Technical Report

NREL/TP-560-47336

February 2010

Vehicle Codes and Standards:

Overview and Gap Analysis

C. Blake, W. Buttner, and C. Rivkin
National Renewable Energy Laboratory

1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393

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Contract No. DE-AC36-08-GO28308

Technical Report

NREL/TP-560-47336

February 2010

Vehicle Codes and Standards:

Overview and Gap Analysis

C. Blake, W. Buttner, and C. Rivkin

Prepared under Task No. FC08.7730
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iii

Executive Summary

Codes and standards are implemented to ensure that processes and products meet uniform 

requirements. These requirements pertain to either safety or performance specifications. 

The Vehicle Codes and Standards Group at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

(NREL) conducted an analysis of the full range of codes and standards that apply to 

alternative vehicle fuels to determine where the gaps are located in the codes and 

standards and what work must be performed to fill these gaps. For this analysis, the term 

codes and standards gap was broadened to include regulatory or policy issues that would 

impede the application of a technology. Six most commonly available fuels designated by 

the Department of Energy (DOE) as vehicle alternative fuels are as follows: 

1. Biodiesel

2. Natural Gas (NG)

3. Electricity

4. Ethanol

5. Hydrogen

6. Propane

One of the most significant findings is that vehicle codes and standards have traditionally 

been approached on a case-by-case basis by DOE. With the exception of Hydrogen, no 

DOE coordinated effort took place to address codes and standards related to all 

alternative fuels. As a result, occasions where one DOE-funded group did not coordinate 

with other DOE-funded efforts in key codes and standards issues or committees occurred. 

A coordinated approach to alternative fuel vehicle technologies codes and standards 

would result in an efficient and effective codes and standards program. 

Table 1 summarizes significant key gaps in existing vehicle codes and standards

identified during analysis. The table is organized by fuel type with the exception of gaps 

that apply to all fuels. The individual fuel sections provide additional extensive listings of 

codes and standards gaps. The gaps listed in this table were deemed more important by 

the authors or the experts interviewed by the authors. 

This report was written with the input from experts in all of the vehicle alternative fuels. 

Table 2 identifies the various experts who provided input to this report.
iv

Table 1: Summary of Vehicle Codes and Standards Gaps

Fuel Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

BIODIESEL

Lack of data for existing 

codes and standards 

applicability to biodiesel 

storage systems

National Fire 

Protection 

Association (NFPA) 

30 and 30A and 

associated listing 

documents, IFC

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Biodiesel with listed 

storage

BIODIESEL Limited component 

compatibility

Multiple Society of 

Automotive 

Engineers (SAE) 

documents

Work with SAE 

committees and 

provide data to 

support changes 

allowing for more 

component flexibility

ELECTRICITY

Code enforcers lack of 

familiarity with charging 

station requirements, 

particularly for home 

charging stations

NFPA 70, Article 

625

Education and 

outreach required to 

increase familiarity 

with the NFPA 70 

requirements

ELECTRICITY

Battery standards are 

not complete, 

specifically:

1. SAE 1797 does not 

address lithium Ion 

batteries

2. SAE J1798 does not 

address temperature 

testing

3. SAE 2288 does not 

address temperature 

variation and testing

4. SAE 2380 does not 

address battery 

mounting and 

vibration testing

SAE J1797, SAE 

J1798, SAE J 2288, 

SAE J 2380

The standards 

development 

activities need to be 

monitored to ensure 

that the required 

data are available to 

the technical 

committees to 

promulgate their 

revised documents
v 

Fuel Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

ELECTRICITY

Communications 

between the vehicle and 

the grid require further 

definition

2293 – Updates for 

current 

communication 

technology – Nat 

Labs participation

2836 – Part 1, 2, 3 

all need updates for 

communication 

requirements

2847 – Part 1, 2, 3 

not complete, need 

technical 

requirements for 

communications

The standards 

development 

activities need to be 

monitored to ensure 

that the required 

data are available to 

the technical 

committees to 

promulgate their 

revised documents

ELECTRICITY

Communications within 

the grid to balance 

vehicle charging loads

National Institute of 

Standards and 

Technology (NIST)

standards, Institute 

of Electrical and 

Electronics 

Engineers (IEEE) 

1547

The codes and 

standards activities 

require monitoring to 

determine where 

data are needed to 

ensure that the 

documents are 

promulgated

ETHANOL

Component compatibility 

with high ethanol 

concentration mixtures

NFPA 30/30A and 

associated listing 

documents, SAE 

2835

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Ethanol with 

traditional gasoline 

vehicle components

ETHANOL

Lack of data for existing 

codes and standards 

applicability to Ethanol 

storage systems

NFPA 30/30A and 

associated listing 

documents, IFC

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Ethanol with listed 

storage

HYDROGEN

High pressure storage, 

handling, and use of 

hydrogen presents 

hazards specific to highpressure systems that 

may not be completely 

addressed

NFPA 2, NFPA 52, 

NFPA 55 

Compressed Gas 

Association (CGA) H 

series of documents, 

International Fire 

Code (IFC) 

Evaluated codes 

and standards that 

address high

pressures to 

determine if 

requirements are 

adequate
vi

Fuel Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

HYDROGEN

Incomplete 

requirements for 

sensing technologies

NFPA 2, NFPA 52, 

NFPA 55, IFC

Support the use of 

sensing 

technologies that 

replace odorants 

through evaluating 

sensing 

technologies and 

supporting code and 

standards 

development work in 

sensing 

technologies

HYDROGEN

Off-road vehicle storage 

tank requirements are 

incomplete

Codes and 

Standards of 

America (CSA) 

Heavy Goods 

Vehicle (HGV) 2, 

SAE J2601, 

Underwriters’ 

Laboratories, Inc. 

(UL) 2267

Support standards 

development work 

with direct 

committee 

involvement and 

data support

HYDROGEN

Potentially incomplete 

requirements for indoor 

hydrogen fueling

NFPA 52, IFC

Evaluate indoor 

release 

characteristics and 

accident scenarios 

for potential 

application to code 

development

NG

Outreach products for 

installation technicians

and conversion shops

Multiple

Produce outreach 

products for 

consumers, 

installation shops, 

and technicians

NG Component 

standardization Multiple documents

Support 

development of 

component 

standards 
vii

Fuel Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

PROPANE Conversion components NFPA 58 or UL 

listing document

Provide data to 

ensure component 

listings are valid

PROPANE Compositional and fuel 

quality concerns

American Society for 

Testing and 

Materials (ASTM) D 

1835-97

Provide data from 

the analysis of fuel 

quality and impact 

on vehicle systems

ALL FUELS

Focus research 

activities on system 

engineering to reduce 

the probability of a 

release or incident 

rather than evaluating 

the potential impacts of 

a release or incident

Multiple documents

Conduct more 

research on system 

safety engineering 

rather than modeling 

of incidents

ALL FUELS

Lack of familiarity with 

codes and standards 

among project 

developers and AHJs

Multiple documents

Continue to conduct 

regional training 

workshops and 

develop specialized 

web education 

products

ALL FUELS

Develop operational 

safety requirements for 

fueling operations as 

data are accrued 

through learning 

demonstrations 

Multiple documents

Analyze fueling 

data, particularly for 

new fueling 

technologies at 

facilities with 

multiple fuels, to 

determine whether 

operations safety 

can be increased

.
viii

Table 2: Codes and Standards Experts 

Expert Organization Area of Expertis e

Chad Blake, Senior Project 

Leader National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Vehicle codes and standards, hydrogen fuel quality standards

William Buttner, PhD, Senior 

Scientist National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Sensor standards and chemical sensor technology

Kathryn Clay Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers Perspective of the Original Equipment 

Manufacturers (OEM)

Larry Fluer Fluer, Inc. Gas codes and standards

Douglas Horne, P.E. Clean Vehicle Education Foundation Gas codes and standards, NG vehicles

Mark Kosowski Electric vehicles codes and standards

Keith Knoll, Senior Project Leader National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Ethanol vehicle fuel

Theodore Lemoff, P.E. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Propane codes and standards

Robert McCormick, PhD, Principal 

Engineer National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Biofuels

Roland Pitts, PhD, Research 

Scientist National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Sensor technologies

Carl Rivkin, P.E, Senior Project 

Leader National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Alternative fuel codes and standards

Christine Sloane, PhD Sloane Solutions, LLC Vehicle codes and standards

Roger Smith, Technical Director Compressed Gas Association Gas codes and standards

E. Michael Steele General Motors Corporation Vehicle codes and standards
ix

Executive Summary...........................................................................................................

Table of Contents

iii

Purpose................................................................................................................................ 1

Vehicle Technologies Codes and Standards Project........................................................... 4

The DOE Vehicles Technologies Program......................................................................... 5

Codes and Standards – Generic Overview.......................................................................... 6

Propane ............................................................................................................................. 10

Natural Gas (NG).............................................................................................................. 19

Biodiesel ........................................................................................................................... 28

Ethanol.............................................................................................................................. 51

Hydrogen........................................................................................................................... 74

Electricity.......................................................................................................................... 97

OEM Comments ............................................................................................................. 104

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 106

References....................................................................................................................... 111

APPENDIX I .................................................................................................................. 115

APPENDIX II................................................................................................................. 122

Figure 1: The NREL Vehicle Codes and Standards Project..............................................

List of Figures

7

Figure 2: The Codes and Standards Development Process ............................................... 8

Figure 3: Number of Propane vehicles in use in the United States (1993-2002) ............ 10

Figure 4: Annual production levels in the U.S. of Biodiesel (2000 to 2008) .................. 28

Table 1: Summary of Vehicle Codes and Standards Gaps...............................................

List of Tables

iv

Table 2: Codes and Standards Experts............................................................................viii

Table 3: Alternative Fuel Vehicles.................................................................................... 3

Table 4: Code citations in NFPA 58 (Propane) ............................................................... 11

Table 5: Codes and Standards Gaps for Propane............................................................. 17

Table 6: CNG Vehicles.....................................................................................................19

Table 7: Code and Standards for CNG ............................................................................ 20

Table 8: Codes and Standards Gaps for CNG ................................................................. 26

Table 9: Codes and Standards for Biodiesel.................................................................... 29

Table 10: Codes and Standards Gaps for Biodiesel......................................................... 49

Table 11: Codes and Standards for Ethanol Fuel............................................................. 51

Table 12: Codes and Standards Gaps for Ethanol ........................................................... 72

Table 13: Codes and Standards for Hydrogen ................................................................. 75

Table 14: Codes and Standards Gaps for Hydrogen........................................................ 93

Table 15: Gaps in Electricity Codes and Standards....................................................... 101

Table 16: Summary of Vehicle Codes and Standards Gaps.......................................... 106
x

AHJ Authorities having Jurisdiction

Acronyms

ANSI American National Standards Institute

API American Petroleum Institute

ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

CAFCP California Fuel Cell Partnership

CGA Compressed Gas Association

CNG Compressed Natural Gas

CSA Codes and Standards of America

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

DOT U.S. Department of Transportation

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

EV Electrical Vehicle

FFV Flex-Fuel Vehicle

GTR Global Technical Regulations

HGV heavy goods vehicle

IBC International Building Code

ICC International Code Council

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IFC International Fire Code

IMC International Mechanical Code

ISO International Organization for Standardization

LNG Liquefied Natural Gas

MAQ Maximum Allowable Quantities

NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers

NEC National Electrical Code

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

NG Natural Gas

NGV Natural Gas Vehicle

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory

OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer

PERC Propane Education Research Council

ppm parts per million

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

SDO Standards Development Organizations

SMR Steam Methane Reformation

STI Safety Technology International

UL Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc.

ULC Underwriters’ Laboratories of Canada

UST Underground Storage Tanks

TIR Technical Information Report
1

Purpose

The purpose of this report is to identify gaps in vehicle codes and standards and to 

recommend actions that provide a means to fill these gaps. The focus of this gap analysis 

is on the alternative fuels identified by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) [1]. The 

existence of these gaps represents barriers to the implementation of alternative fuels. This 

analysis also identifies specific activity that leads to the elimination of the codes and 

standards gaps. These recommendations will help define codes and standards 

development work and priorities. Previously, such barrier analyses were addressed on a 

project-by-project basis; however, a comprehensive codes and standards gap analysis for 

the various alternative fuels has not been approached. This report presents the first 

comprehensive summary of the codes and standard gaps for all of the alternative fuels

identified by DOE for vehicle transportation.

Codes and standards facilitate the development and implementation of new technologies. 

This is especially true in cases where commercial success is predicated upon 

contributions from multiple industries, such as alternative fuels for transportation. 

Vehicles must be available that are compatible with the fuel. At the same time, it is also 

required that fuel be available for the vehicle, thereby requiring transit, storage, and 

transfer infrastructure. To ensure national security for the United States and to alleviate 

the dependence on imported fossil fuels, the DOE Vehicle Technologies Program 

supports the use of alternative fuels for vehicles [1]. Six of these fuels are as follows:

1. Biodiesel

2. Natural Gas (NG)

3. Electricity

4. Ethanol

5. Hydrogen

6. Propane

Several other fuels are available, many of which may have other benefits such as reduced 

emissions or increased energy security. Each of the six identified alternative fuels for 

vehicle applications are at different maturity levels. Several fuels have been successfully 

used for many years, while others are more recent developments. As a result, the codes 

and standards for each are at different stages of development. Codes and standards that 

address the vehicle, dispensing systems, storage, as well as the infrastructure to support 

production and transportation exist for all six of these fuels. However, the codes and 

standards development for all six fuel types is not complete and critical gaps are

identified, as discussed below. Also, the existing production capacity and infrastructure 

varies significantly among the six fuels. Nevertheless, the use of alternative fuels is 

growing and the number of vehicles that operate on such fuel has dramatically increased 

in the past decade. Some of the alternative fuels, such as Propane and CNG, already have 

an extensive deployment history. Accordingly, well-established codes and standards exist 

for these two fuels, although as discussed below, gaps still exist in the relevant standards 

for both Propane and CNG. Other fuels, such as Ethanol and Biodiesel may be viewed as 

extensions of the conventional fueling systems, but production capacity and material 

compatibility concerns exist. Thus, some code and standard development is still required. 
2

A third group of alternative fuels, Hydrogen and Electricity, are major new technological 

developments for use as vehicle fuels. New power systems (electric motors) will replace 

the internal combustion engine. Unique infrastructure impacts will be encountered, 

including production capacity and impact on existing demands, safety, as well as 

achieving appropriate vehicle performance in a consumer market. Thus, the successful 

implementation of these two fuels as viable alternative fuels requires the majority of the 

development of new codes and standards relative to the other identified alternative fuel 

types.

With the addition of Hydrogen as an alternative fuel, a dedicated group established at 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) specifically addresses codes and 

standards issues as they relate to hydrogen vehicles. The mission of this group is to 

identify and eliminate codes and standards barriers before such gaps prevent the 

implementation of Hydrogen as a vehicle fuel. A comprehensive approach has been 

applied, and the NREL codes and standards group is actively involved in issues related to 

hydrogen safety, fuel quality, education and outreach programs, as well as production, 

transit, and storage infrastructure. The activity’s success clearly demonstrates that the 

application of this approach to the other alternative fuels will facilitate effective 

implementation of related codes and standards.

Although the vast majority of the existing vehicles use conventional internal combustion 

engines (ICE) powered by petroleum, the use of alternative fuels for vehicles is well 

established. Table 3 (table 10.4 in the 2007 Energy Information Office annual review) [2]

provides the number of alternative fuel vehicles in the United States. The table provides 

information on five of the six fuels. Biodiesel does not appear in the table as an 

independent fuel type. Rather, in this report, biodiesel is considered a class of diesel. 

Ethanol appears as both Ethanol 85 percent and Ethanol 95 percent. Ethanol (E85), 

Propane (Liquefied Petroleum Gas in the table), and CNG account for 578,076 of the 

634,562 alternative fuel vehicles in 2006, or approximately 91 percent of the total. In 

2006, there were 159 hydrogen vehicles or approximately 0.025 percent. Electric vehicles 

make up about 8.4 percent of the alternative fuel vehicles. These numbers reflect the 

maturity of the Propane and CNG technologies and show that current gasoline ICEs can 

run on blends of gasoline and ethanol without major modifications.

The number of vehicles powered by alternative fuels is growing. To facilitate the 

development of the emerging alternative fuel markets, the Vehicle Codes and Standards 

Group at NREL initiated a study to identify specific gaps in the code and standard 

structure for each of the six identified alternative fuels. This codes and standards analysis 

was broadened to include regulatory or policy issues that impede application of a 

technology. This gap analysis involved a comprehensive review of the existing codes and 

standards currently applied to each fuel type. To ensure a thorough analysis was 

performed; experts in the transportation industry with extensive hands-on experience in 

each alternative fuel area were consulted. These experts provided unique insights into the 

status of the identified fuels. The expert discussions were incorporated into the following 

analysis. See Appendix I for brief expert biographies.
3

Table 3: Alternative Fuel Vehicles (obtained from Table 10.4 in [2])
4

Vehicle Technologies Codes and Standards Project

NREL’s Vehicle Codes and Standards Group applied a comprehensive approach to 

addressing code and standards gaps for the hydrogen vehicle program. Codes and 

standards issues as they related to hydrogen safety, fuel quality, education and outreach 

programs, as well as production, transit, and storage infrastructure were addressed. The 

success of this activity clearly demonstrates that this approach would facilitate 

implementation of the other alternative fuels. Accordingly, NREL’s Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Group addresses all vehicle codes and standards. The approach used for 

hydrogen technologies, which included National Template for Codes and Standards, 

Research, Training and Outreach, and Codes and Standards Development, will be applied 

as needed to all vehicle codes and standards. Figure 1 illustrates the outline for the 

proposed comprehensive Vehicle Code and Standard Program.

National Templates 

National templates for specific vehicle/fuel types have been developed for each of the

alternative fuels. The templates provide an overview of the codes and standards 

associated with the vehicle, dispensing, storage, and infrastructure for each fuel type. The 

codes and standards referenced in each section are intended to provide a comprehensive 

listing of codes and standards that pertain to the specific fuel type. Appendix II lists the 

codes and standards for electricity.

Research

Often, sufficient data does not exist to allow for the defensible development of an 

enforceable standard. When the need for technical information for a code or standard is 

identified, a research program is initiated designed to provide the necessary data. The 

research is performed within the National Laboratory system, directly or through 

managed subcontracts, and the result is presented directly to the technical committee 

responsible for producing or revising a code or standard.

Training and Outreach 

The Hydrogen Codes and Standards Group has an active Training and Outreach Program, 

providing multi-media and on-site training opportunities for code officials and other 

stakeholders. Training opportunities for hydrogen fuel are available through online 

resources, printed media, fact sheets, and on-site training workshops. Online resources 

include case studies of various facilities (e.g., cell towers and fueling stations), searchable 

databases of relevant codes organized by topic and code organization, and networking 

opportunities with personnel experienced in the hydrogen permitting process. Special 

topics are also included online, such as the “Introduction to Hydrogen for Code Officials” 

short course [3]. Complementing the online resources are live training workshops and 

presentations to various code officials. Special emphasis is on the training workshop for 

permitting officials, of which over 10 were held in two years [4]. The NREL Training 

and Outreach Program also provides Third Party Reviews for key programs (e.g., fork lift 

operations). Printed media includes handouts at the workshops and hydrogen fact sheets. 

The success of the Hydrogen Training and Outreach Program ensures that comparable 

programs for the alternative fuels are highly beneficial. 
5

Vehicle Technologies Codes and Standards Development Process

Code and standard development is occurring within the domestic market and in the 

international arena. Typically, code and standards are written through a consensus 

process by a committee comprised of interested parties and stakeholders. To ensure a 

balanced representation among the stakeholders during the development process, the 

committee is comprised of representatives from industry, end-users, and regulatory 

agencies. NREL is represented on several codes and standards technical committees as 

well as actively monitoring activities of several committees. Using information from 

these technical committee activities, NREL determines where research or data are needed 

to help develop new codes and standards requirements, and also ensures harmonization 

between domestic and international standards. NREL conducts research at NREL or 

coordinates this research so that it is conducted at other DOE laboratories or at 

independent laboratories under the auspices of DOE to produce the required information. 

NREL then presents this information directly to the codes and standards technical 

committees for use in the document development. By working directly with the codes and 

standards development committees, NREL ensures that the information needed for new 

codes and standards requirements is presented directly to the committee and that 

committee members have an opportunity to discuss and, therefore, clearly understand the 

information. In addition, NREL’s participation on the code and standard committees

ensures harmonization between standards.

The process of working directly with the codes and standards technical committees has 

been effective. Several projects progressed as a result of this direct participation in the 

codes and standards development process, including the following:

1. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 2 Hydrogen Technologies Codes,

2. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14687 Hydrogen Fuel—

Product Specification—Part 2: Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell 

applications for road vehicles,

3. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J2579 Fuel Systems in Fuel Cells and 

other Hydrogen Vehicles, and

4. ISO Draft International Standard (DIS) 26142 Hydrogen Detection Apparatus.

The DOE Vehicles Technologies Program

One of the main objectives of the DOE Vehicle Technologies Program is to facilitate the 

reduction of petroleum usage in personal transportation and other commercial vehicular 

activity (e.g., forklifts, commercial transportation, shipping). This objective is achieved in 

several ways including the following:

1. Implement alternative fuel vehicles that consume less oil,

2. Develop more efficient driving behavior, and

3. Develop technologies that enable cars and trucks to become highly efficient

Items 2 and 3 above reflect behaviors and attitudes of the American public and can be 

addressed through training and outreach programs. Dramatic increases in fuel prices, 
6

such as those seen in the summer of 2008, can also facilitate such changes in behavior. 

Item 1 reflects technological alternatives. The DOE Vehicle Technologies Program has 

activities in all of these areas. The activity of NREL’s Vehicle Codes and Standards Task 

Group crosscuts all of these areas. 

Codes and Standards – Generic Overview

Codes and standards are developed to ensure that processes and products meet uniform 

requirements. Codes and standards guide the implementation of energy technology by 

providing an accessible framework that sets unified engineering and design 

specifications. Performance specifications, component compatibility, and safety are all 

addressed by codes and standards. Although often interchangeable, the terms code and 

standard have distinct meanings and implications. Both should be written in legally 

enforceable language. However, a code dictates that a requirement must be met and is 

often implemented and enforced by Authorities having Jurisdiction (AHJs). A standard 

defines how to fulfill the requirement dictated by the code. For example, a building code 

might require a certain type of building to use sprinkler protection. A sprinkler standard, 

which could be referenced within the code, then specifies the requirements for building 

sprinkler systems. The standard, on its own, does not require anything; it merely defines 

metrics within the context of the standard itself. For enforceability, the standard is

incorporated into a code or regulation that mandates compliance to the standard.

Codes, and by extension standards cited within codes, are legally enforceable documents 

when a jurisdiction adopts them either by reference or direct incorporation into the 

jurisdiction’s regulations. Standards, referenced in the code, then become legally 

enforceable documents when the code is adopted. Also many standards are complied with 

on a widespread basis and become an industry norm, although they are not referenced in 

an adopted code. This is particularly true for vehicle standards that typically have 

different enforcement processes than codes and standards that apply to the built 

environment. Codes and standards for the built environment are typically enforced at the 

local level by the town or county building and fire department, the typical AHJ for local 

governments. Vehicle codes and standards are typically enforced at the federal or state 

levels, which tend to have greater self-enforcement than the built environment codes and 

standards.

Codes and standards in the United States are, for the most part, promulgated under a 

system of rules established by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) [5].

Several Standards Development Organizations (SDOs) develop codes and standards 

according to the ANSI rules for document development and maintenance. Figure 2 

illustrates the NREL Codes and Standards development protocol, which is consistent with 

the procedure mandated by ANSI.
7

Figure 1: The NREL Vehicle Codes and Standards Project 
8

Figure 2: The codes and standards development process
9

PROPANE
10

Propane1

Background

Propane has been used as a vehicle fuel on a widespread basis for many years, with 

significant interest growing shortly after World War II [6]. As a result of this long 

history, the codes and standards for Propane are well established, but by no means 

comprehensive. The utilization of Propane as a vehicular fuel has been growing in the 

past decade. Figure 3 shows that the number of Propane vehicles has increased steadily 

from 1995 through 2002 [7]. In Figure 3, it should be noted that the 2001 value given is 

preliminary and the 2002 value is a projected estimate. 

Current information regarding fueling infrastructure, costs, fuel prices, and related topics 

is readily available to the public at the Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data 

Center [8]. The following link provides a list of existing Propane fueling facilities:

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/propane_locations.html.

Figure 3: Number of Propane vehicles in use in the United States (1993-2002) [7]

Codes and Standards Structure

NFPA 58, the Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, was created in 1932 [9]. After World War 

II, interest in Propane vehicles grew, particularly for fleet vehicles and industrial fork 

trucks. Consequently, NFPA 58 was modified to encompass Propane vehicle 

requirements. Since then, some minor revisions to NFPA 58 have occurred. As a result of 

the comparatively long history of Propane use as a vehicle fuel, the Propane codes and 

standards are more established and the user market is more familiar with the pertinent 

codes and standards relative to other alternative fuel types. NFPA 58 is used throughout 

the United States and has been directly adopted as a regulation (e.g., a code) by most 

 1 Expert discussion on the use of Propane as an alternative fuel, included herein, was provided by Ted 

Lemoff.
11

states. This document sets specifications for storage, dispensing, onboard vehicle 

requirements, and infrastructure requirements for Propane. Table 4 presents code 

citations from NFPA 58 as well as the documents referenced in NFPA 58. The existing 

infrastructure is also well established. Therefore, AHJs are sufficiently familiar with the 

permitting of associated fueling facilities.

Table 4: Code citations in NFPA 58 for Propane

Codes and Standards Citations for Propane Fuel

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 4

Acceptance of Equipment and Systems

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 4.1

Odorization

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 4.2

Notification of Installations

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 4.3

Qualification of Personnel

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 4.4

Ammonia Contamination

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 4.5

Minimum Requirements

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 4.6

GAS EQUIPMENT AND APPLIANCES

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 5

Containers

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 5.2

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and 

Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, “Rules for the Construction of 

Unfired Pressure Vessels”

American Petroleum Institute (API)-ASME Code for Unfired Pressure 

Vessels for Petroleum Liquids and Gases,

National Board Inspection Code

Compressed Gas Association (CGA) C-6, Standard for Visual 

Inspection of Steel Compressed Gas Cylinders

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7, Minimum Design 

Loads for Buildings and Other Structures

Container Appurtenances

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 5.7

Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc. (UL) 132, Standard on Safety Relief 

Valves for Anhydrous Ammonia and Liquefied Petroleum Gas

UL 144, Standard for Liquefied Petroleum Gas Regulators

NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code (ANSI Z223.1), 5.9.2

UL 651, Schedule 40 or 80 Rigid PVC Conduit
12

Codes and Standards Citations for Propane Fuel

CGA V-1, Standard Compressed Gas Cylinder Valve Outlet and Inlet 

Connections

API 607, Fire Test for Soft-Seated Quarter Turn Ball Valves

Piping (including Hose), Fittings and Valves

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 5.8

NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code

Referenced American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

Piping and Tubing Standards

Valves Other Than Container Valves

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 5.10

Referenced ASTM Standards

Hydrostatic Relief Valves

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 5.11

Referenced ASTM Standards

Equipment

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 5.15

Referenced ASTM Standards

INSTALLATION OF LP GAS SYSTEMS

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6

Scope

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.1

Location of Containers

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.2

Container Separation Distances

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.3

Other Container Location Requirements

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.4

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

NFPA 55, Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code

ANSI/CGA C-7, Guide to the Preparation of Precautionary Labeling 

and Marking of Compressed Gas Containers

Location of Transfer Operations

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.5

Installation of Containers

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.6

NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction

Installation of Containers Appurtenances

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.7

ANSI Z21.80/Codes and Standards of America (CSA) 6.22, Standard 

for Line Pressure Regulators.

NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code

Piping Systems

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.8
13

Codes and Standards Citations for Propane Fuel

ASME B 31.3, Process Piping

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX

References ASTM Piping Standards

Internal Valves

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.9

Emergency Shutoff Valves

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.10

Hydrostatic Relief Valve Installation

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.11

Testing Piping Systems

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.12

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX

Installation in Areas with Heavy Snowfall

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.13

Corrosion Protection

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.14

Equipment Installation

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.15

Bulk Plant and Industrial Liquefied Petroleum Gas Systems

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.16

Liquefied Petroleum Gas Systems in Buildings or on Roofs

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.17

UL 147A, Standard for No refillable (Disposable) Type Fuel Gas 

Cylinder Assemblies

UL 147B, Standard for No Refillable (Disposal) Type Metal Container 

Assemblies for Butane

Ignition Source Control

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.20

NFPA 70, National Electrical Code

Vehicle Fuel Dispenser and Dispensing Stations

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.22

UL 567, Standard Pipe Connectors for Flammable and Combustible 

Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Fire Protection

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.23

NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire 

Protection

Alternate Provisions for Installation of ASME Containers

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 6.24

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS LIQUID TRANSFER

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 7

Scope

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 7.1
14

Codes and Standards Citations for Propane Fuel

Operational Safety

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 7.2

Venting Liquefied Petroleum Gas to the Atmosphere

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 7.3

Quantity of Liquefied Petroleum Gas in Containers

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 7.4

BUILDINGS OR STRUCTURES HOUSING LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM 

GAS FOR DISTRIBUTION

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 10

Scope

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 10.1

Separate Structures or Buildings

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 10.2

NFPA 70, National Electrical Code

Attached Structures or Rooms Within Structures

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 10.3

ENGINE FUEL SYSTEMS

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11

Scope

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.1

Training

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.2

Containers

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.3

U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) 

Rules for Construction of Unfired Pressure Vessels,” Section VIII, 

Division I of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

Container Appurtenances

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.4

UL 132, Standard on Safety Relief Valves for Anhydrous Ammonia 

and Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Carburetion Equipment

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.5

Piping, Hose, and Fittings

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.6

Referenced ASTM Piping and Tubing Standards

Installation of Containers and Container Appurtenances

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.7

Installation in the Interior of Vehicles

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.8

Pipe and Hose Installation

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.9
15

Codes and Standards Citations for Propane Fuel

Equipment Installation

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.10

Marking

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.11

Industrial (and Forklift) Trucks Powered by LP-Gas

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.12

General Provisions for Vehicles Having Engines Mounted on Them

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.13

Engine Installation Other Than on Vehicle

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.14

Garaging of Vehicles

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 11.15

OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 14

Scope

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 14.1

Operating Requirements

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 14.2

Maintenance

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 14.3

NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of 

Water-Based Fire Protection Systems

NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers

PIPING AND TUBING SIZING TABLES

NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 15
16

Gaps in Codes and Standards

Since the use of Propane as a vehicle fuel is well established, relatively few gaps in the 

associated codes and standards exist that impede the widespread implementation and use 

of as a vehicle fuel. Nevertheless, gaps, particularly with carburetor systems, do exist as 

discussed below.

Conversion Kits 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-certified conversion kits, as well as 

Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM) vehicles that operate on Propane fuel, are 

widely available. The cost of conversion of a gasoline vehicle to run on Propane fuel is 

relatively inexpensive when compared to that of converting to CNG. 

One gap in existing codes and standards for Propane use in vehicles is the existence of 

standards for conversion kits for fuel injection systems. While requirements are defined 

in NFPA 58 for conversion systems and associated components, they generally apply to 

carburetion systems only and preclude modern fuel injector engines. Groups like the 

Propane Education Research Council (PERC) [10] are currently pursuing activities to 

obtain data on fuel injection systems in order to close this gap. Collaboration with these 

groups could speed the promulgation of standards to address this gap.

Fuel Quality 

There are significant variances in “Propane” composition. For example, Propane2

As a manufactured product, Propane has inherently low-sulfur content (generally less 

than 10 parts per million [ppm] by weight). However, the addition of ethyl mercaptan as 

an odorant will increase the sulfur content and may impact the durability of exhaust gas 

after-treatment systems (e.g., the catalytic converter catalyst and other systems). 

Therefore, interest lies in developing a specification on the level of sulfur that will satisfy 

odorant requirements while not poisoning catalysts. The range of interest is between 10 to 

120 ppm total sulfur compounds [10].

mixtures in the range of 75 to 99 percent propane by weight and up to 23 percent 

propylene by weight have been reported [10]. Investigation of Propane fuel variations 

and their effect on emissions deterioration is required to establish the relationship 

between fuel composition and engine performance and emissions. For lift trucks, the EPA 

has a 5,000 performance hour requirement. Potentially adverse effects on performance 

and tail pipe emissions induced by fuel composition may also exist in passenger vehicles. 

At a minimum, three Propane specifications of interest have been defined [10] as follows: 

Heavy Duty (propane) containing a maximum of 5 percent propylene and 2.5 percent 

butane (HD-5) as defined in ANSI/ASTM D 1835-97, the California specification, which 

is similar to HD-5 but allowing up to 10 percent propylene and up to 5 percent butane, 

and finally the commercial Propane specification, which is defined as what is 

commercially available in the marketplace.

 2 The alternative fuel Propane is comprised of a mixture of chemicals. The dominant chemical species is 

propane (C3H8) blended with numerous other chemicals. Within this report, the alternative fuel is always 

represented with a capital first letter to distinguish it from a specific chemical (e.g., Propane vs. propane).
17

Several fuel additives are commercially available that claim to mitigate the effects of 

residual contaminates in commercial Propane [10]. Commonly referred to as “heavy 

ends,” these residues are predominantly olefin-based deposits that can accumulate inside 

fuel systems. Their impact on fuel system durability and emissions deterioration is also 

important.

Providing research data for developing or revising Propane fuel quality standards is a 

likely solution for this gap. Collaboration of the National Laboratories with efforts 

already underway in the areas of fuel composition, effects of fuel sulfur on catalysts, and 

the impact of additives would facilitate the acquisition and dissemination of data critical 

to defining specifications for code and standard development for Propane composition. 

Infrastructure

Another barrier for the more widespread use of Propane as a motor fuel is the inability to 

increase distribution volume at existing locations. If the Propane demand were to increase 

significantly, the existing supply and transportation of Propane to existing distribution 

facilities would be inadequate. Thus, a sudden increase in the Propane fleet size could 

stress the Propane distribution infrastructure, possibly leading to fuel shortages. This is 

not a trivial matter since many isolated communities in the United States rely on Propane 

for heating and cooking. Thus the impact of fuel shortages, arising from either a real 

shortage or from an inadequate distribution system, could be significant. The key to 

filling this potential gap is collaboration with suppliers and analysis groups.

Summary

Table 5 presents a summary of the identified Code and Standards Gaps for the expanded 

use of Propane as an alternative fuel. Also included in the table is the impacted document 

and proposed means to address the gap.

Table 5: Codes and Standards Gaps for Propane

Vehicle Codes and Standards Gap Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

Conversion Components NFPA 58 or UL 

listing document

Provide data to ensure 

component listings are 

valid

Compositional and fuel quality concerns ASTM D 1835-97

Provide data from the 

analysis of fuel quality and 

impact on vehicle systems

Infrastructure capacity as the Propane 

vehicle fleet grows

Multiple 

documents 

including NFPA 

58

Collaborate with suppliers 

and national laboratory 

analysis groups 
18

NATURAL GAS

(NG)
19

Natural Gas (NG)3

Background

Although NG has been used as a vehicle fuel since the 1940s, it was only in the late 

1970s that NG became widely used in the United States [11]. Many of the first NG 

vehicles in the United States were part of fleets operated by the gas utility companies. 

Other vehicles were part of municipal fleets.

The interest in natural gas as an alternative transportation fuel stems mainly from its 

clean-burning qualities, its domestic resource base, and its commercial availability. 

Because of the gaseous nature of this fuel, it must be stored onboard a vehicle in either a 

compressed gaseous (compressed natural gas, CNG) or liquefied (liquefied natural gas, 

LNG) state. 

Worldwide, nearly 8.7 million NG-powered vehicles exist, but only roughly 150,000 are 

in the United States. Table 6 shows the distribution of CNG vehicles deployed in leading 

countries [12]. Currently, the use of NG as an alternative vehicle fuel is more important 

internationally than nationally. The size of the NG fleet in the United States is likely to 

increase due to the increase in domestic reserves and resulting favorable economic status.

Information regarding OEM new vehicles, fueling infrastructure, costs, fuel prices, and 

related information is readily available to the public at the Alternative Fuels and 

Advanced Vehicles Data Center [13]. The following link provides a list of existing NG 

fueling facilities: http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/natural_gas_locations.html.

Table 6: CNG Vehicles

Locations and Approximate Number of CNG Vehicles

Argentina 1,690,000 Pakistan 1,650,000

Brazil 1,510,000 Europe 812,000

Iran 611,500 India 354,000

Colombia 251,700 China 200,900

Bangladesh 150,000 USA 150,000

Ukraine 120,000 Russia 95,000

Bolivia 84,100 Egypt 81,400

Venezuela 44,100 Canada 12,100

Sources: Gas Vehicles Report, May 2008, www.iangv.org/tools-resources/statistics.html.

 3

Expert discussion on the use of NG as an alternative fuel, included herein, was provided by Larry Fluer 

and Douglas Horne.
20

Codes and Standards Structure

Historically, the codes and standards for CNG were based on best practices publications 

produced by the natural gas industry and the utilities. In 1984 NFPA published NFPA 52 

the standards for the use of CNG. Eventually, fuel-specific standards were produced by 

CSA and SAE. Table 7 provides a summary of codes and standards that apply to CNG.

Table 7: Code and Standards for CNG

Codes and Standards Citations for Compressed Natural Gas Fuel

Fire Code Requirements

Approvals

International Fire Code IFC) 2208.2

Location of dispensing operations and equipment

IFC 2208.3

Private fueling of motor vehicles

IFC 2208.4

Pressure regulators

IFC 2208.5

Valves

IFC 2208.6

Emergency shutdown control

IFC 2208.7

Discharge of CNG from motor vehicle storage containers

IFC 2208.9

Containers, cylinders, and tanks (general)

IFC

Containers, cylinders, and tanks

IFC 3003.1

Design and construction

IFC 3003.2

Pressure relief devices

IFC 3003.3

Marking

IFC 3003.4

Security

IFC 3003.5

Valve protection

IFC 3003.6

Separation from hazardous conditions

IFC 3003.7

Wiring and equipment

IFC 3003.8

Service and repair

IFC 3003.9

Unauthorized use

IFC 3003.1
21

Codes and Standards Citations for Compressed Natural Gas Fuel

Exposure to fire

IFC 3003.11

Leaks, damage, or corrosion

IFC 3003.12

Surface of unprotected storage or use areas

IFC 3003.13

Overhead cover

IFC 3003.14

Lighting

IFC 3003.15

Vaults

IFC 3003.16

General CNG Requirements and Equipment Qualifications

Composition

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.2

System Approvals

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.3

Design and Construction of Containers

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.4

Pressure Relief Devices

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.5

Pressure Gauges

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.6

Pressure Regulators

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.7

Fuel Lines

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.8

Valves

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.9

Hose and Hose Connections

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.1

Vehicle Fueling Connection

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 4.11

CNG Engine Fuel Systems

System Component Qualifications

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.2

Installation of Fuel Supply Containers

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.3

Installation of Venting Systems

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.4

Installation of Piping

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.5
22

Codes and Standards Citations for Compressed Natural Gas Fuel

Installation of Valves

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.6

Installation of Pressure Gauges

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.7

Installation of Pressure Regulators

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.8

Installation of Fueling Connection

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.9

Wiring Installation

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.1

Labeling

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.11

System Testing

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.12

System Maintenance and Repair

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.13

Discharge from Vehicle Containers

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 6.14

CNG Compression, Gas Processing, Storage, and Dispensing 

Systems

System Component Qualifications

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.2

General System Requirements

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.3

System Siting

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.4

Installation of Containers and Container Appurtenances (Other than Pressure 

Relief Devices)

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.5

Installation of Pressure Relief Devices

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.6

Installation of Pressure Regulators

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.7

Installation of Pressure Gauges

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.8

Installation of Piping and Hoses

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.9

System Testing

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.1

Installation of Emergency Shutdown Equipment

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.11

Installation of Electrical Equipment

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.12
23

Codes and Standards Citations for Compressed Natural Gas Fuel

Installation of Electrical Equipment

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.13

System Operation

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.14

Fire Protection

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.15

System Maintenance

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.16

Vehicle Fueling Appliances in Nonresidential Occupancies

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 8.17

CNG Residential Fueling Facilities

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code

System Component Qualifications

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.2

General Safety Requirements

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.3

Installation

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.4

Installation of Pressure Relief Valves

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.5

Installation of Pressure Gauges

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.6

Pressure Regulation

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.7

Piping and Hose

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.8

Testing

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.9

Installation of Emergency Shutdown Equipment

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.1

Operation

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.11

Maintenance and Inspection

NFPA 52 Gaseous Fuel Vehicular Systems Code 10.12

CNG Component Standards

CSA America

Natural Gas Vehicle (NGV) 2 Natural Gas Vehicle Containers

NGV 1 Compressed NGV Fueling Connection Devices 

NGV 3.1Fuel System Components for Natural Gas Powered Vehicles 

NGV 4.1 Dispensing Systems 

NGV 4.2 Hoses for Natural Gas Vehicles and Dispensing Systems 
24

Codes and Standards Citations for Compressed Natural Gas Fuel

NGV 4.3 Temperature Compensation Devices for Natural Gas 

Dispensing Systems

NGV 4.4 Breakaway Devices for Natural Gas Dispensing Hoses and 

Systems

NGV 4.5 (draft) Priority and Sequencing Equipment for Natural Gas 

Dispensing Systems

NGV 4.6 Manually Operated Valves for Natural Gas Dispensing 

Systems 

NGV 4.7 (draft) Automatic Valves for Use in Natural Gas Vehicle 

Fueling Stations

NGV 4.8 Natural Gas Fueling Station Reciprocating Compressor 

Guidelines 

Pressure Relief Devices (PRD) -1 for NGV Fuel Container

ASME

ASME B31.3 Process Piping

Boiler and Pressure vessel Code

CGA

C-6 Standards for Visual Inspection of Steel Compressed Gas 

Cylinders

S-1.1 Pressure Relief Device Standards - Part 1- Cylinders for 

Compressed Gases

S-1.3 Pressure Relief Device Standards - Part 3 - Stationary Storage 

Containers for Compressed Gases

SAE

J1616 RP for Compressed Natural Gas Vehicle Fuel

J 2406 RP for CNG Powered Medium and Heavy Duty Trucks
25

Gaps in Codes and Standards

Like Propane, the use of NG as a motor fuel is well established and relatively few gaps 

are present in the existing codes and standards that prevent its widespread use. Although 

the existing fueling infrastructure is not widespread, it is technically understood by both 

producers and AHJs that the permitting and installation of associated fueling facilities 

must be a straight-forward process, both technically and with regard to regulatory code 

compliance.

Conversion Kits

One potential barrier to more widespread use of NG as a motor fuel may be the expense 

for the conversion of an existing gasoline vehicle to NG fuel. The CNG tanks represent

the bulk of the expense for converting a vehicle. 

Another concern is the converted vehicle’s compliance to EPA regulations. While 

conversion information does exist, the expense regarding EPA certification of 

components impedes widespread conversion to NG from gasoline. Reducing the cost for 

vehicle conversions would lead to an increase in NG consumer vehicles. 

Another potential impediment for increased NG vehicle deployment is that while the 

technician knowledge relative to NG conversion installation and vehicle maintenance for 

natural gas vehicles exists through training programs and technician certification through 

the Automotive Service Excellence’s (ASE’s) national program, the same certification 

process for conversion shops is lacking. Continuing public outreach efforts and NG use 

education products and activities would address knowledge gaps from the consumer level 

to public code officials and automotive technicians.

Infrastructure

In general, CNG’s supply and delivery system is well established. However, the CNG 

infrastructure has not developed for light-duty vehicle applications but instead focused on 

high-fuel-use fleet applications. In the United States, relatively few CNG light-duty 

vehicles are available for purchase from dealerships by consumers. Fueling infrastructure 

is likely one reason automotive manufacturers are reluctant to produce CNG light-duty 

vehicles. One company has offered a CNG vehicle as well as a small home refueling unit 

[14]. However, the refueling system was discontinued by the original company. Although 

the product line was licensed to a new company, its availability is uncertain and there 

may be issues with the application of excise taxing for the road use of fuel.

Component Compatibility

Also used for many years as a mechanism for on-board storage and delivering fuel to an 

engine is Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). Several codes and standards gaps associated with 

LNG use exist. Because of the existing market size, there is a lack of manufacturing 

infrastructure, with only a limited number of manufacturers that produce equipment for 

the LNG market. In the United States, the primary standard for LNG is NFPA 52 with 

additional standards developed or under development by SAE, such as J2343 for LNG 

Heavy Duty Trucks, SAE 2699 for LNG Fuel Composition, J2645 for LNG Dispensers 

and under development J2700 for LNG Tanks and J1740 for LNG Fueling Connectors. 

Additionally, several LNG standards issues are currently being addressed at the 
26

international level (i.e., ISO [15] and United Nations (UN) Global Technical Regulations 

[16]). Two components currently under international assessment are LNG tanks and 

connectors. National Laboratory participation on ISO, UN, and domestic (CSA, NFPA, 

ASME, SAE) technical committees responsible for writing component standards for 

LNG connectors, tanks, and components would help alleviate gaps in LNG component 

standards. This participation also ensures that national interests and concerns are 

considered during drafting of the international standards. Maintaining membership in 

such committees also enables the National Laboratories to determine the types of 

research and data required by committee members to produce sound codes and standards. 

Performing research at the component level (tanks, connectors, sensors, etc.) and 

providing technical data to the appropriate standards technical committees offers great 

value to standards groups addressing gaps.

Also, the use of CNG in forklift applications has potential for emissions and cost savings. 

However, some standards gaps exist associated with the language in UL 558 [17] and 

NFPA 505 [18], specifically concerning the CNG tanks used for this application.

Summary

Table 8 presents a summary of the identified Code and Standards Gaps for the expanded 

use of CNG as an alternative fuel. Also, presented in the table is the impacted document 

and proposed means to address the gap.

Table 8: Codes and Standards Gaps for NG

Vehicle Codes and

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

Lack of available commercial 

CNG-powered vehicles Multiple

Explore government assistance options 

for increasing the availability of CNG 

vehicles

Limited sources for LNG 

components Multiple

Explore government assistance options 

for increasing the availability of LNG 

components

High costs for EPA-certified 

conversion Multiple

Explore options for streamlining the EPA 

certification process for vehicle 

conversions as well as the availability of 

lower-cost CNG tanks for vehicles

Outreach products for 

installation technicians and 

conversion shops

Multiple

Produce outreach products for 

consumers, installation shops, and 

technicians

Infrastructure capacity to 

accommodate significant 

growth in the CNG vehicle 

fleet

Multiple

Explore government assistance options 

for supporting a significant increase in 

the use of CNG

Harmonize international 

standards for components, 

such as fittings

NFPA 52 and 

ISO 

documents

Participate in NFPA and ISO committees 

responsible for the applicable documents
27

BIODIES EL
28

Biodiesel

4

Background

The DOE characterizes biodiesel as, “a liquid fuel made up of fatty acid alkyl esters, fatty 

acid methyl esters (FAME), or long-chain mono alkyl esters. It is produced from 

renewable sources such as new and used vegetable oils and animal fats and is a cleanerburning replacement for petroleum-based diesel fuel. It is nontoxic and biodegradable. 

Biodiesel has physical properties similar to those of petroleum diesel” [19]. Today, 

approximately 600 fleets nationwide, representing over 25,000 vehicles for commercial, 

government, utility, and transit use, use biodiesel blends in their diesel engines [20]. 

Biodiesel blends are also increasingly used in the farming, mining, and marine industries, 

as well as for heating oil and electrical generation applications. Figure 4 illustrates the 

increasing popularity of biodiesel in a plot of the annual production. In the nine years 

from 2000 to 2008, the annual production of biodiesel has grown from a near-negligible 

level to over 700,000,000 gallons [21]. Biodiesel is available in its various blends at 

approximately 800 locations across the United States [20]. More information related to 

biodiesel fuel is available at www.biodiesel.org (EPA). The following link provides 

information to the public regarding OEM new vehicles, fueling infrastructure, costs, fuel 

prices, and other related information from the Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles 

Data Center [22]: http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_locations.html.

Figure 4: Annual production levels in the U.S. of Biodiesel (2000 to 2008)

 4 Expert discussion on the use of Biodiesel as an alternative fuel, included herein, was provided by Robert 

McCormick.
29

Codes and Standards Structure

The codes and standards structure for Biodiesel is relatively straightforward. NFPA 30, 

The Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code [23], and NFPA 30A, The Code for 

Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages [24], are both used throughout the 

United States and directly adopted as regulations by most states. These documents set 

requirements for storage, dispensing, onboard vehicle requirements, as well as 

infrastructure requirements for Biodiesel. In addition, the International Building Code 

(IBC) is generally adopted and used as the building code in most jurisdictions. The IBC 

also applies to infrastructure. Table 9 lists code citations from NFPA 30 and 30A as well 

as the documents referenced therein.

Table 9: Codes and Standards for Biodiesel

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIQUIDS

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.2 

ASTM Standard Test Methods

Classification of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.3 

ASTM Standard Test Methods

Determination of Flash Point

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.4 

ASTM Standard Test Methods

Relationship to Other Classification Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.5 

FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE RISK CONTROL

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.2 

Management of Fire and Explosion Hazards

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.3 

NFPA 69, Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Hazards Analysis

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.4 

Control of Ignition Sources

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.5 

NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and 

Other Hot Work

NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity
30

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Detection and Alarm Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.6 

NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code

Fire Protection and Suppression Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.7 

NFPA 24, Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains 

and Their Appurtenances

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 10, 11, 12, 12A, 14, 15, 16, 17, 2001

Emergency Planning and Training

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.8 

Inspection and Maintenance

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.9 

NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of 

Water-Based Fire Protection Systems

Management of Security

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.10 

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.1 

General Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.2 

Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.3 

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code

NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction

NFPA 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protective’s

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Repair Garages

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.4

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and 

Ventilation Systems

Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.5 
31

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Heat-Producing Appliances

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.6 

Dynamic Automotive Emissions Testing Equipment

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.7 

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.1 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 7.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 7.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.2 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 7.3 

NFPA 70, National Electric Code

NFPA 497, Recommended Practice for the Classification of 

Flammable Liquids, Gases, or Vapors and of Hazardous Locations 

for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas

NFPA 496, Standard for Purged and Pressurized Enclosures for 

Electrical Equipment

Installation in Classified Locations

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.3 

Emergency Electrical Disconnects

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.4 

Specific Requirements for Marine Fuel Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.5 

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 4.1 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 4.2 
32

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.3 

Storage of Liquids

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 4.3 

UL 2245, Standard for Below-Grade Vaults for Flammable Liquid 

Storage Tanks

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

UL 2080, Standard for Fire Resistant Tanks for Flammable and 

Combustible Liquids

UL 2085, Standards for Protected Aboveground Tanks for Flammable 

and Combustible Liquids

Safety Technology International (STI) Corrosion Control Standards

Acceptable Containers

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.4 

ASTM Standards for Containers

ANSI/UL Standards for Containers

US DOT 10CFR49

Flammable Liquids Storage Cabinets

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.5 

NFPA 251, Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building 

Construction and Materials

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Maximum Allowable Quantities (MAQs) per Control Area

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.6 

Control Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.7 

Classification of Occupancies That Exceed the MAQs of Liquids per Control 

Area

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.8 

NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code

International Code Council (ICC) International Building Code

Construction Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.9 

NFPA 251, Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building 

Construction and Materials

NFPA 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protective’s

Fire Protection 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.10 

NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose 

Systems
33

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Electrical Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.12 

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.13 

Ventilation

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.14 

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.16 

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Separation from Incompatible Materials

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.17 

Dispensing, Handling, and Use of Liquids in Storage Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.18 

Outdoor Storage of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.19 

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN CONTAINERS - Industrial Occupancies

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 11.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 11.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 11.3 

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN CONTAINERS - Storage Occupancies

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.3 

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

Maximum Allowable Quantities and Maximum Storage Heights

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.6 

Control Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.7 

General Purpose Warehouse Storing Liquids in Quantities not exceeding MAQ

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.8 

Construction Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.9 

Fire Protection

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.10 

Emergency Control Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.11 
34

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Electrical Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.12 

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.13 

Ventilation

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.14 

Exhausted Enclosures

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.15 

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.16 

Separation from Incompatible Materials

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.17 

Dispensing, Handling, and Use of Liquids in Storage Occupancies

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.17 

Outdoor Storage of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.19 

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN CONTAINERS - Detached, Unprotected 

Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13 

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.3 

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

Maximum Allowable Quantities and Maximum Storage Heights

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.6 

Control Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.7 

Construction Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.9 

Fire Protection

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.1 

Emergency Control Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.11 

Electrical Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.12 

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.13 

Ventilation

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.14 
35

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Exhausted Enclosures

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.15 

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.16 

Separation from Incompatible Materials

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.17 

Dispensing, Handling, and Use of Liquids in Detached, Unprotected Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.18 

Outdoor Storage of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.19 

OUTDOOR STORAGE 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15 

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15.3 

Outdoor Storage Adjacent to a Building

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15.4 

AUTOMATIC FIRE PROTECTION FOR INSIDE LIQUID STORAGE 

AREAS

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.3 

Automatic Sprinkler and Foam-Water Sprinkler Fire Protection Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.4 

NFPA 16, Standard for the Installation of Foam-Water Sprinkler and 

Foam-Water Spray Systems

NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of 

Water-Based Fire Protection Systems

Fire Protection System Design Criteria

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.5 

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 16, Standard for the Installation of Foam-Water Sprinkler and 

Foam-Water Spray Systems

UL 2368, Standard for Fire Exposure Testing of Intermediate Bulk 

Containers for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
36

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Fire Protection System Design Schemes

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.6 

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

Water Supply

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.7 

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.8 

NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire 

Protection

Other Automatic Fire Protection Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.9 

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN TANKS - Requirements for all Tanks

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.3 

Design and Construction of Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.4 

API Tank Specifications

UL Tank Standards

ANSI Tank Standards

ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

API Standard 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage 

Tanks

NFPA 69, Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems

NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity

Testing Requirements for Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.5 

API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction

Fire Prevention and Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.6 

NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of 

Water-Based Fire Protection Systems

Operation of Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.7 

API 2350, Overfill Protection for Storage Tanks in Petroleum Facilities

NFPA 704, Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of 

Materials for Emergency Response

NFPA 326, Standard for the Safeguarding of Tanks and Containers 

for Entry, Cleaning, or Repair
37

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

API Tank Cleaning Specifications

NFPA 329, Recommended Practice for Handling Releases of 

Flammable and Combustible Liquids and Gases

Inspection and Maintenance of Storage Tanks and Storage Tank Appurtenances

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.8 

API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction

API 2350, Overfill Protection for Storage Tanks in Petroleum Facilities

API 12R1, Setting, Maintenance, Inspection, Operation, and Repair of 

Tanks in Production Service

STI SP001, Standard for Inspection of Aboveground Storage Tanks

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN TANKS - Aboveground Storage Tanks

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.2 

Location of Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.4 

Petroleum Equipment Institute (PEI) RP200, Recommended 

Practices for Installation of Aboveground Storage Systems for 

Motor Vehicle Fueling

Installation of Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.5 

API 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage

Vent Piping for Aboveground Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.6 

Emergency Relief Venting for Fire Exposure for Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.7 

Fire Protection for Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.8 

NFPA 11, 15, and 69

UL 2080, Standard for Fire Resistant Tanks for Flammable and 

Combustible Liquids

Additional Requirements for Fire-Resistant Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.9 

Additional Requirements for Protected Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.10 

UL 2085, Standards for Protected Aboveground Tanks for Flammable 

and Combustible Liquids

Control of Spills from Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.11 

Equipment, Piping, and Fire Protection Systems in Remote Impoundment Areas 

and Diked Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.12 
38

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Tank Openings Other than Vents

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.13 

Aboveground Storage Tanks Located in Areas Subject to Flooding

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.14 

Collision Protection for Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.15 

Installation Instructions for Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.16 

Inspection and Maintenance of Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.17 

API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction

STI SP001, Standard for Inspection of Aboveground Storage Tanks

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN TANKS - Underground Tanks

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.3 

API, Underwriters’ Laboratories of Canada (ULC), STI, National 

Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and UL Corrosion 

Protection Standards

UL, STI and API Underground Tank Specifications

Location of Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.4 

Installation of Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.5 

Normal Venting for Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.6 

Control of Spills from Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.11 

Tank Openings Other than Vents

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.13 

Underground Storage Tanks Located in Areas Subject to Flooding

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.14 

Installation Instructions for Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.16 

Inspection and Maintenance of Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.17

STORAGE TANK BUILDINGS

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.1 
39

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.3 

Location of Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.4 

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Construction of Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.5 

NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code

Fire Protection for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.6 

NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose 

Systems

NFPA 24, Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains 

and Their Appurtenances

NFPA 11, 12, 12A, 15, 16, 17, and 25 

Emergency Control Systems for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.7 

Electrical Systems for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.8 

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control from Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.9 

Ventilation for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.10 

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and 

Ventilation Systems

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.12 

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire 

Protection

Vents for Tanks Inside Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.13 

Tank Openings Other than Vents for Tanks Inside Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.14 

Detection and Alarm Systems for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.15 
40

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Inspection of Maintenance for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.16 

STORAGE TANK VAULTS

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.3 

ANSI/UL 2245, Standard for Below-Grade Vaults for Flammable 

Liquid Storage Tanks

Location of Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.4 

Construction and Installation of Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.5 

Fire Protection for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.6

Emergency Controls For Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.7 

Electrical Systems for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.8 

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.9 

Ventilation Systems for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.10 

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.12 

Vents for Tanks Inside Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.13 

Tank Openings Other than Vents for Tanks Inside Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.14 

Detection and Alarm Systems for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.15 

Inspection and Maintenance of Storage Tank Vaults and Equipment

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.16 

PROCESSING FACILITIES

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.2 
41

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.3 

Location of Process Vessels and Equipment

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.4 

Accessibility

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.5 

Construction Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.6 

NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code

ICC International Building Code

NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire 

Protection

API 2218, Fireproofing Practices in Petroleum and Petrochemical 

Processing Plants

NFPA 204, Standard for Smoke and Heat Venting

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.10 

NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire 

Protection

Ventilation

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.11 

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and 

Ventilation Systems

Process Equipment and Vessels

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.14 

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Management of Operations Hazards

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.15 

DISPENSING, HANDLING, TRANSFER, AND USE OF LIQUIDS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.1 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.2 

General Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.2 

Requirements for Dispensing Devices

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.3 
42

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Requirements for Remote/Submersible Pumps

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.4 

Requirements for Dispensing Hose

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.5 

Requirements for Fuel Delivery Nozzles

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.6 

UL 842, Standard for Valves for Flammable Fluids

Emergency Electrical Disconnects

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.7 

Vapor Recovery Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.8 

Dispensing, Handling, Transfer, and Use of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.3 

Incidental Operations

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.4 

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Ventilation for Dispensing Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.5 

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Component Standards

ANSI/UL 25 Meters for Flammable and Combustible Liquids

ANSI/UL 79, Flammable and Combustible Liquid Pumps for 

dispensing

UL 87, Power-Operated Dispensing Devices for Petroleum Products

UL 330, Hose and Hose Assemblies for Dispensing Flammable 

Liquids

ANSI/UL 331, Strainers for Flammable Fluids and Anhydrous 

Ammonia

UL 429, Electrical Valves, for use in control of dispensing equipment

ANSI/UL 567, Emergency Breakaway Fittings, Swivel Connectors and 

Pipe-Connection Fittings for Petroleum Products and Liquefied 

Petroleum Gas

ANSI/UL 842, Valves for Flammable Fluids

UL 860, Pipe Unions for Flammable and Combustible Fluids and FireProtection Service

OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.1 

Basic Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.2 
43

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

NFPA 385, Standard for Tank Vehicles for Flammable and 

Combustible Liquids

NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers

Operating Requirements for Full-Service Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.3 

Operating Requirements for Attended Self-Service Motor Fuel Dispensing 

Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.4 

Operating Requirement for Unattended Self-Service Motor Fuel Dispensing 

Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.5 

Refueling from Tank Vehicles

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.6 

NFPA 385, Standard for Tank Vehicles for Flammable and 

Combustible Liquids

Repair Areas

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.7 

NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and 

Other Hot Work

NFPA 51, Standard for the Design and Installation of Oxygen-Fuel 

Gas Systems for Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes

NFPA 33, Standards for Spray Applications Using Flammable or 

Combustible Materials

NFPA 326, Standard for the Safeguarding of Tanks and Containers 

for Entry, Cleaning, or Repair

NFPA 31, Standards for the Installation of Oil-Burning Equipment

NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code

NFPA 85, Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code

NFPA 55, Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code

PIPING FOR LIQUIDS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.1 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.2 

General Requirements for All Piping Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.2 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.3 

ASME B31, Code for Pressure Piping

API 607, Fire Test for Soft-Seated Quarter-Turn Valves

ASTM Piping Standards

Materials of Construction for Piping Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.4 
44

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Pipe Joints

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.5 

Installation of Piping Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.3 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.6 

Testing of Piping Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.4 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.7 

Detector Maintenance

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.5 

Vent Piping

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.6 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.8 

Vapor Recovery Piping

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.7 

Bonding and Grounding

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.9 

Identification and Marking of Piping Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.10 

Removal From Service of Piping Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.12 

VAPOR PROCESSING AND VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEMS FOR 

LIQUID MOTOR FUELS

Vapor Processing Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

10.1 

Vapor Recovery Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

10.2 

FARMS AND REMOTE SITES

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

13.1 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

Approved Storage 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

13.2 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

Marking of Tanks and Containers

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

13.3 
45

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

Fire Prevention and Control

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

13.4 

VEHICLE

Fuels

• ASTM D6751-08, Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel Blend 

Stock (B100) for Middle Distillate Fuels

• ASTM D975-09a, Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel Oils

• ASTM D7467-08, Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel Oil, 

Biodiesel Blend (B6 to B20)

Systems

SAE J1681, New Biodiesel Task Force formed to study and revise 

"Gasoline, Alcohol, Diesel Fuel Surrogates for Material Testing"

SAE J30, Fuel and Oil Hoses

SAE J35, Diesel Smoke Measurement Procedure

SAE J177, Measurement of Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, and 

Oxides of Nitrogen in Diesel Exhaust

SAE J215, Continuous Hydrocarbon Analysis of Diesel Emissions

SAE J254, Instrumentation and Techniques for Exhaust Gas 

Emissions Measurement

SAE J255, Diesel Engine Smoke Measurement

SAE J285, Dispenser Nozzle Spouts for Liquid Fuels intended for Use 

with Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition Engines

SAE J313, Diesel Fuels

SAE J607, Small Spark Ignition Engine Test Code

SAE J905, Fuel Filter Test Methods

SAE J1003, Diesel Engine Emission 

Measurement Procedure

SAE J1082, Fuel Economy Measurement-Road Test Procedure

SAE J1088, Test Procedure for the Measurement of Exhaust 

Emissions from Small Utility Engines

SAE J1094, Constant Volume Sampler System for Exhaust 

Emissions Measurement

SAE J1130, Determination of Emission from Gas Turbine Powered 

light Duty Surface Vehicles

SAE J1243, Diesel Emissions Production Audit Test Procedure

SAE J1256, Fuel Economy Measurement- Road Test ProcedureCold Start and Warm-up Fuel Economy

SAE J1297, Alternative Automotive Fuels

SAE J1312, Procedure for Mapping Engine Performance- Diesel and 

Spark Ignition Engines

SAE J1349, Engine Power Test Code- Spark ignition and Diesel
46

Codes and Standards Citations for Biodiesel Fuel

SAE J1350, Selection and Application Guidelines for Diesel, 

Gasoline, and Propane Fired Liquid Cooled Engine Pre-Heaters

SAE J1376, Fuel Economy Measurement Test (Engineering Type) for 

Trucks and Buses

SAE J1498, Heating Values of Fuels

SAE J1829, Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratios of Automotive Fuels

SAE J2785, Standardization of Color and Verbiage for Fuel Inlet 

Closures

SAE J2793, Fuel Dispensing Filter Test Methods- Draft document
47

Gaps in Codes and Standards

Infrastructure

A major barrier to more widespread use of Biodiesel as a motor fuel is the lack of 

infrastructure for fuel storage, blending, and dispensing. Infrastructure component 

compatibility issues may not be technically understood by AHJs, making the permitting 

and installation of associated fueling facilities a potential issue. For example, the 

California Water Resources Board has issued guidance to AHJs citing concerns with the 

lack of UL Listing of underground storage tanks used for Biodiesel with blends over 5

percent [25]. On the other hand, NFPA 30 cites UL Listings for underground storage 

tanks for flammable and combustible liquids. This issue creates a gap between an 

approved standard for components and AHJs and other regulatory bodies with concerns 

relative to the standards and cited listed components and their compatibility with 

Biodiesel.

The key to addressing the gap between the NFPA standards listing and use of storage 

vessels for biodiesel is addressing biodiesel compatibility with listed storage vessels. A 

likely solution is providing research data or supporting current research projects. 

Furthermore, participation on the NFPA 30 and 30A technical committees responsible for 

writing the standards would help resolve the vessel compatibility issue.

Furthermore, components such as dispensing hoses and nozzles, etc. may entirely lack a 

UL Listing for Biodiesel in blends greater than 5 percent. The solution cited above would 

facilitate development of Biodiesel component standards.

The delivery and use mechanism most often used for Biodiesel is located at fleet 

customer facilities and heavy volume facilities such as truck stops, etc. B5 is the most 

common Biodiesel product in use as a blend with petroleum diesel. The use of blends as 

high as B20 and higher could benefit from the transportation of the fuel via pipeline. 

However, many existing pipelines are multi-use and the cross-contamination of fuels 

must be addressed. For example, to use a multi-use pipeline for Biodiesel, a jet engine 

must be evaluated and proved to run its useful life on jet fuel that has low (100 ppm) 

biodiesel contamination without operating issues.

Becoming more active and involved in the testing required for multi-use pipelines, and 

engaging the organizations who regulate them could initiate a solution to the use of 

existing multi-use pipelines for Biodiesel.

Fuel Composition

Another barrier to more widespread use of Biodiesel as a motor fuel is the compatibility 

of Biodiesel blends greater than 5 percent with some engines manufactured after 2007. In 

order to meet particulate emission standards implemented by the EPA, manufactures have 

installed particulate filters in the exhaust system on vehicles. In the process of reducing 

particulate emissions, particulates build-up and become trapped within the filter. The 

trapped particulates must be removed to ensure continued efficient performance of the 

filter. Two current methods to remove the build-up are used. Both involve the elimination 

of particulates by combustion. One method to remove particulates from filters is the 

direct injection of vaporized fuel into the exhaust stream which is then burned with the 
48

particulates over a catalyst. This method requires the addition of an injection system. The 

more popular and cost effective method is injection of vaporized fuel into the cylinder via 

the existing fuel injection system, but during the exhaust phase of the cylinder which 

burns in the exhaust system. However, Biodiesel may not be compatible with the latter 

process in some engines due to the transfer of some of the lower volatility biodiesel to the 

lubrication system on the vehicle, where it accumulates. 

Emissions are always a concern when considering the use of a fuel other than the fuel the 

manufacturer intended, including the conversion from diesel to biodiesel operation. The 

use of Biodiesel does not result in a significantly different emission signature in most 

cases. The case can be made for either a slight increase or decrease in nitrogen oxide 

emissions as a result of the use of Biodiesel. In either case, current manufactured lightduty vehicles and heavy-duty vehicles manufactured beginning in 2010 are required to 

have nitrogen oxide control catalysts in the exhaust systems. A compatibility concern 

exists with Biodiesel fuel quality relative to the nitrogen oxide reduction catalyst. 

Likely solutions for this gap are providing research data demonstrating that these 

concerns are real problems, and developing or revising Biodiesel fuel quality standards, if 

needed. Collaboration with efforts already underway in the areas of fuel composition, 

effects of fuel on lubrication systems, and emissions catalysts would be productive.

Vehicle Fleet Size

Another potential barrier to more widespread use of Biodiesel as a motor fuel is the lack 

of availability of diesel passenger vehicles in the United States. Diesel sedans are only 

moderately available in the United States, and only through a few foreign manufacturers. 

Wagon and sport utility type vehicles are more limited, although national manufacturers 

do produce heavy-duty diesel pickup trucks. The lack of diesel passenger vehicle 

availability for American consumers is not due to manufacturing limitations or capacity, 

but a matter of business policy by the manufacturers. The sale of these vehicles is more 

profitable in European and other markets because, in part, of the relative value of the 

American dollar [26]. Exploration of methods to increase the number of diesel passenger 

vehicles available to consumers in the United States should be considered.

Summary

Table 10 presents a summary of the identified Code and Standards Gaps for the expanded 

use of Biodiesel as an alternative fuel. Also presented in the table is the impacted 

document and proposed means to address the gap.
49

Table 10: Codes and Standards Gaps for Biodiesel

Vehicle Codes and Standards Gap Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

Lack of data for existing Codes 

and Standards applicability to 

Biodiesel storage systems

NFPA 30/30A 

and associated 

listing documents

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Biodiesel with listed 

storage systems

Limited infrastructure

NFPA 30/30A 

and associated 

listing documents

Resolve compatibility 

and production quality 

issues

Incompatibility of multi-use 

pipelines with biodiesel, especially 

the contamination of other fuel 

types by biodiesel 

DOT Pipeline 

Regulations

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Biodiesel 

contamination with 

other fuel systems

Incompatibility of biodiesel with 

clean diesel engines 

(contamination of the motor 

lubrication system) 

SAE engine 

performance 

documents

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Biodiesel with 

traditional diesel fuel 

systems

Compatibility with catalysts on 

engine emission systems 

SAE engine 

performance 

documents

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Biodiesel with diesel 

engine emission 

systems

Limited OEM vehicle availability N/A

Explore government 

assistance options for 

diesel vehicle 

availability
50

ETHANOL
51

Ethanol5

Background

Flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) are capable of operating on gasoline, E85 (85 percent

ethanol, 15 percent gasoline), or any mixture of both. Although approximately 8 million 

FFVs drive on American roads today, many FFV owners are not aware that their vehicle 

has this capability.

The following link provides information to the public regarding OEM new FFVs

(gasoline and E85), fueling infrastructure, costs, fuel prices, a list of existing E85 fueling 

facilities, and other related information from the Alternative Fuels and Advanced 

Vehicles Data Center [27]:

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/ethanol_locations.html.

Codes and Standards Structure

The codes and standards structure for Ethanol is similar to that of Biodiesel, as both are 

treated as flammable liquids. NFPA 30, The Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 

and NFPA 30A, The Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages, are 

both used throughout the United States and directly adopted as regulations by most states. 

These documents set requirements for storage, dispensing, and onboard vehicle systems 

for Ethanol. In addition, the IBC is generally adopted and used as the building code in 

most jurisdictions and also applies to infrastructure. Table 11 lists code citations from 

NFPA 30 and 30A as well as the documents referenced within them.

Table 11: Codes and Standards for Ethanol Fuel

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIQUIDS

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.2

ASTM Standard Test Methods

Classification of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.3

ASTM Standard Test Methods

Determination of Flash Point

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.4

ASTM Standard Test Methods

Relationship to Other Classification Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 4.5

 5 Expert discussion on the use of Ethanol as an alternative fuel, included herein, was provided by Robert 

McCormick.
52

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE RISK CONTROL

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.2

Management of Fire and Explosion Hazards

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.3

NFPA 69, Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Hazards Analysis 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.4

Control of Ignition Sources

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.5

NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and 

Other Hot Work

NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity

Detection and Alarm Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.6

NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code

Fire Protection and Suppression Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.7

NFPA 24, Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains 

and Their Appurtenances

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 10, 11, 12, 12A, 14, 15, 16, 17, 2001

Emergency Planning and Training 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.8

Inspection and Maintenance

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.9

NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of 

Water-Based Fire Protection Systems

Management of Security

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 6.10

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.1

General Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.2

Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.3
53

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code

NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction

NFPA 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Repair Garages

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.4

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and 

Ventilation Systems

Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.5

Heat-Producing Appliances 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.6

Dynamic Automotive Emissions Testing Equipment 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 7.7

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Scope 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.1

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 7.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 7.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.2

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 7.3

NFPA 70, National Electric Code

NFPA 497, Recommended Practice for the Classification of 

Flammable Liquids, Gases, or Vapors and of Hazardous Locations 

for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas

NFPA 496, Standard for Purged and Pressurized Enclosures for 

Electrical Equipment

Installation in Classified Locations

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.3
54

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

Emergency Electrical Disconnects

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.4

Specific Requirements for Marine Fuel Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 8.5

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 4.1

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 4.2

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.3

Storage of Liquids

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair 

Garages, 4.3

UL 2245, Standard for Below-Grade Vaults for Flammable Liquid 

Storage Tanks

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

UL 2080, Standard for Fire Resistant Tanks for Flammable and 

Combustible Liquids

UL 2085, Standards for Protected Aboveground Tanks for Flammable 

and Combustible Liquids

STI Corrosion Control Standards

Acceptable Containers

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.4

ASTM Standards for Containers

ANSI/UL Standards for Containers

US DOT 10CFR49

Flammable Liquids Storage Cabinets

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.5

NFPA 251, Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building 

Construction and Materials

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Maximum Allowable Quantities (MAQs) per Control Area

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.6
55

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

Control Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.7

Classification of Occupancies That Exceed the MAQs of Liquids per Control 

Area

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.8

NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code

ICC International Building Code

Construction Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.9

NFPA 251, Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building 

Construction and Materials

NFPA 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives

Fire Protection 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.10

NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose 

Systems

Electrical Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.12

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.13

Ventilation

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.14

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.16

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Separation from Incompatible Materials

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.17

Dispensing, Handling, and Use of Liquids in Storage Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.18

Outdoor Storage of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 9.19

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN CONTAINERS - Industrial Occupancies

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 11.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 11.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 11.3
56

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN CONTAINERS - Storage Occupancies

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.3

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

Maximum Allowable Quantities and Maximum Storage Heights

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.6

Control Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.7

General Purpose Warehouse Storing Liquids in Quantities not exceeding MAQ

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.8

Construction Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.9

Fire Protection

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.10

Emergency Control Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.11

Electrical Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.12

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.13

Ventilation

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.14

Exhausted Enclosures

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.15

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.16

Separation from Incompatible Materials

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.17

Dispensing, Handling, and Use of Liquids in Storage Occupancies

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.18

Outdoor Storage of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 12.19

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN CONTAINERS - Detached, Unprotected 

Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.2
57

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.3

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

Maximum Allowable Quantities and Maximum Storage Heights

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.6

Control Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.7

Construction Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.9

Fire Protection

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.1

Emergency Control Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.11

Electrical Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.12

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.13

Ventilation

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.14

Exhausted Enclosures

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.15

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.16

Separation from Incompatible Materials

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.17

Dispensing, Handling, and Use of Liquids in Detached, Unprotected Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.18

Outdoor Storage of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 13.19

OUTDOOR STORAGE 

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15.3

Outdoor Storage Adjacent to a Building

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 15.4
58

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

AUTOMATIC FIRE PROTECTION FOR INSIDE LIQUID STORAGE 

AREAS

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.3

Automatic Sprinkler and Foam-Water Sprinkler Fire Protection Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.4

NFPA 16, Standard for the Installation of Foam-Water Sprinkler and 

Foam-Water Spray Systems

NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of 

Water-Based Fire Protection Systems

Fire Protection System Design Criteria

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.5

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 16, Standard for the Installation of Foam-Water Sprinkler and 

Foam-Water Spray Systems

UL 2368, Standard for Fire Exposure Testing of Intermediate Bulk 

Containers for Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Fire Projection System Design Schemes

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.6

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

Water Supply

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.7

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.8

NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire 

Protection

Other Automatic Fire Protection Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 16.9

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN TANKS - Requirements for all Tanks

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.3

Design and Construction of Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.4

API Tank Specifications

UL Tank Standards
59

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

ANSI Tank Standards

ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

API Standard 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage 

Tanks

NFPA 69, Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems

NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity

Testing Requirements for Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.5

API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction

Fire Prevention and Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.6

NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of 

Water-Based Fire Protection Systems

Operation of Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.7

API 2350, Overfill Protection for Storage Tanks in Petroleum Facilities

NFPA 704, Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of 

Materials for Emergency Response

NFPA 326, Standard for the Safeguarding of Tanks and Containers 

for Entry, Cleaning, or Repair

API Tank Cleaning Specifications

NFPA 329, Recommended Practice for Handling Releases of 

Flammable and Combustible Liquids and Gases

Inspection and Maintenance of Storage Tanks and Storage Tank Appurtenances

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 21.8

API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction

API 2350, Overfill Protection for Storage Tanks in Petroleum Facilities

API 12R1, Setting, Maintenance, Inspection, Operation, and Repair of 

Tanks in Production Service

STI SP001, Standard for Inspection of Aboveground Storage Tanks

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN TANKS - Aboveground Storage Tanks

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.1 

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.2

Location of Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.4

PEI RP200, Recommended Practices for Installation of Aboveground 

Storage Systems for Motor Vehicle Fueling

Installation of Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.5

API 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage
60

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

Vent Piping for Aboveground Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.6

Emergency Relief Venting for Fire Exposure for Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.7

Fire Protection for Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.8

NFPA 11, 15, and 69

UL 2080, Standard for Fire Resistant Tanks for Flammable and 

Combustible Liquids

Additional Requirements for Fire-Resistant Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.9

Additional Requirements for Protected Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.10

UL 2085, Standards for Protected Aboveground Tanks for Flammable 

and Combustible Liquids

Control of Spills from Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.11

Equipment, Piping, and Fire Protection Systems in Remote Impoundment Areas 

and Diked Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.12

Tank Openings Other than Vents

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.13

Aboveground Storage Tanks Located in Areas Subject to Flooding

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.14

Collision Protection for Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.15

Installation Instructions for Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.16

Inspection and Maintenance of Aboveground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 22.17

API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction

STI SP001, Standard for Inspection of Aboveground Storage Tanks

STORAGE OF LIQUIDS IN TANKS - Underground Tanks

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.3

API, ULC, STI, NACE, and UL Corrosion Protection Standards

UL, STI and API Underground Tank Specifications

Location of Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.4
61

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

Installation of Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.5

Normal Venting for Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.6

Control of Spills from Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.11

Tank Openings Other than Vents

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.13

Underground Storage Tanks Located in Areas Subject to Flooding

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.14

Installation Instructions for Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.16

Inspection and Maintenance of Underground Storage Tanks

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 23.17

STORAGE TANK BUILDINGS

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.3

Location of Storage Tank Buildings

24.4 NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Construction of Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.5

NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code

Fire Protection for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.6

NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose 

Systems

NFPA 24, Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains 

and Their Appurtenances

NFPA 11, 12, 12A, 15, 16, 17, and 25 

Emergency Control Systems for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.7

Electrical Systems for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.8

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control from Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.9
62

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

Ventilation for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.10

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and 

Ventilation Systems

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.12

NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire 

Protection

Vents for Tanks Inside Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.13

Tank Openings Other than Vents for Tanks Inside Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.14

Detection and Alarm Systems for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.15

Inspection of Maintenance for Storage Tank Buildings

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 24.16

STORAGE TANK VAULTS

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.3

ANSI/UL 2245, Standard for Below-Grade Vaults for Flammable 

Liquid Storage Tanks

Location of Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.4

Construction and Installation of Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.5

Fire Protection for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.6

Emergency Controls For Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.7

Electrical Systems for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.8

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.9

Ventilation Systems for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.10
63

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Explosion Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.12

Vents for Tanks Inside Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.13

Tank Openings Other than Vents for Tanks Inside Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.14

Detection and Alarm Systems for Storage Tank Vaults

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.15

Inspection and Maintenance of Storage Tank Vaults and Equipment

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 25.16

PROCESSING FACILITIES

Scope

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.3

Location of Process Vessels and Equipment

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.4

Accessibility

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.5

Construction Requirements

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.6

NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code

ICC International Building Code

NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire 

Protection

API 2218, Fireproofing Practices in Petroleum and Petrochemical 

Processing Plants

NFPA 204, Standard for Smoke and Heat Venting

NFPA 101, Life Safety Code

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Containment, Drainage, and Spill Control

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.10

NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire 

Protection

Ventilation

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.11

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids
64

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and 

Ventilation Systems

Process Equipment and Vessels

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.14

NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting

Management of Operations Hazards

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 17.15

DISPENSING, HANDLING, TRANSFER, AND USE OF LIQUIDS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.1

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.2

General Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.2

Requirements for Dispensing Devices

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.3

Requirements for Remote/Submersible Pumps

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.4

Requirements for Dispensing Hose

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.5

Requirements for Fuel Delivery Nozzles

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.6

UL 842, Standard for Valves for Flammable Fluids

Emergency Electrical Disconnects

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.7

Vapor Recovery Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 6.8

Dispensing, Handling, Transfer, and Use of Liquids

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.3

Incidental Operations

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.4

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Ventilation for Dispensing Areas

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 18.5

NFPA 91, Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, 

Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids

Component Standards

ANSI/UL 25, Meters for Flammable and Combustible Liquids

ANSI/UL 79, Flammable and Combustible Liquid Pumps for 

dispensing

UL 87, Power-Operated Dispensing Devices for Petroleum Products
65

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

UL 330, Hose and Hose Assemblies for Dispensing Flammable 

Liquids

ANSI/UL 331, Strainers for Flammable Fluids and Anhydrous 

Ammonia

UL 429, Electrical Valves, for use in control of dispensing equipment

ANSI/UL 567, Emergency Breakaway Fittings, Swivel Connectors and 

Pipe-Connection Fittings for Petroleum Products and LP-Gas

ANSI/UL 842, Valves for Flammable Fluids

UL 860, Pipe Unions for Flammable and Combustible Fluids and FireProtection Service

OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.1

Basic Requirements

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.2

NFPA 385, Standard for Tank Vehicles for Flammable and 

Combustible Liquids

NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers

Operating Requirements for Full-Service Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.3

Operating Requirements for Attended Self-Service Motor Fuel Dispensing 

Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.4

Operating Requirement for Unattended Self-Service Motor Fuel Dispensing 

Facilities

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.5

Refueling from Tank Vehicles

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.6

NFPA 385, Standard for Tank Vehicles for Flammable and 

Combustible Liquids

Repair Areas

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 9.7

NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and 

Other Hot Work

NFPA 51, Standard for the Design and Installation of Oxygen-Fuel 

Gas Systems for Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes

NFPA 33, Standards for Spray Applications Using Flammable or 

Combustible Materials

NFPA 326, Standard for the Safeguarding of Tanks and Containers 

for Entry, Cleaning, or Repair

NFPA 31, Standards for the Installation of Oil-Burning Equipment

NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code

NFPA 85, Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code
66

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

NFPA 55, Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code

PIPING FOR LIQUIDS

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.1

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.1

Definitions

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.2

General Requirements for All Piping Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.2

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.3

ASME B31, Code for Pressure Piping

API 607, Fire Test for Soft-Seated Quarter-Turn Valves

ASTM Piping Standards

Materials of Construction for Piping Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.4

Pipe Joints

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.5

Installation of Piping Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.3

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.6

Testing of Piping Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.4

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.7

Detector Maintenance

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.5

Vent Piping

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.6

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.8

Vapor Recovery Piping

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 5.7

Bonding and Grounding

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.9

Identification and Marking of Piping Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.10

Removal From Service of Piping Systems

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 27.12

VAPOR PROCESSING AND VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEMS FOR 

LIQUID MOTOR FUELS

Vapor Processing Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

10.1
67

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

Vapor Recovery Systems

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

10.2

FARMS AND REMOTE SITES

Scope

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

13.1

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

Approved Storage 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

13.2

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

Marking of Tanks and Containers

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

13.3

Fire Prevention and Control

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing and Repair Garages, 

13.4

VEHICLE

Fuels

ASTM D4814-07, Standard Specification for Automotive SparkIgnition Engine Fuel (E10)

ASTM D5798-06, Standard Specification for Fuel Ethanol (ED75-

Ed85) for Automotive Spark-Ignition Engines (E85)

ASTM D4806-06c, Standard Specification for Denatured Fuel Ethanol 

for Blending with Gasolines for Use as Automotive Spark-Ignition 

Engine Fuel

Systems

SAE J30, Fuel and Oil Hoses

SAE J254, Instrumentation and Techniques for Exhaust Gas 

Emissions Measurement

SAE J312, Automotive Gasolines

SAE J313, Diesel Fuels

SAE J607, Small Spark Ignition Engine Test Code

SAE J905, Fuel Filter Test Methods

SAE J1082, Fuel Economy Measurement-Road Test Procedure

SAE J1088, Test Procedure for the Measurement of Exhaust 

Emissions from Small Utility Engines

SAE J1094, Constant Volume Sampler System for Exhaust 

Emissions Measurement

SAE J1130, Determination of Emission from Gas Turbine Powered 

Light Duty Surface Vehicles
68

Codes and Standards Citations for Ethanol Fuel

SAE J1256, Fuel Economy Measurement- Road Test ProcedureCold Start and Warm-up Fuel Economy

SAE J1297, Alternative Automotive Fuels

SAE J1312, Procedure for Mapping Engine Performance- Diesel and 

Spark Ignition Engines

SAE J1349, Engine Power Test Code- Spark ignition and Diesel

SAE J1350, Selection and Application Guidelines for Diesel, 

Gasoline, and Propane Fired Liquid Cooled Engine Pre-Heaters

SAE J1376, Fuel Economy Measurement Test (Engineering Type) for 

Trucks and Buses

SAE J1498, Heating Values of Fuels

SAE J1829, Stoichiometric Ait/Fuel Ratios of Automotive Fuels

SAE J2785, Standardization of Color and Verbiage for Fuel Inlet 

Closures

SAE J2793, Fuel Dispensing Filter Test Methods- Draft document
69

Gaps in Codes and Standards

Although used almost interchangeably with gasoline in FFVs, E85 has unique properties 

which distinguish it from gasoline. Thus, numerous gaps exist in the codes and standards 

for Ethanol as an alternative fuel. These include headspace flammability, component 

resistance, and effect of intermediate ethanol blends, as discussed in the following 

sections.

Headspace flammability

Due to the properties of ethanol (e.g., vapor pressure, flammable concentration range, 

flash point), the headspace vapors contained within a vessel above liquid ethanol may be 

flammable. Further research and subsequent standards for vehicles or storage will be 

required to address the headspace flammability issues; a few projects are currently 

underway.

Ethanol Resistance 

Conflicting information related to the components of existing gasoline vehicles and their 

chemical and corrosion resistance to higher blends of ethanol exists. According to 

manufacturers of ethanol conversion kits, vehicles manufactured after the late 1980s 

contain components that are tolerant of ethanol because government regulations 

authorized the use of 10 percent ethanol in gasoline sold in the United States [28]. There 

is further supporting information on the resistance of many existing gasoline vehicle 

components to higher concentrations of ethanol [29]. However, it has long been 

suspected that many components on existing gasoline vehicles may not be resistant to 

Ethanol blends higher than 10 percent and will suffer from chemical degradation of 

elastomers and galvanic corrosion. The Coordinating Research Council, the State of 

Minnesota, and the Renewable Fuels Association are sponsoring research related to 

component durability at higher blends of ethanol [30]. While the results of those studies 

are only valid for intermediate blends of ethanol at 15 and 20 percent, they provide useful 

information for increasing ethanol blends above 10 percent. Several government-funded 

projects are underway to address these issues. Obviously, continued support of research 

to validate component compatibility to ethanol blends with higher concentrations of 

ethanol is required.

Components such as dispensing hoses, nozzles, and industrial forklift components may 

entirely lack a UL Listing for ethanol in blends greater than 10 percent. Providing data 

obtained through National Laboratory research or through supporting current research 

projects to standards developing organizations, the solution cited above, would facilitate 

development of Ethanol fuel component standards. 

At this time, NFPA 30 and 30A do not address the properties of ethanol blends as a 

transportation fuel. Addressing ethanol compatibility with listed components is important 

for addressing the gap between the NFPA and standards, other code listing, and the use of

components for ethanol. Providing research data or supporting current research projects is

a likely solution. Furthermore, participation on the NFPA 30 and 30A technical 

committees responsible for writing the standards would also be productive in resolving 

component compatibility issues.
70

Storage

As is the case with biodiesel, concerns regarding UL Listing of underground storage 

tanks used for ethanol exist [31]. Again, NFPA 30 cites UL Listings for underground 

storage tanks for flammable and combustible liquids. This issue creates a gap between an 

approved standard for components and AHJs and other regulatory bodies with concerns 

relative to that standard. Some of these concerns may be related to EPA’s Underground 

Storage Tanks (UST) division on older tanks that may fail when used for higher ethanol 

blends. Also, a current program evaluates Ethanol’s impact on tank leak detectors.

The key to addressing the gap between the NFPA standards listing and use of storage 

vessels for ethanol is addressing ethanol compatibility with listed storage vessels. 

Providing research data or supporting current research projects would be a likely 

solution. Furthermore, participation on the NFPA 30 and 30A technical committees 

responsible for writing the standards would also be productive in resolving the vessel 

compatibility issue.

Emissions 

Emissions are a concern to both the EPA and DOE. Most states in EPA-regulated areas 

require emission testing for vehicles to ensure that individual vehicles meet state 

emission standards. State emission standards must meet the minimum requirements as set 

by the EPA federal emission standards. States are however, allowed to implement more 

stringent standards. These standards pertain primarily to tailpipe emissions. Increased use 

of Ethanol may pose unique emission concerns. Evaporative emissions associated with 

the use of ethanol in gasoline vehicles are a unique concern and need to be further 

explored. In addition, while higher blends of ethanol emissions are expected to produce 

less carbon monoxide in tailpipe emissions, production of compounds such as 

acetaldehyde and formaldehyde, which are currently non-regulated in vehicle emission 

standards, could potentially cause environmental and human health issues [32].

Furthermore, research on Ethanol blends and E85 in non-FFVs is required to address 

these issues.

Conversion Kits

Conversion kits to convert an existing gasoline vehicle to burn gasoline and/or E85 fuel 

are available for a limited number of vehicles. EPA certification is required for 

conversion to an FFV, just as it is with all conversions affecting fuel and emissions 

systems. There are a number of “conversion kits” on the market that are illegal to install 

on existing vehicles because they have not gone through EPA’s certification process. 

Many of these are kits developed for foreign markets. Conversion kits for the 

Chrysler/Dodge 300 and Ford/Lincoln Crown Victoria vehicles model years 2005 and 

2006 have been EPA certified. Currently, no streamlined EPA certification process exists 

for such kits. The expense of certification and the lack of an Ethanol-specific path for 

certification are the two most cited reasons for manufacturers not pursuing certification 

for their kits. Reducing the cost for EPA certification for E85 vehicle conversion kits 

would lead to more efficient methods of meeting the EPA requirements and increasing 

the number of Ethanol conversion vehicles.
71

Intermediate Ethanol Blend Research

Lower concentrations of Ethanol can be blended with gasoline for use in gasoline 

vehicles to displace the use of fossil fuels; its use is defined as a “substantially similar” 

fuel. Currently, the use of 10 percent ethanol in most gasoline sold in the United States is 

standard practice. In 1992, an application for a waiver for 10 percent ethanol blends was 

submitted to the EPA for approval as a substantially similar fuel. However, the EPA 

never issued a ruling on the application and it became acceptable by default. Research is 

underway to enable the implementation of intermediate level ethanol blends at 15 and 20

percent. The result of successful implementation would enable a greater concentration of 

ethanol to be used in motor fuels to displace fossil fuel use. On April 6, 2009, an 

application was submitted to the EPA for the approval of fuel to include 15 percent

ethanol. The United States Congress requires the EPA issue a ruling for 15 percent

ethanol be issued by December 6, 2009 [32]. Continued efforts related to intermediate 

Ethanol blends will contribute to higher ethanol contents in gasoline and subsequent 

reduction in fossil fuel use.

Flex Fuel Vehicles

In addition to the lack of knowledge cited earlier regarding FFVs, one of the set-backs for 

owners or buyers of FFVs is the reputed large drop in fuel efficiency associated with the 

use of E85. While there is a drop in fuel economy because of the energy density 

reduction of E85 relative to gasoline, the finding of many drivers is that the drop in miles 

per gallon is larger than what is acceptable and results in a loss of cost-effectiveness 

relative to the use of straight gasoline. Current studies on mileage optimization efforts are 

addressing this issue. Additional research in this area with automotive manufacturers 

would benefit E85 use. One way to enhance this interaction is to continue and increase 

participation with the SAE committee responsible for producing an SAE Flex-Fuel 

Vehicle Standard.

Summary

Table 12 presents a summary of the identified Code and Standards Gaps for the expanded 

use of Ethanol as an alternative fuel. Also presented in the table is the impacted document 

and proposed means to address the gap.
72

Table 12: Codes and Standards Gaps for Ethanol

Vehicle Codes and Standards Gap Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

Compatibility with storage tanks 

made for other fuels

NFPA 30/30A 

and associated 

listing 

documents, 

EPA UST, IFC

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Ethanol with listed 

storage systems

Flammability of Headspace vapor

NFPA 30/30A, 

IFC, SAE and 

ASTM

Provide data for the 

implementation of 

headspace 

flammability 

requirements in NFPA 

documents

Component compatibility with high 

ethanol concentrations

NFPA 30/30A 

and associated 

listing 

documents,

SAE, IFC

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Ethanol with traditional 

gasoline vehicle 

components

Certification of conversion kits

EPA emission 

regulations, 

Technician and 

Installer 

Certification

Streamline EPA 

certification process 

for conversion 

components

New emission profiles EPA emission 

regulations

Provide emission data 

for intermediate 

ethanol blends

Lower fuel cost offset by poor 

mileage

SAE engine 

performance 

documents

Explore OEM tuning 

practices of FFVs and 

provide research for 

mileage optimization 

techniques

No Standard for Flex Fuel Vehicles SAE

Support the 

development of SAE 

Standard for Flex Fuel 

Vehicles
73

HYDROGEN
74

Hydrogen6

Background

As mentioned earlier, implementing hydrogen technologies, particularly in the retail 

vehicle fuel-dispensing environment, requires significant new codes and standards 

development. Hydrogen has a long history of safe use in industrial applications. Codes 

and standards, in place for approximately 50 years, address these industrial applications 

[33]. By the early 1960s, the NFPA standards (NFPA 50A Standard for Gaseous 

Hydrogen Systems at Consumer Sites and NFPA 50B Standard for Liquefied Hydrogen 

Systems at Consumer Sites) addressed bulk storage of gaseous and liquefied hydrogen. 

These NFPA documents were incorporated into Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration (OSHA) regulations and appear in the Code of Federal Regulations (29 

CFR 1910, Subpart H), Hazardous Materials. 

In the 1990s, a significantly increased interest in using hydrogen as a fuel for fuel cell 

powered vehicles occurred. This new application would potentially require the 

development of public hydrogen fueling infrastructure as well as vehicular hydrogen 

standards. To store enough hydrogen on a vehicle to provide for an adequate vehicle 

driving range in the retail environment, the hydrogen storage pressure was increased to 

levels not typically encountered in the industrial environment. These high pressures 

create an additional safety concern. High-pressure hydrogen storage and delivery systems 

would thus be required on vehicles and at fuel dispensing stations. The general public 

would potentially have to handle high pressure dispensing equipment and maintenance 

would be required on high-pressure vehicle systems. These safety concerns are in the 

process of being translated into new requirements in codes and standards applicable to 

these applications.

Hydrogen gas cannot be odorized with conventional odorants, which are sulfur-based 

chemicals. These odorants will poison the fuel cell catalysts. This inability to odorize 

hydrogen used to power fuel cells, makes the use of sensing technologies an 

indispensable option to detect hydrogen releases. 

In 2006, approximately 159 hydrogen powered vehicles existed in the United States. 

Although a relatively small number of vehicles, these are primarily prototype vehicles 

and represent a significant investment in hydrogen fuel cell vehicle technology. The 

majority of these vehicles and the associated fueling stations are located in California. 

The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CAFCP), instrumental in developing a fueling 

infrastructure in the California, offers a website [34] that contains information on the 

location of existing and proposed hydrogen fueling stations in California 

(http://www.fuelcellpartnership.org/). 

One of the most important reasons for developing fuel cell vehicles or using hydrogen as 

a vehicle fuel is that hydrogen powered vehicles have no carbon emissions. This 

emissions characteristic is particularly important in large urban areas that fail to meet 

 6 Expert discussion on the use of Hydrogen as an alternative fuel, included herein, was provided by Larry 

Fluer.
75

federal air quality standards. California has several large urban areas that fail to meet 

these standards [EPA Greenbook July 31, 2009] including the Los Angeles metropolitan 

area, the largest metropolitan area in California [EPA Greenbook July 31, 2009] The 

CAFCP fuel station map shows that the largest numbers of hydrogen fueling stations are 

located in the Los Angeles metropolitan area.

One of the more rapidly growing markets today involves the use of hydrogen as an 

energy source for fuel cell powered industrial trucks (fork-lifts). Numerous fuel 

dispensing facilities are being installed to support the use of hydrogen as a fuel in 

warehouse operations throughout the country.

Hydrogen dispensing stations are located in other parts of the United States, including the 

following:

1. Detroit

2. Washington, DC

3. New Jersey

4. South Carolina

5. Florida

6. Arizona

7. Las Vegas, NV

8. Massachusetts

9. Pennsylvania

10. Texas

The following link provides additional information to the public regarding hydrogen 

vehicles, fueling infrastructure, costs, fuel prices, and other related information from the 

Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center [35]: 

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/hydrogen.html.

Table 13: Codes and Standards for Hydrogen

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

ANNUAL INSPECTIONS

CGA G-5.4, Standard for Hydrogen Piping Systems at Consumer Locations 

(Compressed Gas Association 2005)

7.0 Maintenance and Repair 

CGA G-5.5, Hydrogen Vent Systems (Compressed Gas Association 2004)

9 Maintenance 

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

406.2 Frequency 

901.6.2 Records 

907.2 Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance 

2206.2.1.1 Inventory Control for Underground Tanks 

3204.5.2 Corrosion Protection 
76

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

3205.4 Filling and Dispensing 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.2.15 General System Requirements 

BALANCE OF PLANT

Piping & Tubing

ASME B31.3, Process Piping (American Society of Mechanical Engineers 2006)

F323.4(5) Specific Material Considerations-Metals 

IX K305 Pipe

ASME B31.12, Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines

CGA G-5.4, Standard for Hydrogen Piping Systems at Consumer Locations 

(Compressed Gas Association 2005)

3.1 General 

3.2 Piping Materials 

5.0 Installation 

5.1 Piping Installation General 

5.2 Piping Installation Above Ground Installation 

5.3 Piping Installation Underground Installation 

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2201.1 Scope 

2209.3.2.3 Indoors 

2209.3.2.6 Canopy Tops 

3501.1 Scope 

International Fuel Gas Code (International Code Council 2006)

101.2.1 Gaseous Hydrogen Systems 

704 Piping, Use, and Handling 

705 Testing of Hydrogen Piping Systems 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.8 Installation of Piping and Hoses 

9.9 System Testing 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

11.2.3 Piping, Tubing, and Fittings 

CGA H-3 Cryogenic Hydrogen Storage (Compressed Gas Association 2006)

10.0 External piping

Pressure Relief

CGA S-1.3, PRD Standards Part 3 - Stationary Storage Containers for 

Compressed Gases (Compressed Gas Association 2005)

5.3.2 Nonliquid Compressed Gases 
77

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.2.1 Approved Equipment 

2209.5.4.2 Pressure Relief Devices 

3003.3 Pressure Relief Devices 

3203.2 Pressure Relief Devices 

3203.3 Pressure Relief Vent Piping 

3203.5.4 Physical Protection 

3203.8 Service and Repair 

3205.1.2.3.2 Shutoff Valves on Piping 

International Fuel Gas Code (International Code Council 2006)

703.3 Pressure Relief Devices 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

5.4 Pressure Relief Devices 

5.6 Pressure Gauges 

5.7 Pressure Regulators 

9.6 Installation of Pressure Regulators 

9.7 Installation of Pressure Gauges 

14.6 Pressure Relief Devices 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

7.1.2.5 Pressure-Relief Devices 

10.2.1 Pressure-Relief Devices 

Valving and Fittings

ASME B31.3, Process Piping (American Society of Mechanical Engineers 2006)

IX K306 Fittings, Bends, and Branch Connections 

IX K307 Valves and Specialty Components 

CGA G-5.4, Standard for Hydrogen Piping Systems at Consumer Locations 

(Compressed Gas Association 2005)

3.3.2 Isolation Valves 

3.3.3 Emergency Isolation Valves 

3.3.4 Excess Flow Valves 

3.3.5 Check Valves 

3.3.7 Gasket and Sealing Materials 

3.3.8 Additional Requirements 

5.0 Installation 

5.1 Installation General 

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.5.2 Emergency Shutoff Valves 

2211.8.1.2.4 Grounding and bonding 

2703.2.2 Piping, Tubing, Valves, and Fittings 

2703.9.3 Protection from Vehicles 
78

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

2703.10.1 Valve Protection 

2705.1.10 Liquid Transfer 

3003.6 Valve Protection 

3005.3 Piping Systems 

3005.4 Valves 

3203.2.6 Shutoffs Between Pressure Relief Devices and Containers 

3205.1.2 Piping Systems 

3205.3.2 Emergency Shutoff Valves 

3503.1.3 Emergency Shutoff 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

5.9 Valves 

Venting and Other Equipment

CGA G-5.5, Hydrogen Vent Systems (Compressed Gas Association 2004)

6.0 Vent System 

6.2 Sizing 

6.3 Design 

6.4 Materials 

6.5 Components 

7 Installation 

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.5.4 Venting of Hydrogen Systems 

2211.8.1.2 Atmospheric Venting of Hydrogen from Motor Vehicle Fuel 

Storage Containers 

3003.16.8 Connections 

3005.5 Venting 

3203.3 Pressure Relief Vent Piping 

3204.4.5 Venting of Underground Tanks 

International Fuel Gas Code (International Code Council 2006)

703.4 Venting 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

5.5 Vent Pipe Termination 

9.3.3.3 Indoors 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

10.2.1.1 Pressure-Relief Devices 

CANOPY TOPS

International Building Code (International Code Council 2009)

406.5.2.1 Canopies use to support gaseous hydrogen systems
79

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.3.2.6 Canopy Tops 

2209.3.3 Canopies 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.3.2.3 Outdoors 

COMPRESSED HYDROGEN GAS STORAGE

Equipment Location

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.3 Location on Property 

3503 General Requirements 

3504 Storage 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.3 System Siting 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

10.3.2 Specific Requirements 

General Safety Requirements

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.5 Safety Precautions 

2211.7 Repair Garages for Vehicles Fueled by Lighter-than-Air Fuels 

2211.8 Defueling of Hydrogen from Motor Vehicle Fuel Storage 

Containers

3003 General Requirements 

3503 General Requirements 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.2.3 Equipment Security and Vehicle Protection 

9.2.4 General System Requirements 

9.2.5 General System Requirements 

9.2.6 General System Requirements 

9.2.7 General System Requirements 

9.2.8 General System Requirements 

9.2.9 General System Requirements 

9.2.10 General System Requirements 

9.2.11 General System Requirements 

9.2.12 General System Requirements 

9.2.13 General System Requirements 

9.2.14 General System Requirements 

9.2.15 General System Requirements 
80

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

9.2.16 General System Requirements 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

7.1.4 Security 

Storage Containers

CGA PS-20, Direct Burial of Gaseous Hydrogen Storage Tanks (Compressed 

Gas Association 2006)

CGA PS-21, Adjacent Storage of Compressed Hydrogen and Other Flammable 

Gases (Compressed Gas Association 2005)

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2703.2.1 Design and Construction of Containers, Cylinders, and 

Tanks 

3003.2 Design and Construction 

3503.1.2 Storage Containers 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

5.3 Design and Construction of Containers 

COMPRESSION SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.2 Equipment 

2209.3 Location on Property 

2209.5.3.1 System Requirements 

2209.5.4.2.1 Minimum Rate of Discharge 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.2.7 General System Requirements 

9.2.8 General System Requirements 

9.2.9 General System Requirements 

9.2.10 General System Requirements 

9.2.11 General System Requirements 

9.2.12 General System Requirements 

9.2.13 General System Requirements 

9.2.14 General System Requirements 

9.3.1 General 

14.8 Stationary Pumps and Compressors 

DESIGN

Barrier Walls

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.3.1.1 Barrier Wall Construction – Gaseous Hydrogen 
81

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

Equipment

International Fire Code (International Code Council 2006)

2209.2 Equipment 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.2 General System Requirements 

Fuel Stations

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

35 Flammable Gases 

2209.1 General 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)

7.3 Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.3 System Siting 

14.2 Facility Design 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

7.1.6 Separation from Hazardous Conditions 

Weather Protection

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.3.2.2 Weather Protection 

2704.13 Weather Protection 

DISPENSING

Electrical Equipment

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2201.5 Electrical 

2205.4 Sources of Ignition 

2209.2.3 Electrical Equipment 

2211.3.1 Equipment 

2211.8.1.2.4 Grounding and bonding 

2703.9.4 Electrical Wiring and Equipment 

3003.8 Wiring and Equipment 

3003.16.14 Classified Areas 

3203.7 Electrical Wiring and Equipment 

3503.1.5.1 Bonding of Electrically Conductive Materials and 

Equipment 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)
82

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

6.7 Emergency Electrical Disconnects 

8 Electrical Installations 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.11 Installation of Electrical Equipment 

9.12 Stray or Impressed Currents and Bonding 

Fuel Lines

CGA G-5.4, Standard for Hydrogen Piping Systems at Consumer Locations 

(Compressed Gas Association 2005)

3.0 Piping System Criteria 

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2201 Scope 

2209.3.2.3 Indoors 

2209.3.2.6 Canopy Tops 

3501.1 Scope 

International Fuel Gas Code (International Code Council 2006)

101.2.1 Gaseous Hydrogen Systems 

704 Piping, Use, and Handling 

705 Testing of Hydrogen Piping Systems 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

5.8 Fuel Lines 

Gaseous Dispensers

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.2 Equipment 

2209.3 Location on Property 

2209.4 Dispensing into Motor Vehicles at Self-Service Hydrogen 

Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.2 General System Requirements 

9.3 System Siting 

Hoses and Connectors

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.2 Equipment 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

5.10 Hose and Hose Connections 
83

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

Liquid Dispensers

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2206.7.4 Dispenser Emergency Valve 

2206.7.5 Dispenser Hose 

2206.7.6 Fuel Delivery Nozzles 

2209.2 Equipment 

2209.3 Location on Property 

2209.4 Dispensing into Motor Vehicles at Self-Service Hydrogen 

Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)

6.3 Requirements for Dispensing Devices 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

14 Liquid Hydrogen Fueling Facilities 

Vehicle Connectors

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

5.11 Vehicle Fueling Connection 

SAE J2600, Compressed Hydrogen Surface Vehicle Refueling Connection 

Devices (Society of Automotive Engineers 2002)

DISPENSING, OPERATIONS, AND MAINTENANCE SAFETY

Gaseous Hydrogen

CGA G-5.5, Hydrogen Vent Systems (Compressed Gas Association 2004)

9 Maintenance 

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2204 Dispensing Operations 

2209.4 Dispensing into Motor Vehicles at Self-Service Hydrogen 

Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)

9.2.2 Tank Filling and Bulk Delivery 

9.4 Operating Requirements for Attended Self-Service Motor Fuel 

Dispensing Facilities 

9.5 Operating Requirements for Unattended Self-Service Motor Fuel 

Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.13 System Operation 

9.14 Fire Protection 

9.15 Maintenance System 
84

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

Liquid Hydrogen

CGA G-5.5, Hydrogen Vent Systems (Compressed Gas Association 2004)

9 Maintenance 

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2204 Dispensing Operations 

2209.4 Dispensing into Motor Vehicles at Self-Service Hydrogen 

Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)

9.2.2 Tank Filling and Bulk Delivery 

9.4 Operating Requirements for Attended Self-Service Motor Fuel 

Dispensing Facilities 

9.5 Operating Requirements for Unattended Self-Service Motor Fuel 

Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

14.4.6 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

14.4.9 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

14.4.10 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

14.4.11 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

14.13 Maintenance 

FIRE SAFETY

Construction

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

911 Explosion Control 

2209.5 Safety Precautions 

International Fuel Gas Code (International Code Council 2006)

706.3 Outdoor Gaseous Hydrogen Systems 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.12 Stray or Impressed Currents and Bonding 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

7.1.6 Separation from Hazardous Conditions 

Equipment

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

404 Fire Safety and Evacuation Plan 

406 Employee Training and Response Procedures 

407 Hazard Communication 

906 Portable Fire Extinguishers 

907 Fire Alarm and Detection Systems 
85

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

2209.4 Dispensing into Motor Vehicles at Self-Service Hydrogen 

Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

2209.5 Safety Precautions 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.2.3 Equipment Security and Vehicle Protection 

9.2.4 General System Requirements 

9.2.5 General System Requirements 

9.2.15 General System Requirements 

9.3.3 Indoors 

9.14 Fire Protection 

14.2.4 Indoor Fueling 

14.4.3 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

Signage

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2204.3.5 Emergency Procedures 

2209.5.2.1 Identification 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.3.3.12 Warning Signs 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

6.12 Hazard Identification Signs 

10.2.4 Marking 

11.3.1.4 General 

LIQUID HYDROGEN STORAGE

Equipment Location

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.3 Location on Property 

3203.5.4 Physical Protection 

3203.6 Separation from Hazardous Conditions 

3204.3.1.1 Location 

3204.4.2 Location 

3504 Storage 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

11.3.1 General 

11.3.2 Specific Requirements 
86

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

General Safety Requirements

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.5 Safety Precautions 

2211.7 Repair Garages for Vehicles Fueled by Lighter-than-Air Fuels 

2211.8 Defueling of Hydrogen from Motor Vehicle Fuel Storage 

Containers 

3003 General Requirements 

3203 General Safety Requirements 

3503 General Requirements 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

14.2 Facility Design 

Storage Containers

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2703.2 Systems, Equipment, and Processes 

3203.1 Containers 

3203.5 Security 

3203.6 Separation from Hazardous Conditions 

3204.3.1 Stationary Containers 

3204.4 Underground Tanks 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

5.3 Design and Construction of Containers 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

11.3.2 Specific Requirements 

11.4.2 Underground Tanks 

CGA H-3 Cryogenic Hydrogen Storage (Compressed Gas Association 2006)

6.0 Tank design and manufacturing criteria

7.0 Inner vessel

8.0 Outer jacket

ON-SITE HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.3.1 Separation from Outdoor Exposure Hazards 

International Fuel Gas Code (International Code Council 2006)

703.1 General Requirements 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

5.2 System Approvals 
87

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

OPERATION APPROVALS

Dispensing

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2204.2 Attended Self-Service Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

2204.3 Unattended Self-Service Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

2209.4 Dispensing into Motor Vehicles at Self-Service Hydrogen 

Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)

6.2 General Requirements 

6.3 Requirements for Dispensing Devices 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

14.4.1 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

14.4.2 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

14.4.3 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

14.4.11 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

Fire And Emergency Planning

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

404 Fire Safety and Evacuation Plan 

406 Employee Training and Response Procedures 

407 Hazard Communication 

906 Portable Fire Extinguishers 

907 Fire Alarm and Detection Systems 

2209.3.2.6.2 Fire-Extinguishing Systems 

2209.4 Dispensing into Motor Vehicles at Self-Service Hydrogen 

Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

2209.5.1 Protection from Vehicles 

2209.5.2 Emergency Shutoff Valves 

2209.5.3 Emergency Shutdown Controls 

2209.5.4 Venting of Hydrogen Systems 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)

7.3.5 Fixed Fire Protection 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.2.16 General System Requirements 

9.10.5 Installation of Emergency Shutdown Equipment 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

4.1 Permits 

4.2 Emergency Plan 
88

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

7.1.6 Separation from Hazardous Conditions 

Fuel Delivery

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

105.6.8 Compressed Gases 

105.6.10 Cryogenic Fluids 

2205.1 Tank Filling Operation for Class I, II, or IIIA Liquids 

3205.4 Filling and Dispensing 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)

6.3.7 Requirements for Dispensing Devices 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.2.3 Equipment Security and Vehicle Protection 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

10.3 Location of Gaseous Hydrogen Systems 

Ignition Control

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.3.2.3.3 Ignition Source Control 

3503.1.4 Ignition Source Control 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

4.8 Ignition Source Controls 

7.6.3 Ignition Source Control 

Personnel Issues and Training

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

406 Employee Training and Response Procedures 

2209.4 Dispensing into Motor Vehicles at Self-Service Hydrogen 

Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)

9.4 Operating Requirements for Attended Self-Service Motor Fuel 

Dispensing Facilities 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

4.6 Personnel Training 

4.7 Fire Department Liaison 
89

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

Signage

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2204.3.5 Emergency Procedures 

2209.3.2.3.2 Smoking 

2209.3.2.6.3 Signage 

2209.5.2.1 Identification 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.3.3.12 Warning Signs 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

4.9 Signs 

Vehicle Access

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

105.6.8 Compressed Gases 

105.6.10 Cryogenic Fluids 

105.6.39 Repair Garages and Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities 

404.3.2 Fire Safety Plans 

3205.4 Filling and Dispensing 

NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages 

(National Fire Protection Association 2003)

6.3.7 Requirements for Dispensing Devices 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.2.3 Equipment Security and Vehicle Protection 

14.2.1.6 General

14.4.2 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

14.4.5 Liquid Hydrogen Vehicle Dispensing Systems 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

10.3 Location of Gaseous Hydrogen Systems 

SETBACKS AND FOOTPRINTS

Liquid Systems

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.3.1 Separation from Outdoor Exposure Hazards 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

14.2.2 Siting 
90

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

11.3.2.1 Specific Requirements 

11.3.2.2 Specific Requirements 

Outdoor Gaseous Systems

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.3.1 Separation from Outdoor Exposure Hazards 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

9.3.1.3 General 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

10.3.2.1 Specific Requirements 

10.3.2.2 Minimum Distance 

TRANSPORTATION

Compressed Hydrogen Gas

CGA P-1, Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Containers (Compressed Gas 

Association 2006)

4.1 Transportation Regulating Authorities 

4.2 Container Regulations 

4.3 Container Filling Regulations 

4.4 Regulating Authorities of Employee Safety and Health 

6.2 Flammable Gases 

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2705 Use, Dispensing, and Handling 

3005.7 Transfer 

3505 Use 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

4 General Requirements 

7.3.1.10 Use and Handling 

Liquid Hydrogen

CGA P-12, Safe Handling of Cryogenic Liquids (Compressed Gas Association

2005)

5.5.4 Additional Safety Practices for Liquid Hydrogen 

6.4 Hydrogen Fires 

7.9 Handling Considerations for Hydrogen and Helium Transfer 
91

Codes and Standards Citations for Hydrogen Fuel

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2705 Use Dispensing and Handling 

3201.1 Scope 

3203.6.1.1 Point-of-Fill Connections 

3205.4.2 Vehicle Loading and Unloading Areas 

NFPA 52, Vehicular Fuel Systems Code (National Fire Protection Association 

2006)

14.3 Cargo Transport Unloading 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

4 General Requirements 

8.3.5 Overfilling 

8.13.1.2 Attended Delivery 

8.13.10.3 Filling and Dispensing 

Natural Gas

ASME B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Systems (American Society of 

Mechanical Engineers 2003)

VAPORIZERS

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

2209.2 Equipment 

2209.3 Location on Property 

3203.1.3 Foundations and Supports 

3203.2.2 Vessels or Equipment Other than Containers 

3203.5.3 Securing of Vaporizers 

IFC (International Code Council 2006)

708 Design of Liquefied Hydrogen Systems Associated with 

Hydrogen Vaporization Operations 

NFPA 55, Standard for Storage, Use and Handling of Compressed Gases and 

Cryogenic Fluids in Portable and Stationary Containers, Cylinders and Tanks 

(National Fire Protection Association 2005)

11.2.5 Liquefied Hydrogen Vaporizers 
92

Gaps in Codes and Standards

Hydrogen has been safely used in industrial applications for many years. However, 

fueling applications for vehicle hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are relatively new. It should 

be viewed that such fueling station operations will ultimately evolve into routine 

consumer interaction. Few incident data exists on hydrogen vehicle fueling operations. 

The lack of data translates into limited fueling specific information on which to base 

operating and maintenance requirements for hydrogen fueling operations. On the other 

hand, a significant amount of data has been collected regarding the use of hydrogen 

systems in industrial applications. The industrial database is used as the basis for generic 

information relative to the construction of the typical system upon which the prototypical 

fueling systems are based. Over time fueling specific experience will add to the available 

data used in the ongoing evolution of codes and standards as the retail sector matures. In 

the interim, this lack of fueling specific data on the use of hydrogen in potential retail 

situations drives many of the hydrogen codes and standards research needs.

Industrial use of hydrogen has required the development of a hydrogen production and 

transportation infrastructure that is relatively mature [33]. The regulations to transport 

hydrogen by pipeline, rail, and road vehicle were promulgated in 49 CFR 100-192 [36]. 

However, the consumer market infrastructure is not fully developed. Codes and standards 

are developing for transport, storage, delivery, and use of hydrogen in vehicles. 

Table 14 presents a summary of the identified Code and Standards Gaps for the expanded 

use of Hydrogen as an alternative fuel. Also, the table presents the impacted document 

and proposed means to address the gap.

Table 14 illustrates the various areas of hydrogen codes and standards that require 

additional work in order to create a complete and standardized control strategy. One key 

area that may require additional work is operations and maintenance requirements for 

fuel dispensing systems. This area is of particular concern because relatively little data 

for the use of vehicular hydrogen dispensing systems exists. As data is accrued, it may 

become apparent that additional safety measures are needed to address operations and 

maintenance. A second area of concern is potential releases of hydrogen in confined 

spaces such as indoor fueling operations, tunnels, and parking garages. The release 

characteristics and prevention and mitigation measures vary for these different locations,

but many of the same analytical tools can be used to characterize the hazards of these 

releases. A third area of concern is the hazard presented by the potential energy contained 

in high-pressure storage and dispensing systems. Table 14 lists several other important 

gaps that require further work.
93

Table 14: Codes and Standards Gaps for Hydrogen

Codes or Standard Gap Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

No final fuel quality standard ISO Fuel Quality 

Draft International 

Standard,

ASTM analysis 

standards,

SAE Technical 

Information 

Report (TIR)

J2719 

Provide data to ensure that 

draft standards become 

final standards

Potentially incomplete 

requirements for indoor 

hydrogen vehicle dispensing

NFPA 52, IFC Evaluate indoor release 

characteristics and accident 

scenarios for potential 

application to code 

development

Off road vehicle storage tank 

standards are incomplete

CSA America

Heavy Goods 

Vehicle (HGV)

4.3, SAE J2601

Support standards 

development work with 

direct committee 

involvement and data 

support

Bulk liquefied hydrogen 

storage requirements lack 

technical basis

documentation

NFPA 55, NFPA 

2, IFC

Evaluate liquid release 

impacts and frequencies 

and provide this information 

to relevant technical 

committees to validate or 

revise bulk liquefied 

hydrogen storage 

requirements

Requirements for tunnels, 

parking garages, and repair 

garages need review to 

determine whether additional 

requirements for hydrogen 

are needed [meeting with 

New York Port Authority 

January 2009]

NFPA 505, IFC, 

NFPA 88B, NFPA 

30A, IBC, 

International 

Mechanical Code 

(IMC)

Evaluate safety concerns in 

these environments and 

work with the technical 

committees to provide data 

required to address codes 

and standards requirements
94

Codes or Standard Gap Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

Operations and maintenance 

procedures lack supporting 

operational history data 

[conversation with Larry 

Fluer]

NFPA 52, NFPA 

30A, IFC

Evaluate existing 

procedures to determine 

where they might be 

incomplete.

Evaluate operations and 

maintenance history for 

similar fuels to determine 

whether useful information 

can be retrieved and 

applied to hydrogen

Steam Methane Reformation 

(SMR) plants do not have a 

safety standard [conversation 

with Roger Smith]

No current code 

specifically 

addresses SMR 

plants

Develop a code or standard 

that addresses SMR plants

New storage systems, such 

as metal hydrides, are 

minimally addressed in codes 

and standards

NFPA 55, CGA H1 and H-2, IFCDetermine whether new 

chemical storage systems 

are adequately addressed 

in codes and standards

Limited familiarity with 

relevant hydrogen codes and 

standards among project 

developers and code officials 

[conversation with Larry 

Fluer]

All hydrogen 

codes and 

standards

Regional codes and 

standards workshops as 

well as web training and 

background information can 

help address this issue

Incomplete requirements for 

sensing technologies [Rivkin 

analysis of NFPA 52]

NFPA 52, NFPA 

55

Support the use of sensing 

technologies that replace 

odorants through evaluating 

sensing technologies and 

supporting code and 

standards development 

work in sensing 

technologies

High-pressure storage, 

handling, and use of 

hydrogen [David Farese DOE 

Safety Panel meeting]

NFPA 52, NFPA 

55, CGA H series 

of documents

Evaluate codes and 

standards that address 

high-pressure storage to 

determine if requirements 

are adequate and if 

additional work is required
95

Codes or Standard Gap Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

Global Technical Regulations

(GTR)

Coordination with 

SAE and DOT 

regulations

Continue to represent the 

United States in GTR 

development meetings and 

evaluate impacts of GTR in 

domestic regulations, 

codes, and standards

Coordination of international 

(primarily ISO) standards and 

domestic codes and 

standards

Multiple 

documents: SAE, 

CSA, UL, NFPA

Evaluate component 

standards to ensure that 

there are not unnecessary 

conflicts

The DOT guidance 

documents for incidents 

involving flammable gases 

are too general and 

prescriptive

DOT Emergency 

Response Guide

Add additional material to 

the DOT guide for hydrogen 

incidents
96

ELECTRICITY
97

Electricity7

Background

Electric Vehicles (EVs) are designed and used on a marginal basis since the inception of 

internal combustion automobiles. In the 1970s through 1980s, a few vehicles were 

produced commercially, but in relatively small number. These vehicles had driving 

ranges of 50 to 60 miles and were intended for urban use [37]. In the 1990s, some of the 

first efforts were started by large car companies to develop EVs that would eventually 

have widespread use. These vehicles, using mostly lead acid batteries, had driving ranges 

fewer than 100 miles per charge. This generation of vehicles is no longer in production.

Codes and Standards Structure

The codes and standards structure for EVs are characterized as follows:

1. Electric grid regulations: National Institute of Standards, Federal Energy 

Regulatory Commission,

2. Interface between the vehicle and the grid: Institute of Electrical and Electronics 

Engineers (IEEE) standards, SAE Standards,

3. Vehicle charging station construction: NFPA 70 National Electrical Code (NEC), 

and

4. Vehicle components and systems: SAE standards.

Appendix II has a complete overview of EV code and standards including an extensive 

analysis of the SAE EV standards.

Gaps in Codes and Standards

Grid

The grid communication standards that allow for densely concentrated charging and the 

selection by consumers of electricity produced in different ways are not in place. These 

standards offer consumers the choice of purchasing electricity for charging their vehicles 

from different sources of electricity. For example, a consumer could purchase electricity 

produced entirely from renewable energy technologies.

Interface

Several SAE standards address vehicle to charging station interface requirements. These 

documents include SAE J-2836 and SAE J-2847 and are both under development with 

expected publication in 2010.

SAE J-1772 and J-1773 address the hardware for vehicle charging and are currently 

under revision with new editions expected to be issued in 2010.

 7 Expert discussion on the use of Electricity and support technology as an alternative fuel, included herein, 

was provided by Roland Pitts (Battery Technology), Kathryn Clay (OEM perspective), Mark Kosowski 

(Electric Vehicles) and Chris Sloane.
98

Vehicle

Battery technologies comprise a critical component of the EV, including hybrids, plug-in 

hybrids, and entirely EVs. Thus, a critical consideration for the utilization of electricity as 

an alternative vehicular fuel would be the battery. While the classic lead acid battery is 

still commonly deployed in automobiles and other applications (e.g., stationary systems 

for backup power [38]), it is not used for vehicular motive power. The power density of 

180 watts per kilogram (W/kg) is too low. Alternative battery technologies with higher 

power densities are used for vehicular power. The currently deployed fleet of hybrids 

typically uses the Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) batteries. However, owing to improved 

performance specifications and excellent power density (up to 340 W/Kg), the lithium 

ion battery (Li-ion) is projected to be used in the next generation of hybrid vehicles, 

including the plug-in hybrids. 

Based on discussions with industry representatives, it is believed that the short-term 

standardization of battery technology and support systems (charging units, operational 

protocols, interconnects, and safety interlocks) for EVs may be problematic. In part, this 

problem is because of the rapid development of new battery technologies. More 

important, however, is that the OEMs have an entrenched attitude of maintaining a 

degree of control of critical vehicle components. Historically, this attitude is particularly 

applied to the power system (engine and transmission). Engine performance was a source 

of pride between various models and their customers. Electric motors and batteries are 

now replacing the internal combustion engine, and a desire to keep the development of 

the new power system in-house exists. Significant progress is underway in the area of 

battery technology for vehicles. It is likely that unique performance advantages are

achieved with proprietary developments. Thus, OEM control over the power system will 

not only help maintain uniqueness of the OEM product, but could also provide a 

competitive edge in the event of a technological development. It is critical to set basic 

operational codes and standards early in the emerging market of EVs. Such vehicle code 

and standards are best addressed by working with the trade groups of the OEMs. Such an 

interaction has been initiated between NREL and the Alliance for Automobile 

Manufacturer.

Lithium Ion Battery

The Li-ion battery is a relatively new technology that went through a rapid 

developmental process. Various design changes implemented since its introduction have 

dramatically improved the overall performance in terms of power and lifetime. The term,

Li-ion battery, refers to various cell designs with unique cathodes, anodes, electrolytes,

and performance parameters such as cell voltage, temperature stability, etc. The Li-ion 

battery is already the mainstay of small appliances and electronics, such as battery packs 

for portable computers. One shortcoming in the Li-ion battery is that it is expensive, 

especially relative to other battery types. This cost is not because of costly material of 

construction but rather the complexity of the battery design itself; the sensitivity of the 

Li- ion battery to temperature and over charging requires intricate self-contained 

protection systems. A range of integrated safety controls incorporated into the lithium ion 

battery design includes pressure release vents, thermal protection systems, and shut down 

systems. Chargers are more expensive than other battery systems because of non-uniform 

size and composition of the Li-ion class of batteries; emphasizing the need for 
99

establishing standards for battery-based vehicular power system. For all the required 

complexity, Li-ion batteries are commercially successful, and the production cost is 

expected to drop as manufacturing techniques develop. However, higher throughput 

further emphasizes the need to identify technical issues and concerns for the Li-ion

battery and to implement codes and standards that provide guidance on performance and 

safety requirements to manufacturers before the products reach the consumers. 

Vehicular codes and standards for the Li-ion battery are not yet completely developed. 

Although commercially mature for some markets, the Li-ion battery is not deployed in 

consumer vehicles. It has however been used in engineering prototype vehicles. To form 

the necessary framework for the required codes and standards, some critical issues of the 

lithium battery should be summarized. In a lead acid battery, each cell has a nominal 

potential of 2.1 volts and uses aqueous sulfuric acid electrolyte (a standard 12 volt

automobile battery is comprised of 6 cells connected in series). A typical Li-ion cell has a 

potential of over 3.2 volts. Different components for the anode, cathode of electrolyte are 

used in various designs of the Li-ion battery. Depending upon design selection, individual 

cell voltage varies by as much as 700 millivolts (mV), which must be considered for use 

of a Li-ion battery in critical applications. Regardless of design, the cell voltage of the Liion battery dramatically exceeds the stable potential window afforded by aqueous 

electrolytes. Thus, non-aqueous electrolytes are used. Specifically, solvent mixtures 

containing ethylene carbonate and other organic solvents with a dissolved salt such as 

lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6), lithium hexafluoroborate (LiBF6), or lithium 

perchlorate (LiClO4) are typically used. Ethylene carbonate is an organic solvent and is 

flammable, thus, in the case of a rupture, a combustion hazard can occur. Recently one 

battery pack design used in laptop computers failed and burned sufficiently enough to 

force the Federal Aviation Administration to consider banning Li-ion batteries on 

commercial flights (the problem with this particular battery design was located and 

rectified to improve reliability). Ethylene carbonate is not volatile at room temperature, 

but can vaporize at elevated temperatures (boiling point equals 248o C), which is easily 

encountered in fires. The vapors of many organic compounds are potentially toxic. 

Although neither OSHA nor the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

(NIOSH) currently consider ethylene carbonate to be overly toxic when inhaled, vapors 

of other components in the electrolyte may be highly toxic. These components are not yet

specified for the “standard” Li-ion battery.

Volatility of the battery components, especially the electrolyte may pose additional risks. 

In addition to fires and the possible generation of potentially toxic vapors, volatilization 

increases the internal pressure of the battery, and ultimately, at sufficiently elevated 

pressures, the structural integrity of the battery housing will be breached. The resulting 

rupture is quite dramatic, perhaps resulting in an explosion. The most likely mechanism 

for volatilization of components is thermal-induced increases in vapor pressure, but 

chemical or electrochemical decomposition of components to more volatile products can 

also occur. Indeed, overcharging may result in the degradation of the organic solvent at 

the anode. Thermal excursions occur because of fire resulting from, for example, an 

accident with a conventional gasoline-powered vehicle, as well as internal thermal 
100

runaway within the Li-ion battery itself. Operation of the battery also generates heat, and 

thus a ventilated enclosure might be necessary.

While the Li-ion battery exhibits a slow self-discharge rate that is significantly better than 

the nickel metal hydride (NiMH) (5 to 10 percent per month compared to 30 percent), the 

service lifetime is less than desired. Further, the service lifetime includes the shelf-life of 

the battery. Adverse treatment can also affect the service lifetime, including over 

charging or under charging (or discharging below a threshold voltage, which may induce 

irreversible side reactions). Treatment suggestions for prolonged lifetime include the 

following:

• Charge lithium batteries often; but if unused for an extended time leave at a 40 to 

60 percent charge,

• Avoid regular deep cycle discharge, 

• Avoid elevated temperature,

• Avoid extreme cold (do not freeze the solvent; an issue at ca. -40), and

• Buy new batteries as needed and keep track of shelf-life, including distributor 

inventories.

Nickel Metal Hydride Battery

The currently deployed fleet of hybrid vehicles typically uses NiMH batteries. A critical 

advantage is the exceptional power density of up 1,000 W/kg. The individual cell 

potential of the NiMH battery is between 1.4 and 1.6 volts and thus is compatible with 

aqueous electrolytes. However, the NiMH battery has a high self-discharge rate (up to 30

percent per month), thus a purely EV might run out of fuel if allowed to sit unattended for 

moderately extended periods. Like the classic lead acid battery, hydrogen generation is a 

probable side product from over charging, although the amount of hydrogen generation is 

significantly less for the NiMH battery. Reverse polarity of a cell or individual battery 

causes irreversible damage, and occurs during normal operation if one battery in a 

multipack becomes discharged before others. Protection systems are needed.

Summary

Table 15 presents a summary of the identified Code and Standards Gaps for the expanded 

use of Electricity as an alternative fuel. The table also presents the impacted document 

and proposed means to address the gap.
101

Table 15: Gaps in Electricity Codes and Standards

Codes or Standard Gap Documents Impacted Gap Resolution

Code enforcers lack of 

familiarity with charging 

station requirements, 

particularly for home 

charging stations

NFPA 70, Article 625 Education and outreach 

required to increase 

familiarity with the NFPA 

70 requirements

Battery standards are not 

complete, specifically:

1. SAE 1797 does 

not address 

lithium Ion 

batteries

2. SAE J1798 does 

not address 

temperature 

testing

3. SAE 2288 does 

not address 

temperature 

variation and 

testing

4. SAE 2380 does 

not address 

battery mounting 

and vibration 

testing

SAE J1797, SAE J1798, 

SAE J 2288, SAE J 2380

The standards 

development activities 

need to be monitored to 

ensure that the required 

data are available to the 

technical committees to 

promulgate their revised 

documents

Communications 

between the vehicle and 

the grid require further 

definition

2293 – Updates for 

current communication 

technology – Nat Labs 

participation

2836 – Part 1, 2, 3 all 

need updates for 

communication 

requirements

2847 – Part 1, 2, 3 not 

complete, need technical 

requirements for 

communications

The standards 

development activities 

need to be monitored to 

ensure that the required 

data are available to the 

technical committees to 

promulgate their revised 

documents
102

Codes or Standard Gap Documents Impacted Gap Resolution

Communications within 

the grid to balance 

vehicle charging loads

National Institute of 

Standards and 

Technology (NIST)

standards, IEEE 1547

The codes and standards 

activities require 

monitoring to determine 

where data are needed 

to ensure that the 

documents are 

promulgated
103

OEM Co m m e n ts
104

OEM Comments

This report focused primarily on the alternative fuel itself and the related infrastructure. 

Along the continuum from fuel production, quality, distribution and use there are 

numerous issues that need to be addressed regarding codes and standards. In many cases, 

these have been addressed to some extent, for alternative fuels. However, new 

technologies and the application of these technologies are always evolving, and codes 

and standards must do the same. Another perspective to be considered in the 

development of codes and standards for the vehicle industry is the OEM8. Naturally,

vehicle OEMs maintain a vested interest in the codes and standards for the new 

alternative fuels. In the Electricity section of this report, the role of OEM on the 

development of new electric power systems and its impact on the standardization of new 

battery systems was briefly discussed. Significant improvements in battery technology 

for vehicle power progressed in the past few years. This improvement trend will

continue. In order to maintain a competitive edge and unique product features, some 

OEM may develop new technologies using in-house resources as opposed to outsourcing. 

Thus new EV power systems will develop in parallel, rendering it difficult to implement 

short-term standardization. Also, a different philosophy pertaining to safety engineering

exists within the OEM. From the OEM perspective, identifying potential scenarios, 

assessing potential impacts, and then developing standards and implementing codes to 

mitigate against deleterious effects of possible events is less productive than engineering 

designs that render the event unlikely. More precisely, vehicles and support 

systems/infrastructure should be designed so that the probability of a specific event 

occurring is at an acceptably low probability rate (as is the case with existing vehicle fuel 

systems). 

 8 Expert discussion on the OEM perspective, included herein, was provided by Kathryn Clay and Chris 

Sloan.
105

CONCLUS ION
106

Conclusion

The previous sections presented the status of the code and standards for each of the 

alternative fuels. For several fuels, the codes and standards structure is well-defined and 

nearly complete with few gaps that may impede further implementation. In other cases, 

significant gaps are present which impact the deployment at significant levels. However, 

common issues exist that crosscut all the identified fuel types. For transportation 

applications, several newer fuels and emerging technologies present a lack of familiarity 

among consumers. Furthermore, significant outreach efforts targeting AHJs and project 

developers are required to gain sufficient familiarity with new fuel types to allow safe 

implementation of new fuel stations. 

Finally, one of the most important factors for addressing codes and standards gaps for 

alternative fuels is the continuation of the comprehensive approach outlined on Page 4 of 

this document. As previously stated, the effort modeled after the program implemented 

for the promulgation of hydrogen codes and standards should continue to be supported 

for all alternative fuels. The result will ensure efficiency and the avoidance of conflicts 

in DOEs work on alternative fuels codes and standards.

Gaps in Existing Vehicle Codes and Standards

Table 16 contains the most important code and standards gaps and gap resolutions by 

fuel. Some gaps applied to all fuels and are listed at the end of the table.

Table 16: Summary of Vehicle Codes and Standards Gaps

Fuel Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

BIODIESEL

Lack of data for existing 

codes and standards 

applicability to biodiesel 

storage systems

National Fire 

Protection 

Association (NFPA) 

30 and 30A and 

associated listing 

documents, IFC

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Biodiesel with listed 

storage

BIODIESEL Limited component 

compatibility

Multiple Society of 

Automotive 

Engineers (SAE) 

documents

Work with SAE 

committees and 

provide data to 

support changes 

allowing for more 

component flexibility
107

Fuel Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

ELECTRICITY

Code enforcers lack of 

familiarity with charging 

station requirements, 

particularly for home 

charging stations

NFPA 70, Article 

625

Education and 

outreach required to 

increase familiarity 

with the NFPA 70 

requirements

ELECTRICITY

Battery standards are 

not complete, 

specifically:

1. SAE 1797 does not 

address lithium Ion 

batteries

2. SAE J1798 does not 

address temperature 

testing

3. SAE 2288 does not 

address temperature 

variation and testing

4. SAE 2380 does not 

address battery 

mounting and 

vibration testing

SAE J1797, SAE 

J1798, SAE J 2288, 

SAE J 2380

The standards 

development 

activities need to be 

monitored to ensure 

that the required 

data are available to 

the technical 

committees to 

promulgate their 

revised documents

ELECTRICITY

Communications 

between the vehicle and 

the grid require further 

definition

2293 – Updates for 

current 

communication 

technology – Nat 

Labs participation

2836 – Part 1, 2, 3 

all need updates for 

communication 

requirements

2847 – Part 1, 2, 3 

not complete, need 

technical 

requirements for 

communications

The standards 

development 

activities need to be 

monitored to ensure 

that the required 

data are available to 

the technical 

committees to 

promulgate their 

revised documents
108

Fuel Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

ELECTRICITY

Communications within 

the grid to balance 

vehicle charging loads

National Institute of 

Standards and 

Technology (NIST)

standards, Institute 

of Electrical and 

Electronics 

Engineers (IEEE) 

1547

The codes and 

standards activities 

require monitoring to 

determine where 

data are needed to 

ensure that the 

documents are 

promulgated

ETHANOL

Component compatibility 

with high ethanol 

concentration mixtures

NFPA 30/30A and 

associated listing 

documents, SAE 

2835

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Ethanol with 

traditional gasoline 

vehicle components

ETHANOL

Lack of data for existing 

codes and standards 

applicability to Ethanol 

storage systems

NFPA 30/30A and 

associated listing 

documents, IFC

Provide data for the 

compatibility of 

Ethanol with listed 

storage

HYDROGEN

High pressure storage, 

handling, and use of 

hydrogen presents 

hazards specific to highpressure systems that 

may not be completely 

addressed

NFPA 2, NFPA 52, 

NFPA 55 

Compressed Gas 

Association (CGA) H 

series of documents, 

International Fire 

Code (IFC) 

Evaluated codes 

and standards that 

address high

pressures to 

determine if 

requirements are 

adequate

HYDROGEN

Incomplete 

requirements for 

sensing technologies

NFPA 2, NFPA 52, 

NFPA 55, IFC

Support the use of 

sensing 

technologies that 

replace odorants 

through evaluating 

sensing 

technologies and 

supporting code and 

standards 

development work in 

sensing 

technologies
109

Fuel Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

HYDROGEN

Off-road vehicle storage 

tank requirements are 

incomplete

Codes and 

Standards of 

America (CSA) 

Heavy Goods 

Vehicle (HGV) 2, 

SAE J2601, 

Underwriters’ 

Laboratories, Inc. 

(UL) 2267

Support standards 

development work 

with direct 

committee 

involvement and 

data support

HYDROGEN

Potentially incomplete 

requirements for indoor 

hydrogen fueling

NFPA 52, IFC

Evaluate indoor 

release 

characteristics and 

accident scenarios 

for potential 

application to code 

development

NG

Outreach products for 

installation technicians

and conversion shops

Multiple

Produce outreach 

products for 

consumers, 

installation shops, 

and technicians

NG Component 

standardization Multiple documents

Support 

development of 

component 

standards 

PROPANE Conversion components NFPA 58 or UL 

listing document

Provide data to 

ensure component 

listings are valid

PROPANE Compositional and fuel 

quality concerns

American Society for 

Testing and 

Materials (ASTM) D 

1835-97

Provide data from 

the analysis of fuel 

quality and impact 

on vehicle systems
110

Fuel Vehicle Codes and 

Standards Gap

Documents 

Impacted Gap Resolution

ALL FUELS

Focus research 

activities on system 

engineering to reduce 

the probability of a 

release or incident 

rather than evaluating 

the potential impacts of 

a release or incident

Multiple documents

Conduct more 

research on system 

safety engineering 

rather than modeling 

of incidents

ALL FUELS

Lack of familiarity with 

codes and standards 

among project 

developers and AHJs

Multiple documents

Continue to conduct 

regional training 

workshops and 

develop specialized 

web education 

products

ALL FUELS

Develop operational 

safety requirements for 

fueling operations as 

data are accrued 

through learning 

demonstrations 

Multiple documents

Analyze fueling 

data, particularly for 

new fueling 

technologies at 

facilities with 

multiple fuels, to 

determine whether 

operations safety 

can be increased
111

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13. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, “Natural Gas.” Alternative Fuels & 

Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/natural_gas.html. Accessed September 30, 

2009 

14. FuelMaker/Honda; http://science.howstuffworks.com/earth/greentechnology/sustainable/home/home-refueling-appliance.htm/printable

a. NOTE: the product line has been sold by FuelMaker to Fuel Systems 

Solutions, Inc and WEB information is being updated 

http://www.fuelmaker.com/ 

b. Accessed August 27, 2009 

15. ISO 14469-2:2007 Road vehicles — Compressed natural gas (CNG) refuelling 

connector; ISO 15500: Road vehicles -- Compressed natural gas (CNG) fuel 

system components; ISO 11439 Gas cylinders — High pressure cylinders for the 

on-board storage of natural gas as a fuel for automotive vehicles

16. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, “Global Technical Regulation 

No. 4 (WHDC).” 

http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/wp29wgs/wp29gen/wp29registry/gtr4.ht

ml. Accessed September 30, 2009 

17. UL558: Industrial Trucks, Internal Combustion Engine-Powered

18. NFPA 505: Fire Safety Standard for Powered Industrial Trucks Including Type 

Designations, Areas of Use, Conversions, Maintenance, and Operations

http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=505&cookie%5Ftest=1

19. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, “What is biodiesel?” Alternative Fuels 

& Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_what_is.html. Accessed August 

24, 2009 

20. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Biodiesel.” SmartWay Grow & Go, 

http://www.epa.gov/smartway/growandgo/documents/factsheet-biodiesel.htm. 

Accessed August 24, 2009 

21. National Biodiesel Board, “Estimated US Biodiesel Production by Fiscal Year 

(Oct 1 – Sept 30).” Biodiesel Production Estimates FY99 - current. 

http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Production_graph_slide.pdf. 

Accessed August 24, 2009 

22. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, “Biodiesel Fueling Station Locations.” 

Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_locations.html. Accessed 

September 30, 2009 
113

23. NFPA 30, “The Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code”

24. NFPA 30A” The Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages”

25. McCormick, R. Private Communication, National Renewable Energy (NREL), 

NREL, July 2009

26. Zimmer, J. Private Communication, Larry H. Miller Volkswagen, Denver, 

Colorado, July 2009

27. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, “E85 Fueling Station Locations.” 

Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/ethanol_locations.html. Accessed 

September 30, 2009

28. Change2E85.com, “E85 Ethanol Myths.” 

http://www.change2e85.com/servlet/Page?template=Myths. Accessed August 24, 

2009

29. American Coalition for Ethanol, http://www.ethanol.org/video/, Accessed August 

24, 2009

30. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, “Intermediate Ethanol Blend Research.” 

Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/blends_e15_e20_research.html, 

Accessed August 24, 2009

31. Horne, D. Private Communication, Clean Vehicle Education Foundation, NREL, 

August 2009

32. Knoll, K. Private Communication, National Renewable Energy (NREL), NREL, 

July 2009

33. Smith, R. Private Communication, Compressed Gas Association (CGA), NREL, 

August, 2009

34. California Fuel Cell Partnership, http://www.fuelcellpartnership.org/. Accessed 

September 30, 2009

35. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, “Hydrogen Fuel”, Alternative Fuels & 

Advanced Vehicles Data Center 

http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/hydrogen.html, Accessed September 30

36. Asebe, T. Private Communication, Department of Transportation (DOT) Office of 

Pipeline Safety, August, 2009
114

37. About.com, “The History of Electric Vehicles.” Inventors, 

http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectric1a.htm. Accessed 

September 30, 2009

38. “IEEE P1635 and ASHRAE/D3 Draft Guide for the Ventilation and Thermal 

Management of Batteries for Stationary Applications” The Institute of Electrical 

and Electronics Engineers, Inc, (2009).
115

APPENDIX I:

Biographies (in alphabetical order):

Chad Blake

Senior Project Leader, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

Chad Blake is a Senior Project Leader in the Codes and Standards Group of the 

Vehicle Technologies Program at NREL in Golden, CO. He has worked at several 

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) laboratories for 15 years in nuclear, energy, 

government, operations, and research environments. He joined the staff at NREL in 

2007 and currently leads codes and standards hydrogen fuel quality efforts as well as 

R&D on other renewable transportation fuels. He is a member of the International 

Energy Agency’s Task 19, the DOE Hydrogen Safety Panel, and several codes and 

standards related committees.

William Buttner, Ph.D.

Senior Scientist I, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

Dr. William Buttner is a member of the Vehicle Codes and Standards Group at NREL 

in Golden, CO. As a member of the Codes and Standards Group, Dr. Buttner has been 

active in the safe implementation of alternative fuels for vehicle applications, with an 

emphasis on hydrogen. He has been active in the design and construction of the 

Hydrogen Sensor Laboratory at NREL. Dr. Buttner is also active in a variety of 

standards development organizations including ISO, IEEE, and UL Dr. Buttner is a 

member of the Electrochemical Society, and serves on the Chemical Sensor Group. 

Dr. Buttner has a Ph.D. in chemistry from Michigan State University and has over 25 

years experience in chemical and physical sensor technology, field analytical 

chemistry, and electrochemical processes. 
116

Biographies (in alphabetical order):

Larry Fluer

Fluer, Inc.

Larry Fluer is a Technical Consultant and Principal of Fluer, Inc., a firm specializing 

in the safe handling and use of hazardous materials in technical buildings and facilities 

where the safety of employees and the public are of particular concern. The firm was 

founded by Larry Fluer in 1979 to provide professional counsel and guidance in this 

highly specialized field. Educated as a chemist, Fluer has held technical, supervisory 

and safety responsibilities in various military and industrial organizations involved 

with the proper handling of such materials.

Fluer is a recognized expert in the area of building and life safety where he applies his 

experience and knowledge to code interpretation, analysis and development, and to 

hazard evaluation as it relates to today's processes in buildings and other facilities 

where the safety of employees and the public are paramount. Fluer has served as an 

independent contractor and advisor to building departments, fire departments, building 

owners, building designers and others. He has provided consulting services and served 

as an expert witness for attorneys in matters involving the storage and use of 

compressed gases and other hazardous materials.

He participates both as a professional advocate and a volunteer, in the development of 

building codes, fire codes and safety standards through membership in various 

standards and technical organizations, including the model codes and standards 

development organizations. Fluer's expertise in code matters related to hazardous 

materials is recognized by those involved in the code development process as well as 

those in the code application and enforcement community.
117

Biographies (in alphabetical order):

Douglas B. Horne

P.E., President, Clean Vehicle Education Foundation

President, DBHORNE LLC

Chairman, NFPA 52

Director of Research and Development, Atlanta Gas Light Company

Director of Business Process Development, Atlanta Gas Light Company

Founder of NGVC Technology Committee, the RD&D Initiative

As president of the Clean Vehicle Education Foundation (CVEF), Douglas Horne

draws on long experience in the alternative fuels industry. When Horne began his 

career in the energy industry in the late 1960’s, one of his first assignments was to 

work with a utility fleet in developing and LNG fleet and later transition that fleet to 

Propane fuel then to CNG. As a member of the Advanced Technology Task Force of 

the AGA Technology Committee, Doug participated in founding the NGVC now 

NGV America. Horne, as Director of R&D at Atlanta Gas Light, worked in a lead role, 

both nationally and internationally, on the development of alternative fuel vehicle 

technology and codes and standards. He served as long time Chairman of NFPA 52 & 

57, the NGVC Technology Committee, the RD&D Initiative, the Gas Utilization 

Research Forum and many other groups over the years.

In 2002, Horne took early retirement and formed DBHORNE LLC to provide 

alternative fuel technology management services. DBHORNE LLC has clients from 

the Philippines to Israel and primarily provides consulting services to various national

laboratories and the alternative fuel industry internationally. He is a consultant to the 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and the U.S. Department of Energy 

on biofuel technology and codes and standards including working with Underwriters 

Laboratory (UL) on listing procedures for E85 dispensers and related equipment. As 

part of that effort Horne chairs the Society of Automotive Engineers T&B Alternative 

Fuel Subcommittee as is presently developing a new recommended practice for Flex 

Fuel Vehicles. The CVEF has contracted with DBHORNE LLC for Horne to serve as 

president of the foundation.

Keith Knoll

Senior Project Leader in the Fuels Performance group of NREL's Center for 

Transportation Technologies and Systems, U.S. Department of Energy's National 

Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

Colorado
118

Biographies (in alphabetical order):

Theodore Lemoff, P.E.

After graduating from the City College of New York with a Bachelor of Engineering 

(Chemical) degree, Theodore C. Lemoff was employed in the chemical and 

petrochemical industry by Proctor and Gamble Company, Sun Chemical Corporation, 

and Badger Engineers, Inc., in various engineering positions. He joined NFPA in 1985 

and currently serves as NFPA’s principal gases engineer. He serves as NFPA staff 

liaison to the National Fuel Gas Code Committee, and he is also responsible for other 

NFPA standards on flammable gases. 

In addition to being the editor of the, Lemoff is the editor of the LP-Gas Code 

Handbook, the National Fuel Gas Code Handbook ,and co-author of the NFPA Pocket 

Guide to Fuel Gas Storage and Use.

Lemoff represents NFPA on the ASME Code for Pressure Piping Committee (National 

Interest Review Group) (B31), the pipeline safety advisory committee of the U.S. 

Department of Transportation, and the IAPMO Mechanical and Plumbing Code 

Committees.

Lemoff is a registered professional engineer in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts 

and is a member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers and the Society of 

Fire Protection Engineers, the Society of Gas Engineers, and the International 

Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials. 

Dr. Robert L. McCormick

Principal Engineer, U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy 

Laboratory (NREL)

Colorado

Bob McCormick is Principal Engineer in the Fuels Performance Group at NREL. He 

attended Oklahoma State University, Iowa State University, and the University of 

Wyoming, holds a doctorate in chemical engineering, and has worked in fuel 

processing, catalysis, and fuel utilization R&D for 18 years in both industrial, 

academic, and government environments. He joined the staff at NREL in 2001 and 

currently leads biodiesel utilization R&D as well as R&D on other renewable 

transportation fuels. Dr. McCormick has engaged in R&D on biodiesel utilization for 

more than 10 years.
119

Biographies (in alphabetical order):

Dr. Roland Pitts

Co-Inventor On the Licensed Technology and Principal Investigator

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

Research Scientist

Planar Energy Devices Inc.

Roland Pitts is a Senior Scientist and leader of the Optoelectronics Team in the Center 

for Basic Sciences

Roland Pitts is Planar Energy Devices’ Chief Science Officer and founding research 

scientist (2007-date). He has helped assemble a world-class team of researchers and 

engineers to develop the innovative battery structures that will bring transformational 

energy storage devices to market. During his 29-year career at NREL, he performed 

research activities in a breadth of areas of interest to energy efficiency and renewable 

energy. He was a Senior Scientist and leader of the Optoelectronics Team (1999-2007) 

and in the Center for Basic Sciences (1996-2007), the Measurement and 

Characterization Branch of the National Center for Photovoltaics (1989-1996), and the 

Materials Research Branch (1978-1989). Dr. Pitts has contributed to a wide array of 

projects, spanning the major areas of research at the laboratory. His principal areas of 

expertise are in solid-state physics, materials science, and surface and interface studies 

of thin films. He most recently worked on solid-state lithium batteries, dynamically 

controlled glazings for high-performance windows, fiber-optic-based hydrogen 

sensors, and materials synthesis in extreme environments.

[info from http://www.planarenergy.com/Company_Management.html]

Carl Rivkin, P.E.

Senior Project Leader II, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

Mr. Rivkin is the project leader for the Codes and Standards Project team at NREL in 

Golden, CO. The Codes and Standards Group at NREL has responsibility for 

implementing the U.S. National Template of Codes and Standards for alternative fuels 

for vehicles. This implementation effort runs the gamut from running a sensor test 

laboratory to evaluate the performance of chemical sensors to conducting codes and 

standards seminars to assist code officials in permitting facilities.

Rivkin has over 25 years of experience in safety and environmental engineering 

including work at a regulatory agency. Prior to joining NREL, Rivkin worked for the 

National Fire Protection Association on alternative energy code projects. He was also 

the editor of “The NFPA Guide to Gas Safety,” published in 2005, which has several 

chapters devoted to hydrogen and flammable gas safety.

Rivkin has a bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering from the University of 

Michigan and an MBA from the University of Baltimore. He is a licensed Professional 

Engineer (P.E.) and Certified Safety Professional (CSP).
120

Biographies (in alphabetical order):

Dr. Christine Sloane

Sloane Solutions, LLC

Christine Sloane retired from General Motors in 2008 and is continuing to work on 

hydrogen safety issues through her company Sloane Solutions, LLC. 

Dr. Sloane led General Motor’s global team for hydrogen and fuel cell vehicle Codes 

and Standards development. She coordinates development of GM policy and technical 

strategy across safety, engineering and public policy requirements and ensures global 

consistency in GM interaction with government and professional industry 

organizations. She previously directed the GM interaction with the U.S. FreedomCAR 

program, which included R&D to advance fuel cell power systems, and earlier served 

as chief technologist for the development and demonstration team for Precept, GM’s 

80 mile-per-gallon 5-passenger HEV concept vehicle. 

She has also been responsible for global climate issues and for mobile emission issues 

involving advanced technology vehicles. Her early research interests included air 

quality, and manufacturing & vehicle emissions. Dr. Sloane has authored over 80 

technical papers and co- edited one book. She has served on several boards of 

professional organizations and numerous National Academy of Science panels and 

study groups. She received her PhD from MIT in chemical physics.

Roger Smith

Technical Director Compressed Gas Association

Roger Smith is Technical Director for the Compressed Gas Association (CGA) and 

has served in that position for 13 years. Prior to joining CGA, Smith spent 25 years in 

the industrial and medical gas industry in operations. Industry experience includes the 

management of single and multi-site manufacturing operations, facility engineering, 

quality assurance, transportation, purchasing and research and development. 

Smith joined CGA in April 1996 as Technical Director and is responsible for directing 

the technical operations of the Association and also reviews and approves all technical 

documents produced by the Association. 

In addition to his duties as Technical Director, Smith is responsible for CGA’s 

international activities at the United Nations and the International Organization for 

Standardization (ISO). He is Chairman of ISO/TC 58/SC 4 which develops and 

manages the standards for operational requirements for gas cylinders. 

Smith has a B.S. in Chemistry from Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
121

Biographies (in alphabetical order):

E. Michael Steele 

E. Michael Steele has been involved in the development of both electric- and 

hydrogen-vehicle/infrastructure related Codes and Standards for General Motors for 

the last 10 years. Steele is currently Chair of the SAE Fuel Cell Standards Committee 

responsible for developing vehicle-centric engineering Standards. He is a Principal 

member of two NFPA Code Panels (2 and 52) as well as an active member of 

numerous ISO TC 197 and TC22SC21 working groups. Steele also participates in 

several CSA America technical working groups striving to complete a comprehensive 

set of hydrogen Standards that will greatly assist in the international 

commercialization of hydrogen-based transportation systems. 
122

APPENDIX II

Evaluation of Codes and Standards for Electric and Plug-In Vehicles

(an independent assessment)

(used with permission)
123

Evaluation of Codes and 

Standards for Electric and

Plug-In Vehicles

Presented to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

(NREL)

By Mark Kosowski

September 2, 2009
124

Contents

Report Summary ............................................................................................................. 126

SAE J-1634: Electric Vehicle Energy Consumption and Range Test ........................... 127

SAE J-1711: Recommended Practice for Measuring the Exhaust Emissions and Fuel 

economy of Hybrid-Electric Vehicles ............................................................................ 128

SAE J-1715: Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) and Electric Vehicle (EV) Terminology

......................................................................................................................................... 131

SAE J-1766: Recommended Practice for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Battery 

Systems Crash Integrity Testing ..................................................................................... 132

SAE J-1772: SAE Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler.................................. 134

SAE J-1773: SAE Electric Vehicle Inductively-Coupled Charging............................. 137

SAE J-1797: Recommended Practice for Packaging of Electric Vehicle Battery Modules

......................................................................................................................................... 139

SAE J-1798: Recommended Practice for Performance Rating of Electric Vehicle Battery 

Modules........................................................................................................................... 141

SAE J-1850: Class B Data Communications Network Interface................................... 143

SAE J-2288: Life Cycle Testing of Electric Vehicle Battery Modules......................... 144

SAE J-2289: Electric-Drive Battery Pack System: Functional Guidelines................... 145

SAE J-2293 Part 1: Energy Transfer System for EV Part 1: Functional Requirements and 

System Architecture........................................................................................................ 146

SAE J-2293 Part 2: Energy Transfer System for EV Part 2: Communications 

Requirements and Network Architecture........................................................................ 149

SAE J-2344: Guidelines for Electric Vehicle Safety..................................................... 150

SAE J-2380: Vibration Testing of Electric Vehicle Batteries....................................... 153

SAE J-2464: Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Rechargeable Energy Storage System 

(RESS) Safety and Abuse Testing .................................................................................. 154

SAE J-2711: Recommended Practice for Measuring Fuel Economy and Emissions of 

Hybrid-Electric and Conventional Heavy Duty Vehicles............................................... 158

SAE J-2758: Determination of the Maximum Available Power from a Rechargeable 

Energy Storage System on a Hybrid Electric Vehicle .................................................... 159

SAE J-2836 Part 1: Use Cases for Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the 

Utility Grid...................................................................................................................... 160

SAE J-2836 Part 2: Use Cases for Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the 

Supply Equipment (EVSE)............................................................................................. 161

SAE J-2836 part 3: Use Cases for Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the 

Utility grid for Reverse Flow.......................................................................................... 162

SAE J-2841: Utility Factor Definitions for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using 2001 

U.S. DOT National Household Travel Survey Data....................................................... 163

SAE J-2847 Part 1: Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the Utility Grid . 165

SAE J-2847 Part 2: Communication between Plug-in Vehicles and the Supply 

Equipment (EVSE) ......................................................................................................... 166

SAE J-2847 Part 3: Communication between Plug-in Vehicles and the Utility Grid for 

Reverse Power Flow ....................................................................................................... 167
125

SAE J-2889: Measurement of Minimum Sound Levels of Passenger Vehicles............. 168

SAE J-2894 Part 1: Power Quality Requirements for Plug-In Vehicle Chargers -

Requirements .................................................................................................................. 169

SAE J-2894 Part 2: Power Quality Requirements for Plug-In Vehicle Chargers - Test 

Methods........................................................................................................................... 170

SAE J-2907: Power Rating Method for Automotive Electric Propulsion Motor and 

Power Electronics Sub-System....................................................................................... 171

SAE J-2908: Power Rating Method for Hybrid-Electric and Battery Electric Vehicle 

Propulsion ....................................................................................................................... 172

ISO/FDIS 6469-1:2009(E): "Electrically propelled road vehicles - Safety specification -

Part 1: On-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)".................................... 173

ISO/FDIS 6469-2:2009(E): "Electrically propelled road vehicles - Safety specification -

Part 2: Vehicle Operational Safety Means and Protection against Failures"................. 174

ISO/CD 6469-3.3: "Electrically propelled road vehicles - Safety specification - Part 3: 

Protection of persons against electric shock" ................................................................. 175

ISO/CD 12405-1: "Electrically propelled road vehicles - Test specification for lithiumion traction battery packs and systems - Part 1 "High power applications" ................... 176

ISO/WD 23274-2: "Hybrid-electric road vehicles - Exhaust emissions and fuel 

consumption measurements - Part 2: Externally chargeable vehicles" ......................... 177

ISO XXX "Terminology Technical Report".................................................................. 178

National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) NFPA 70 National Electrical Code (NEC) 

Article 625: Electric Vehicle Charging System Equipment .......................................... 179

National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) NFPA 70 National Electrical Code (NEC) 

Article 626: Electrified Truck Parking Spaces .............................................................. 181
126

Report Summary

This report evaluates 38 standards or articles pertaining to electric or plug-in 

hybrid vehicles from Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), International 

Standards Organization (ISO), and the National Electrical Code (NEC). These

standards were selected due to the plug-in and electric vehicle nature of them. 

The standards include battery topics, charging and interface topics, hybrid and 

electric terminology, fuel economy and exhaust emissions for plug-in hybrids and 

electric vehicles, electric vehicle safety, fuel economy utility factor definitions, 

power quality for chargers, power ratings for motors and electronics, power 

ratings for batteries. Other generic standards, some referenced in these 

documents, were not evaluated in this report (i.e., general fuel economy, 

electromagnetic compatibility).

Each evaluation is formatted with the title, status, overview, analysis, and 

location of the document. The status contains the date of the last publication 

along with the length of the document with the number of pages. The overview is 

a short synopsis of the document; if more detail is required the document should 

be referenced. The analysis provides the author’s remarks and gap analysis of 

the document. If the document is a Work In Progress (WIP), the changes are 

listed here. Finally, the website location of the document is listed, if applicable. 

This report is assembled for the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 

Carl Rivkin is the technical monitor. This “Evaluation of Codes and Standards for 

Electric and Plug-In Vehicles” is performed and written by Mark Kosowski, 

Consultant under Purchase Order #191730 on September 2, 2009. 
127

SAE J-1634: Electric Vehicle Energy 

Consumption and Range Test

Status:

Cancelled: October 2002

Issued: October 2002

Overview:

This Recommended Practice established uniform procedures for testing electric 

battery-powered vehicles which are capable of being operated on public and 

private roads. The procedure was only for electric vehicles.

This document was under the auspices of the Light Duty Vehicle Performance 

and Economy Measure Committee

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/productDetail?PROD_TYP=STD&PROD_CD=J1634

&HIER_CD=TEVLDVPM&WIP_SW=YES
128

SAE J-1711: Recommended Practice for 

Measuring the Exhaust Emissions and Fuel 

economy of Hybrid-Electric Vehicles

Status:

WIP official ballot in August 2009

Issued March 1999 (Original) and 69 pages in length

Overview:

This overview is an overview of the March 1999 document. The Analysis 

section indicates the major differences between the original document and 

the WIP document. 

This Recommended Practice establishes uniform chassis dynamometer test 

procedures for hybrid-electric vehicles that are designed to be driven on public 

roads. The procedure provides instructions for measuring exhaust emissions and 

fuel economy of HEVs driven on the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule 

(UDDS) and fuel economy on the Highway Fuel Economy Schedule (HFEDS), as 

well as exhaust emissions on the US06 Schedule and the SC03 Schedule.

This document consists of three basic steps: 1. Classifying the hybrid-electric 

vehicle and 2. Testing the vehicle in each driver-selected operating mode, and 3. 

Weighting the results.

1. It is first required that vehicle be classified as a “Off-Vehicle Charge” or 

“Not Off-Vehicle Charge”. Then the type of Rechargeable energy storage 

is required to be determined (battery, capacitor, flywheel...).

2. Testing the vehicle next as a Conventional Vehicle (CV), Hybrid-Electric 

vehicle (HEV), or Electric Vehicle (EV)

3. Finally, the results of the tests are weighted to account for the driver’s 

charging habits, usage of various selected operating modes, and other 

factors as applicable.

Test procedures are defined.

1. Test conditions are defined including Vehicle Conditions, Dynamometer 

Conditions, and Rechargeable Energy Storage System Conditions.

2. Test Instrumentation is defined including Amp-hour meters.

3. Exhaust Emissions and Fuel Economy Tests

a. Partial-Charge Test for HEV (PCT-HEV)
129

b. Full-Charge Test for HEV (FCT-HEV)

c. Partial-Charge Test for CV (PCT-CV)

d. Full-Charge test for EV (FCT-EV)

4. Calculations with weighting factors are defined for Emissions and Fuel 

Economy for many combinations of hybrids and EVs.

a. Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS)

b. Highway Fuel Economy Driving Schedule (HFEDS)

c. US06 Driving Schedule (US06)

d. SC03 Driving Schedule (SC03)

e. The Utility Factor is defined as a function of distance driven in all 

electric mode.

Analysis:

The 1999 version of this document is defined above and is presently being 

updated. The document balloting is occurring in August 2009. 

The new document has many improvements over the original document. The 

original document only provided a single fuel economy datum and ignored the 

usage of electric power from the wall. The new edition will suggest using two 

data points for fuel economy, one is fuel economy for the liquid fuel (like the 

original) and the other point will be the electric fuel consumption from the wall 

including charger efficiency. This provides a complete status of the energy use 

for the customer. However, work needed to be complete that indicated how to 

measure the electrical energy. 

The original document provided a Utility Factor but only a single factor that was 

used for the UDDS and the HFEDS. SAE J-2841 Utility Factor Definitions for 

Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using 2001 U.S. DOT National Household Travel 

Survey Data defines a new Utility Factor which was based from the same initial 

data only the data was sorted into urban usage and highway usage.

The original document made the assumption that the vehicle was only charged 

every other day. The new document now assumes the vehicle is charged daily. 

The frequency of charging was increased. 

The committee is still working an issue for the charge balancing. The committee 

plans on proceeding with an informal ballot in early October 2009. The document 

is expected to be complete and balloted by the end of 2009.
130

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J1711_199903&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
131

SAE J-1715: Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) 

and Electric Vehicle (EV) Terminology

Status:

WIP in progress August 2009

Revised: February 2008 and 22 pages in length

Issued: April 1994 (Original)

Overview:

This Information Report is an on-going effort to provide the technical community 

with the terminology used most frequently in the industry. This document 

contains definitions for Hybrid Electric and Electric Vehicles. It is intended to be a 

resource for other documents, specifications, and standards.

The document is divided into three main sections, Electric Vehicles, Hybrid 

Electric Vehicles, and Functional Architecture Diagrams. The Electric Vehicle 

section has 145 definitions. There are definitions for batteries, battery 

parameters, efficiency, throughput, and many more. 

The Hybrid Electric Vehicle section includes hybrid definitions. This section has 

18 definitions including Parallel Hybrid, Series Hybrid, and Vehicle to Grid 

Connection (V2G). 

The third major section is the Functional Architecture Diagrams. This section 

shows many different architectures and how they are defined. Schematics and 

Definitions for Power-split with single mode and 2-mode are provided. The 

difference between parallel and series hybrids are shown. The use of clutches is 

shown with different schematics.

Analysis:

The original document was mainly contented with Electric Vehicles. Overtime 

technologies improve and are modified; the most recent update includes those 

changes and many hybrid definitions and hybrid schematics.

Presently, there is a group updating the document, particularly for harmonization 

with the new J-1772 Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler and the 

Range-Extended Electric Vehicle (REEV) nomenclature. 

The new document should be completed and balloted in the fall of 2009.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J1715_200802&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
132

SAE J-1766: Recommended Practice for 

Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Battery 

Systems Crash Integrity Testing

Status:

Revised: April 2005 and 16 pages in length

Issued: February 1996

Overview:

This Recommended Practice describes methods for evaluating the vehicle high 

voltage system performance when subjected to various FMVSS crash 

procedures. It addresses the following subjects: battery retention, electrical 

isolation, and electrolyte spillage. It is intended to provide designers with 

standard tests and performance criteria for electric, fuel cell, and hybrid vehicles. 

It is pertinent for any vehicle that has a high voltage potential.

The standard discusses adequate barriers between occupants and the high 

voltage systems are necessary. These barriers provide protection from harmful 

electric current within the high voltage system that can cause injury to occupants 

during a crash event.

The rationalization is made up of four items- Time, Voltage, Isolation, and 

Energy. If three of these are low, then the fourth can be quite high and not result 

in a hazard. Body Current diagrams are shown in regards to energy, time, and 

voltage, thus showing the potential hazardous limits.

This Recommended Practice addresses the technical requirements for the 

procedures:

Energy Storage Preparation

Static Rollover Procedure

Crash Test Procedures

Performance Criteria are defined:

Electrolyte Spillage

Energy Storage System Retention

Electrical Limits

Voltage Limits

Isolation Limits 

Energy Limits

Appendix A of the Recommended Practice contains the procedure for the 

measurement of the electrical isolation

Analysis:

This Recommended Practice encourages experienced users and testers of such 

systems to write comments and/ or suggestions to SAE.
133

The paper describes the procedure but does not expound on the theory of why 

the procedures work. This is not necessary.

The standard presents very good design guidelines for isolation safety. 

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/technical/standards/J1766_200504
134

SAE J-1772: SAE Electric Vehicle 

Conductive Charge Coupler

Status:

WIP August 2009 (To be balloted in September if passed should be published in 

early fall 2009)

Revised: November 2001 and 32 pages in length

Issued: October 1996 (Original)

Overview:

This overview is an overview of the November 2001 document. The 

Analysis section indicates the major differences between the original 

document and the WIP document. 

This document describes the functional and performance requirements for proper 

operation and the physical interface for a conductive charging system. This 

Recommended Practice is intended as a guide toward standard practice and is 

subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances.

This document covers the physical, electrical, and performance requirements for 

the electric vehicle conductive charge system and coupler for use in North 

America. 

The General Conductive Charging System descriptions includes three 

functions- 1) Convert AC Power to DC (rectification), 2) Control the Supply 

Voltage, and 3) Physical Coupling of the EV to the Electric Vehicle Supply 

Equipment (EVSE). This conductive system architecture is suitable for the 

electrical ratings shown below.

Charging Method is described as the interface from the vehicle to the coupler. 

Charge 

Method

Nominal Supply 

Voltage

Max 

Current

Branch Circuit 

Breaker 

Rating

Charger 

Location

AC Level 1 120 V AC, 1 phase 12 A 15 A Min On-Board Vehicle

AC Level 2 208 to 240 V AC, 1 Phase 32A 40 A On-Board Vehicle

DC Charging 600 V DC Max 400 A Max As Required Off-Board Vehicle

Interface Functions are defined. There are 9 interface connections to be made 

including AC Power (L1), AC Power (L2), DC Power Positive, DC Power 

Negative, Equipment Ground, Control Pilot, Data Positive, Data negative, and 

Data ground. Schematics are assigned for AC Level 1 and Level 2 Charging and 

DC Charging.

Control and Data are defined. The Control Pilot Circuit is shown with all its 

components. The Control Pilot functions are defined. Proximity detection is 
135

shown and the Serial Data transfer specifications are shown. The EVSE current 

capacity versus control pilot pulse width is shown. Typical start-up sequencing is 

provided. 

General EV requirements are stated and defined. These include electromagnetic 

compatibility, electromagnetic emissions, electromagnetic immunity, electrostatic 

discharge, and environmental.

General EVSE requirements are provided. These include installation 

requirements, product standards, personnel protection systems, conductor cord 

requirements, coupler requirements, and electromagnetic compatibility. 

Coupler requirements are also provided. These include vehicle inlet and coupler 

compatibility, ergonomic requirements, safety requirements, performance 

requirements, environmental requirements, general coupler physical description, 

dimensional requirements.

Analysis:

• The latest copy of the Work-in-Progress is August, 2009

• The document should go to ballot in early September, 2009

• The published date should be in the early fall of 2009

• The primary changes to the latest document are:

o The physical design is now a pin and sleeve configuration and not a 

butt contact

o The control pilot now has been changed to a maximum of 80A up 

from 40A

o The proximity sense now a 5V reference for OBD II diagnostics

o EMC requirements have been updated

o The original butt contact requirements have been placed into an 

appendix.

o The EVSE current capacity versus control pilot pulse width function 

has changed from the original document. 

o Communications signals and terminals for the J-1850 Practice have 

been eliminated from the connector which obsoletes J-1850.

• Several manufacturers are or will be capable of making compatible hardware 

including Yazaki, Lear, and Amphenol.
136

• The IEC has a small issue with the document. The IEC would like to see a 

latching mechanism that is controlled by the vehicle side. This is different than 

this document which allows for a latching mechanism on the EVSE side. 

Wording for harmonization later will be added to this document to get around 

the issue now.

• The original butt and contact coupler had 9 pins, the new pin and sleeve 

coupler only required 5 pins.

• Level 3 DC standards committee is just beginning to meet. The Level 3 

Specification will be added to the J-1772 Recommended Practice at a later 

date. The chargers for level 3 are now being bench marked to fully 

understand the hardware so that harmony can be reached. A face-to-face 

meeting is planned for October 2009 to first define the system and then define 

the connection.

• The new coupler is not compatible with Level 3 DC connector like the 

original coupler was. Therefore, an application which will use both high power 

charging and lower power charging will require to have at least two 

connections, a Level 1,2 connector and a level 3 connector, on the vehicle. 

Document Location:

The 2001 document is located:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J1772_200111&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
137

SAE J-1773: SAE Electric Vehicle 

Inductively-Coupled Charging

Status:

Reaffirmed: May 2009 and 35 pages in length

Reissued: November 1999

Issued: January 1995

Overview:

This document establishes the minimum interface compatibility requirements for 

electric vehicle inductively-coupled charging for North America. The first part of 

this document is the specification for manually-connected inductive charging for 

levels 1 and 2 power transfer. Appendix B has the requirements for Level 3 (high 

power) Inductive Charging. Appendix A contains the recommended software 

interface messaging requirements. This document is an alternative charging 

method to the Conductive Charge Coupler (SAE-J1772). 

An inductive charging system interfaces to the vehicle as a primary coil of a 

transformer. Most of the charging system is off-board the vehicle. Only the 

second half of the transformer and the rectifiers are on-board the vehicle. The 

charger transforms wall power into a frequency-controlled current. This 

frequency-controlled current is fed into the inductive coupler (primary coil of the 

transformer). When the coupler is placed into the transformer on the vehicle and 

the charging is enabled, the current is passed through the coupler into the 

transformer and then rectified into the on-board battery.

There is communications passed to and from charger and the vehicle via a 

J1850 standard.

This document expresses the minimum interfaces needed for the system 

including Power Transfer, Heat Transfer, Communications, Physical 

Compatibility, and Electromagnetic Emissions. Application requirements are 

discussed including Environmental, Charger and Vehicle Requirements.

The second document in 1999 improved on the original by including a second 

smaller interface. The smaller interface, however, does not comprehend the use 

of the Level 3 coupler which requires a larger envelope like the original coupler. 

The latest document just reaffirmed the same as the 1999 document.

Analysis:

The Inductive method is shown in this document places the charger off the 

vehicle for all power levels above 1.0kW charging. Locating the charger off the 

vehicle allows the vehicle more packaging space for other considerations. The 

vehicle is only required to have a partial transformer, rectifiers and filter. 

However, if the charger is not on the vehicle, then it is considered to be part of 

the infrastructure. 
138

The Conductive method (J-1772) places the charger always on the vehicle. With 

the charger on the vehicle, the vehicle manufacturer needs to make space for the 

charger. With Level 2 and beyond charging, the conductive method also requires 

a control box (EVSE) off the vehicle. This EVSE is part of the infrastructure. If the 

EVSE is a part of the infrastructure, then the charger should also be a part of the 

EVSE. 

Unfortunately, the conductive method has won out in the market place, even 

though the inductive architecture is a far superior technology and architecture. 

The inductive has a common interface for all levels of charging, whereas the 

conductive will require two different interfaces on the vehicle for level 2 and level 

3 charging.

The inductive document has recently been reaffirmed but virtually is obsolete 

since the market is not pulling the inductive method and no one is pushing it 

either.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/productDetail?PROD_TYP=STD&PROD_CD=J1773

_200905
139

SAE J-1797: Recommended Practice for 

Packaging of Electric Vehicle Battery 

Modules

Status:

Reaffirmed: June 2008 and 23 pages in length

Issued: January 1997 (Original)

Overview:

This Recommended Practice was established to define a standardized method 

for packaging secondary battery modules for Electric Vehicles. Some of the 

incentives of this effort include component safety, compatibility, availability, and 

economics. 

A procedure is included for acceptance of New SAE EV batteries.

Presently the procedure outlines the standard for the following:

• Product Description

o Three different aqueous batteries- Lead Acid, NiCd, and NiMH

o A single voltage level of nominal voltage of 12V

o Packaging envelops for four different modules including terminal 

dimensions and locations

o Capacity

o Mass

• Systems Interfaces

o Mechanical interfaces including module retention features

o High Power Connection requirements

o Dielectrics

o Vented Emissions Interface including Flame arrestor and gaseous 

venting requirements

o High Power Electrical Interfaces

• Physical Pick-up Features Interface
140

• Monitoring/ Control Interfaces including Voltage, Temperature, Thermal 

Management

• Marking and Label

o Safety

o Polarity

• Information

o Battery Module Designation

o Performance ratings

o Type of Electrochemistry

o Recycling

o Manufacturer’s Information

o Country of Origin

Analysis:

One of the key purposes for the standard was to create a standard module for an 

Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM). A common physical shape assists the 

OEM so that it could easily replace a technology anytime now and into the future 

and not need extreme changes to the vehicle. 

This procedure only includes commercially available aqueous batteries including 

Lead Acid, Nickel Cadmium, and Nickel Metal Hydride. The standard needs to be 

updated with new technologies such as LiIon and Sodium batteries. Presently, 

there is no action being taken to improve or include Lithium batteries in the 

document.

In the past, OEMs would meet together to understand and have consensus on 

battery requirements. Presently, much independent work is being completed but 

without harmony. 

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J1797_200806&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
141

SAE J-1798: Recommended Practice for 

Performance Rating of Electric Vehicle 

Battery Modules

Status:

Reaffirmed: July 2008 and 16 pages in length

Issued: January 1997 (Original)

Overview:

This Recommend Practice provides direction for standardization of methods and 

techniques to verify and determine performance characteristics of the standard 

EV battery modules. It provides industry the opportunity to establish and maintain 

performance standards to meet vehicle requirements. 

The procedures in this standard are for battery modules and not battery packs. 

Six different test procedures to determine performance are compiled. These test 

procedures and protocol are a Static Capacity Test with the Constant Current 

Method, a Static Capacity Test with the Constant Power Method, Charge 

Retention, Charge Acceptance, Peak Power Capability Test, and Dynamic 

Capacity Test. The test temperature will be performed at only one temperature 

25 °C. 

The Static Capacity Test with the Constant Current Method is to establish the 

Ampere-hour and energy capacity at various discharge rates and temperatures 

as appropriate to establish vehicle application usage. The test sequence is 

defined.

The Static Capacity Test with the Constant Power Method is similar to the

Constant Current method except Constant Power is used. The test sequence is 

defined.

The Charge Retention Test is to determine the storage characteristics of a 

module after charge. The procedure is defined.

The Charge Acceptance Test determines how readily the module will accept 

charge at various temperatures. This is a complete charge test. The procedure is 

defined. 

The Peak Power Capability Test determines the ability of the module to deliver 

sustained power for 30 seconds over its useable discharge capacity. The test 

sequence is defined along with the calculations for Base Discharge Current.

The Dynamic Capacity Test is intended to measure the capacity of a module 

under dynamic discharge conditions. The dynamic cycle is scaled to a fraction of 
142

the rated power for the module to be tested. The USABC Dynamic Stress Test 

(DST) is used for some chemistries but in fact is a different test.

Analysis:

These procedures are done well with good reasoning and helps establish 

common procedures for the industry to use. However, the document falls short 

since it does not address the temperature testing needs. Batteries can be very 

sensitive to temperature variations. Some batteries are more tolerant of 

temperature sensitivities than others. Procedures need to be developed for 

temperature sensitivities so that application owners can compare technologies or 

chemistries to make better decisions.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J1798_200807&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
143

SAE J-1850: Class B Data Communications 

Network Interface

Status:

Reaffirmed: June 2006 and 46 pages in length

Reaffirmed: May 2001

Issued: November 1988 (Original) 

Overview:

This SAE Standard establishes the requirements for Class B Data 

Communications Network Interface applicable to all on-road and off-road landbased vehicles. It defines a minimum set of data communications requirements 

such that the resulting network is cost effective for simple applications and 

flexible enough to use in complex applications.

Analysis:

This document has had several updates. The document has complied with the 

SAE 5-Year Review policy. The document is deemed to be obsolete now that 

the J-1772 Recommended Practice no longer has J1850 terminals within the 

connector. 

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/technical/standards/J1850_200606
144

SAE J-2288: Life Cycle Testing of Electric 

Vehicle Battery Modules

Status:

Reaffirmed: June 2008 and 5 pages in length

Issued: January 1997 (Original)

Overview:

This Recommended Practice was established to define a standardized method to 

determine the expected service life cycles of electric vehicle battery modules. 

The method does not include any accelerated life testing. The standard sets up 

the test conditions for test including temperature, temperature sensing, data 

recording and frequency. The procedure is identified with initial reference tests, 

the Dynamic Capacity Test from SAE J-1798 and its constraints. Finally, it 

describes the end of life conditions which may include the measured capacity to 

be less than 80% of the rated capacity, the peak-power capability is than 80% of 

its rated value at 20% State of Charge. 

Analysis:

This standard has recently been reaffirmed. It does establish a standard for 

manufacturers of modules to test for comparison to other modules to be similar 

or not. The procedure does not include temperature variation in the modules. The 

temperature variation in the modules typically is life reducing. Temperature 

testing is a very important characteristic that should be addressed.

This approach is considered appropriate for a mature design or production 

battery. This procedure is functional identical to the USABC Baseline Life Cycle 

Test Procedure.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J2288_200806&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
145

SAE J-2289: Electric-Drive Battery Pack 

System: Functional Guidelines

Status:

Revised: July 2008 and 14 pages in length

Issued: November 2000 (Original)

Overview:

This document provides guidance in designing battery systems for Electric and 

Hybrid Vehicles. It describes common practices for the Energy Storage Systems 

(ESS). The paper is divided into four major groups as physical requirements, 

electrical requirements, environmental requirements, and marking and labels.

Physical Requirements include mechanical retention, installation/removal for 

service, clearance, and durability requirements. 

Electrical Requirements include operational modes, electrical ratings, EMI/RFC 

Emissions and Susceptibility, high power connection requirements, electrical 

isolation, monitoring/control interfaces, diagnostics and service.

Environmental Requirements include environmental range, hazardous physical 

emissions, and gaseous emissions management.

Markings and Labeling includes recycling, storage, and shipment.

Analysis:

This publication provides practical requirements for making battery packs safe as 

well as robust to the environment. It should be used for reference of Battery Pack 

or ESS requirements.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J2289_200807&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
146

SAE J-2293 Part 1: Energy Transfer System 

for EV Part 1: Functional Requirements and 

System Architecture

Status:

Reaffirmed: July 2008 and 84 pages in length

Issued: March 1997 (Original)

Overview:

This Recommended Practice has been updated and refers to both the 

Conductive charging Standard (J-1772) and the Inductive Charging Standard (J1773). This is also the first part of two parts. The other part is Energy Transfer 

System for EV Part 2: Communications Requirements and Network Architecture

(J-2293 Part 2).

When an EV and an EVSE are coupled, energy and information is exchanged. J2293-1 describes the overall information and energy exchange that occurs. J2293-2 describes the requirements for exchanging data between an EV and 

EVSE via J-1850.

This document consists of two parts, as shown in the figure below from the 

document. J-2293-1 is published separately from J-2293-2. They are divided up 

as shown in this figure. J-2293-1 describes the total EV-ETS and allocates 

requirements to the EV and EVSE for the different system architectures. J-2293-

2 describes the communications network between the EV and the EVSE for the 

ETS Network. It treats the network as a system from part 1 as external elements 

using the network.

The figure below describes the document interrelationship as shown in the 

document. J1850, J1772, and J1773 as well as J2293 are all important 

documents to ensure that it is possible to have an EV and EVSE system support 

more than one architecture. 
147

J-2293-1 defines three different Energy Transfer Systems (ETS). J-2293-1 

defines the information that passed between EV and EVSE. The architectures 

require different information. Three variations of system architectures shall be 

referenced by the following:

Type A - Conductive AC System Architecture

Type B - Inductive System Architecture

Type C - Conductive DC System Architecture

The EV Energy Transfer system (ETS) converts AC electrical energy from the 

utility grid in DC electrical energy for storage in the EV storage battery. The 

system includes functionality that will be implemented both on-board the EV as 

well off-boards as a part of the EVSE. The system will not have physical 

partitioning of the components. It will be described as groups of functions that are 

implemented as either a part of the EV or the EVSE. The functional groups are 

shown int the above diagram. Three different architectures will be used as 

described above.
148

The document defines the following:

• All the external interfaces are defined.

• Functional Content and Constraints are provided.

• Physical Content and Constraints are provided.

• Functional System Requirements are described.

o Switch and Convert Electrical Energy

o Determine Ready to Transfer Electrical Energy

o Control Transfer of Electrical Energy

• System Architecture

o Requirements Allocation for Functional Groups 1, 2, 3, and 4

o Architecture Variations- Type A, Type B and Type C

Analysis:

The procedures in this standard have been updated to keep this Practice 

updated. A new practice (J-2847 Part 1) is being assembled to replace this J2293 in the longer term.

The Task Force is now updating this Practice with another Recommended 

Practice (J-2847 Parts 1, 2, and 3). This new practice includes the following: the 

desire for bi-directional communications to the grid, updating the medium 

communications to Power Line Communications (PLC) or wireless, and 

conforming to the new, updated Conductive Charging Practice (J-1772). Also 

new EV architectures are being considered such as Plug-In Hybrids.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J2293/1_200807&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
149

SAE J-2293 Part 2: Energy Transfer System 

for EV Part 2: Communications

Requirements and Network Architecture

Status:

Reaffirmed: July 2008 and 196 pages in length

Issued: May 1997 (Original)

Overview:

Refer to the overview of the J-2293-1 for the general overview.

J-2293-2 defines the requirements for a common set of methods to exchange 

information between EV and EVSE independent of the architecture. It defines the 

relationship between the data flows defined J-2293-1 and the messages that 

communicate those data flows.

To allow maximum flexibility in the use of this network and it communications, 

this document supports “Open Architecture.” This used to describe a set of goals 

to enable future expansion of the network.

Four key areas are addressed System Definition and Context, Functional 

Requirements, System Architecture, and Validation. Each of these sections is 

detailed for the system.

Analysis:

The procedures in this standard have been updated to keep this Practice 

updated. A new practice (J-2847 Part 2) is being assembled to replace this J2293 in the longer term. 

The Task Force is now updating this Practice with another Recommended 

Practice (J-2847 Parts 1, 2, and 3). This new practice includes the following: the 

desire for bi-directional communications to the grid, updating the medium 

communications to Power Line Communications (PLC) or wireless, and 

conforming to the new, updated Conductive Charging Practice (J-1772). Also 

new EV architectures are being considered such as Plug-In Hybrids.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J2293/2_200807&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
150

SAE J-2344: Guidelines for Electric Vehicle 

Safety

Status:

WIP official ballot in August 2009

Issued: June 1998 (Original) and 11 pages in length

Overview:

This SAE information report identifies and defines the preferred technical 

guidelines relating to safety for Electric vehicles during normal operation and 

charging. It will provide introductory safety guidelines that should be considered 

when designing electric vehicles for use on public roads.

The Technical Safety Guidelines addressed in this document are the following: 

EV Crashworthiness (refer to J1766), Single-Point Failure, Electrical Safety, Fault 

Monitoring, Hazardous Gas Leakage, Vehicle Immersion, Electromagnetic 

Compatibility, Safety Labeling, Mechanical Safety, and Battery State-of-Charge.

Each of these topics contains many subtopics in their categories. The Electrical 

Safety section contains paragraphs on Automatic Hazardous Voltage 

Disconnect, Manual Disconnects, and Interlocks.

Actual Changes to the new document are to:

1. Explicitly include HEV & other Plug-In Vehicles

2. Update terms (Traction Battery to RESS, etc)

3. Move the isolation requirements from the definition section (3.8) to the 

requirement section (4.3.1)

4. Update isolation requirement to include 100 ohms/volt to match J1766 and

J2578

5. Delete the monitoring criteria for HV isolation.

6. Delete the 500 ohms/volt for the DC bus during charging.

In the new document, the AC body current has not changed from the previous 

version (2 mA or 500 ohms/volt). However, the DC body current has changed 

from 2 mA to 10 mA (500 ohms/volt to 100 ohms/volt). Please reference the 

figures below from Rich Scholer.
151
152

Analysis:

The 1998 version of this document is presently being updated. The last 

comments are in for before balloting. The document balloting is occurring in 

August 2009 and should be published by the end of 2009. This document does a 

very good job of defining as well as setting guidelines for electric vehicle safety.

Document Location: 1998 Document

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J2344_199806&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
153

SAE J-2380: Vibration Testing of Electric 

Vehicle Batteries

Status:

Revised: March 2009 and 7 pages in length

Issued: January 1998 (Original)

Overview:

This Recommended Practice provides a test procedure for characterizing the 

effect of long-term, road-induced vibration and shock on the performance and 

service life of the electric vehicles batteries. The intent of the procedure is to 

qualify the vibration durability of a mature, production-ready battery. This test is 

designed for the vibration durability of a single battery (test unit) consisting of 

either an electric vehicle battery module or an electric vehicle battery pack.

This procedure provides the equipment needed to do the procedure including 

instrumentation. It also assists in the determination of Test Conditions and 

Criteria. Finally the test procedure is laid out with two or three axis vibration data. 

Tables are provided to program the shaker table.

Analysis:

This analysis and its procedure is a good starting point for battery modules and 

battery packs. However, each application of a battery is different than the one 

shown here. It is hard to believe that a battery module and a battery pack would 

see the same vibration. Yet, this specification indicates that the same vibration 

should be administered to module or the pack.

Also it is critical to know how the battery pack is mounted to the vehicle. It is 

possible to either hard-mount the pack to the vehicle or soft-mount it. Both these 

ways would provide different results.

In a similar way, how the battery module is mounted in the battery pack would 

allow a different vibration regime.

Vibration data for batteries and battery packs is different for every application. 

Understand this Recommended Practice, but do not take it specifically for any 

application.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J2380_200903&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
154

SAE J-2464: Electric and Hybrid Electric 

Vehicle Rechargeable Energy Storage 

System (RESS) Safety and Abuse Testing

Status:

WIP in progress August 2009

Issued: March 1999 (Original) and 15 pages in length

Overview:

The original title of this document was Electric Vehicle Battery Abuse Testing. It 

limited the scope to batteries only. The new version intends to improve and 

expand the scope of the original. The scope is expanded to other electric storage 

devices other than batteries. These devices include electrochemical capacitors, 

etc. It also includes new types of electrified vehicular designs.

The other goals of the new version make the test results more quantitative, 

incorporate improvements in test procedures and data analysis, harmonize 

wording with other test standards used today, and importantly, provide expert 

guidance to the automotive community on how and what abuse tests to perform 

on batteries for HEVs and EVs. 

This Recommended Practice is intended as a guide toward standard practice 

and is subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. 

This document is derived from a similar document developed by the United 

States Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC). 

These tests are intended to stimulate abuse conditions and potential internally 

initiated failures that may be experienced in electrochemical storage systems. 

The tests are derived from Failure Mode and Effect Analysis, user input, and 

historical abuse testing. Users of these technologies shall make their own 

determination as to what measures to take to ensure a sound application of the 

technology.

The tests are independent of the type of chemistries that are used.

The technical requirements are described. The General Test Guidelinessubjecting batteries to conditions outside their intended use can involve some 

risk of unintended failures. Included in the general test guidelines are Hazardous 

Substance Monitoring, Test conditions and measurement accuracies, and 

number, condition, and size of batteries to be tested. 

The Mechanical Abuse Tests are provided and include shock tests at the 

module or above level, drop tests for packs, penetration tests for cell level or 

above, roll-over tests for module level or above, immersion tests for module level 

or above, and crush tests for cell level or above.
155

The Thermal Abuse Tests are also considered. They include the radiant heat 

tests for the cell level or above, thermal stability test for the cell level or above, 

the compromise of thermal insulation for the module level or above, overheat/ 

thermal run away tests for module level or above, thermal shock cycling tests for 

the cell level or above, and the elevated temperature storage tests for the cell 

level or above. 

The Electrical Abuse Tests are defined. The abuse tests include short circuit 

tests, partial short circuit tests, overcharge tests, over discharge tests, and 

extreme cold tests. 

The following are added to the new document. 

Hazard Severity Level Scores will be assigned. Abuse testing is performed to 

characterize response of RESS to “off-normal” conditions. “Off-Normal 

Conditions” are designed to simulate actual use and abuse conditions, such as: 

1. operator negligence, 

2. vehicle accidents, 

3. device or system defects, 

4. poorly informed or trained users or mechanics, 

5. failure of specific RESS control and support hardware, or 

6. transportation / handling incidents or accidents. 

Likelihood Level Scale has been developed. It is rating of 1 to 10 where 10 is 

an extremely high hazard rate and 1 is a Very Low Hazard rate. The following 

space is defined in the practice. 

 
156

Hazardous Substance Monitoring is a new test for this new document. A 

complete set of analyses will be done at the cell level, with a recommended 

analysis of gases and vapors produced at the pack level as an adjunct to other 

tests. This eliminates the need for repeated Hazardous Substance Monitoring, 

which was required for many tests in the old version. Four types of tests are to be 

conducted:

1) Electrolyte vapor analysis.

2) RESS cell forced vent without thermal runaway.

3) RESS cell forced vent with thermal runaway.

4) Pack level hazardous substance monitoring will be performed in conjunction 

with one other pack level abuse tests during which combustion of the RESS 

cells and RESS pack materials is expected.

Pressure-Induced Internal Short-Circuit is another new test. The purpose of

this test is to measure the cell response to pressure-induced internal shorting 

between the cell electrodes. Internal shorting between electrodes is attempted to 

be induced by slowly increasing the pressure of a blunt-tipped cylindrical rod 

through deformation of the cell case without penetration. The deformation may 

continue until full penetration of the cell. 

• This test aims to determine the severity of the cell response to internal short 

circuit for different cell chemistries, components (such as separators) and cell 

designs. 

• This test should be performed at a constant, slow rate (not to exceed 1 

mm/sec) so that the cell skin temperature can respond to any internally 

induced shorts. A steel rod of 3 mm diameter with a round tip of radius 1.5 

mm will be used. 

Passive Propagation Resistance Test is another new test. This test evaluates 

the ability of a RESS to withstand a single cell thermal runaway event.

• The RESS is heated until the cells stabilize at 55°C or the maximum 

operating temperature, whichever is greater. 

• One cell within the RESS (repeated at the 5 locations described below) is 

uniformly heated in-situ in less than 5 minutes to a temperature of 400°C (or 

until the cell enters thermal runaway). 

– The geometric corner of the RESS Module or Pack.

– At the midpoint of an edge.

– At the center of one face.
157

– The interior of the RESS Module or Pack 1/4 the distance from the 

center of a face (B) to the opposite face. 

– The interior of the RESS Module or Pack 1/4 the distance from the 

center of a face (C) to the opposite face. 

Separator Shutdown Integrity Test is another new test. This test applies only 

to cells that have a shutdown separator. 

• Heat the cell to at least 5°C above the measured shutdown temperature. 

• Once this temperature has stabilized for 10 minutes, apply the high-level over 

voltage (at least 20V) with a current limit of less than 1C. 

• Maintain the applied voltage for a minimum of 30 minutes or until the 

separator fails. 

Analysis:

A great effort goes forward to ensure the test processes are sequenced correctly. 

The new version of the document is much simplified from the original. Affirmation 

occurred and passed in August 2009. Document is being reformatted for 

publication. The Motor Vehicle Council (MVC) approval is required. The 

document should be published by the end of 2009. 

The new document has been in committee since February 2007. In January 

2009, a revised draft was presented to the Hybrid Technical Committee. The 

committee has done an extensive job on improving the document. All the tests 

have been extensively reviewed by experts in the field.

The Hazardous Substance Monitoring test is a good test, but it is believed not to 

be required in a standard like this. The battery manufacturer should take the 

responsibility of doing the due diligence on the product.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J2464_199903&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
158

SAE J-2711: Recommended Practice for 

Measuring Fuel Economy and Emissions of 

Hybrid-Electric and Conventional Heavy Duty 

Vehicles

Status:

Issued: September 2002 and 68 pages in length

Overview:

This Recommended Practice was established to provide an accurate, uniform, 

and reproducible procedure for simulating use of heavy-duty hybrid-electric 

vehicles and conventional vehicles on chassis dynamometers for the purpose of 

measuring emissions and fuel economy. This Practice can use any schedule, but 

it does recommend three different schedules- the Manhattan schedule 

(representing a low speed transit bus operation), the Orange county schedule 

(representing intermediate speed bus operation), and the Urban Dynamometer 

Driving Schedule (UDDS) (representing high speed operations for buses and 

tractor trailers). This document builds upon SAE J1711, the light–duty HEV 

Chassis recommended practice. 

Calculation for Net Energy Change (NEC) is shown for batteries, capacitors, and 

flywheels. NEC Variance is determined. State of Charge (SOC) correction 

procedure is developed.

Analysis:

This publication was published in 2002 and needs to be updated. The SAE 

Hybrid Committee is not responsible for this document rather the Truck and Bus 

Committee is responsible.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/technical/standards/J2711_200209
159

SAE J-2758: Determination of the Maximum 

Available Power from a Rechargeable Energy 

Storage System on a Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Status:

Issued: April 2007 and 7 pages in length

Overview:

This document provides a method to determine the maximum power for a battery 

similar to defining maximum power for an engine. The Test Description includes 

the following: the tests to be performed, Battery Preparation, Static Capacity Test 

Procedure, Peak Power Test procedure, and the Calculations for Predicted Peak 

Power and Maximum Sustainable Current.

Analysis:

This publication provides a standard so that comparisons amongst battery 

systems can be completed in harmony.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J2758_200704&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
160

SAE J-2836 Part 1: Use Cases for 

Communications between Plug-In Vehicles 

and the Utility Grid

Status:

WIP in Progress April 2009

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Information Report establishes use cases for communications between pluin vehicles and the electric power grid for energy transfer and other applications. 

This report does not cover energy outgoing from the vehicle, but rather only 

incoming to the vehicle (Forward Power and not Reverse Power).

Each use case is described with the following components:

 Brief Written Description

 Scenario Mix

 Equipment Diagram

 Communication Path Diagram

 Activity Diagram

 Sequence Diagram

Equipment and Devices are described.

Three kinds of messages are described: Basic (required), Enhanced, and 

Optional.

Three applications are derived with the information shown above as follows:

 Cordset at Home

 EVSE Cord at Home

 EVSE with off-board charger at Home

Analysis:

The committee is working the latest copy of the document is a Work-in-Progress. 

The structure of the document looks complete, but the definitions are now being 

defined. Document should replace the J-2293 Recommended Practice when it is 

complete.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
161

SAE J-2836 Part 2: Use Cases for 

Communications between Plug-In Vehicles 

and the Supply Equipment (EVSE)

Status:

WIP in Progress February 2009

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Information Report establishes use cases for communications between 

plug-in vehicles and the Supply Equipment (EVSE) for energy transfer and other 

applications. This report does not cover energy outgoing from the vehicle, but 

rather only incoming to the vehicle (Forward Power and not Reverse Power).

Each use case is described with the following components:

1. Brief Written Description

2. Scenario Mix

3. Equipment Diagram

4. Communication Path Diagram

5. Activity Diagram

6. Sequence Diagram

7. Equipment and Devices are described

Analysis:

The committee is working the latest copy of the document is a Work-in-Progress. 

The structure of the document looks complete, but the definitions are now being 

defined. Requirements are all missing at this time. Document should replace the 

J-2293 Recommended Practice when it is complete.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
162

SAE J-2836 part 3: Use Cases for 

Communications between Plug-In Vehicles 

and the Utility grid for Reverse Flow

Status:

WIP in Progress February 2009

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Information Report establishes use cases for communications between 

plug-in vehicles and the Utility Grid for Reverse Flow for energy transfer and 

other applications. This report does not cover energy outgoing from the vehicle, 

but rather only incoming to the vehicle (Forward Power and not Reverse Power).

Each use case is described with the following components:

1. Brief Written Description

2. Scenario Mix

3. Equipment Diagram

4. Communication Path Diagram

5. Activity Diagram

6. Sequence Diagram

Analysis:

The committee is working the latest copy of the document is a Work-in-Progress. 

The structure of the document looks complete, but the definitions are now being 

defined. Requirements are all missing at this time. Document should replace the 

J-2293 Recommended Practice when it is complete.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
163

SAE J-2841: Utility Factor Definitions for 

Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using 2001 

U.S. DOT National Household Travel Survey 

Data

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: March 2009 and 15 pages in length

Overview:

This is a recent republication that defines the Utility Factor to be used for Fuel 

Consumption calculations for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles. The standard uses 

the 2001 United States DOT “National Household Travel Survey” as the basis for 

the analysis. Tables of the Utility Factors for the UDDS and the HWY are shown 

versus Charge Depletion Range. A set of coefficients are provided for an 

exponential equation. The data is the plot provided here from the document.

Analysis:

This new publication provides three Utility Factors (UF) instead of only one from 

the original publication. A UF is defined for the UDDS, the HWY, and the mean. 

The UF for the UDDS is now higher then prior and the HWY UF is lower than 

prior. This is definitely an improvement over the previous version in that the three 

UFs are independent and not lumped together. See the change shown below.

 

UDDS Mean HWFET

Amount Higher than original UF 

at 60 miles of range point 43% 19% -13%
164

This document was recently published but new Utility Factors are again 

emerging. Emeskay and Georgia Tech are using some Atlanta Real-Use data 

and establishing new individual UFs and not fleet UFs. This document again will 

be balloted and published by the end of 2009 with a new UF. 

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEVHYB&docID=

J2841_200903&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
165

SAE J-2847 Part 1: Communications 

between Plug-In Vehicles and the Utility Grid

Status:

WIP in Progress April 2009

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Recommended Practice establishes requirements and specifications for 

communications between plug-in electric vehicles and the utility grid for energy 

transfer and other applications. The purpose of the document is grid-optimized 

energy transfer for plug-in electric vehicles. It ensures that vehicle operators 

have sufficient energy for driving while enabling the delivery of that energy to the 

vehicles in ways that minimize stress upon the grid. 

This document supports AC or DC energy transfer. Part 2 supports the additional 

messages for DC energy transfer and replaces Energy Transfer System for EV 

Part 1: Functional Requirements and System Architecture (J-2293)

This document is being written to synchronize with the revised edition of SAE 

Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler (J-1772). 

This document does not support SAE Electric Vehicle Inductively-Coupled 

Charging (J-1773) or Energy Transfer System for EV Part 1: Functional 

Requirements and System Architecture (J-2293) since they are obsolete.

Technical Requirements:

The messages within this document apply when the customer enrollments in one 

or more of the following utility programs:

U1: Time-Of-Use rates /Tariffs /Programs (Loading Shifting)

U2: Direct Load Control Programs (Demand Response)

U3: Real Time Pricing (RTP: Load Shifting /Demand Response) (Active 

management)

U4: Critical Peak Pricing (CPP / Load Shifting /Demand Response)

U5: Optimized Energy Transfer Programs (Demand Response, Regulation 

Services, etc)

Equipment and Devices are documented and considers automotive modules

Communications messages are defined in detail. 

Analysis:

The latest copy of the Work-in-Progress is April 2009. The structure of the 

standard is available but the definitions need to be worked. It is too early to make 

a judgment on missing information. The targeted ballot time is November 2009.

Document Location: Not Applicable at this time
166

SAE J-2847 Part 2: Communication between 

Plug-in Vehicles and the Supply Equipment 

(EVSE)

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Recommended Practice establishes the communications structures 

between plug-in electric vehicles and the Supply Equipment for energy transfer 

and other applications. The purpose of the document is to support the use cases 

identified in J-2836-2 for DC energy flow to the plug-in vehicle. SAE J-2293 is 

used as the basis for this document.

Analysis:

The latest copy of the Work-in-Progress is April 2009. The structure of the 

standard is available. Presently there are no technical requirements defined in 

the document. It is too early to make a judgment on missing information. The 

committee is working hard to make sure the technical requirements will be 

suitable.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
167

SAE J-2847 Part 3: Communication between 

Plug-in Vehicles and the Utility Grid for 

Reverse Power Flow

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Recommended Practice establishes the communications structures 

between plug-in electric vehicles and the Supply Equipment for energy transfer 

and other applications for reverse flow. The purpose of the document is to 

support the use cases identified in J-2836-2 for DC energy flow to the plug-in 

vehicle. SAE J-2293 is used as the basis for this document.

Analysis:

The latest copy of the Work-in-Progress is February 2009. The structure of the 

standard is available. Presently there are no technical requirements defined in 

the document. It is too early to make a judgment on missing information. The 

committee is working hard to make sure the technical requirements will be 

suitable.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
168

SAE J-2889: Measurement of Minimum 

Sound Levels of Passenger Vehicles

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

There is a draft standard in process for a method to measure the minimum sound 

level of passenger vehicles. (At present there are procedures only for the 

maximum pass-by noise of vehicles.)

The actual minimum level required would presumably be set by regulators 

following the completion of studies by NHTSA, a period for notice of rulemaking, 

and imposition of rules. 

Analysis:

The new draft standard is owned by the Human Factors Committee, and will be 

cleared through the External Noise committee.

This method would be used to determine the sound levels required for the blind 

to hear an electric vehicle.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
169

SAE J-2894 Part 1: Power Quality 

Requirements for Plug-In Vehicle Chargers -

Requirements

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Recommended Practice is based off of an IWC/EPRI document for Power 

Quality. It enables vehicle manufacturers, charging equipment manufacturers 

and utilities to make reasonable design decisions regarding power quality.

Requirements will be described for the power quality of the charger. The 

standard will be in two parts- Part 1 is the requirements and Part 2 is the Test 

Procedure.

This Recommended Practice will include guidelines for:

Total Power Factor

Power Conversion Efficiency

Total Harmonic Current Distortion

Current Distortion at Each Harmonic Frequency

Plug in Electric Vehicle Charger Restart After Loss of AC Power Supply

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Voltage Range

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Voltage Swell

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Voltage Surge (Impulse)

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Voltage Sag

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Frequency Variations

In-Rush Current

Momentary Outage Ride-Through

Analysis:

A roster will be created and the standard work will begin. It is under the auspices 

of the Hybrid Committee. The committee expects to be balloted by the end of 

2009. This is good to have a common set of requirements for chargers since 

many different vehicles could be using the hardware. It is important the chargers 

and connections be compatible from all aspects.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?docID=J2894&inputPage=

wIpSdOcDeTaIlS&comtID=TEVHYB
170

SAE J-2894 Part 2: Power Quality 

Requirements for Plug-In Vehicle Chargers -

Test Methods

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Recommended Practice is based off of an IWC/EPRI document for power 

Quality. It enables vehicle manufacturers, charging equipment manufacturers 

and utilities to make reasonable design decisions regarding power quality.

Test methods will be described for the power quality of the charger. It will include 

guidelines for total power factor, power conversion efficiency, total harmonic 

current distortion, and current distortion at each harmonic frequency. The 

standard will be in two parts - Part 1 is the requirements and Part 2 is the Test 

Procedure.

This Recommended Practice will include guidelines for:

Total Power Factor

Power Conversion Efficiency

Total Harmonic Current Distortion

Current Distortion at Each Harmonic Frequency

Plug in Electric Vehicle Charger Restart After Loss of AC Power Supply

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Voltage Range

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Voltage Swell

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Voltage Surge (Impulse)

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Voltage Sag

Charger / Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment AC Input Frequency Variations

In-Rush Current

Momentary Outage Ride-Through

Analysis:

A roster will be created and the standard begins. It is under the auspices of the 

Hybrid Committee. This document will be published much later than the 1st part. 

The requirements need to be assigned before testing can be examined.

Document Location:

http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?docID=J2894/2&inputPag

e=wIpSdOcDeTaIlS&comtID=TEVHYB
171

SAE J-2907: Power Rating Method for

Automotive Electric Propulsion Motor and 

Power Electronics Sub-System

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Recommended Practice will describe power rating for automotive propulsion 

systems including the motors and inverters.

Analysis:

A roster will be created and the standard begins. It is under the auspices of the 

Hybrid Committee. A common power rating for comparison within the industry is 

important and this document will attempt to do that.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
172

SAE J-2908: Power Rating Method for 

Hybrid-Electric and Battery Electric Vehicle 

Propulsion

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Recommended Practice will describe power rating for automotive hybridelectric and electric vehicle propulsion

Analysis:

A roster will be created and the standard begins. It is under the auspices of the 

Hybrid Committee. A common power rating for comparison within the industry is 

important and this document will attempt to do that.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
173

ISO/FDIS 6469-1:2009(E): "Electrically 

propelled road vehicles - Safety specification 

- Part 1: On-board rechargeable energy 

storage system (RESS)"

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This part of ISO 6469 specifies requirements for the on-board rechargeable 

energy storage systems (RESS) of electrically propelled road vehicles, including 

BEV, FCV, and HEV, for the protection of persons inside and outside of the 

vehicle and the vehicle environment. Flywheels are not included in the scope of 

this standard.

It does not apply to RESS in motorcycles and vehicles not primarily intended as 

road vehicles such as material handling trucks or fork-lifts.

It applies only to RESS in on-board voltage class B (see Clause 3) electric 

circuits for vehicle propulsion.

It does not provide comprehensive safety information for manufacturing, 

maintenance and repair personnel.

Analysis:

The new draft standard is owned by the ISO Electric Road Vehicle subcommittee 

(ISO TC22/SC21). This document is in the publication stage and should be 

published in October 2009.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
174

ISO/FDIS 6469-2:2009(E): "Electrically 

propelled road vehicles - Safety specification 

- Part 2: Vehicle Operational Safety Means 

and Protection against Failures"

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This part of ISO 6469 specifies requirements for operational safety means and 

protection against failures related to hazards specific to electrically propelled 

road vehicles including BEV, FCV, and HEV, for the protection of persons inside 

and outside of the vehicle and the vehicle environment.

It does not apply to motorcycles and vehicles not primarily intended as road 

vehicles such as material handling trucks or fork-lifts.

Requirements related to ICE systems of HEV and not covered in this standard.

It applies only if the maximum working voltage of the on-board electrical 

propulsion system is lower than the upper voltage class B (see Clause 3) limit. 

It does not provide comprehensive safety information for manufacturing, 

maintenance and repair personnel.

Analysis:

The new draft standard is owned by the ISO Electric Road Vehicle subcommittee 

(ISO TC22/SC21). This document is in the publication stage and should be 

published in October 2009.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
175

ISO/CD 6469-3.3: "Electrically propelled road 

vehicles - Safety specification - Part 3: 

Protection of persons against electric shock"

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This part of ISO 6469 specifies requirements for the electric propulsion systems 

and conductively connected auxiliary systems, if any, of electrically propelled 

road vehicles for the protection of persons inside and outside the vehicle against 

electric shock.

It does not apply to motorcycles and vehicles not primarily intended as road 

vehicles such as material handling trucks or fork-lifts.

It applies only to on-board electric circuits with maximum working voltages 

according to voltage class B.

It does not provide comprehensive safety information for manufacturing, 

maintenance and repair personnel.

Requirements for the electric power supply interface conductively connected to 

the external power supply (grid) for charging the RESS are also specified in IEC 

61851-1 and IEC 61851-21.

Analysis:

The new draft standard is owned by the ISO Electric Road Vehicle subcommittee 

(ISO TC22/SC21). The document has been approved for DIS (draft international 

standard) ballot. 

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
176

ISO/CD 12405-1: "Electrically propelled road 

vehicles - Test specification for lithium-ion 

traction battery packs and systems - Part 1 

"High power applications"

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Standard specifies test procedures for lithium-ion battery packs and 

systems, to be used in electrically propelled road vehicles.

The specified test procedures shall enable the user of this standard to determine 

the essential characteristics of performance, reliability and abuse of lithium-ion 

battery packs and systems. The user shall also be supported to compare the test 

results achieved for different battery packs and systems. 

Therefore the objective of this standard is to specify standard test procedures for 

the basic characteristics on performance, reliability and abuse of lithium-ion 

battery packs and systems. 

This standard enables setting up a dedicated test plan for an individual battery 

pack or system subject to an agreement between customer and supplier. If 

required, the relevant test procedures and/or test conditions of lithium-ion battery 

packs and systems may be selected from the standard tests provided in this 

standard to configure a dedicated test plan.

Part 1 specifies the tests for high power battery packs and systems.

Analysis:

The new draft standard is owned by the ISO Electric Road Vehicle subcommittee 

(ISO TC22/SC21). This document has closed the committee ballot stage and 

comments are being reconciled. 

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
177

ISO/WD 23274-2: "Hybrid-electric road 

vehicles - Exhaust emissions and fuel 

consumption measurements - Part 2: 

Externally chargeable vehicles"

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This part of ISO 23274 specifies a chassis dynamometer test procedure to 

measure the exhaust emissions and the electric and fuel energy for the vehicles.

The vehicles specified in this part are hybrid-electric road vehicles (HEV) with an 

internal combustion engine (IEC) and the on-board rechargeable energy storage 

system (RESS) for vehicle propulsion in which electricity is supplied from the 

external commercial power source at the grid. The vehicles also satisfy the 

following:

1. not being the RESS charged while driving unless by regenerative breaking 

and/or by generating by ICE (Trolleybuses and solar powered vehicles are 

not included in the scope)

2. being classified as passenger cars or light duty trucks, as defined in each 

regional annex

3. the nominal energy of the RESS is at least 2 % of the total energy 

consumption over a applicable driving test

4. using only liquid fuels (for example, gasoline and diesel fuel).

Analysis:

The new draft standard is owned by the ISO Electric Road Vehicle subcommittee 

(ISO TC22/SC21). This document is a working draft (WD) NWIP (new work item 

proposal) ballot was approved at the June plenary of TC22/SC21. Balloting will 

conclude October 7, 2009 and if passed will identify continuing work on the 

document as official business of the committee.

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
178

ISO XXX "Terminology Technical Report"

Status:

WIP in Progress

Issued: No Originals 

Overview:

This Technical Report (TR) summarizes all terms and definitions (Tad) used and 

listed in the clause Terms and definitions of the publications developed by 

ISO/TC 22/SC 21, Electrically propelled road vehicles (EPV). These terms are 

specific to the electric propulsion systems of such vehicles, i.e., battery electric 

vehicles (BEV), hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), and (pure and hybrid electric) fuel 

cell vehicles (FCV).

Tad on other vehicle systems and terms referring to characteristics, which are 

common with vehicles powered by an internal combustion engine only, are not 

included.

The Tad are listed in a systematic order (from general to specific) in relation to a 

specific subject they belong to (e.g., Performance of EPV). 

Additionally included are also some terms not used in the SC 21 publications, but 

closely related to the terms used there in order to better understand the relation 

of the tad belonging to one subject. Such additional terms do not appear in the 

other SC 21 publications.

Analysis:

No number has been assigned yet. The new draft standard is owned by the ISO 

Electric Road Vehicle subcommittee (ISO TC22/SC21).

Document Location:

Not Applicable at this time
179

National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 

NFPA 70 National Electrical Code (NEC) 

Article 625: Electric Vehicle Charging 

System Equipment

Status:

WIP for NEC January 2011

Issued: NEC January 1996 and 4 pages in length

Overview:

The National Electrical Code is a standard that all jurisdictions in the United 

States reference. This article of the National NEC covers the electrical 

conductors and equipment external to an electric vehicle that connect an electric 

vehicle to a supply of electricity by conductive or inductive means, and the 

installation of the equipment and devices related to the electric vehicle charging.

The sections of the article are:

Wiring Methods including polarization, non-interchangeablility, construction and 

installation, unintentional disconnection, grounding pole, and grounding pole 

requirements. 

Equipment Construction including electric vehicle supply equipment, Rating, 

markings for ventilation, means of coupling, cable, interlock, automatic deenergizing of cable, personnel protection system, disconnecting means, loss of 

primary source, and interactive systems.

Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment Locations including hazardous locations, 

indoor sites, and outdoor sites. 

Analysis:

Comments by the Code panels have recently been published showing the 

changes being thought for the 2011 code changes. These are shown in the 

following:

1. The words “electric vehicles” and “electric vehicle supply equipment” also 

refers to the “plug-in hybrid electric vehicle and “plug-in hybrid electric vehicle 

supply equipment”

2. PHEV is defined.

3. Replace the word charge with power transfer.

4. Rechargeable Energy Storage System is defined.

No substantial changes were made, only clarification and new definitions.
180

Document Location:

http://www.nfpa.org/freecodes/free_access_document.asp?id=7008SB
181

National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 

NFPA 70 National Electrical Code (NEC) 

Article 626: Electrified Truck Parking Spaces 

Status:

WIP for NEC January 2011

Issued: NEC January 2008 and 5 pages in length 

Overview:

The National Electrical Code is a standard that all jurisdictions in the United 

States reference. This article of the NEC covers the electrical conductors and 

equipment external to the truck or transport refrigerated unit that connect trucks 

or transport refrigerated units to a supply of electricity, and the installation of 

equipment and devices related to electrical installations within an electrified truck 

parking space. The sections of the article are:

Electrified Truck Parking Space Electrical Wiring Systems including branch 

circuits, feeder and service load calculations.

Electrified Truck Parking Space Supply Equipment including wiring methods 

and materials, overhead gantry or cable management, electrified truck parking 

space supply connection means, separable power-supply cable assembly, loss 

of primary power, and interactive systems.

Transport Refrigerated Units including disconnecting means and receptacles, 

and separable power supply cable assembly.

Analysis:

Comments by the Code panels have recently been published showing the 

changes being thought for the 2011 code changes. These are shown in the 

following:

1. Eliminate the need to specifically specify the ampacity of the branch-circuit.

2. Eliminate the need to use optical fiber cables for cable management.

3. Eliminate the term “for existing vehicles.”

No substantial changes were made, only clarification and commonizations. Many 

changes were attempted to be made but were rejected by committee.

Document Location:

http://www.nfpa.org/freecodes/free_access_document.asp?id=7008SB
F1147-E(10/2008)

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1. REPORT DATE (DD-MM-YYYY)

February 2010

2. REPORT TYPE

Technical Report

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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Vehicle Codes and Standards: Overview and Gap Analysis

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This report identifies gaps in vehicle codes and standards and recommends ways to fill the gaps, focusing on six 

alternative fuels: biodiesel, natural gas, electricity, ethanol, hydrogen, and propane.

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vehicles; codes and standards; gap analysis; alternative fuels; biodiesel; natural gas; electricity; ethanol; hydrogen; 

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