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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Ray Lyman- Wilbur, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W. C. Mendenhall, Director

Professional Paper 170—E

THE GEOLOGIC IMPORTANCE OF THE IIME-SE|)Ml^fl

WITH A DESCBIPTION OF

A NEW TRAVEBTINE-FORMIM ORGANISM

BY

MARSHALL A. HOWE

Shorter contributions to general geology, 1931

(Pages 57-65)

UNITED STATES

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

WASHINGTON : 1932

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C<
ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES 19-23. A new travertine-forming organismPage 65

ii
THE GEOLOGIC IMPORTANCE OF THE LIME-SECRETING ALGAE

WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW TRAVERTINE-FORMING ORGANISM

By MAKSHALL A. HOWE

The agency of microscopic algae, especially bluegreen algae, in depositing lime in calcareous hot 

springs and calcareous streams has long been recognized. Ferdinand Cohn x was one of the first to investigate the matter in a scientific way, in studying the 

deposits in the famous hot springs of Carlsbad, in 

Bohemia.

In America, in 1889, Walter Harvey Weed,2 then a 

member of the United States Geological Survey, published a striking report on the formation of travertine 

and siliceous sinter by the vegetation of hot springs, 

with special reference to the remarkable conditions 

found in the Yellowstone National Park. The deposits 

of most of the springs in that region are "siliceous 

sinter," but the extensive one of the Mammoth Hot 

Springs, covering a total area of about 2 square miles 

and having a maximum depth of about 250 feet, consists chiefly of calcium carbonate or "travertine," 

partly precipitated in a mechanical way, but probably 

to a much larger degree by the action of microscopic 

algae. The waters of the Mammoth Hot Springs 

carry a saturated or supersaturated solution of calcium 

bicarbonate, and much of the lime is deposited by the 

evaporation and cooling of the water. Yet much or 

most of what geologists call " travertine " at the Mammoth Hot Springs, as has been demonstrated macroscopically and microscopically by Weed and others, is 

due to the action of the abundantly present algae or 

their chlorophyll in consuming or decomposing the 

CO2 that is present in the water and thus reducing 

the amount of calcium bicarbonate that may be held in 

solution. The precipitated lime is a by-product of the 

photosynthesis of the little plants. And the same process evidently goes on in both fresh and salt water in 

which calcium bicarbonate is dissolved in much less 

than saturation proportions.

In 1895 George Murray 3 published critical notes on 

calcareous pebbles formed by algae, based on material 

from a pond in Michigan separated from Lake Michigan by a sand bar. Murray found that these pebbles

1 Ueber die Algen des Carlsbad Sprudels, mit Riicksicht auf die 

Bildung des Sprudelsinters: Schlesische Gesell. vaterl. Cult. Abh., 

Abt. Naturwiss. u. Medicin, 1862, Heft 2, pp. 35-55.

3 TJ. S. Geol. Survey Ninth Ann. Eept., pp. 619-676, pis. 78-87, figs. 

52-56, 1889.

8 Phycological Memoirs, pp. 74-77, pi. 19, 1895.

had been built up by a mixture of blue-green algae, 

of which the predominating kind was SeMeothrix 

(Inaetis) fascwuilata (Naegeli) Gomont, as determined by the eminent authority Gomont. However, 

Gomont 4 describes the trichomes of S. fascieulcda as 

1.4/* to 3fi in diameter, while Murray's figures, according to the magnifications indicated, show trichomes 

2.5fi to 8ft in diameter. Murray mentions Dichothriw 

as intermingled with his Schizothrix, and it seems possible that some of his figures represent Diohothriw 

rather than ScMzothrix.

In 1897 Josephine E. Tilden 5 described some new 

species of Minnesota algae which live in a calcareous 

or siliceous matrix. Most of the algae formed crusts 

of various colors, with a maximum thickness of 1 

centimeter, on the sides of a large wooden tank on the 

bank of the Mississippi River. New species were described in the genera Dichothrix, Lyngbya, Schizothrix, and Chaetophora, the last a green alga, the 

others blue-green. An examination of specimens distributed by Professor Tilden indicates the presence 

also of the plant that is now referred to Inaotis pulvinata Kiitzing. It may be the same as the Lyngbya 

ncma Tilden, the filaments of which are described as 

only 1.9ft in diameter.

In 1900 John M. Clarke,8 State paleontologist of 

New York, published a brief illustrated paper on the 

water biscuit of Squaw Island, Canandaigua Lake, 

N. Y. Doctor Clarke states:

The north shores of Squaw Island and the lake bottom 

about it and over its northward sand bar are covered with 

flat, whitish calcareous cakes of circular or oval shape, in 

size ranging from a dime to a half dollar. To pick up one 

of these, well dried on the surface of the island, and break 

it in half, seems enough to convince the reflective mind at 

once of their nature and mode of formation. It often contains as a central nucleus a beach pebble of shale or limestone, a twig, or a bit of charcoal from some youngster's 

campflre. About this a white or greenish travertine has been 

deposited in concentric layers, which show themselves with 

distinctness. * * * On picking one of the water biscuits

4 Monographie des Oscillariees: Ann. sci. nat., Bot., 7th ser., vol. 15, 

p. 299, 1892.

5 Bot. Gaz., vol. 23, pp. 95-104, pis. 7-9, 1897.

e New York State Mus. Bull., vol. 8, pp. 195-198, pis. 13-15, 1900; 

New York State Mus, 54th Ann. Kept., vol. 3, pp. 195-198, pis. 13-15, 

1902.

57
58 SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GEOLOGY, 1931

from the lake bottom, its surface is found to be smooth, slimy, 

and often greenish; exposure on the shore bleaches it white. 

The calc-carbonate being dissolved in dilute acid and entirely 

removed, there remains a soft, spongy organic residuum of 

precisely the volume of the original biscuit.

C. H. Peck, the State botanist, to whom specimens 

were submitted, reported that the felted mass was 

made up of several kinds of fresh-water algae and 

diatoms. He identified one of the species as " probably Isa[c]tis fluviatilis"

In 1903 C. A. Davis,7 after the appearance of three 

shorter papers with similar titles, published a " contribution to the natural history of marl," based chiefly 

on studies of vast deposits of calcium carbonate in 

Michigan lakes, which form the basis of the cement 

industry in that State. In connection with the origin 

of these extensive accumulations of lime, he ascribes 

great importance to the green algal genus Ckara, 

though admitting that blue-green algae are largely 

concerned in forming both the massive beds of lake 

tufa and concentric calcareous pebbles.

The importance of certain lime-secreting marine 

algae in the building of so-called "coral reefs" has 

received increasing attention and emphasis since the 

publication by the Royal Society of London, in 1904, 

of a large quarto work on Funafuti,8 which was selected for this study because it was considered to be 

a " typical coral " reef or island. Several borings were 

made here by members of three successive expeditions. 

The main boring was finally driven down to a depth 

of more than 1,100 feet. The cores thus obtained 

were brought back to England for study and analysis. 

A. E. Finckh, who wrote the chapter on the biology of 

reef-forming organisms at Funafuti, groups the various lime-secreting organisms at Funafuti in order of 

their reef-building importance as follows:

1. Lithothamniwn? by which Finckh means stonelike, unsegmented, branched or crustaceous red algae 

(Rhodophyceae) of the family Corallinaceae. These 

calcareous plants are commonly referred to by geologists and zoologists, and occasionally by botanists, as 

" nullipores."

2. Halimeda. This is a genus of lime-secreting 

green algae (Chlorophyceae) of the family Codiaceae. 

It includes several species, of which Halimeda, opuntia appears to be the one that occurs in most abundance. All are of macroscopic dimensions. Species of 

Halimeda are confined to the warmer seas, while representatives of the Lithotkamnium group occur in 

local profusion in Arctic waters also.

7 Michigan Geol. Survey, vol. 8, pt. 3, pp. 65-96, 1903.

8 The atoll of Funafuti—borings into a coral reef and its results, 

being the report of the coral-reef committee of the Royal Society.

8 This is the original and now commonly used spelling of the 

generic name that has often appeared in print as Lithothamnion. In 

the broad sense in which the name is employed by Finckh, it is doubtless intended to include species that would now be referred not only to 

Lithothamnium but also to Lithophyllum, Porolithon, Goniolithon, etc. 

These are all plants of considerable size,

3. Foraminifera. Recent studies by T. Wayland 

Vaughan and J. A. Cushman have emphasized the 

geologic importance of this group of microscopic animals.

4. Corals. There are doubtless " true coral reefs " 

and islands that have been actually built in a predominant way by corals, but Funafuti is evidently not 

one of them.

That Funafuti is not an isolated example of the 

building of reefs by plants rather than by animals is 

attested by the observations of Finckh, Gardiner, 

Setchell, and others. Gardiner 10 remarks that "the 

importance of the incrusting nullipores in the formation of the reefs of the central Pacific can not be 

overestimated." Again,11 in discussing the foundation of atolls in general, Gardiner says:

The chief building organism is Litlwthamnium, the bathymetrical zone of which must be limited to a large degree by 

the extent to which light can penetrate sea water.

In another publication 12 Gardiner says:

This nullipore [Porolithon craspedium], Finckh says, is actually the reef former at Onoatoa [Gilbert Islands]. He saw 

no live coral there, but everywhere on the lagoon, and ocean 

face immense masses of this particular nullipore.

That lime-secreting plants rather than corals are 

sometimes, at least, the dominant reef formers in the 

Indian Ocean as well as in the Pacific is attested by 

the following observation by Gardiner: 13

The reefs of the Chagos are in no way peculiar save in their 

extraordinary paucity of animal life. * * * However, this 

barrenness is amply compensated for by the enormous quantity 

of nullipores (Lithothamnia, etc.), incrusting, massive, mammillated, columnar, and branching. The outgrowing seaward 

edges of the reefs are practically formed by their growths, and 

it is not too much to say that, were it not for the abundance 

and large masses of these organisms, there would be no atolls 

with surface reefs in the Chagos.

Mme. Dr. A. Weber-van Bosse 14 describes and publishes photographs of extensive Lithothammum banks 

near the southwest point of Timor, in the Dutch East 

Indies.

In 1921 Mayor,15 writing of Rose Atoll, American 

Samoa,, states that

There are a few fossil corals, chiefly Podllophora, embedded 

in the rock of the atoll rim and the boulders, but the whole 

visible rock of the atoll consists so largely of Lithothamnium 

that we may call it a " Lithothamnium atoll" rather than a 

"coral atoll."

10 Gardiner, J. S., The coral reefs of Funafuti, Rotuma, and Fiji, 

together with some notes on the structure and formation of coral reefs 

in general: Cambridge Philos. Soc. Proc., vol. 9, p. 477, 1898.

"Idem, p. 501.

12 Gardiner, J. S., The fauna and geography of the Maldive and 

Laccadive Archipelagoes, vol. 1, p. 462, 1901.

13 Quoted by Foslie, M., The lathothamnia: Linnean Soc. London 

Trans., Zoology, 2d ser., vol. 12, pp. 177, 178, 1907; The Percy Sladen 

expedition in H. M. S. Sealark: Nature, vol. 72, pp. 571, 572, where a 

photograph of this Lithothamnium reef is published.

" Siboga-Exped. Mon. 61, p. 4, 1904.

15 Mayor, A, G., Am. Philos. Soc, Proc., vol. 60, p. 67.
GEOLOGIC IMPORTANCE OF LIME-SECRETING ALGAE 59

. Setchell,16 who has. made several visits to the South 

Sea Islands, largely for the purpose of studying the 

reefs, has in a succinct paper summed up the present 

status of our knowledge of the origin of so-called 

" coral reefs " in part as follows:

In closing his article on the building of coral reefs Howe 17 

says: " Much evidence has accumulated tending to show that 

the importance of corals in reef building has been much overestimated and that final honors may yet go to the lime-secreting 

plants." It seems to me that the final honors can now be 

bestowed, and, without minimizing the contributions of the 

corals, there may be added:

1. That without nullipores no "coral reefs" can be or 

would have been formed.

* * * * *

5. That the animal components of the reef of next importance after the nullipores are the various incrusting 

species, especially of Polytrema, a genus of Foraminifera.

Later James B. Pollock,18 in a paper on the fringing and fossil reefs of Oahu, states that

The organisms chiefly contributing calcium carbonate to 

both fossil and fringing reefs are corals and coralline algae. 

The algae contribute more than the corals. The algae are 

called by the general name of Lithothamnium.

Calcareous algae of the coralline group occur as wellpreserved fossils in limestone rock of Tertiary and 

Quaternary strata. There is evidence 19 that the 

Lithothamnmm structure may become gradually obliterated, perhaps by the action of percolating water, 

resulting in a structureless limestone.20 In America 

beautifully preserved fossils of the Lithothamrwwni 

group have been described and figured by the present 

writer 21 from Oligocene and Pleistocene strata of the 

Panama Canal Zone, from the Eocene of St. Bartholomew, the middle Oligocene of Antigua, the upper 

Oligocene of Anguilla, and the lower Miocene of Trinidad. Lithothamnium, jurassicum Giimbel 22 has 

been described from the Jurassic of Switzerland, and 

the more or less doubtful Lithothamniumf ettisiamwn 

Howe and Goldman 2S from the Jurassic Ellis formation of Montana. Archa&olithothcMwmum marmorewn 

(Munier-Chalmas) Foslie and Lithophyllum belgicwm

16 Setchell, W. A., Nullipore versus coral in reef formation: Am. 

Phllos. Soc. Proc., vol. 65, pp. 136-140, 1926.

17 Howe, M. A., Science, new ser., vol. 35, pp. 837-842, 1912.

18 Bernice P. Bishop Mus. BulL 55, pp. 1-56, pis. 1-6, 1928.

18 Seward, A. C., Algae as rock-building organisms: Sci. Progress, 

vol. 2, pp. 10-26, 1894.

^Walther, J., Die gesteinbildenen Kalkalgen des Golfes von Neapel 

und die Entstehung structurloser Kalke: Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. 

Zeitschr., Bd. 37, 1885. See also Science, vol. 7, pp. 575, 576, 1886.

a Howe, M. A., On some fossil and recent Lithothamnieae of the 

Panama Canal Zone: U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 103, pp. 1-13, pis. 1-11, 

1919; Tertiary calcareous algae from the islands of St. Bartholomew, 

Antigua, and Anguilla: Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 291, 1919; 

Two new Lithothantnieae, calcareous algae, from the lower Miocene of 

Trinidad, British West Indies: XI. S. Nat. Mus. ProC., vol. 62, art. 7, 

pp. 1-3, pis. 1-4, 1922.

33 Giimbel, C. W., Die sogenannten Nulliporen: K. bayerisch. Akad. 

Wiss., Math.-phys. Klasse, Abh., voL 11, Abt. 1, p. 43, pi. 2, figs. 9a, 

9b, 1871.

""Howe, M. A., and Goldman, M. I., Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., vol. 10, 

pp. 314-324, figs. 1-11, 1925.

Foslie 2* have been currently referred to the Calcaire 

Carbonifere of Namur, Belgium, but Mme. Lemoine 

has shown that L. belgiwrn came in reality from the 

Aptian (Cretaceous) of the French Pyrenees.25

Fossil organisms of Silurian and Cambrian origin 

that have been described under the generic name SoUnopora have usually been referred to the corallinaceous algae, but in the writer's opinion the Ordovician 

type of the genus does not belong in this family, if 

it is, in fact, an alga. However, there can be no serious doubt that Urgonian and Jurassic fossils more 

recently placed under Solenopora* 2* are true algae, 

closely related to Ltihotha/m/rwwn.

Although rhodophyceous algae of the coralline 

(Lithothamauum) group may not be of great antiquity, in a geologic sense, algae of a lower group, the 

Myxophyceae (or Cyanophyceae), more popularly referred to as the " blue-green algae," were probably 

among the first forms of life. There is superficial 

evidence that many, at least, of the most ancient limestones, of Cambrian and pre-Cambrian age, were laid 

down by the agency of these blue-green algae and that 

in mass production of limestone these lowly organisms 

were much more active then than they are at the present time. The existence of several kinds of blue-green 

algae in hot springs 27 shows their adaptation to the 

higher temperatures that doubtless prevailed in the 

earlier stages of the development of life on the earth.

The blue-green algae are always of colonial habit. 

The individuals are of microscopic size, and individuality is often poorly defined, but the colonial masses 

of the present age are commonly of macroscopic 

dimensions, and in the geologic past such masses apparently helped to make deposits of lime that are now 

conspicuous features of extensive geologic formations. It is to be freely conceded, however, that no 

one of these supposed algal limestones of Cambrian 

or pre-Cambrian age, when examined microscopically, 

either decalcified or in ground section, shows any incontestable evidence of an algal nature. In view of 

the extreme age of these supposed plants and the 

extreme delicacy of the gelatinous cell walls of the 

Myxophyceae, even when more or less calcified, it 

seems unreasonable to expect any preservation of their 

microscopic cell structure. The firm, always strongly 

calcified cell walls of the Lithothamnieae, so perfectly

34 Foslie, M., Remarks on two fossil Lithothamnia: K. Norske 

Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., 1909, No. 1, pp. 3-5.

25 Lemoine, Mme. Paul, Contribution & I'Stude des Corallinac^es 

fossiles, VIII, Melobesiees de 1'Aptien et de 1'Albien: Soc. geol. France 

Bull., 4th ser., vol. 25, pp. 5-6, 1925.

26 Pfender, J., Sur la presence d'une Solenopore dans 1'Urgonien du 

sudest de la France—Solenopora urgoniana, n. sp.: Soc. geol. France 

Bull., 4th Ser., vol. 30, pp. 101-105, pi. 8, 1930; Les Solenopores du 

Jurassique superieur en Basse-Provence calcaire et celles du Bassln 

de Paris: Idem, pp. 149-164, pis. 16-19.

87 Setchell, W. A., The upper temperature limits of life: Science, 

new ser., vol. 17, pp. 934-937, 1903.
60 SHORTER CONTRIBUTION'S TO GENERAL GEOLOGY, 1931

preserved in various Tertiary and Quaternary strata, 

are in a very different category. In the calcareous 

travertine or tufa now being laid down by various 

blue-green algae in lakes and streams in the United 

States, it is commonly difficult to demonstrate and 

identify the contributing organisms except in the 

superficial layers. Why should one expect their delicate structure to persist for millions of years ? Nevertheless, one who is accustomed to see and to handle 

the algae of the present day may feel convinced from 

their macroscopic characters that certain laminated 

ancient limestones were laid down by algae, even while 

admitting more or less subconsciously the possibility 

of being deceived.

In Great Britain the writings of A. C. Seward 28 

and E. J. Garwood 29 have emphasized the geologic 

importance of the algae, though Seward is dubious as 

to the algal nature of so-called organisms referred to 

the genus Cryptozoon and of the Algonkian limestones described and figured by Walcott. The literature relating to the geologic significance of the algae 

is becoming extensive, and it is not the writer's purpose to attempt any complete review of it at this time. 

A valuable bibliography of the subject, even though 

notably incomplete in its American references, is given 

by J. Pia.30

In the United States, in 1&13, Eliot Blackwelder 31 

made a notable contribution to the subject, in which 

he published photographs showing a remarkable resemblance of deposits of Ordovician dolomite to modern reefs of calcareous algae of the Lithothamwmm, 

group. The probability of calcareous algae having 

something to do with the formation of magnesian 

limestone and dolomite is heightened by chemical 

analyses 32 of various lime-secreting marine organisms, showing high percentages of magnesium carbonate in the lithothamnioid algae, whereas the madreporian corals are notably deficient in magnesium. A 

similar inference may be drawn from the biologic and 

chemical analyses of the borings at Funafuti, to which 

reference has already been made. Clarke and 

Wheeler 33 have already stated that

In short, all the evidence goes to prove the importance of 

the algae as limestone builders and the subordinate character 

of the corals. This importance is now fully recognized by students of marine limestones and by paleontologists generally.

128 Op. cit.; Fossil plants, pp. 122, 123, 1898; The earlier records of 

plant life: Geol. Soc. London Proc., vol. 79, pp. Ixvi-civ, 1923; Plant 

life through the ages, 1931.

29 On the important part played by calcareous algae at certain 

geological horizons: Geol. Mag., new ser., dec. 5, vol. 10, pp. 440-446, 

490-498, 5451-553, 1913; Nature, vol. 92, pp. 111-121, Sept. 25, 1913.

80 Geologisches Alter und geographische Verbreitung der wichtigsten 

Algengrupper: Oester. Bot. Zeitung, Band 73, pp. 174-190, 1924.

a Origin of the Bighorn dolomite of Wyoming: Geol. Soc. America 

Bull., vol. 24, pp. 607-624, pis. 28-35, 1913.

82 See Clarke, F. W., and Wheeler, W. C., The inorganic constituents 

of marine invertebrates: U. S. Geol. Survey- Prof. Paper 102, 1917. 

Pages 44-50 are devoted to analyses of calcareous Rhodophyceae and 

Chlorophyceae, none of which are properly " invertebrate."

83 Op. cit., p. 54.

In 1914 G. K. Wieland,34 accepting the various 

species of Cryptozoon as algae, refers to the pre-Cambrian, Cambrian, and Ordovician ages as characterized by the " reign of algae " and adds:

Nor does it even seem too much to say that no dominant 

organisms of later ages, whether plant or animal, ever exceeded the Paleozoic seaweeds or left a bulkier record.

A little later in 1914 Charles D. Walcott, distinguished Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 

published his striking paper on pre-Cambrian Algonkian algal flora,35 in which he takes the ground that 

the extensive (nonmarine?) magnesian limestones of 

Algonkian age (chiefly in the Belt Mountains of Montana) were laid down by algae of the blue-green group, 

much as deposits of lime are now being made, on a 

smaller scale, by blue-green algae in fresh-water 

streams, ponds, and lakes in various parts of the 

United States. Walcott gave several new generic and 

specific names to these supposed fossil algae, although 

there seems to be scarcely any definitely conclusive 

evidence in their microscopic structure that these formations are due to algae at all. However, from their 

general macroscopic characteristics it seems probable to the present writer that some, perhaps most, of 

thesf new generic names were applied to real algae 

or to their very ancient forerunners. The magnitude 

of some of these limestone deposits is indicated by 

Walcott's remark that " in the Camp Creek section of 

Montana Collenia was found to range up through 

2,500 feet (760 meters) of strata." 36 There are also 

extensive deposits of Algonkian limestones in Arizona, 

in the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. The study of 

the supposed fossil algae of that region, begun by Walcott and by Dawson, is being continued by David 

White.37

E. S. Moore 38 has directed attention to massive 

strata of ancient presumably algal limestones, more 

or less silicified, on the Belcher Islands, Hudson Bay, 

and the adjacent mainland. These strata attain a 

thickness of 428 feet and are considered to be of preCambrian age. The contributing organism shows concentric layers, somewhat as in the Cryptozoon proliferwn from the Cambrian of Saratoga County,-N. Y., 

and the CoUenia frequens from the pre-Cambrian 

of Meagher, Mont. Professor Moore has found 39 

similar calcareous concretions in pre-Cambrian rock 

from the vicinity of Port Arthur, Ontario.

84 Further notes on Ozarkian seaweeds and oolites: Am. Mus. Nat. 

Hist. Bull., vol. 33, pp. 237-260, Apr. 14, 1914.

« Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, pp. 77-156, pis. 4-23, July 22, 

1914.

86 Idem1, p. 98.

47 Study of the fossil floras of the Grand Canyon, Arizona: Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearbook Nos. 26, 27, 28, and 29; Algal 

deposits of Unkar Proterozoic age in the Grand Canyon, Arizona: 

Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc., vol. 14, No. 7, pp. 597-600, 1928.

38 The iron formation on Belcher Islands, Hudson Bay, with special 

reference to its origin and its associated algal limestones: Jour. 

Geology, vol. -27, pp. 412-438, 1918.

»Letters of April 10 and April 26, 1924.
GEOLOGIC IMPORTANCE OP LIME-SECRETING ALGAE 61

A very important recent contribution to the literature of algal reefs is W. H. Bradley's beautifully 

illustrated paper on algal reefs and oolites of the 

Green River formation.40 These reefs and beds are 

of the Eocene epoch and they show manifest algal 

structure, microscopically as well as macroscopically. 

Bradley identifies the dominant alga as Chlorellopsis 

coloniata Reis, originally described in 1923 from the 

Miocene lake beds of the Rhine Valley. The limestone beds formed by these algae in the Green River 

region of Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah are locally 

as much as 18 feet thick.

The deposition of lime in Green Lake, near Kirkville, N. Y., a few miles east of Syracuse, has been 

referred to by C. D. Walcott 41 and W. H. Bradley.42 

Walcott published photographs illustrating the external appearance of the deposits and sections, without magnification. Bradley illustrated the gross appearance (op. cit.; pi. 29, B) and sections under low 

magnifications (op. cit., pi. 30, A, B). He also ventured to name the various algae that are disclosed by 

dissolving out the calcium carbonate. " Of these," he 

says, " Microcoleus [paluctosus Kiitzing], by reason 

of its greater bulk, predominates, yet the minute cells 

and colonies of Palmella are vastly more numerous. 

Palmella cells are probably the unidentified ' rounded 

or oval, very small cells' that C. A. Davis referred 

to in his notes on the lime deposits of Green and 

Round Lakes, N. Y., published in Walcott's description of some pre-Cambrian algal deposits."

The writer has examined excellent material of this 

calcareous deposit collected in Green Lake by William R. Maxon October 21, 1914. The mass, or its 

surface, is distinctly blue-green, and several species 

and genera of Myxophyceae are represented in it and 

on it. The dominant form appears to be a filamentous 

one, much more delicate than Microcolews paludosios 

mentioned by Bradley, having trichomes only I/* to 

2/x, broad; it is coarser, more entangled, less compacted, less erect than the similar plant from Furnace Creek, W. Va., that is referred below to Inactis 

pulvinata Kiitzing. It is probably to be identified 

with Inactis fasciculata (Naegeli) Grunow \_=Schizothriw fdscicul&ta, (Naegeli) Gomont], which is normally a lime precipitator. Associated with it are 

species of Crloeocapsa, Glo&othece^ and Aphanocapsa, 

and very numerous minute brownish or nearly colorless cells which appear to be identical with the organism described on page 63 as new from Furnace 

Creek, near Harpers Ferry, W. Va. These may well 

be the " rounded or oval, very small cells " mentioned 

by C. A. Davis.

40 U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 154, pp. 203-223, pis. 28-48, 1929.

41 Pre-Cambrian Algonkian algal flora: Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 

64, p. 86, pi. 4, figs. 3, 4, 1914.

48 Algae reefs and oolites of the Green River formation: U. S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 154, pp. 203-223, pis. 28-48, 1929.

A most important contribution to the field of the 

present paper was made in 1915 by H. Justin Roddy,48 

who described the calcareous concretions of Little 

Conestoga Creek, in Lancaster County, Pa., from the 

points of view of both botanist and geologist. In his 

introduction he states:

My search was amply rewarded by finding them [concretions] in great quantities and distributed throughout nearly 

the entire length of the Little Conestoga. I found also that 

they not only occur in the creek itself, but that quite large 

deposits of the concretions underlie the flood-plain meadows 

along the creek banks. One of these, in Kendig's Woods, 2 

miles southwest of Millersville, Pa., is made up wholly of 

concretionary materials on the top of which forest trees of 

large size and considerable age are growing. This deposit 

covers nearly an acre to the depth of about 8 feet in the 

middle, thinning out lenslike toward its edges. Another deposit along the same stream near Fruitville, in, Evans's 

Meadow, more extensive in area but of slighter depth, forms a 

substratum under a thick soil cover and has an average depth 

of about 2 feet. * * * The concretions, both in the stream 

and in the deposits, vary in size from peas to masses nearly a 

foot in diameter.

Later Donegal Creek, another stream in the same 

county, was found to possess these objects in even 

greater abundance.

One meadow of fully 12 acres bordering the stream about 1 

mile northeast of Marietta was found to be underlain with a 

bed of concretions not less than a foot in average thickness 

throughout its entire extent.

In 1918 James B. Pollock 44 published a scholarly 

and exhaustive paper on blue-green algae as agents in 

the deposition of marl in Michigan lakes. He traversed, from a more strictly botanical viewpoint, the 

ground previously covered by C. A. Davis, and he 

reached somewhat different conclusions, minimizing 

and localizing the importance of Chard and emphasizing the importance of the blue-green algae. From 

the calcareous incrustations on the shells of living 

clams, having a life span of 8 to 10 years, he estimated 

that the blue-green algae deposit marl at the rate of 

about 1 foot in thickness in Y5 years.

Other known instances of the more or less manifest 

agency of the algae in forming limestones might be 

mentioned, but the above, with others that are referred 

to in the literature cited, may suffice for the present 

occasion. Evidence of the important, often dominant 

role of the algae in this connection is cumulative.

In February, 1930, David White, of the United 

States Geological Survey, brought to the writer concentrically laminated calcareous pebbles from Furnace 

Creek, a tributary of the Potomac River about

43 Concretions in streams formed by the agency of blue-green algae 

and related plants : Am. Philos. Soc. Proc., vol. 54, pp. 246-258, figs. 

1-2, 1915.

« Michigan Acad. Sci. Ann. Kept, vol. 20, pp. 247-260, pis. 16, 17, 

1918.
62 SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL, GEOLOGY, 1931

miles above Harpers Ferry, W. Va. He brought also, 

from more rapidly flowing water in the same stream, 

more extensive rocklike deposits of lime, of the general 

kind commonly known to geologists as " travertine." 

The first microscopic examinations of ground sections 

and of decalcified preparations showed a mixture of 

minute plants—diatoms, unicellular Chlorophyceae, 

unicellular and filamentous Myxophyceae (Cyanophyceae), and possibly bacteria—and, in parts exposed to 

rapid water, the filamentous prothallus of a Lemanea. 

In parts of the deposit there was a dominance of a 

minute filamentous blue-green alga, with colored parts 

(trichomes) only I/* or a little more in width. These 

apparently belong to the genus Inactis (a section of 

Schizothrix of some authors) and to the species 

Inactis pvJ/uinata Kiitzing, originally described from 

Germany in 1849, since reported from cataracts in 

North America, and known to form hard deposits 

of lime. Mixed with the more or less erect filaments 

of the Inactis and in places predominating were much 

coarser filaments (trichomes 6/* to 7/t in diameter) with 

firm, rigid sheaths; these filaments appear to be referable to Lyngbya martensiana calcarea Tilden, originally described from Minnesota. There are, however, wide areas of this Furnace Creek deposit that 

show no traces of either the Lyngbya or the Inactis, 

and further studies indicated that very numerous 

minute particles which had at first been passed over 

as bacteria or granules of an inorganic nature often 

showed in mass traces of a light blue-green or yellowish-green color. The convictign grew that they were 

representatives of the Myxophyceae, smaller, perhaps, 

than any previously known, and that they were the 

actively important agents in precipitating lime and 

in forming a kind of limestone. In the older layers 

of the deposit the chlorophyll doubtless vanishes, and 

on the lower shaded surfaces of the irregularly eroded 

or built-up rock in rapids its presence is difficult or 

impossible to demonstrate, yet, a priori, it may be 

assumed to be there, for lime is precipitated, and the 

precipitation of lime is held to be linked with photosynthetic action of chlorophyll in decomposing the 

CO2 (apparently HCO3 in this case) in the water and 

thus reducing the amount of calcium bicarbonate that 

may be held in solution.

On December 7, 1930, under the guidance of David 

White and Charles B. Bead, of the United States 

Geological Survey, the writer enjoyed the privilege 

of visiting Furnace Creek and inspecting the deposits

in place. An extreme deficiency of rainfall during 

the preceding six months had left the stream very 

low, and the calcareous pebbles in the slower parts 

and the expansive calcareous travertine in the more 

rapid parts were readily accessible. There had been 

a rain (about one-third of an inch in Washington) 

the afternoon and evening before, and the stream 

was higher than the former low levels, though the 

water was still clear. A sample of the water, thus 

presumably diluted from the concentration of the 

preceding day, was taken to Washington by Mr. 

White for analysis, which showed the following constituents, in parts per million:

CO3 _________-_______——— 0

HCO3______________________- 237

Iron_________________——————— . 1

Mn____________________—___- . 7 

Ca ___________________———— 66 

Total hardness___—————————————— 255

In the rapids, especially in the shaded recesses, the 

superficial crust is conspicuously black or at least dark 

or rust-colored. Mr. White states (in a letter) that 

the lime is here associated with manganiferous iron 

oxides. Sections show a laminated structure, with 

dark layers occurring at irregular intervals, and Mr. 

White suggests that the deposits of iron and manganese accompany the greater concentrations of these 

metals in the water in seasons of drought, the year 

1930, in which the deposit was very notable, being one 

in which the annual rainfall in the Washington region 

was only about half the normal.

In spite of the differences in appearance between the 

olive-brown, ash-colored, or subfuscous concentric 

pebbles of the moderately quiet water and the expanded harder black or ferruginous crusts of the 

rapids, the writer believes that the organism that is 

chiefly responsible for the precipitation is specifically 

the same in both situations. In the well-aerated 

rapids, for some reason, especially in the shaded 

caverns, the iron and manganese are deposited more 

obviously and copiously than on the pebbles of thte 

better-lighted floor of the quiet stream. The organism seems to differ only in being browner or yellower, 

and this is apparently due to the presence of the darker 

metals.

In view of the manifest importance of this minute 

organism in depositing lime and the difficulty of trying to identify it definitely with previously described 

genera, it seems desirable to give it a new generic as 

well as a new specific name. Descriptions follow.
GEOLOGIC IMPORTANCE OF LIME-SECRETING ALGAE 63

Class MYXOPHYCEAE

Family CHROOCOCCACEAE

Genus LITHOMYXA, n. gen.45

Cells subglobose, ovoid, or short cylindric, very minute, associated in great numbers in an extended layer, 

precipitating lime and forming a rocklike crust. Cell 

membranes soft, very inconspicuous, confluent. Cell 

division apparently in one direction; cells solitary, in 

twos, irregularly in fours, or often few or many conglobate. Chromatophore not definite; chlorophyll 

very little, in dark places perhaps wanting.

The genus shows points of contact with Aphanothece, Apha/nocapsa, Synechococcus, Synechocystis, 

Oncobyrsa^ and CJilorogloea. Perhaps it may be 

placed provisionally between Oncobyrsa, 4e and Chlorogloea, from both of which it differs in the essential 

lack of radial arrangement of its cells. The type and 

only known species is described below:

Lithomyxa calcigena Howe, n. sp.

Plates 19-23

Cells mostly 0.4/A to 1.5/* long and 0.3jt* to lju, wide, 

before division usually about twice as long as wide,

K Lithomyxa, gen. nov. (fain. Chroococcacearum, class. Myxophycearum).

Cellulae subglobosae, ovoideae, vel brevi-cylindricae, minutissimae, in 

strato expanse numerosissimae confertae, calce induratae, crustam 

lithoideam1 efflcientes. Membranae mollissimae, valde inconspicuae, 

confluentes. Cellularum divisio per speciem in directionem ad unam 

dimensionem, cellulis solitariis, binis, irregulariter quaternis, saepe 

paucis, vel multis conglobatis. Chromatophora baud deflnita, chlorophyllo minimo, in locis obscuris forsitan carente. Genus specie 

Aphanothecae, Aphanocapsae, Byneohococco, BynechocyslMi, Oncobyrsaie, 

et Chlorogloeae afflne est. Lithomy&a calcigena, species typica.

lAthomyxa caloigena sp. nov.

Cellulis plerumque 0.4^-1.5^ longis, 0.3^-1^ latis, juvenilibus 

pallide aerugineo-viridibus, luteis, vel luteo-brunneis, in aetate pallescentibus, crustam duram laminatam, 1 mm. ad mult. cm. crassam, superflcie sordidam, olivaceam, cineream, fuscam, vel nigrani, sublaevem, 

verrucosam, foveolatam, scrobiculatam, irregulariter nodosam, aut plus 

minusve grosse mammillatam efflcientibus.

In rivulo " Furnace Creek" dicto ad " Harpers Ferry " Virginiae 

Occidentalis: in aquis placidioribus lapillos olivaceos, cinereos, vel 

subfuscos concentrice laminates; in locis obscuris in aquis rapide 

fluentibus crustam latam crassam fuscam vel nigram Lithomyxa effecit. 

In aquis plus rapide fluentibus cuni Inaoti pulvinata Kuetzing, Gloeocapsae specie, et Lemaneae prothallo saepe consocia est. Species 

lapillos laminates quoque in rivulo " Little Conestoga Creek" dicto in 

comitate "Lancaster" Pennsylvaniae (J. P. Roddy legit) effecit.

^Kutzing (Phycologia generalis, p. 172, 1843) states that Oncobyrsa 

fiuviatiUs Agardh, the monotype of Agardh's genus Oncobyrsa, which 

Agardh himself placed among the Diatonteae, is the same as Inoderma 

lamellosum Kiitzing, a member of the Chlorophyceae. If this is true, 

the name Oncobyrsa (1827) should replace Inoderma (1843), and the 

genus Myxophyceae now currently known as Oncobyrsa should receive 

,a new name, which may possibly be found among its alleged synonyms. 

A critical examination of Agardh's type specimen of Oncobyrsa 

fluviatilis is desirable.

84720°—32———2

the young very pale blue-green, losing color with age, 

forming a hard laminate crust 1 millimeter to a few or 

many centimeters in thickness, the surface sordid, olivaceous, ash-colored, fuscous, or black, nearly smooth, 

verrucose, f oveolate, scrobiculate, irregularly nodose or 

clivulose, or coarsely mammillate.

In a stream known as Furnace Creek, a tributary 

of the Potomac River, iy2 miles above Harpers Ferry, 

W. Va. Type in the herbarium of the New York 

Botanical Garden, collected by David White, Charles 

B. Read, and Marshall A. Howe, December 7, 1930. 

The technical type is considered to be one of the concentric pebbles found on the bed of the stream in 

rather quiet water. The more extensive and more 

massive, usually black or fuscous crusts found in the 

more rapidly moving water may be considered as deposited by the form ferrifera, if a distinctive name is 

required. This appears to differ from the type only 

in color (which may be looked upon as a sort of stain) 

and in its ability to precipitate considerable quantities 

of iron and manganese, which may be conditioned on 

its occurrence in rapidly moving, well-aerated, and 

perhaps well-shaded water. The same organism in 

different surroundings appears to have different physiological or chemical effects. In ground vertical or 

radio vertical sections the margin (surface) sometimes 

shows 2, 3, or 4 cells in an anticlinal row, but in general the cells are without order, their longer axes 

lying in any direction.

In the quiet water the Lithomysoa is often associated 

with Diatomaceae, Protococcaceae, and Chroococcaceae, rarely with Inaetis. In the rapid water it is frequently found with Gloeacapsa, the filamentous protonema of Lemanea, Inactis pwlvinata Kiitzing, and 

Lyngbya martensicma calcarea. The Inactiis and 

Lyngbya, sometimes occupy extended areas in more 

or less pure culture. Occasionally fields of the Inactis 

and Lyngbya, and of the ferriferous form of the 

Lithomyxa meet and are sharply delimited at the line 

of juncture, as is often the case with crustaceous 

lichens. Plate 20, A, shows the black crust of the 

Lithomyvea, impinging on the gray or ash-colored crust 

of the Inactis and Lyngbya, the line of demarcation, 

being especially sharp at the top and bottom of the 

photograph and more broken in the middle.

That both iron and manganese are relatively much 

more abundant in the dark crusts than in the gray is 

shown by analyses kindly supplied by R. C. Wells, 

chief chemist of the United States Geological Survey. 

In the black crusts, in which Lithomyvea calcigena is 

the dominant organism, the analysis shows 12.3 per
64 SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL GEOLOGY, 1931

cent of Fe2O8 and 4.5 per cent of MnO; in the gray 

crust, in which Inactis pulvinata and Lyng~bya martensiana calcarea are dominant, Fe 4T is only 0.14 per 

cent and MnO is only 0.03 per cent.

The concentrically laminated calcareous pebbles described by Roddy as occurring in two streams in Lancaster County, Pa., are evidently more abundant there 

than in Furnace Creek, near Harpers Ferry, W. Va.

"Equivalent to 0.17 per cent PeO. The iron is probably in the 

ferrous condition, but the differentiation of ferrous and ferric iron is 

uncertain in the presence of organic matter.—R. C. Wells.

However, Roddy's description and published photographs and a sample pebble that he has kindly sent to 

the writer show that the pebbles of these two not very 

widely separated areas are essentially the same in 

physical characteristics and that they have been built 

up by essentially the same kinds of blue-green algae, of 

which Lithomyxa calcigena is the principal or 

dominant lime-precipitating organism.48

48 The above" paper, in a condensed form and illustrated by lantern 

slides, was presented at a meeting of the National Academy of Sciences 

held at Washington April 28, 1931.
PLATES 19-23

65

TJ. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 170 PLATE 19

A. CALCAREOUS CONCRETIONS FORMED CHIEFLY BY LITHOMYXA CALCIGENA

From bottom of Furnace Creek, in rather quiet water, near Harpers Ferry, W. Va.; collected by White, Howe, and Read December 

7, 1930. A decalcified preparation, made from the superficial crust of the bisected pebble shown in the upper left-hand 

corner and preserved in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, is specified as the technical type of Lithomyxa 

calcigena.

B. A PORTION OF A GROUND SECTION OF ONE OF THE PEBBLES FROM FURNACE

CREEK

Showing, especially in the lower central region, outlines of the Lithomyxa cells, with incrusting lime; 

at the upper margin (surface) the cells sometimes appear to be in rows of two, three, or four.
TJ. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 170 PLATE 20

A. A PORTION OF A GROUND VERTICAL SECTION OF THE BLACK CRUST ILLUSTRATED EN B 

Showing outlines of the calcified Lithomyxa cells.

B. DARK OR BLACK CRUST, FORMED CHIEFLY BY LITHOMYXA CALCIGENA FORM FERRIFERA, IN SHADED OR PARTLY 

SHADED PLACES IN RAPIDLY MOVING WATER, FURNACE CREEK, W. VA.

Collected by White, Howe, and Read December 7, 1930. The darkening of the crust is apparently due to the presence of iron and manganese. The upper 

view indicates the readiness with which the superficial dark crust (a loose fragment here dislocated) separates from the underlying white crust, which also 

has been laid down by the Lithomyxa.
TJ. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 170 PLATE 21

CALCAREOUS TRAVERTINE FORMED CHIEFLY BY LITHOMYXA CALCIGENA FORM FERRIFERA, IN MORE

OR LESS SHADED PLACES IN RAPIDLY MOVING WATER, FURNACE CREEK, W. VA.

Collected by White, Howe, and Read December 7, 1930,
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 170 PLATE 22

A. LITHOMYXA CALCIGENA, DECALCIFIED, MORE OR LESS EMBEDDED IN COLLOIDAL JELLY, FROM SURFACE LAYER

OF A CALCAREOUS PEBBLE, FURNACE CREEK, W. VA. 

Collected by White, Howe, and Read December 7, 1930.

B. A SIMILAR PREPARATION OF LITHOMYXA CALCIGENA FORM FERRIFERA, FROM THE BLACK CRUST
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 170 PLATE 23

A. SPECIMEN OF TRAVERTINE

The gray travertine at the left is made chiefly by two filamentous blue-green algae, 

Lyngbya martensiana calcarea and Inactis pulvinata; the black travertine at the right 

was laid down chiefly by the more minute unicellular organism, Lithomyxa calcigena.

B. A GROUND SECTION AT THE LINE OF JUNCTURE OF THE GRAY TRAVERTINE AND THE BLACK

The Lyngbya and Inactis form the looser and (in section) flabellate crusts at the left. The Liihomyxa forms the more compact

and homogeneous crust at the right.

INDEX

A Page

Acanthoceras (Prionotropis) allaudi————.—————————————__ 11,17 

Acei fruit......_____..__-_______________________ 33,34

merriami__________________.______________ 33,34,39 

Acknowledgments for aid..... ———___.._________.___—__ 9,43

Admiralty Island, Alaska, evidence of pre-Wisconsin glaeiation on_. ___ 8

Alaska, existing glaciers in—.———.__..__.____.___.__——__ 1-2

former glacial advances in. _________________________ 2-4

glaeiation in, studies of ______.________. __________ 1

position of 100 and 50 fathom depth contours in places along southern

coast of, map showing. __.___________________ pi. 2

pre-Wisconsin glaeiation in, evidence of-..._______________ 6-8

map showing....__--------------_.------..-._..._.__.-..---. pi. 1

summary of known facts concerning.-__________--.-.__. 7-8

relations between climate and glaeiation in..--___________ 8

Wisconsin glaciers of, map showing areas covered by..-.________ pi. 1

map showing lines of flow of____________ ________ _ pi 2

Alaska Range, glaciers in____.__.___________________ 2,3

Algae, lime-secreting, geologic work of _____________________ 59-61

Alstadenites—...__-_-...-..---__...-____..___...____... 14,16

Ammonites alstadenensis—- T __—_____________________ 9

dentato-carinatus_.-.__._______________________ 9,10,15

Seuriausianus..__-..___'....____________________ 14-15

haberfellneri—.————.-———_.__._____________.___ 9 

neptuni..__.___._____-_______________________ 9

paeon.

petrocoriensis.--.__..._____.___________________ 9

rhotomagensis_______________________________ 10

Amphistegina lessonii-____________________________ 45

Anomia simplex__.______________________________ 44

Aphanocapsa_________________________.________ 61,63

Aphanothece.._____________.__________________ 63

Area (Anadara) sp.--.____________________________ 44

Archaeolithothamniuin marmoreum._____________________ 59

Atolls, building of, by lime-secreting plants__.______________ 58-59

B

Baculites codyensis—...———..._—___——___——__——_——— 18

Barroisiceras Grossouvre, taxonomic history of...______________ 9-11

Barroisiceras allaudi_______________________________ 12,14

alstadenense._—___—___.--._.___._-__.___ 11,12,14,16,18

boisselleri______.__________________________ 9,10,13

brancoi—________..._——....._____—.... —........ 10,11,14

armatum——__--..._........._—....„............___ 10,13,14

mite————————-.————..——————— 10,13,14

byzacenicum__________________________.. 13,14,19

castellense—————————————————____ 13,14,17,19,25, pi. 6

dartoni———————————————..._. 12,14,16,26,26, pis. 6,7

dentatocarinatum..————————— 9,10,11,12,14,15,19,22,23,24, pis. 3,4,5

desmoulinsi—__-...____—. —..__...._......___..._ 10,13,17

forresteri.._____-.____....____._...--_—_ 12,14,17,24, pi. 5

haberfellneri..———————-—————————— 9,10,11,13,14,15

alstadenensis.._________________.___________ 9,10 

byzacenicum_________.__________________... 10 

desmoulinsi—__________.__________________ 9,10 

harlei..______..—._......____.__.__....___._ 9,10,11

nieklesi.--—————————————————————————— 11

harlei.-..-.-..--------——————————————————— 13,14,19

haueri.—_.._.__....._...___......_-_-..__.____ 10,11,14

hobsoni. _____......________._____... 12,16,18-19,28, 29, pis. 9,10

hyatti_____.___.._-__......_____.._____........... 10

inerme.._——_———„———___.___.„.___—... 

knighteni__—.—_-----__.-.--.-.-.__......_---._------

nardini_____.__-_.._._____......_____.___.___

———————————————————————— 13

———————————————————————— 13

————————————————————————— 12,14

neptuni-_________________________________ 11,12,14 

nicklesi—......——...............—......———............... 9,10,11,12,14

paeon.-———————.—————————___.._________„__ 12,14 

petrocoriense————_..——.„..—_______________ 11,12,14,15 

romieuxi-—._.-.——...—__..„,.______.__-__._.. 10,13,14 

sequens._________________________________ 9,10,13

—————————————————— 12,14,16-17,18,23, pL 4

_......——..„_____....—__........_...__ 13

sp. _______________ ____ ______ ___ __.- _____ .. 19, 25, pi. 6 

stantoni____..___....___...-.--... 12,14,18,17-18,19, 26,27, 28, pis. 7,8,9 

texanum_-_______ — _______________________ 10 

tunetanum....._......———————r.________,_...._.._ 10,13

Page

Berry, Edward Wilber, A Miocene flora from Grand Coulee, Wash....._ 31-42 

Betula heteromorpha__.. j_...-————-———————————————— 33,34

largei. ——————————————————————————— 33,34

Bonser, T. A., quoted______________________________ 31 

Bridge Creek, flora of_________._....—..—....._.__.____ 33

Brooks Range, Alaska, glaciers of_____._.——_.__."__.____ 2,3-4 

Buchiceras nardini- _____________—__._______________ 9

C

California, Miocene floras of, comparison of, with flora of Grand Coulee,

Wash.-—————————————————————————— 33

Calyptraeasp__________._...——.-—.—-——.—.——__._ 44 

Capps, Stephen R., Glaeiation in Alaska.—..—_._.._________ 1-8 

Cardita (Carditamera) sp.._____.____„______________ 44 

Cardium sp._________——.———.—_.—.—_-_______ 44 

Carpites boraginoides-—_„.-—..—.——————.—-————_——.._ 33,34

ginkgoides________________„__-_._—__________ 33,34 

Cassia spokanensis._______.__...—————————.————-.—_ 33, M 

Cassidulus (Pygorhynchus) alabamensis—.._.__.____.._______ 48

(Rhynchopygus?) evergladensis—... -—_._....—_.._ 44,45,48, pi. 18 

Castanea castaneaefolia__..-——————————————.——-——-—_ 33,34 

Cebatha heteromorpha__________________________ 32,33,34,37

multiformis-_________...—„—-——.————-————-——... 37 

Chaetophora.._______-__---—-—————————————————--. 57 

Chara._-_....._.___..—...———-..—————-..—..——...——— 61 

Chatham Straits, Alaska, origin of.__.———-——-——-——-—————_ 2-3 

Chichagof Island, Alaska, evidence of pre-Wisconsin glaeiation on.____. 8 

Chione cancellata__...-—-——————————————————————— 43,44,45

intapurpurea__—.——————————————————————————— 44 

Chlorellopsis coloniata—.— —————— ———————————— —————— 61

Chlorogloea.___________..........——.—————...„—„———. 63

Cissampelos dubiosa--..--—-.- ——— — ——————————————————— 37 

Clarke, F. W., and Wheeler, W. C., quoted_....—_....—.—.____ 60

Clarke, 3. M., quoted———————————————————————— 57-58

Collenia frequens—_...——.—-—————————————————————— 60 

Coral reefs, work of lime-secreting algae in building————————————— 58-59 

Crucibulum sp_.———.——————————————————————————— 44 

Cryptozoon, geologic importance of.————————————.———————— 60 

Cryptozoon prolifemm———————————————————————————— 60 

Cyathodonta undulata————————————————————————,———— 46

Dichothrix———......—...————————................__..—.._ 57

Divaricellasp-__.„..—.———————————-———————.——__ 44

E 

Eagle formation, flora of___——_———————.———.——...„.____ 38

Ellensburg formation, flora of.,______-_„.._-_____.____ 33

Encope grandis-__....—————————————————————————— 46,49, pi. 17

macrophora tamiamiensis.—————————————————— 44,45,48-49, pi. 17

tenuis________—..„———-——————————.——_.____ 46

Eponoides sp. ?._—.——. ———————————————————————..-.. 45

Euonymus knowltoni..-————————————————————————..__ 33,34

F

Fasciolaria sp.___——————————————————————————————. 44 

Ficusinterglacialis..__-_...._..—-—.—-—.—————.——— 33,34,37

washingtonensis___-_------————————————————————— 33,34,37

Florida, southern, geologic work in——————————————————————- 43

southern, Pliocene faunas of.——.—————————:———————-—. 43-56 

Florissant, Colo., flora of. — -_—.-———.—-—.—....————-——. 33 

Forresteria_.________________-_______—.——__. 14,17-19 

Funafuti, studies of reef-forming organisms at....-—————————————— 58 

Furnace Creek, W. Va., chemical analysis of water of.—.—————————. 62

new travertine-forming organism from.———-—-—-----—. 61-64, pis. 19-23

Gardiner, J. S., quoted-.—-------------———-..-——--———————_. 58

Gastrochaena sp_._.....—....—————————————————————— 44

Glaciers in Alaska, existing_____———————_——————————— 1-2 

existing, map showing largest_—----------_-----——————...... pi. 1

formation of, during former stages of ice expansion.—...— —————— 2

outlets for former, from coastal mountains—- — ————————————— 3

Gloeocapsa___.___________„—.„_._-__—————_. 61,63

Gloeothece._____________.........—..——....——————.... 61

67
68 INDEX

Page

Glycymeris americana_..———————_——..____._________ 44 

pectinata—__________________________._____ 44 

Glyptostrobuseuropaeus___________________________. 32,33,34 

Qordonia hesperia________________._______ 33,34,41-42, pi. 13 

Grand Coulee, Wash., Miocene flora from, age of...____--..___________ 32

Miocene flora from, compared with Miocene floras from other localities_ 33 

features of__________.._..........____...______ 31-42

Qryphaea aff. Q. aucella...-_.__._.--._____..___......._ 16

Oulf of California, living fauna of, compared with Pliocene fauna of southern

Florida.....-.—-..-...-..... —..—..—..................... 46

H

Halimeda opuntia______________._____ •_____________ 58 

Harleites—------_........__———————————__._ — — __— 14,19

Hicoria washingtoniana.. _________._____________ 32,33,34, pi. 11 

Howe, Marshall A., The geologic importance of the lime-secreting algae, with

a description of a new travertine-forming organism. _______ 57-65

Imperial formation, California, faunas of, relations of--......-____._..

Inactis pulvinata.__._.___.__________________ 57,62,63,64 

Inoceramus aff. I. deformis..___..__......_____...____...... 15,16

a£E. I. erectus-._........________......_......___...._ 18

aft. I. fn«llis........................................................__ 18

deformis............_.____.._.„..._.____________ 17

fragilis—-—..—.-..-..- — ..-...-.....—........................._ 17

stantoni.-...___________....._________________ 18

umbonatus_______________________._________ is 

Inodermalamellosum...________________„__________ 63 

Isa[c]tis fluviatilis._______________________________ 58

32, 33, 34, 35, pi. 11

Latah formation, flora of....___________________________ 33

Lauras similis__________________________________ 33,34 

Lemanea_——________________._________._____ 62 

Libocedruspraedecurrens...._.__________________.. 33,34

Lime-secreting algae, geologic work of_-___-._________..__. 59-6!

Liquidambar californicum_. __ __ __. _ __ __.. ___ __ _ __ 39

fruit— — — ——— ———— — — — ——— — ——— ——————— 33,34,38-39

pachyphyllum._________________________________ 39

Lithomyxa Howe, n. gen___._.._._________.______ 63

calcigena Howe, n. sp______________________ 63-64, pis. 19-23

Lithophyllum belgicum____________________________ 59

Lithothamninm.._________.____________________ 58,59,60

? ellisianum Howe and Goldman_____________________ 59

jurassicum Qiimbel_____._______________________ 59

Lyngbya.——--—........—.......—.......—......__-..—....__ 57,62,63

martensiana calcarea..._________.._____________ 62,63,64

nana...-———____—____________._____________ 57

Lynn Canal, Alaska, origin of._______.._.__.___________ 2-3

Lysichiton washingtonense.._______-__________ 32, 33, 34, 35, pi. 11

M

Mansfield, Wendell C., Pliocene fossils from limestone in southern Florida.. 43-56 

Mascall formation, flora of.__.-'...______......_____.____ 33

Mayor, A. G., quoted____________.______._._.. 58

Menispermites latahensis...____________________ 33, 34, 38, pi. 12 

Metis magnoliana.. _____.___________________________ 44 

Microcoleus paludosus.. ______________.'.____________ 61 

Mortoniceras shoshonense___________________________ 18

N 

Nyssa hesperia............—._._............................. 33, 34, 42, pi. 13

knowltoni-.--._..___.._____._.._.;_______ 42

magniflca.—.....—...—————_————___________........ 33,34,42

0

Oncobyrsa....—.—..............................._._._............. 63

fluviatilis__________________________________ 63

Ostrea heermanni.._______________________________ 46 

jacobaea...——____.._______________...____.. 46

lugubris...----.-....................................................._ 17

sculpturata__________.________________.________ 44,47 

sp., group of O. trigonalis________.________. _______ 44,45 

tamiamiensis_____________. ___. __________ 44, 46, pi. 14 

monroensis_.__.__________________... 44, 46, pis. 14,15 

trigonalis, group of.._........_———————————.———____ 44,45

Paliurus aculeatus_. ________________x _____________ 40,41 

hesperius—-.——._..—......._..................... 33, 34, 39-41, pi. 13

orientalis______________._________...________ 40,41 

ramosissimus..................................._.............._._ 40

Page

Palmella..____________________________________ 61

Payette formation, flora of___—————__————————————————... 33

Pecten circularis___ ___ _——..——————————————————————— 46,48

gibbus gibbus.......___-._______——— ———————————.. 48

(Lyropecten) deserti___——————„„.—————————————— 46, pi. 17 

tamiamiensis-____________———.——.—— 44, 46, 47, pi. 16 

mediacostatus__ ______.___________,_____——. 46, 47, pi. 16 

mendenhalli________..————————————————————————— 48 

(Nodipecten) pittieri collierensis....___——————————— 44,46, 47, pi. 16

(Pecten) sp_____----------———._- ————————————— ——— 44

(Plagioctenium) comparilis—..———————————————————————— 48

evergladensis_______—.——__—————————— 44, 45, 46, 47, pi. 17

subnodosus__________________-----_____———___ 46, pi. 16

Phyllites amplexicaulis..___________————————————_.... 38,34

couleeanus.-——--—- ————————..———-——- 33, 34, 42, pi. 13

Pinna sp____.-.-.-----.—.. ————————— ————— ——————————— 44

Placenticeras pseudoplacenta.-————————— — ———————————— ——— 18

Platanus aspera...———— ...——————————————————————————— 33, 34 

dissccta.—— ——... ————————————————. 33,34

flower head——— — ..———————————- 32, 33,34,37, pi. 12

Plicatulamarginata.-_-__.... —— — ——— ————— ——— ———————— 44

Pliocene faunas from southern Florida, age of... —— —— - —— ----- ———.... 45

composition of_____- — — .-—._------- ——————————- 43-44,45

general features of—.—----- —— —— ——— — —— ———————————— 43-56

geographic occurrence of.—. ————————— ————————————— —— 43-44 

geologic occurrence of.......———————————————————————— 44

nature of...————-- — - — — — ———— —————————————— , 45

relationship of, to other faunas__..__—————————————————— 45-46 

Pocillophora_—————- ——... ———————— ————————————————— 58 

Pollock, James B., quoted__.————————-————————————————— 59 

Polytrema___________—————__—————————————————— 59 

Populus arctica———————————————————————————————————— 38 

bud scales-.-—— — -—— ——-———————————— 33,34

fairii———————————————————„_———————— 37

heeri.- ——————————————_—————————— 35

heteromorpha..--___..————————————————————————— 37 

lesquereuxL-------_.....—————.—.—.————————..„ 33,34,35

lindgreni..—................ —..........—————......————— 33,34

washingtonensis.- —. —— ————— ————————— ————————— —— 33,34

Porolithon craspedium._______.____——————....————————— 58

Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, evidence of pre-Wisconsin glaciation on..:.— 8 

Prionocycles macombi.—.————————————————————————————— 17 

wyomingensis. —— —————————————————————————————— -. 17 

Prionotropis hyatti————————————————————————————————— 17 

Prunusrasti----——_———————————————————————————— 33,34

Pteleamiocenica--———————-—————————— 32,33,34, 39, pi. 12

trifoliata....———————————————————————- 39

Q

Quercus acapulcensis—————————————————————————————— 36 

acorns andcupules. —————————— ——————————————————— 33,34 

chaneyi__— ————-———————————————————————————— 36 

chartacea_——————————————————————————————————— 36 

chihuahuensis.______ — ———------- ——————— ————————— 37

clarnensis------------ ——— ———— —— - ————— ——————————— 36

cognata....-----------_————.—...—.—-—-—.——.————— 33,34

horniana.-------__._ —— -- ————.— —————— ————————— 36

hypoleuca————- ———————————————— ——————————————— 36 

lecomteana. — _--_.-.-.- ————— — —— — — — ————————— 37

martensiana_ — ____---- —— -—-—-- ————— — — — —— ———— 36

mccanni__ - ________________._________ 32,33,34,36,42, pi. 11 

merriami_—......_————————-———————————————— 33,34

mexicana_— ——— — —— —— — ————— ——————— —— ————— 36

obscura__——— ——————-————————————————————————— 36 

oleoides.---—— —— — ———— — — -. — - —— ——— ————————— 37

payettensis?.- —.__.__ —— —— ———— ————————————-—— 33,34

pheUos.- —- — -— — — ————————————————- 36

praenigra_—————— —.——————————————————-———————— 36 

prinopsis_——- —— ——— ———————— -————————————————— 36 

pseudolyrata-.———————————————————————— 33,34

repanda—_. ————... —— — —— —— ------- —.. — ——— — ————.. 37

simulata_________________....___-___________ 33,34,36

spokanensis-.. — —— — —— — — ——— - ————————— — ——— ——— 36

transmontana.._—.__. —— ——— — —. —..——————————————— 36

treleasii.-..------——— ———————————————— 33,34,37

viminea.__...-___----------------————————————————— 36

B

Reeside, John B., jr., The Upper Cretaceous ammonite genus Barroisiceras

in the United States.———————————— — ————— 9-29

Kibes fernquisti———————————————————————— 33,34,38, pi. 12

Roddy, H. Justin, quoted—— ———— ——— — ——— — ————————— 61

Russell Glacier, Alaska, maximum extent of.————————————————— 6
INDEX 69

8 Page

St. Eugene silt, British Columbia, flora of_._—_—_———..—.—— 33 

Salixelongata.._________________________________ 36

inquirenda.______________________________ 35 

Scaphites ventricosus______________________________ 18

warreni---.________________________________ 17 

Schizothrix (Inactis) fasciculata.-_______________________ 57,61 

Schloenbachia (Barroisiceras) brancoi..._________________ 11

(Barroisiceras) dentatocarinata.—_______.____________ 15 

knighteni__________________________________ 10 

siskiyouensis.__________________________ 9-10

tunetana.—.._______________________________ 9,10

inerme.-________________________________ 10

Screen Islands, Alaska, evidence of pre-Wisconsin glaciation on______. 8

Sequoia langsdorfli. _______________________________ 33,34

Setchell, W. A., quoted_____......_.._.___.__......_._... 59

Solenopora..———__......_._...___...........__.._.___.... 59

Solger, Priedrich, quoted_...—....___.___.__————__.... 10

Solgerites—————. ———__.._————————————————— 14

Sophora alexanderi_______________________________ 33,34

spokanensis...__-...______________________ T _. 33,34 

Spisulasp____________________________________ 44

Spokane, Wash., flora of Latah formation near. 

Spondylus sp__________________ 

Strombus sp__________ ________. 

Synechococcus_________________. 

Synechocystis._________________,

Talkeetaa Mountains, Alaska, glaciers in_.__.________._____ 2

Taxqdium cone scales________________. _____________ 33,34

dubium..--.--.--..__._______._______.____... 33,34.pi. 11

staminate aments—.....—.—.———————.—.————..—.... 33,34

Page

Terebra dislocata._____————————————————————————— 44 

Texasia.--.______.________....———————————————— 14,15-16 

Thracia (Cyathodonta) tristana.___—.—————————————————— 44,46 

Travertine-forming organism, anew__...———————————— 61-64,pis. 19-23 

Travertine, work of algae In deposition of.—————————————————— 67-61 

Tsuga latahensis.___——...————————-————-————-----—- 33,34 

Turritella, n. sp. ? aff. T. perattenuata.—.——————————————.— 44, pi. 14

' U

Ulmus speciosa_____._...—————————————————————————— 33,34 

Umbellularialanceolata---——————————————————————————— 33,34

Venus? sp_.—.-——————————————————————————————————— 44 

Viburnum fernquisti_....-_.__._...—————————————.——... 33,34 

Vitis bonseri.—.———————————————— 32,33,34,41, pi. 13

W

Wheeler, W. C., Clarke, F. W., and————————————————— 60

White River, Alaska, evidence of age of glacial till in bluff on———————— 5-6

Wieland, G. R., quoted-.-————————————————————— 60

Wisconsin age of last great ice advance in Alaska, evidence of— ——————— 4-6

Wisconsin glaciers of Alaska, areas covered by, map showing.... — — -... pi. 1

lines of flow of, map showing__—..————————————————— pi. 2

seaward extent of, evidence of._————————————————————— 4

thickness of_———.——————————————————————————— 4

Wrangell Mountains, Alaska, glaciers in———————————————————— 8

Yakutat Bay, Alaska, evidence of pre-Wisconsin glaciation on.——————— 

Yellowstone Park, Miocene flora of, comparison of, with flora of Grand Coulee,

Wash.....—————.———————————————- 8

Yukon River, Alaska, evidence of pre-Wisconsin glaciation on———————— 37

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Ray Lyman Wilbur, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W. C. Mendenhall, Director

Professional Paper 170

SHORTER CONTRIBUTIONS TO 

GENERAL GEOLOGY

1931

T. W. STANTON, CHIEF GEOLOGIST

UNITED STATES

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

WASHINGTON : 1932

CONTENTS

[The letters in parentheses preceding the titles are used to designate the papers for advance publication]

Page

(A) Glaciation in Alaska, by S. R. Capps_____________________________________-_________---____--_______________ 1

(B) The Upper Cretaceous ammonite genus Barroisiceras in the United States, by J. B. Reeside, jr_____________________ 9

(C) A Miocene flora from Grand Coulee, Wash., by E. W. Berry_________________________l________-____-______-__ 31

(D) Pliocene fossils from limestone in southern Florida, by W. C. Mansfield.________________________________________ 43

(E) The geologic importance of the lime-secreting algae, with a description of a new travertine-forming organism, by M. A.

Howe_-_____.____________._____________.________________________-_-___-__--__---_------_----_---—___ 57

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE 1. Sketch mapjshowing the largest of the existing glaciers in Alaska, areas covered by glacial ice during the Wisconsin stage of glaciation, and localities at which possible evidences of pre-Wisconsin glaciation have 

been found.__________________________________________________________________________________ In pocket.

2. Sketch map showing the lines of flow in the Wisconsin glaciers of Alaska and position of the 100 and 50 fathom

contours in places along the southern coast______-____-____________--_---__------_---------_----__ In pocket.

3-10. Species of Barroisiceras------ _____________________:.___________-._- _-__-_-______----_--__----__-_______ 22-29

11-13. Miocene flora from Grand Coulee, Wash_____-__________-__-_-----_------------___.__--___--___-_______ _ 42

14-18. Pliocene fossils from limestone in southern Florida^________--_______--___-------_-------------__----_-__ 52-56

19-23. A new travertine-forming organism_____________________________-__-_---_-_-_----------_--_-_-_-_----__ 65

FIGURE 1. Typical section of peat and glacial till on White River, Alaska, 8 miles below the terminus of Russell Glacier____ 5

2. Diagram showing the character of the roots of a spruce tree growing normally on solid ground and growing on

rapidly forming peat._____________________________________________________________________________ 6

3. Restoration of Paliurus hesperius. ______________________________ — ____ — — — __ — __ — _________________ 40

in

o