 

 plot of Id vs Vd and Vg 

 concentration on region for large Vd: saturation of Id vs Vd, so Id depends(almost) entirely on Vg 

 re-plot of Id vs Vg at various values of T 

 observation that dId/dT can be positive 

 re-plot of Id vs T at fixed Vg, and observation of Taylor’s series 

3.2.3 Derivation of the condition of thermal runaway 

The dependence of the drain current on gate voltage is modeled with usable accuracy by a linear function: 

  ܫௗ൫ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ௝൯ ൌ ܫௗ൫ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ௖൯൅ ൫ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ௖൯  · ሺܶ௝  െ ܶ௖ሻ  ሺ2ሻ 

                                     ߙ൫ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ௖൯ ൌ ൤

ௗܫ߲

߲ܶ൨

௏೏,௏೒

                                                                                                     ሺ3ሻ 

The notation will be frequently simplified by suppressing the independent variables, using 

ௗܫ

ሾ௖ሿ ൌ ܫௗሺܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ௖ሻ, ܴ௧௛ ൌ ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ and ߙ ൌ ߙ൫ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ௖൯

What happens as power is applied at constant drain and gate voltages can be anticipated, when  ൐ 0. 

As the junction temperature rises, the current rises increasing the power dissipated in the junction, which 

increases its temperature even more causing an additional rise in current. If this ‘positive feedback’ is 

large enough, the junction temperature can runaway to a disastrous value. 

Holding the drain and gate voltages constant, the rise in the junction temperature is computed as 

follows: 

  ܶ௝ሺݐሻ െ ܶ௖ ൌ ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ  ·ܲሺݐሻ                                                                                        ሺ4ሻ 

  ൌ  ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ  ·ܸௗ  · ܫௗ ቀܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ௝ሺݐሻቁ                                   ሺ5ሻ 

  ൌ  ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ  ·ܸௗ  · ቂܫௗ

ሾ௖ሿ

൅ ߙ · ൫ ܶ௝ሺݐሻ െ ܶ௖൯ቃ                    ሺ6ሻ 

    ൌ  ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ  ·ܸௗ  · ܫௗ

ሾ௖ሿ

൅ ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܸௗ · ߙ · ൣ ܶ௝ሺݐሻ െ ܶ௖൧.  ሺ7ሻ 

or 

ൣܶ௝ሺݐሻ െ ܶ௖൧ · ሾ1െܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܸௗ · ߙሿ ൌ ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܸௗ · ܫௗ

ሾ௖ሿ

, ሺ8ሻ
 8

and this gives the ‘large enough’ result: 

                                                                  ܶ௝ሺݐሻ െ ܶ௖ ൌ ܴ௧௛  ·ܸௗ · Iୢ

ሾୡሿ

1െܴ௧௛ · ܸௗ · ߙ                                                                ሺ9ሻ 

The numerator is the temperature rise that would happen if the power were held constant2

 at 

ܲሾ௖ሿ ൌ ܸௗ  · ܫௗ

ሾ௖ሿ

. The denominator determines occurrence of thermal runaway. The term ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܸௗ  ·  ߙ

is zero at the start, t ൌ 0, and increases with time. If it remains less than unity, the rise in the temperature 

of the junction, Tjሺtሻ െ Tc, remains bounded; however, the junction temperature Tj(t) diverges to infinity if 

the term approaches unity. See Figure 8 [1]. 

To define the dimensionless stability factor S: 

  ܵ ൌ ܵ൫ݐ, ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ௖൯ൌܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܸௗ · ߙ൫ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ௖൯ൌܴ௧௛ · ܸௗ · ߙ  ሺ10ሻ 

Then Equation 9 states that the temperature of the surface of the die is bounded to a finite value when 

S ൏ 1, and diverges to infinite values when S ൒ 1: 

ܵ ൏ 1:  T௝ is bounded,                (11) 

  ܵ ൒ 1:  T௝ diverges to infinity.  ሺ12ሻ 

This is the condition celebrated by P. Spirito, and shown by him [4] (and by a number of others as 

well) to mark a curve on the SOA beyond which power MOSFETs show thermal runaway ending in 

catastrophic failure3

. These are called Spirito-mode failures. 

Figure 8. Illustration of the rise in Tj as the drain voltage Vd is increased in steps from 5 V to 15 V, and the gate 

voltage Vg at each step is held constant at a value that makes the initial value of drain current Id ൌ 90 W/Vd. Note 

that Tj diverges when Vd is between 12 V and 13 V. Also shown is the rise in Tj at a constant power of 90 W: 

Tjሺtሻ ൌ 18oC ൅ ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · 90 W. Values are for ‘device 1’ in Reference [4]. 

 

2 This is not strictly true, since the thermal resistance actually has a temperature dependence, decreasing as the junction 

temperature increases; precise modeling must take this into account. 

3 This criterion for thermal runaway is attributed by Marie Denison (et al.; [2]) to P. L. Hower and P. K. Govil [3]. 
 9

The surface of the die need not reach an infinite temperature in order to be destroyed. Silicon melts at 

1410oC. The aluminum traces are melted at 660oC and the eutectic temperature of aluminum-silicon 

alloys is 577oC. The aluminum traces on the surface of the die interdiffuse with the silicon below 577oC, 

and the time for this to become destructive is temperature dependant; there is enough interdiffusion at 

450oC that a few minutes at this temperature is used to obtain low contact resistance for Al-Si contacts. 

On the other hand, a few hours at 400oC has no effect. FET manufacturers generally list 150oC or 175oC 

as the absolute maximum temperature ܶ௝

஺௕௦ெ௔௫ for the complete device; none mention the median time to 

degradation. 

In summary, failure by ‘cooking’ the top surface can happen while S is less than unity: divergence of 

Tj is not actually required. Having S ൏ 1 does not guarantee the device is being operated safely; rather, the 

stability factor must be sufficiently less than unity that Tj never approaches 450oC, and users should 

require that Tj never exceeds the manufacturer’s value for ܶ௝

஺௕௦ெ௔௫. 

Figure 8 shows that Tj  ൌ  450oC is reached at slightly less than a second at Vd ൌ  9 V for Spirito’s 

device 1 (described in Reference [4]), and at about a tenth of a second at 12 V; however, divergence to 

infinite temperatures does not happen until Vd exceeds 12 V. The drain voltage must be 5 V (or less) to 

ensure Tj remains less than 175oC. Hence, ignoring the small increase in thermal resistance after 0.1 

second. Devastating interdiffusion could happen when S  ൎ (9 V/12 V) = 0.7, and caution in this case 

requires ܵ  د) 5 V/12 V) = 0.4. 

Clamping the voltages Vd and Vg, and the case temperature Tc, does not clamp the drain current Id or 

the power P  ൌ  Vd  ൉ Id to constant values. The drain current and the power change with the changing 

temperature of the surface of the die, Tj ሺtሻ, result in: 

                                                                 ܶ௝ሺݐሻ ൌ ܶ௖ ൅ ൤ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܲሾ௖ሿ · 1

1െܵ൨,                                                     ሺ13ሻ 

                                                 ܫௗሺݐሻ ൌ ܫௗ

ሾ௖ሿ

൅

ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܲሾ௖ሿ · ߙ

1െܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܸௗ · ߙ

ൌ ܫௗ

ሾ௖ሿ

· ൤ 1

1െܵ൨,                                          ሺ14ሻ 

and 

                               ܲሺݐሻ ൌ ܸௗ · ܫௗሺݐሻ ൌ ܲሾ௖ሿ · ቈ1 ൅

ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܸௗ · ߙ

1െܴ௧௛ሺݐሻ · ܸௗ · ߙ ቉ൌ ܲሾ௖ሿ · ൤ 1

1െܵ൨                            ሺ15ሻ 

The usual method of reporting a SOA by using the drain current as the vertical axis is misleading The 

device does not continue to operate at the same Vd‐, Id-point when thermal runaway happens; rather, this 

point becomes a vertical trajectory. It may start at a region that is ‘safe’ (in that Tj would always remain 

below ܶ௝

஺௕௦ெ௔௫ if Id retained that original value) but then move into a region that ‘cooks’ the die. Thus, 

the set of starting Vd-, Id-points that always stay ‘safe’ must be identified as they evolve with time, and 

plotted on the SOA diagram. 

3.2.4 Hot Spots 

The criterion for thermal runaway, S ൒ 1, is derived above on the assumption that the entire surface of 

the die is heating uniformly. Indeed, a uniform die is the condition for defining the thermal resistance 

Rthሺtሻ that appears in the criterion. 
 10

Actual devices do not have cross sections that are rigorously uniform in properties and behaviors. 

There are often voids in the die attach. When a void is larger than roughly the thickness of the die, it 

substantially increases the thermal resistance of the path starting at the die’s surface and passing vertically 

thru that void to get to the case. There are also local variations in doping and fabrication-geometry that 

result in some cells having a higher threshold voltage; such cells conduct less current than others with 

lower threshold voltage. The current-supply leads bonded to the top of the die provide an additional 

thermal path to case, and thus lower the thermal resistance of the zone at and around each lead attachment 

location. A large enough pulse of drain current flooding into the aluminum traces on the surface of the die 

can induce a local voltage drop across these traces so that Vd is larger in the zone where the currentsupply leads are attached. Thus, S does not have a constant value over the cross section of an actual die. 

Even when S is safely less than unity across most of the die’s cross-section, it may still be unsafe at some 

particular zone. This can be a source of part-to-part variations in resistance to Spirito-mode failures. 

As the entire surface begins heating into a thermal runaway process per the Spirito-mode, some zones 

will heat faster than the typical zone; one of these will develop into a hot spot. It will ‘hog’ current from 

its neighbors (all at the same applied Vd and Vg ) allowing it to accelerate beyond them toward 

dangerously high temperatures. Inspection of the destroyed device shows a small melted zone. 

Much of the literature discussing Spirito-mode failures calls attention to the development of these hot 

spots and may give the impression that they are the cause of this class of failures instead of a natural 

consequence of the final moments of the process. However, obtaining devices that are completely free of 

non-uniformities would not eliminate the Spirito-mode failure, which is present (per Equation 9) even in a 

completely uniform device. 

4.0 Effect of  on the Spirito Criterion for Thermal Runaway of a Power 

MOSFET 

4.1 Apply Power: The MOSFET Heats 

One way to apply power to a power MOSFET is to hold constant both the drain voltage Vd and the 

drain current Id. (This requires changing the gate voltage Vg as the die heats.) The power deposited into 

the ‘sea of FETs’ on the surface of the die is then a constant, P ൌ VdId, and the temperature of the ‘sea’ is 

given by the thermal resistance Rthሺtሻ: 

  ܶሺݐሻ ൌ ܶሺ0ሻ ൅ ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻܲൌܶሺ0ሻ ൅ ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻܸௗܫௗ  ሺ16ሻ 

This power can be applied until the ‘sea’ heats to a dangerous extent; heating longer will damage the 

device. There is a relationship between what maximum temperature is ‘safe’ (i.e., the device will be 

unchanged when it returns to a normal temperature) or ‘unsafe,’ and the duration of the time the ‘sea’ is 

held at that high temperature. If the duration is less than a microsecond, then perhaps reaching 350oC is 

safe. If the duration is longer than seconds, then perhaps 175oC is safe; but, some manufacturers report 

Tsafe ൌ 150oC. Using the latter value and Tሺ0ሻ = 25oC, the time (tsafeሻ during which the power can be 

applied, while limiting the temperature rise to the ‘safe’ value, is found by solving: 

                                                                       ܴ௧௛൫ݐ௦௔௙௘൯ ൌ 125°ܥ

ܫௗܸௗ

                                                                          ሺ17ሻ 

An estimate of the thermal resistance Rthሺtሻ is derived from the data sheet for the part, and the interrelationship between tsafe, Id and Vd can be used to draw the ‘safe power’ line on the SOA diagram. 
 11

A different way to apply power to a MOSFET is to maintain both the drain voltage Vd and the gate 

voltage Vg constant. As the ‘sea’ heats, the drain current changes (determined by curve tracing at various 

temperatures). If the drain current decreases with increasing temperature, the device is stable. The 

contrary means the device can suffer ‘thermal runaway.’ 

If the dependence of the drain current is described using a Taylor’s series: 

  ܫௗ൫ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ൯ ൌ ܫௗ

ሾ଴ሿ

൅ߙ ·ሺܶെܶ଴ሻ ൅ߚ ·ሺܶെܶ଴ሻଶ ൅ ܱሺ3ሻ,  ሺ18ሻ 

where 

T0 ൌ Tሺ0ሻ is the temperature, such as 25oC, of the ‘sea’ at t ൌ 0. 

ௗܫ

ሾ଴ሿ ൌ ܫௗ൫ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ଴൯. 

ൌ ߙ       

ௗܫ݀

݀ܶ  evaluated at ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ଴.

ൌ ߚ       

1

2

݀ଶܫௗ

݀ܶଶ  evaluated at ܸௗ, ܸ௚, ܶ଴.

If β ൉ ሺT െ T0ሻ2 is small enough compared with  ൉ ሺT െ T0ሻ, the ‘β’-term can be ignored. 

Then algebra gives: 

                                                                    ܶሺݐሻ െ ܶ଴ ൌ ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻܸௗܫௗ

ሾ଴ሿ

1െܵ ,                                                                   ሺ19ሻ 

where S ൌ VdRthሺtሻ is the Spirito stability factor, and where the affect of the time-changing power on the 

thermal resistance is thought to be ignorable. As S  ∞, the temperature diverges to infinite values; this is 

an unstable case. For this to happen, α must be positive (the drain current Id must increase with increasing 

temperature)and  must be sufficiently positive that the triple-product S approaches unity. 

The power MOSFET is unsafe long before S   ∞. All that is necessary is Tሺtሻ reach Tsafe. This 

happens when 

                                                           ܴ௧௛൫ݐ௦௔௙௘൯ ൌ ሺ1െܵሻ · ൥ܶ௦௔௙௘ െ ܶ଴

ܫௗܸ

ௗ

ሾ଴ሿ ൩.                                                        ሺ20ሻ

The ‘safe’ time is reduced when α ൐ 0 and increased when it is negative. 

If β  0, then 

                                           ܶሺݐሻ െ ܶ଴ ൌ ൥ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻܸௗܫௗ

ሾ଴ሿ

1െܵ ൩ ൅ ߚ

ܫ

ௗ

ሾ଴ሿ · ൥ܴ௧௛ሺݐሻܸௗܫௗ

ሾ଴ሿ

1െܵ ൩

ଷ

                                             ሺ21ሻ 
 12

This expression reduces to the when   ∞ and it has the singularity at precisely the same condition 

(S  ∞). The numerical details are affected by whether  is positive or negative. 

This expression can be solved for the time tsafe this ‘sea’ takes to reach Tsafe. 

Note: the modeling of Tሺtሻ and of tsafe have been improved by including , but the modeling has been 

degraded in a different way: once the drain current Id depends on time, the power dissipated into the ‘sea’ 

is not constant with time; rather, this power may increase ሺα ൐ 0ሻ or it may decrease ሺα ൏ 0ሻ during the 

pulse. This means the temperature is no longer given by Equation 17. Recomputing must be done to find 

the ‘correct’ heating of the ‘sea.’ 

5.0 MOSFET Testing Results and Information Dissemination 

5.1 Nondestructive Test for MOSFET Thermal Instability 

5.1.1 Assumptions Made 

With an understanding of the failure mechanism, it is time to investigate what is needed to record 

actual test data. Theoretically, several assumptions are made about the beginning of the failure that are not 

proven at the end of the parts failure. Throughout the theoretical section, one underlying assumption (that 

is the assumption that the MOSFET heats evenly throughout the event) seems incorrect. Reviewing test 

data taken when the lid is removed, the MOSFET does remain uniform across the die to within ten 

percent. It is only when the part is starting to fail that the temperature deviates across the MOSFET. The 

second assumption being made is that the intrinsic diodes internal to the part show the temperature of the 

hottest point in the MOSFET when a small reverse current is applied to the intrinsic diodes. Again, this 

works well as long as the temperature remains uniform. Once a hot spot starts to appear, the temperature 

reported by the diodes start to fall off from externally made measurements. Unfortunately, methods used 

to read the temperature independent from the part require the part to be destroyed (delidded). With the 

exception of finding the thermal resistance, all testing is to be done while trying to avoid changing the 

temperature of the MOSFET above the starting point of the MOSFET. Lastly, it is assumed that all parts 

tested are to be tested non-destructively. 

5.1.2 Data Needed From Test 

The intent of the testing is to collect four sets of data. This data can be used to analyze the location 

within the SOA where a MOSFET will have thermal instability problems. The four sets are: 

1. Temperature of the MOSFET ሺTሻ. 

2. The voltages on the MOSFET ሺVdሻ. 

3. Current going through a MOSFET at known Gate voltages at different known temperatures (Id). 

4. Thermal Resistance; the temperature increase for a given power for a given period of time (Rth). 
 13

Test Equipment 

While it would be very easy to state the steps used to determine these values, a more generic 

description is being attempted to avoid the need for having any specific piece of equipment. 

Note to determine  and even , voltage and current are needed at the same time. An I V curve tracer 

servers the purpose well if it is modified to drive the test parts to different temperatures. 

MOSFET Temperature 

All measurements need to originate from the MOSFET’s internal temperature. With one exception, the 

temperature required is located inside the sealed part, hidden from direct observation. This exception is 

the die itself. The intrinsic diode (part of all MOSFETs) can be used to determine the temperature of the 

MOSFET. A schematic for intrinsic diode temperature measurement is shown in Figure 9. By placing a 

small negative current (1mA to 10mA.) between the Drain and Source, a voltage can be read that 

correlates with the temperature. The voltage change should be near 0.002 volts per oC for a 10mA source. 

The actual voltage change can be determined by running the test-current source through the intrinsic 

diodes at several known temperatures, and building up a table of the temperatures and voltages, or by 

determining the slope and offset of the function. The temperature should be well controlled, and there 

should be no power in the MOSFET other than the 10mA test current. If air is being used to control the 

temperature of the part, the part should be monitored to determine when the part is in equilibrium with the 

moving air. Equalizing the part’s temperature and the air stream may take up to 20 minutes per 

temperature step and should be verified by the internal current (voltage) measurement. At a minimum, 

verified temperature measurement should be made at 0°C, 25°C, and 100°C. Other temperature 

measurements can be extracted from the voltage measurements. 

Figure 9. Simplified schematic for intrinsic diode temperature measurement. 

Voltage in the Device at Set Temperatures 

With a way of knowing the internal MOSFET temperature, being able to determine the Drain to 

Source voltage is required. The same meter can be used for both temperature and voltage if a second 

switch is employed to stop the main current following the test time. This is needed due to the reversal in 

current. The temperatures will read as negative voltages and the Vds voltage will appear positive. The 

meter used is required to take measurements very quickly and hold the reading. The intention of the short 

measurement times is to reduce the amount of heat built up in the MOSFET. For voltage and current 

measurements at temperature, heating of the MOSFET needs to be kept to a minimum. Increases in 

temperature should be less than twice the noise floor of the voltmeter (5°C over a series of test pulses, 10 

pulses in 10 seconds). To keep the temperature unchanged, the test pulses should be limited to 

approximately 20uSec. Voltage probe points should be as close to the test MOSFET as possible, and the 

probes should not be used to carry current. These need to be Kelvin connections. 
 14

Along with using Kelvin connections, it is necessary to have a very stiff voltage supply. With 

resistances being very low for the total circuit and low on resistances internal to the part, large capacitors 

close to the switches is recommended. A large capacitor will help lower the need for heavy wire running 

to a power supply 

Depending on the method of taking the voltage there may be a problem with the measurements. Most 

oscilloscopes are limited in voltage measurements to values that are on the screen. If the trace goes off 

screen the values become saturated, requiring time for the scope to recover once the signal is back on the 

screen. The oscilloscope’s recovery time can be verified by the manufacturer. Signals that fall within this 

time interval will be in error, and cannot be used or trusted. Using a single channel set to a large voltage 

level to capture both the temperature reading and the Vds value will increase the noise in the temperature 

readings. The use of two channels may provide a better solution. If a smaller scale is used for the 

temperature reading a small signal diode and large resistor can be used to block the higher forward 

voltage. 

Current at the Set Temperature 

The current required is the current flowing through the MOSFET ሺId ሻ. A schematic for Id current 

measurement can be seen in Figure 10. The use of a large capacitor in the system not only helps with 

holding the voltage stable, but also allows the current to flow by reducing the total impedance path during 

the on pulse. The current reading needs to be taken inside of the capacitor, MOSFET circuit. A current 

shunt could be used if it is of sufficient size to allow for high currents (20 A to 30 A). However, a current 

shunt will add resistance to the over all system, and could easily double the resistance of the circuit. For 

this reason a current probe is recommended. 

Figure 10. Simplified schematic for Id current measurement. 

Thermal Resistance 

Thermal resistance is a time dependant measurement of the temperature of the MOSFET die with a 

given power input. For short periods of time the change in temperature remains in the die itself. With 

slightly longer periods of time the temperature rise will travel out of the die into the base of the part. This 

process is repeated again for the heat traveling into the printed circuit (PC) board, and then again into the 

PC board’s heat sink. The manufacturer has no way of knowing the thermal path outside of their part’s 

case and cannot advertise the total thermal resistance for time periods greater than 1 second. It is the total 

thermal resistance that is required if the part is being used for long time periods. It should also be noted 

that some MOSFET thermal resistance charts have been found to be incorrect for the stated parts. 
 15

5.2 Test Data Development of Data 

With the four sets of data discussed in Section 3.1.2, it is possible to record values for  and . With 

this data, the Spirito Stability Criteria can be determined. 

It should be noted that  and  are curves as a function of Vgs or even Id. For derating of the stability 

criteria, the maximum values of  and  should be used. Testing to date has shown  to be about 100 

times smaller in value from . 

5.2.1 Alpha 

If a curve tracer has been used,  can be found by selecting a voltage common to two temperature data 

sets and gate voltages, subtracting the lower temperature data point from the higher temperature data 

point, and dividing by the temperature difference of the two data points. The  curve will be the 

collection of current differences verses the gate voltages. The temperature steps used should be limited to 

no greater than 25oC. Smaller temperature steps would be better. 

5.2.2 Beta 

If  is found over a series of temperature steps,  will be the differences in  with an increase in 

temperature. 

6.0 Executive Summary 

Based on recent testing and failure investigations, it appears the “old” SOA application curves are 

inaccurate with regard to the SOA of some MOSFET parts. These parts are used extensively in flight 

hardware and ground support equipment. 

With the push for faster switching, lower on resistance power MOSFETs, came an unintended 

consequence similar to, but not seen since the prime of the bipolar transistor, which was the secondary 

voltage breakdown effect. While MOSFETs are in the charge-carrier dominated region (low Vgs) the 

MOSFET allows more current to flow as the temperature increases causing a thermal runaway. It was 

discovered that the SOA curves given by the manufacturers were lacking in giving the region of thermal 

instability. A review of papers from the automotive industry is described, and recommendations to add 

the area of thermal instability are included. The four factors that are important in determining the thermal 

instability are: 

1.  defined as the change in current over the change in temperature. ሺdI/dTሻ

2.  defined as the acceleration of current over the change in temperature. ሺd**2*I/dT**2ሻ

3. Thermal resistance of the surface of the MOSFET which is the change in temperature over the 

power in the part. 

4. The voltage across the MOSFET from the Drain to the Source. 
 16

7.0 References 

1 IRF510 Data Sheet: 5.6A, 100V, 0.540 Ohm, N-Channel Power MOSFET; Fairchild Semiconductor; 

January 2002. 

2 Marie Denison, Martin Pfost, Klaus-Willi Pieper, Stefan Markl, Dieter Metzner, and Matthias Stecher; Influence of 

Inhomogeneous Current Distribution on the Thermal SOA of Integrated DMOS Transistors; Proceedings of 

2004 International Symposium on Power Semiconductor Devices & ICs; Kitakyushu; pp. 409–412. 

3 P. L. Hower and P. K. Govil; IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices; Volume ED-21, Number 10; 

October 1974, pp. 617–623. 

4 P. Spirito, G. Breglio, V. d’Alessandro, and N. Rinaldi; Analytical Model For Thermal Instability Of Low Voltage 

Power MOS and S.O.A. In Pulse Operation; 14th International Symposium On Power Semiconductor Devices & 

ICS; Santa Fe, NM; 4–7 June 2002; pp. 269–272. 
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved

OMB No. 0704-0188

2. REPORT TYPE 

Technical Memorandum

 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Power MOSFET Thermal Instability Operation Characterization Support

5a. CONTRACT NUMBER

 6. AUTHOR(S)

Shue, John L.; Leidecker, Henning W.

 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

NASA Langley Research Center

Hampton, VA 23681-2199

 9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, DC 20546-0001

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 REPORT NUMBER

L-19856

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NASA

13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

The NESC provided support after the recent discovery of Power MOSFET failures and the need to update the safe operating range as opposed to relying solely on the manufacturer's application curves. This report was prepared in support of NESC 

Request# TI-09-00505; Power MOSFET Thermal Instability Operation Characterization Support.

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Availability: NASA CASI (443) 757-5802

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14. ABSTRACT

Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) are used extensively in flight hardware and ground support 

equipment. In the quest for faster switching times and lower "on resistance," the MOSFETs designed from 1998 to the present 

have achieved most of their intended goals. In the quest for lower on resistance and higher switching speeds, the designs now 

being produced allow the charge-carrier dominated region (once small and outside of the area of concern) to become important 

and inside the safe operating area (SOA). The charge-carrier dominated region allows more current to flow as the temperature 

increases. The higher temperatures produce more current resulting in the beginning of thermal runaway. Thermal runaway is a 

problem affecting a wide range of modern MOSFETs from more than one manufacturer. This report contains information on 

MOSFET failures, their causes and test results and information dissemination.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Metal-oxide Semiconductor Field-effect Transistors; Thermal Runaway; Safe Operating Area; Field-Effect Transistor

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