I 

118TH CONGRESS 

2D SESSION H. R. 8130 

To establish a commission to address the fundamental repercussions of misguided interventions by the United States in multiple sovereign Western 

Hemisphere nations over the course of the twentieth century, including 

to study and consider an apology and proposals for the repairment 

of relations and reconciliation with the peoples of said nations, and 

for other purposes. 

IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

APRIL 26, 2024 

Mr. ESPAILLAT (for himself and Ms. TLAIB) introduced the following bill; 

which was referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs 

A BILL 

To establish a commission to address the fundamental repercussions of misguided interventions by the United States 

in multiple sovereign Western Hemisphere nations over 

the course of the twentieth century, including to study 

and consider an apology and proposals for the 

repairment of relations and reconciliation with the peoples of said nations, and for other purposes. 

1 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa2 tives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, 


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1 SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. 

2 This Act may be cited as the ‘‘Commission on the 

3 United States Occupations in the Americas Act’’ or the 

4 ‘‘La Comisio ́n de las Ocupacio ́nes Americanos Act’’. 

5 SEC. 2. FINDINGS. 

6 Congress finds the following as it relates to misguided 

7 United States military interventions in the following na8 tions: 

9 (1) FIRST OCCUPATION OF NICARAGUA.—On 

10 November 18, 1909, President William Howard Taft 

11 sent warships off the coast of Nicaragua to signal 

12 United States support for an uprising against Nica13 raguan President Jose ́ Santos Zelaya, whose Presi14 dency was viewed as unfavorable to the interests of 

15 United States businesses operating in Nicaragua. 

16 While United States forces were not ordered to in17 tervene directly, a small group of United States Ma18 rines nevertheless made landfall on the Nicaraguan 

19 coast and assisted in the successful rebellion against 

20 President Zelaya, who resigned on December 14, 

21 1909, and later fled the country. A new pro-United 

22 States President of Nicaragua, Juan Estrada, was 

23 later installed in August 1910, due in large part to 

24 the pressure imposed by the continual presence of 

25 United States warships off the Nicaraguan coast. 

26 President Estrada’s pro-United States stances 


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1 proved unpopular, and he was forced to resign in 

2 May of 1911 by the Nicaraguan Minister of War, 

3 Luis Mena. President Estrada was replaced by his 

4 Vice President, Adolfo Dı ́az. Nevertheless, Dı ́az’s 

5 close connections to the United States also made 

6 him unpopular, and in mid-1912, Nicaragua’s Con7 stituent Assembly appointed Mena as the successor 

8 to the Presidency over Dı ́az. When the United 

9 States refused to recognize Mena’s Presidency as le10 gitimate, Mena’s and Dı ́az’s forces clashed in July 

11 of 1912 in a full-scale civil war. Dı ́az requested the 

12 United States support in the war. Beginning on Au13 gust 4, 1912, multiple contingents of United States 

14 Bluejackets and Marines arrived in Nicaragua and 

15 assisted Dı ́az’s forces, resulting in Dı ́az’s victory on 

16 October 6, 1912, when his forces captured the city 

17 of Leon, Nicaragua. Although only 7 members of the 

18 United States military died in the conflict, the war 

19 nevertheless resulted in approximately 2,000 total 

20 casualties. The United States withdrew most of its 

21 forces toward the end of October 1912. However, a 

22 smaller contingent of approximately 100 Marines 

23 would remain in Nicaragua’s capital city of Mana24 gua for over a decade before eventually withdrawing 

25 in August 1925. 


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1 (2) FIRST OCCUPATION OF MEXICO.—On April 

2 21, 1914, at the order of President Woodrow Wil3 son, 500 Marines and 300 Navy personnel invaded 

4 the port city of Veracruz, Mexico, to seize control of 

5 the city. President Wilson’s pretext for this oper6 ation was to enforce a United States arms embargo 

7 against Mexico and prevent the arrival of an arms 

8 shipment in Veracruz that had been ordered by 

9 Mexican President Victoriano Huerta, who was 

10 viewed as an enemy of the United States at that 

11 time. The ensuing fighting saw United States forces 

12 destroy most of the Mexican Naval Academy in 

13 Veracruz. The United States military was eventually 

14 able to take full control of Veracruz by April 24, 

15 1914, beginning a 6-month occupation by the United 

16 States of the city. The United States military suf17 fered just shy of 100 casualties while approximately 

18 550 Mexican soldiers and civilians died while defend19 ing the city. United States forces eventually with20 drew from Veracruz on November 23, 1914. The 

21 United States occupation of Veracruz had broad 

22 negative consequences for the favorability of the 

23 United States amongst Mexican citizens and in24 creased anti-American sentiment throughout Mexico 

25 and Latin America for decades to come. 


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1 (3) SECOND OCCUPATION OF MEXICO.—From 

2 March 16, 1916, through February 14, 1917, an ex3 peditionary force of more than 14,000 United States 

4 Army troops was sent into northern Mexico. These 

5 forces were instructed to engage in the singular pur6 suit of capturing Mexican revolutionary Francisco 

7 ‘‘Pancho’’ Villa. President Woodrow Wilson ordered 

8 this expedition in response to Villa’s army’s raid of 

9 Colombus, New Mexico, on March 9, 1916, which 

10 killed 17 United States citizens. Over the course of 

11 the next 11 months, multiple battles occurred in 

12 Mexico between Pancho Villa’s forces and United 

13 States forces, leaving a total 15 United States citi14 zens and 251 Mexicans dead. Mexican President 

15 Venustiano Carranza viewed the United States expe16 dition in pursuit of Villa as a clear violation of Mexi17 can sovereignty. The expedition ended before Villa 

18 was ever captured, and United States forces eventu19 ally withdrew from Mexico on February 14, 1917, in 

20 order to consolidate forces to fight in World War I 

21 in Europe. 

22 (4) FIRST OCCUPATION OF THE DOMINICAN RE23 PUBLIC.—On May 13, 1916, a contingent of the 

24 United States Marine Corps landed on the shores of 

25 the Dominican Republic with the goal of militarily 


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1 occupying the island nation due to concerns about 

2 the possible German use of the Dominican Republic 

3 as a base for attacks on the United States during 

4 World War I. After 2 months of fighting, the United 

5 States military took control of the nation, estab6 lished a government, and continued to occupy the is7 land for 8 years before withdrawing on September 

8 18, 1924. By the time United States forces with9 drew, 144 marines had died and 50 were injured. 

10 The 8-year occupation also resulted in 950 Domini11 can casualties between those who died and those who 

12 were injured in the conflict. 

13 (5) SECOND OCCUPATION OF NICARAGUA.—On 

14 January 24, 1927, when Nicaragua was embroiled in 

15 another civil war that threatened United States busi16 ness and diplomatic interests in the region, 3,000 

17 United States Marines were deployed to Nicaragua 

18 by President Calvin Coolidge with the goal of dis19 arming rebel groups, supervising the highly conten20 tious 1928 Presidential election, and developing and 

21 training the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua (Nica22 raguan National Guard). While the Marines were 

23 successful in disarming various rebel groups 

24 throughout the country, Nicaraguan rebel leader 

25 Ce ́sar Augusto Sandino and his forces resisted due 


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1 to Sandino’s ideological opposition to United States 

2 interventionism in his country. Sandino’s army and 

3 the United States Marines engaged in a 6-year-long 

4 military conflict through 1933. A total 136 Marines 

5 died and estimates of Nicaraguan casualties, al6 though imprecise, were even larger. Sandino’s will7 ingness to stand up to United States forces at8 tracted sympathy and galvanized anti-American sen9 timent both in Nicaragua and throughout the West10 ern Hemisphere. Despite Sandino’s resistance, the 

11 United States successfully supervised Nicaragua’s 

12 November 1928 elections, which saw President Jose ́

13 Marı ́a Moncada ascend to power. After the election, 

14 President Herbert Hoover, slowly withdrew troops 

15 from Nicaragua until the last Marines left Nica16 ragua on January 2, 1933. Sandino’s rebel forces 

17 continued to engage in periodic guerilla warfare 

18 against United States troops until these last Marines 

19 were evacuated. Today, Sandino is a popular folk 

20 hero amongst the Nicaraguan political left and his 

21 name provides the inspiration for the modern-day 

22 ‘‘Sandinista’’ political party that rules Nicaragua. 

23 (6) GUATEMALA AIR OCCUPATION.—On June 

24 18, 1954, through June 27, 1954, as part of ‘‘Oper25 ation PBSuccess’’, the United States Central IntelVerDate Sep 11 2014 06:22 May 15, 2024 Jkt 049200 PO 00000 Frm 00007 Fmt 6652 Sfmt 6201 E:\BILLS\H8130.IH H8130

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1 ligence Agency (‘‘CIA’’) planned, designed, and led 

2 a successful coup in Guatemala, overthrowing the 

3 predominantly capitalist government of President 

Jacobo A ́ 4 rbenz, coinciding in time with President 

5 Arbenz’s plans to redistribute land owned by the 

6 United Fruit Company, a prosperous United States7 based fruit company which controlled 42 percent of 

8 all land in Guatemala at that time. In justification 

9 for Operation PBSuccess, the United States spuriously alleged that President A ́ 10 rbenz’s government 

11 had been infiltrated by anti-American communists. 

12 The CIA provided both supplies and a small fleet of 

13 combat troops for the rebellion, during which United 

14 States pilots bombed fortresses and other areas of 

15 Guatemala City. Operation PBSuccess was successful, and on June 27, 1954, President A ́ 16 rbenz fled 

17 Guatemala. The 1954 coup is widely viewed by his18 torians as ushering in an unprecedented era of civil 

19 war in Guatemala that lasted until 1996 and 

20 claimed the lives of over 200,000 Guatemalans, 

21 many of which were lost in connection with various 

22 additional covert CIA operations that operated in 

23 the nation during this time period. 

24 (7) SECOND OCCUPATION OF THE DOMINICAN

25 REPUBLIC.—On April 28, 1965, the second intervenVerDate Sep 11 2014 06:22 May 15, 2024 Jkt 049200 PO 00000 Frm 00008 Fmt 6652 Sfmt 6201 E:\BILLS\H8130.IH H8130

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1 tion and occupation of the Dominican Republic by 

2 the United States Armed Forces, called ‘‘Operation 

3 Power Pack’’, commenced and provided United 

4 States air and ground troops to assist future Domin5 ican President Donal Reid Cabral’s army in the Do6 minican 1965 civil war. Operation Power Pack took 

7 place between 1965 and 1966, after a period of po8 litical instability and military coup following the as9 sassination of former Dominican dictator Rafael 

10 Leo ́nidas Trujillo in 1961. In 1962, socialist politi11 cian Juan Bosch became the elected President of the 

12 Dominican Republic before being overthrown in a 

13 separate coup in 1963. From 1963 through April 

14 1965, a 3-man military junta of General Antonio 

15 Imbert Barrera, General Luis Amiamo Tio ́, and 

16 General Victor Elby Vin ̃as Roma ́n held power before 

17 growing dissatisfaction led to another rebellion on 

18 April 24, 1965. Four days later, President Lyndon 

19 Johnson sent a total of 42,000 United States troops 

20 from multiple branches of the military to the island, 

21 supplemented by an Inter-American Peace Force of 

22 2,000 troops, to assist rebels led by Donald Reid 

23 Cabral. In what is now known as the 1965 Domini24 can Civil War or ‘‘La Revolucio ́n del 65’’ Cabral’s 

25 forces prevailed due to the United States military 


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1 backing. Shortly after the war ended, on July 1, 

2 1966, democratically questionable elections were held 

3 in the Dominican Republic which resulted in the 

4 election of Joaquı ́n Balaguer as President. United 

5 States troops withdrew from the island nation there6 after on September 21, 1966. In total, 44 United 

7 States combatants were killed in the conflict, along8 side over 2,000 Dominicans, roughly half of whom 

9 were civilians. Following the withdrawal of United 

10 States troops, President Balaguer, a previous mem11 ber of the Trujillo-led government, ruled the Domini12 can Republic for a 12-year period characterized by 

13 turmoil, the disappearances of Balaguer’s political 

14 opponents, and the deaths of hundreds of young po15 litical and social activists. In this manner, the 

16 United States intervention during Operation Power 

17 Pack played a key role in depriving Dominican citi18 zens of a free and sovereign government for at least 

19 12 additional years through 1978. 

20 (8) GRENADA OCCUPATION.—From October 25, 

21 1983, through October 29, 1983, the United States 

22 conducted ‘‘Operation Urgent Fury’’, a full-scale 

23 military invasion of Grenada in which thousands of 

24 troops from the United States Army, Marines, Navy, 

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1 pated in active combat against native Grenadians 

2 and Cuban fighters. The United States invasion was 

3 authorized by President Ronald Reagan based on 

4 the asserted need to prevent a military coup and 

5 communist takeover of the small island nation, in 

6 addition to the need to protect the approximately 

7 1,000 United States citizens who resided on the is8 land at that time. United States forces achieved a 

9 swift victory in just 4 days, but the fighting resulted 

10 in the deaths of 45 Grenadian combatants, 25 

11 Cuban combatants, and 19 United States combat12 ants. The last United States troops eventually exited 

13 Grenada on June 13, 1985. 

14 (9) PANAMA OCCUPATION.—On December 20, 

15 1989, approximately 27,000 United States troops in16 vaded Panama at the order of President George 

17 Bush under the ignominiously named ‘‘Operation 

18 Just Cause’’. The purpose of Operation Just Cause 

19 was to remove General Manuel Noriega, the coun20 try’s dictatorial ruler, from power and secure his ex21 tradition to the United States, where Noriega was 

22 wanted on charges of drug trafficking and money 

23 laundering (he was later found guilty on these 

24 charges upon his successful extradition). Relations 

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1 ment soured over the course of 1988 and 1989 due 

2 to Noriega’s antidemocratic behavior and monopo3 lization of power, Noriega’s 1988 indictment in the 

4 United States on drug smuggling charges, notably 

5 escalating tensions between Panamanian troops and 

6 United States troops stationed in the Panama Canal 

7 Zone, and United States concerns about maintaining 

8 physical control of the Panama Canal Zone. Ten9 sions boiled over on December 15, 1989, when the 

10 Noriega-led Panamanian Assembly declared Panama 

11 to be in a ‘‘state of war’’ with the United States. On 

12 December 16, an off-duty United States Marine was 

13 shot and killed by Panamanian soldiers, prompting 

14 President George Bush to order Operation Just 

15 Cause in the aftermath of this incident. The United 

16 States would win the ensuing ground conflict, gain 

17 control of the Panama Canal, and force Noriega’s 

18 surrender on January 3, 1990. However, this oper19 ation came at a great cost, as according to the Pen20 tagon’s official tally, 23 United States soldiers, 300 

21 Panamanian soldiers, and 214 Panamanian civilians 

22 were killed during the United States invasion. Some 

23 human rights groups also estimate the death toll 

24 amongst Panamanian civilians to be far higher. Fur25 thermore, the United States repeated bombing of the 


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1 impoverished Panama City neighborhood ‘‘El 

2 Churillo’’ during Operation Just Cause destroyed 

3 approximately 4,000 homes and displaced thousands 

4 more civilians, resulting in Panamanians nicknaming 

5 the neighborhood ‘‘Little Hiroshima’’ following the 

6 war. 

7 SEC. 3. ESTABLISHMENT AND DUTIES. 

8 (a) ESTABLISHMENT.—There is established a Com9 mission to Study and Develop Reconciliation Proposals for 

10 Misguided Interventions in the Americas (in this Act re11 ferred to as the ‘‘Commission’’). 

12 (b) DUTIES.—The Commission shall be responsible 

13 for the following duties: 

14 (1) Identifying, documenting, examining, com15 piling, and synthesizing the relevant body of evi16 dentiary documentation relating to the United 

17 States interest in intervening in— 

18 (A) the 9 conflicts in Nicaragua, Mexico, 

19 the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Grenada, 

20 and Panama discussed in section 2 of this Act; 

21 and 

22 (B) any additional United States military 

23 involvement in nations in the Caribbean, Latin 

24 America, or South America that the Commis25 sion, via a majority vote at any meeting of the 


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1 Commission containing a quorum, identifies as 

2 misguided and believes merits investigation and 

3 action by the Commission. 

4 (2) Identifying, documenting, examining, com5 piling, and synthesizing the relevant corpus of evi6 dentiary documentation relating to the United 

7 States military occupations identified in paragraph 

8 (1) of this subsection, as it pertains to— 

9 (A) the United States involvement in these 

10 nations internal affairs and its financial and 

11 military support to different rebellions and re12 gime changes in these nations; 

13 (B) the treatment of the native persons by 

14 both the United States military and under the 

15 regimes ushered in a result of United States 

16 military action, including any repressions of 

17 basic rights and freedoms by United States-sup18 ported governments; and 

19 (C) the lingering negative effects of these 

20 United States-supported regimes on each indi21 vidual nation’s citizens, collective psyche, and 

22 society. 

23 (3) Recommending appropriate ways to educate 

24 the United States public on the Commission’s find25 ings. 


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1 (4) Recommending appropriate remedies in con2 sideration of the Commission’s findings on the dif3 ferent United States military occupations described 

4 in paragraphs (1) and (2) of this subsection. In 

5 making such recommendations, the Commission 

6 shall address among other issues, the following ques7 tions: 

8 (A) How such recommendations comport 

9 with international standards of remedy for 

10 wrongs and injuries caused by the United 

11 States Government, including repair and rec12 onciliation efforts, as understood by various rel13 evant international protocols, laws, and find14 ings. 

15 (B) How the United States Government 

16 may offer a formal apology on behalf of the 

17 people of the United States for the invasions 

18 and occupations studied by the Commission for 

19 those occupations which the Commission deems 

20 worthy of an apology. 

21 (C) How the repercussions resulting from 

22 matters described in paragraphs (1) and (2) of 

23 this subsection may be reversed and provide ap24 propriate policies, programs, projects, and recVerDate Sep 11 2014 06:22 May 15, 2024 Jkt 049200 PO 00000 Frm 00015 Fmt 6652 Sfmt 6201 E:\BILLS\H8130.IH H8130

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1 ommendations for the purpose of reversing the 

2 effects of the invasions and occupations. 

3 (c) REPORT TO CONGRESS.—Not later than 4 years 

4 after the date of enactment of this Act, the Commission 

5 shall submit to Congress a written report of its findings 

6 and recommendations under this section. 

7 (d) MEMBERSHIP.— 

8 (1) IN GENERAL.— 

9 (A) STATED MEMBERS.—The following 

10 shall be members of the Commission: 

11 (i) The Under Secretary for Western 

12 Hemisphere Affairs of the Department of 

13 State. 

14 (ii) The current United States Ambas15 sadors to each of the sovereign nations 

16 studied by the Commission. 

17 (B) APPOINTED MEMBERS.—Not later 

18 than 90 days after the date of enactment of 

19 this Act, the following shall be members of the 

20 Commission, appointed as follows: 

21 (i) One member shall be appointed by 

22 the President of the United States. 

23 (ii) Two members shall be appointed 

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1 atives, in consultation with the minority 

2 leader. 

3 (iii) Two members shall be appointed 

4 by the majority leader of the Senate, in 

5 consultation with the minority leader. 

6 (C) MEMBERS UNDER INTERNATIONAL CO7 OPERATION.—The President shall seek to nego8 tiate with the governments of previously occu9 pied nations to seek, to the extent practicable, 

10 the following as members of the Commission: 

11 (i) The Ambassador to the United 

12 States for each sovereign nation being 

13 studied by the Commission pursuant to 

14 subsection (b)(1). 

15 (ii) The Ambassador, Permanent Rep16 resentative to the Organization of Amer17 ican States for each sovereign nation being 

18 studied by the Commission pursuant to 

19 subsection (b)(1). 

20 (2) QUALIFICATIONS.—All members of the 

21 Commission shall be persons who are especially 

22 qualified to serve on the Commission by virtue of 

23 their education, training, activism, or experience, 

24 particularly in the fields of Western Hemisphere re25 lations or reparatory justice. 


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1 (3) TERMS.—The term of office for members 

2 shall be for the life of the Commission. A vacancy 

3 in the Commission shall not affect the powers of the 

4 Commission and shall be filled in the same manner 

5 in which the original appointment was made. 

6 (4) MEETINGS.—The Commission shall conduct 

7 its initial meeting not later than 365 days after the 

8 date of enactment of this Act. The Commission shall 

9 establish rules of procedure at such meeting. All 

10 meetings of the Commission shall be public. The 

11 Commission should meet not less often than 4 times 

12 per year, including virtual meetings called to order 

13 by either the entire Commission or any member 

14 thereof. 

15 (5) QUORUM.—More than half of the total 

16 members of the Commission shall constitute a 

17 quorum for the purposes of holding a meeting in 

18 compliance with subsection (d)(4), but a lesser num19 ber may hold hearings. 

20 (6) CHAIR AND VICE CHAIR.—The Commission 

21 shall elect a Chair and Vice Chair from among its 

22 members. The term of office of each shall be for the 

23 life of the Commission. 

24 (7) COMPENSATION.—Each member of the 

25 Commission who is not an officer or employee of the 


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1 Federal Government shall be compensated at a rate 

2 equal to the daily equivalent of the annual rate of 

3 basic pay prescribed for level IV of the Executive 

4 Schedule under section 5315 of title 5, United 

5 States Code, for each day (including travel time) 

6 during which such member is engaged in the per7 formance of the duties of the Commission. All mem8 bers of the Commission who are officers or employ9 ees of the United States shall serve without com10 pensation in addition to that received for their serv11 ices as officers or employees of the United States. 

12 (8) TRAVEL EXPENSES.—The members of the 

13 Commission shall be allowed travel expenses, includ14 ing per diem in lieu of subsistence, at rates author15 ized for employees of agencies under subchapter I of 

16 chapter 57 of title 5, United States Code, while 

17 away from their homes or regular places of business 

18 in the performance of the duties of the Commission. 

19 (e) POWERS OF THE COMMISSION.— 

20 (1) HEARINGS AND SESSIONS.—The Commis21 sion may, for the purpose of carrying out the provi22 sions of this section, hold such hearings and sit and 

23 act at such times and at such places in the United 

24 States, and request the attendance and testimony of 

25 such witnesses and the production of such books, 


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1 records, correspondence, memoranda, papers, and 

2 documents, as the Commission considers appro3 priate. The Commission may invoke the aid of an 

4 appropriate United States district court to require, 

5 by subpoena or otherwise, such attendance, testi6 mony, or production. 

7 (2) POWERS OF MEMBERS.—Any member of 

8 the Commission may, if authorized by the Commis9 sion, take any action which the Commission is au10 thorized to take by this subsection. 

11 (3) OBTAINING OFFICIAL DATA.—The Commis12 sion may acquire directly from the head of any de13 partment, agency, or instrumentality of the executive 

14 branch of the United States Government, available 

15 information which the Commission considers useful 

16 in the discharge of its duties. All departments, agen17 cies, and instrumentalities of the executive branch of 

18 the United States Government shall cooperate with 

19 the Commission with respect to such information 

20 and shall furnish all information requested by the 

21 Commission to the extent permitted by law. 

22 (f) TERMINATION.—The Commission shall terminate 

23 90 days after the date on which the Commission submits 

24 its report to Congress under subsection (c). 

25 (g) AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS.— 


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1 (1) IN GENERAL.—There is authorized to be 

2 appropriated $20,000,000 to carry out this Act. 

3 (2) AVAILABILITY.—Amounts appropriated pur4 suant to the authorization under paragraph (1) are 

5 authorized to remain available until the termination 

6 of the Commission in accordance with subsection (f). 

Æ 


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