Brian E. Washburn

Research Wildlife Biologist

USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services 

National Wildlife Research Center

Sandusky, Ohio

Human-Wildlife Conflicts

Hawks and owls can negatively impact a 

variety of human interests, including 

important natural resources, livestock and 

game bird production, human health and 

safety, and companion animals. Conflicts 

between raptors and people generally are 

localized and often site-specific. However, 

the economic and social impacts to the 

individuals involved can be severe. 

Despite the problems they may cause, 

hawks and owls provide important benefits 

and environmental services. Raptors are 

popular with birdwatchers and much of the 

general public. They also hunt and kill 

large numbers of rodents, reducing crop 

damage and other problems. 

Natural Resources

Hawks and owls can negatively affect 

other species of wildlife by constant 

predation and additive mortality. Great 

horned owls (Bubo virginianus), and 

occasionally red-tailed hawks (Buteo 

jamaicensis), (Figure 1), can severely 

impact colonial waterbird and shorebird 

nesting colonies by concentrating their 

hunting efforts on specific colony sites and 

attacking both chicks and adults. This can 

Wildlife Damage Management 

Technical Series

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service

Wildlife Services

December 2016 Hawks and Owls

Figure 1. Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis).

Quick Links

Human-Wildlife Conflicts 1

Damage Identification 3

Management Methods 3

Economics 8

Species Overview 9

Legal Status 13

Glossary & Key Words 14

Resources 15 

Appendices 16 
be especially problematic if the nesting birds are rare or 

have threatened and endangered species status. 

Great horned owls are formidable predators that kill and 

eat other raptors, such as peregrine falcons and young 

osprey. Such predation events can be costly to 

reintroduction programs with the goal of increasing raptor 

numbers in these areas.

In the western United States, populations of barred owls 

(Strix varia) currently are expanding into many new areas 

and aggressively displacing (meaning they physically attack 

and sometimes eat) spotted owls (S. occidentalis) in forest 

habitats. Spotted owls are a native owl of significant 

conservation concern.

Livestock and Pets

The majority of depredation problems involving livestock 

occur with free-ranging farmyard poultry and game farm 

fowl (Figure 2). In North America, hawks that are perceived 

as predators on domestic fowl are called “chicken hawks.” 

Chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and pigeons are 

vulnerable because they are conspicuous, unwary, and 

usually concentrated in areas that lack escape cover. 

Confined fowl that are chased by hawks and owls often pile 

up in a corner, resulting in the suffocation of some birds. 

Reproduction also may be impaired in some fowl if 

harassment persists.

Game farms and operations that rear game birds have 

dealt with raptor depredation problems for many years. 

Large concentrations of game farm animals, especially 

birds such as pheasants and quails, are attractive to 

hawks, owls, and predatory mammals, such as coyotes, 

raccoons, and weasels. Operators should consider the 

prevention of predation as part of their cost of operation. 

Accipiters and falcons commonly chase and upset penned 

game birds until they flush and stick their heads through 

the netting of the pen, giving the raptor a chance to attack. 

Hawks and owls also kill rabbits at hunting clubs where 

dogs are trained and homing and racing pigeons. 

Hawks and owls are highly opportunistic predators. Small 

dogs, cats, kittens, and caged pet birds left outside and 

unattended occasionally are at risk of attack and 

predation. The frequency and severity of such incidents 

may increase during winter when food is scare or during 

early summer when newly fledged young are developing 

their hunting skills.

Structures

Hawks and owls commonly are electrocuted when perching 

on high-energy electric transmission poles. Hawks nesting 

on electric transmission towers and poles, cellular towers, 

and other utility structures can cause fires, interrupt 

service, and interfere with maintenance activities. 

Human Health and Safety

Hawks and owls pose a risk to safe aircraft operations due 

to bird-aircraft collisions (also known as bird strikes). 

Hawks and owls commonly use the large, open grasslandlike habitats of airports and military airbases for feeding 

(Figure 3). The relatively large size of hawks and owls 

increases the risk of damage to aircraft. Bird strikes can 

result in significant and costly damage to aircraft, as well 

as human injuries and fatalities. 

Hawks and owls can be aggressive toward humans and 

inflict serious cuts and lacerations with their talons. In 

Figure 2. Backyard chickens (above), turkeys, and ducks are vulnerable 

to predation by raptors.

Page 2 WDM Technical Series—Hawks and Owls
particular, during the nesting season hawks and owls 

defend their nests and young with great ferocity. These 

negative interactions occur most frequently when hawks 

and owls are nesting in urban and suburban areas.

Nuisance Problems

Generally, nuisance problems with hawks and owls relate 

to the perceived risk to people and animals posed by these 

birds in urban and suburban areas. 

Poultry and other livestock are vulnerable to a wide range 

of predators. Frequent sightings of hawks and owls near 

the depredation site may be a clue to the predator 

involved, but these sightings could be misleading. The 

cause of death for a partially eaten carcass often is difficult 

to determine. In all cases, the remains must be carefully 

examined. Raptors usually kill only 1 bird per day. Raptor 

kills usually have bloody puncture wounds in the back and 

breast from the bird’s talons. Owls often remove and eat 

the head and sometimes the neck of their prey. 

Hawks pluck birds and leave piles of feathers on the 

ground, often in a circular pattern called a fairy ring. Beak 

marks and damage, often in a V shape, can be seen on the 

shafts of these plucked feathers. Owls also pluck their 

prey, but at times, they swallow small animals whole. 

In contrast, mammalian predators such as skunks or 

raccoons often kill several animals during a night. Weasels 

are known to go on “killing frenzies” and kill many more 

animals than they actually consume. Mammals usually tear 

skin and muscle tissue from the carcass and cut through 

the feathers of birds close to the body with their sharp 

teeth. Feathers often are strewn about randomly at kill 

sites involving mammals.

All raptors, but especially red-tailed hawks and other 

buteos, feed on carrion. The plucked feathers can often 

indicate whether a raptor actually killed an animal or was 

simply “caught in the act” of feeding on a bird that died 

from other causes. Feathers that have small amounts of 

tissue clinging to their bases were plucked from a cold bird 

that died from another cause. If the base of a feather is 

smooth and clean, the bird was plucked shortly after it was 

killed. 

Raptors often defecate at a kill site. Accipiters such as the 

goshawk leave a splash or streak of whitewash that 

radiates out from the feather pile, whereas owls leave 

small heaps of chalky whitewash on the ground. 

As with all wildlife damage management issues, an 

integrated program that uses several tools and techniques 

for reducing the severity, impact, and financial losses of 

hawk- or owl-related conflicts with humans is best. 

Information on the biology of the species involved is 

essential to the success of management efforts. 

When considering which method(s) to use, one should 

consider the timing of such events, how cost-effective 

potential actions might be, whether the issue can be 

tolerated, and how the success of action(s) taken will be 

evaluated/monitored. Some methods will be too costly or 

impractical to implement, whereas other techniques might 

be fairly easy to use and achieve the desired outcome.

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Figure 3. Raptors use airport grasslands and weedy areas to hunt for small 

rodents and other mammals.

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Management Methods

Damage Identification
Habitat Modification

Habitats can be modified to make an area less attractive to 

hawks and owls looking for an easy meal. Hawks and owls 

often use a hunting perch to survey an area before making 

an attack. Removal of hunting perches can be 

accomplished by cutting down snags and trees on which 

hawks and owls are commonly observed. Poles and other 

man-made perch sites should be modified with antiperching devices, such as sheet metal cones and electric 

shock strips and devices, to deter hawks and owls from 

using them. 

Several anti-perching devices are commercially available, 

including Nixalite®, Cat Claws®, and inverted spikes, that 

help deter hawks and owls from using buildings, roofs, and 

other structures as perching and hunting sites. 

Overhead wires made of nylon cord or heavy monofilament 

fishing line suspended in parallel over game bird pens, pet 

runs, and other areas where animals might fall prey are 

effective in deterring hawks and owls from swooping down 

and startling their intended prey.

Exclusion

The best solution to raptor depredation is prevention. Freeroaming farmyard chickens, ducks, and pigeons can be 

conditioned to move into coops or houses at night by 

feeding or watering them indoors at dusk. 

Durable fenced enclosures can be constructed by securing 

poultry wire to a wooden framework and covering this 

enclosure with a second layer of poultry wire, nylon netting, 

or overhead wires. A double layer of overhead netting 

separated by a 5− to 6−inch space may be necessary to 

keep hawks and owls away from penned birds. 

Companion animals (such as small dogs and cats) should 

be kept inside a fully enclosed pen or run while they are 

left unattended outdoors. Pet birds should be kept in a 

roomy cage, wire enclosure, outdoor aviary (can be made 

from hardware cloth), or screened room with locked doors. 

This is especially important at night to keep them protected 

from owls.

Frightening Devices

There are many techniques that can be used to disperse 

hawks and owls from an area where they are causing 

damage. Some are inexpensive and easy to use, whereas 

others are more complicated and costly. The effectiveness 

of frightening devices depends greatly on the bird, area, 

season, and method of application. Generally, hungry birds 

quickly habituate to and ignore frightening devices. 

Frightening devices usually reduce rather than totally 

eliminate losses. Landowners who use them must be 

willing to tolerate occasional losses. 

Increasing human activity in the threatened area will keep 

most raptors at a distance. Air horns, banging pots and 

pans, and other methods of making loud noises at the 

offending bird can be effective, especially in suburban and 

urban areas where deployment of pyrotechnics and 

firearms is not advisable or allowed.

The most common and easily implemented frightening 

device is a shotgun fired into the air in the direction of (not 

at) the raptor. Firearm safety is of the utmost concern. 

Scarecrows can be effective at repelling raptors when they 

are moved regularly and used in conjunction with other 

bird dispersal methods. 

Pyrotechnics include a variety of exploding or noise-making 

devices. Shell crackers, which are 12-gauge shotgun shells 

containing a firecracker that is projected 50 to 100 yards 

before it explodes, are commonly used. An inexpensive 

open-choke, single-shot shotgun is recommended. Check 

the gun barrel after each shot and remove any wadding or 

debris that may be lodged in the barrel. Screamers, bird 

bangers, and bird bombs are commercially available 

pyrotechnics that are fired from special pyrotechnicspecific pistols; their range is limited to 25 to 75 yards. 

Fire pyrotechnics in the direction of hawks or owls (never 

directly at them) that are found within the area of concern. 

Local and national restrictions on the purchase, storage, 

and transportation of pyrotechnics may preclude use by 

some people. Your local fire warden can provide 

information on local or state permits that are required to 

possess and use pyrotechnics. 

Page 4 WDM Technical Series—Hawks and Owls
Repellents

None are registered.

Fertility Control

Fertility or reproductive control typically is not used to 

manage wildlife damage associated with hawks and owls. 

Removal of nests, however, can alleviate problems related 

to aggressive individual birds or nesting pairs, but not 

when eggs or chicks are present. Nest management (e.g., 

oiling or addling eggs, replacing hawk eggs in active nests 

with domestic chicken eggs) can be used to reduce the 

number of hawks and owls within airport environments or 

other sensitive environments to increase human health 

and safety. State and federal permits are required.

Toxicants

None are registered. Historically, raptors were killed by 

putting out carcasses laced with poison. Indiscriminate 

killing of many nontarget animals and concerns for human 

safety prompted the banning of toxicants for raptor control. 

Shooting

Federal and state laws protect all hawks and owls. 

Shooting can be authorized under depredation permits in 

specific situations involving public health and safety 

hazards or seriously affecting a person’s livelihood. For 

example, authorized individuals may shoot a hawk posing 

a consistent, immediate, and imminent danger to aircraft 

at an airport. To obtain a federal depredation permit, first 

contact your local USDA-APHIS Wildlife Services (WS) 

office. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and state 

wildlife agencies may issue depredation permits allowing 

for lethal control of problem hawks and owls, but will do so 

only if nonlethal methods of controlling damage have failed 

or are impractical and if it is determined that killing the 

offending birds will alleviate the problem. 

Permittees may kill hawks or owls listed on the permit 

using a shotgun not larger than 10-gauge, fired from the 

shoulder and only within the area described by the permit. 

Proper firearm safety is of the utmost importance, 

especially in confined areas or extra-sensitive situations, 

such as active airfields or in populated areas. Permittees 

may not use blinds or other means of concealment, or 

decoys or calls to lure birds within gun range. 

Trapping and Translocation

Live-trapping and translocating problem hawks and owls is 

a commonly used non-lethal method of resolving conflict 

situations with humans and raptors. State and federal 

permits are required. If possible, experienced bird banders 

or wildlife professionals with proper training should 

manage trapping efforts. Landowners and private citizens 

can safely live-trap hawks and owls if they obtain some 

instruction and carefully handle birds to ensure the safety 

of the birds and themselves. 

A variety of live-traps has been developed and effectively 

used to capture hawks and owls. Three of the most 

commonly used traps are discussed here, but more 

information is available in the listed references.

Swedish Goshawk Trap

The Swedish goshawk trap is a relatively large, semipermanent trap (Figure 4) that consists of two parts: a bait 

cage [such as a 3 x 3 x 1-foot cage made from 1-inch mesh 

welded wire] and a trap mechanism [consisting of a 

wooden or metal “A” frame, heavy springs to pull the doors 

closed nylon netting or chicken wire, and a trigger 

mechanism (often a hinged stick)] mounted on top of the 

Page 5

Figure 4. A Swedish goshawk trap. The trap is closed and a hawk is safely 

trapped inside the upper compartment.

U.S. Department of Agriculture
bait cage. A hawk or owl dropping into the trap will trip the 

trigger mechanism and safely be trapped inside. Rock 

pigeons (Columba livia) are good lures because of their 

size, activity (movement is important for attracting hawks 

and owls), pest species status, and ease of care.

Pole Trap

Pole traps are effective, especially where perching sites are 

limited. Pole traps consist of a specially modified foothold 

trap secured onto the top of a post or pole (using a wooden 

post, a metal pole, or PVC pile) to attract hawks and owls 

that use it for a hunting perch (Figure 5). When landing on 

the pole, the bird depresses the trap pan and the padded 

trap jaws will firmly but safely capture it. The trap is 

secured to a wire ‘slide’ that allows the trap and captured 

bird to slip to the ground. 

Foothold traps (a 11⁄2 double-coil spring is a useful size) 

must be modified (weakened by removing one spring or by 

heat-treating before they are used for capturing hawks and 

owls). The jaws must be well padded with surgical tubing 

and wrapped with electrician’s tape or foam rubber to 

protect the bird’s leg (Figure 6). 

The use of pole traps is prohibited in some states, and the 

USFWS has issued guidelines on their use for capturing 

problem hawks and owls. Contact your local WS office, 

state wildlife agency, and the regional USFWS permits 

office for authorization to use this capture method. 

Bal-chatri Trap

The bal-chatri is a relatively small, versatile, and effective 

trap that can be modified to capture individual species of 

hawks and owls (Figure 7). Live small mammals or birds 

are used to lure raptors into landing on the trap, where 

nylon nooses entangle its feet and hold the bird until it is 

released. 

Bal-chatri traps are commercially available, but are fairly 

easy to construct. There are several different sizes and 

shapes of bal-chatri traps, including the square-shaped, 

cone-shaped, and quonset hut type bal-chatris. 

Camouflaging traps is important; spray paint them before 

nooses are attached.

Bal-chatri traps should be secured with a 5− to 10−lb 

weight (exercise and barbell weights work well) or tied to a 

flexible branch to keep a trapped bird from dragging the 

trap and breaking the nylon nooses. 

The quonset hut type bal-chatri was designed for trapping 

large hawks and owls. The trap is often made from 1−inch 

chicken wire, formed into a cage that is 18 inches long, 10 

inches wide, and 7 inches high at the middle. The floor 

consists of 1-inch mesh welded wire with a lure entrance 

Page 6 WDM Technical Series—Hawks and Owls

Figure 5. A biologist holds a young red-tailed hawk caught in a pole 

trap.

Figure 6. A modified foot-hold trap to live-capture raptors. The trap is 

weakened (a spring is removed) and the jaws are padded to protect the 

bird’s leg. 
door and steel rod edging for ballast. The top is covered 

with about 80 nooses of 40−pound test monofilament 

fishing line. 

Selection of lures (bait animals) used in bal-chatri traps 

depends on the size and shape of the bal-chatri, as well as 

the species of hawk or owl being targeted. Rock pigeons, 

European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), house mice (Mus 

musculus), and other small rodents can be used as lures. 

Bal-chatri traps are effective only when placed where a 

perched or hunting raptor can see them. When placing 

traps, consider issues such as vehicles, large animals, and 

people who might crush, damage, or move the trap. These 

traps must be monitored continuously and caught birds 

removed as soon as possible, as the nooses will eventually 

break and release the bird.

Other Traps

In addition to the three traps mentioned above, many other 

traps have been used successfully to capture hawks and 

owls, including bow-nets, verbail traps, phai traps, dhogaza traps, mist nets, spring-net traps, whoosh nets, and 

the German “butterfly trap.”

Other Control Methods

Keep yourself, children, and pets away from raptor nests 

when possible, to reduce the chance of aggressive nest 

defense behaviors. The presence of humans can be a 

deterrent to hawks and owls as they have a natural fear of 

people. Supervise small pets and livestock when they are 

outdoors to help decrease the potential of negative 

interactions with hawks and owls.

As with any human-wildlife conflict situation, public 

information and education regarding wildlife damage 

management, the ecology of wildlife species, and human 

perceptions and social values are essential components of 

an integrated wildlife damage management program. 

Handling

If necessary and with some instruction, private citizens and 

landowners can safely handle and transport hawks and 

owls. The most important thing is to control the bird’s feet. 

Talons can grasp a careless hand easily and inflict a 

painful injury. Risk of injury by the bird’s wings and beak is 

significantly less. The safest approach, regardless of the 

type of trap, is to toss an old blanket or coat over both the 

bird and trap. Darkness calms most birds and makes them 

less able to defend themselves. Always wear heavy gloves 

(e.g., welding gloves) when handling raptors. Carefully 

reach under the blanket or coat with your hands and grasp 

the bird’s lower legs. The feet must be gently but firmly 

controlled to avoid getting injured by the raptor’s talons. 

Slowly pull the bird out of the trap so that it is clear of any 

object on which it could injure itself. Fold the wings down 

against the body and hold them securely. 

Once the bird is safely secured, check it for any signs of 

external injury, such as cut feet or legs, excessively 

battered feathers, or scalping (the splitting of the skin over 

the forehead). If the bird is injured, have a local 

veterinarian examine it or transport it to the nearest 

federally licensed raptor rehabilitation center. 

Restraining a raptor before transport reduces the chances 

of injury to both the bird and the handler. A commercial pet 

carrier or a stout, covered cardboard box makes a good 

Page 7

Figure 7. A bal-chatri trap. When a raptor attempts to capture the 

bait (a small rodent or bird), its talons are entangled in the nooses. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture
raptor transportation cage. Select a carrier or box that is 

large enough for the bird to stand in upright. If using a pet 

carrier, place cardboard over the wire-mesh door to keep it 

dark inside. If using a cardboard box, punch holes near the 

bottom of the box to supply fresh air and keep the raptor 

from struggling toward any cracks of light coming from the 

top of a cardboard box. 

Carry only one bird per box. Tape an old clean rag, towel, or 

piece of carpet to the floor of the carrier or box to provide a 

good gripping surface for the bird. 

If possible, ask a local bird bander to attach a leg band 

prior to releasing the bird. Banding information can be 

useful to the research and management of raptors. 

Transport the bird as quickly and comfortably as possible. 

Minimize excess handling and above all, keep the bird 

calm and cool (i.e., room temperature). More birds die from 

overheating during transport than from any other cause. 

Translocation

Transport the bird as far away from the trapping site as 

reasonably possible. Red-tailed hawks and other raptors 

should be transported at least 75 to 100 miles from the 

capture site to minimize the probability of the bird 

returning. Choose a release site that appears to provide 

appropriate habitat and is not near an airport, poultry 

production facility, or major highway where future problems 

might ensue.

Birds trapped in the fall should be transported southward 

and birds trapped in the spring should be moved 

northward to help them along their migration path.

Obtain permission from the landowner to release birds 

onto private land and always carry a copy of your permits. 

Do not transport birds across a state line, as this is a 

violation of federal wildlife laws.

Relocation

Relocation of a bird (defined as moving an animal from one 

spot to another within its home range) is not a viable 

management option because the birds are not removed 

from the area where they are causing problems or inflicting 

damage. One exception is moving a bird out of a building or 

structure when it appears it cannot do so on its own. 

Rescue of a raptor trapped in a building does not require a 

federal permit provided the bird is not injured and is 

released immediately outside. 

Euthanasia

Hawks and owls should not be euthanized. Sick or injured 

birds should be taken to a veterinarian or the nearest 

wildlife/raptor rehabilitation center. Hawks or owls injured 

or killed during efforts to capture them should be reported 

within 72 hours to the office that issued the permit. 

Disposal

Possession of hawks and owls, their feathers, eggs, or 

body parts without a federal permit is a violation of federal 

law. If a hawk or owl needs to be disposed of, contact the 

USFWS or local state wildlife agency for assistance on 

proper procedures.

When considering which methods to use, consider the 

timing of such events, how cost-effective potential actions 

might be, whether the issue can be tolerated, and how the 

success of actions taken will be evaluated. Some methods 

will be too costly or impractical to implement, whereas 

other techniques can be quite easy to use and achieve the 

desired outcome.

Page 8 WDM Technical Series—Hawks and Owls

Economics
Identification

Hawks and owls are classified into four main groups, 

namely accipiters, buteos, falcons, and owls. 

Accipiters typically are forest-dwelling hawks and include 

the northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), Cooper’s hawk 

(A. cooperii), and sharp-shinned hawk (A. striatus). Accipters are recognized by their long-tailed, short-winged flight 

silhouette. Their flight pattern consists of several rapid 

wing beats, then a short period of gliding flight, followed by 

more rapid wing beats. Accipiters are seen most often during migration because they inhabit forested areas and are 

more secretive than many other hawks. 

The buteos are broad-winged or soaring hawks. Of the 14 

species of buteos in North America, the most common are 

the red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus), 

broad-winged hawk (B. platypterus), Swainson’s hawk (B. 

swainsoni), rough-legged hawk (B. lagopus), and ferruginous hawk (B. regalis). Several North American buteos 

[e.g., the zone-tailed hawk (B. albonotatus)] are relatively 

rare and have very limited distributions in the United 

States. All buteos have long, broad wings and relatively 

short, fan-like tails. Buteos appear steady in flight and 

have powerful wing beats. They flap their wings for only 

short periods and rely on air thermals and updrafts to keep 

them in the air. Buteos generally soar over open country 

during their daily travels and seasonal migrations. 

There are six species of falcons in North America: the 

American kestrel (Falco sparverius), merlin (F. columbarius), peregrine falcon (F. peregrinus), prairie falcon (F. mexicanus), gyrfalcon (F. rusticolus), and northern aplomado 

falcon (F. femoralis septentrionalis). Falcons have long, 

narrow, pointed wings and are built for speed. These birds 

are adept at chasing down their prey, which often includes 

other birds in flight.

Owls are almost entirely nocturnal and thus are more difficult to observe. Exceptions include the snowy owl (Bubo 

scandiacus), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), burrowing 

owl (Athene cunicularia), and northern hawk-owl (Surnia 

ulula). Owls have large heads and large, forward-facing 

eyes. They can approach prey with great stealth, due to the 

unique serrated edge of their feathers that dampens the 

sound of flight. This adaptation also slows their flight 

speed, but since most travel at night, slower flight reduces 

the risk of collisions and injury. Nineteen species of owls 

exist in the continental United States. They range in size 

from the tiny, 5- to 6-inch elf owl (Micrathene whitneyi) that 

resides in the arid Southwest, to the large, 24- to 33-inch 

great gray owl (Strix nebulosa) that inhabits the dense boreal forests of Alaska, Canada, and the northern continental United States. The most common and widespread is the 

great horned owl.

Although the sex of some hawks and owls can be determined from color patterns that are obviously different between males and females, males and females of most 

hawks and owls look very similar (in scientific terms, they 

are not sexually dimporhic in regard to plumage). Female 

hawks typically are larger than males. Often young birds 

are easily distinguished from older (breeding age) ones due 

to clear differences in coloration and feathers. Most notably, juvenile red-tailed hawks do not have the distinctive 

“red tail feathers” like breeding adults. There are many 

bird field guides available, several specific to hawks and 

owls, that can be helpful for determining the species, sex, 

and age of birds. 

Given the number of different hawks and owls in North 

America, the potential for human-raptor conflict is significant. The northern goshawk, red-tailed hawk, and great 

horned owl account for the majority of conflicts between 

humans and hawks and owls. This publication focuses on 

these three species, but most of the general biology, nature of conflicts, and damage management methods will 

apply to other hawks and owls.

Physical Description

Northern Goshawk

The northern goshawk (Figure 8) is the largest but least 

common of the three North American accipiters. Goshawks 

are 20 to 26 inches tall and weigh from 1 pound 7 ounces

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 9

Species Overview
to 2 pounds 10 ounces. Goshawks have broad wings that 

taper toward the tips, and a long, broad tail. Juvenile 

goshawks have a broad, pale superciliary line (line of 

feathers above the bird’s eye) and grey cheeks, whereas 

adults have blackish heads and a bright white superciliary 

line. 

Red-tailed Hawk

Red-tailed hawks (Figure 9) are large, stout, and powerful 

birds—the quintessential buteo. Red-tails are 19 to 25 

inches tall and weigh from 1 pound 9 ounces to 3 pounds 

8 ounces. They have long and broad wings and wide tails. 

Red-tailed hawks exhibit an extreme amount of color 

variation throughout North America, from very light colored 

or pale and to very dark. Juvenile red-tailed hawks lack the 

distinct red tail feathers, the namesake of this species. 

Red-tailed hawks often are seen in open areas soaring 

high above the ground.

Great Horned Owl

Great horned owls (Figure 10) are large, powerful owls with 

iconic ear tufts or “horns” and a very characteristic white 

throat “bib.” They are colorful birds with dark bars on their 

breast feathers. Great horned owls are 18 to 25 inches tall 

and weigh from 1 pound 7 ounces to 3 pounds 15 ounces. 

Great horned owls are secretive and not often seen, 

spending much of their time perched in wooded areas.

Range

Some hawks and owls are widely distributed across North 

America, while others have very limited distributions and 

occur in very small areas or in just one state. Information 

about other hawks and owls, including their ranges and 

other aspects of their biology, can be found in bird field 

guides, in several books about raptors, and within on-line 

resources, such as The Birds of North America series (See 

Appendix 2 for northern goshawk, red-tailed hawk and 

great horned owl range maps). 

The northern goshawk occurs primarily in northern and 

western North America. Many goshawks exhibit migratory 

behaviors and, during certain years, large numbers of 

these birds move south and winter in the northeastern and 

north-central United States.

The red-tailed hawk is one of our most common and widely 

distributed raptors with 16 recognized subspecies. They 

can be found throughout the entire North American 

continent south of the treeless tundra and in much of 

Central America. They demonstrate a remarkably wide 

ecological tolerance for nesting and hunting sites 

throughout their extensive range.

The great horned owl is the most widely distributed raptor 

in North America. Its range extends over almost all of North 

America except for the extreme northern regions of the 

Arctic. 

Page 10 WDM Technical Series—Hawks and Owls

Figure 8. A sub-adult northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), an 

accipiter. 

Figure 9. An adult red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), a typical 

buteo). 
Voices and Sounds

Hawks and owls typically have calls that are specific to 

their own species. The iconic “kee-eeee-arrr” of the redtailed hawk and the “who-ho-o-o, whoo-hoo-o-o, whoo” of a 

great horned owl are notable examples. Although hawks 

and owls tend to be relatively quiet, which aids in hunting, 

they can be quite vocal during the breeding and nesting 

seasons.

Tracks and Signs

Hawks and owls typically do not leave tracks unless there 

is fresh snow cover. One key sign that indicates the 

presence of hawks and owls is pellets or castings, which 

are regurgitated masses of undigested food items. Fresh 

pellets, especially of owls, are covered with a moist 

iridescent sheen. They can be very helpful in identifying 

what species of bird might be involved in a predation 

situation and provide valuable information about the 

feeding habits of raptors.

Reproduction

Northern goshawks typically begin breeding at 2 to 3 years 

of age. Both sexes show some fidelity to their nesting 

territories, meaning the same male and female typically 

return to the same nest location year after year. In North 

America, the breeding season generally is from April to 

July. Mature goshawks attempt to nest only once per year 

and the average clutch size is 2 to 4. Similar to most 

hawks and owls, the abundance and availability of prey 

strongly influences reproductive output of this species. On 

average, each nesting pair of goshawks produces 2.0 to 

2.8 young per year. 

Red-tailed hawks typically begin breeding at 3 years of age. 

They exhibit a high degree of fidelity to their nesting 

territories. In North America, the breeding season generally 

is from March to July. Mature red-tailed hawks attempt to 

nest only once per year, and the average clutch size is 2 to 

3. Reproductive output in this species varies by the 

abundance of available prey, density of hunting perches, 

and the proximity of their nests to those of other red-tailed 

hawks. On average, each nesting pair successfully fledges 

0.9 to 1.4 young per year. 

Great horned owls typically begin breeding at 2 years of 

age. In a given year, many adults fail to establish territories 

and breed; these birds are referred to as floaters. In North 

America, the breeding season generally is from February to 

April. Mature great horned owls typically attempt to nest 

once per year and have an average clutch size of 2 to 3. 

Although the reproductive output of this species varies by 

the abundance of available prey, each nesting pair 

successfully produces an average of 0.5 to 2.6 young per 

year. 

Nesting

Northern goshawks nest in a variety of forested habitats, 

but show a strong preference for large tracts of forest with 

mature trees, closed canopies, open understories, and 

sparse ground cover. Human disturbances, such as timber 

harvesting, during the breeding season can cause nest 

abandonment and failures. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 11

Figure 10. An adult great horned owl (Bubo virginianus). 
Red-tailed hawks demonstrate a remarkably wide 

ecological tolerance for nesting sites throughout their 

extensive range. In eastern North America, they typically 

nest in mature forests and woodlots, while they often nest 

on cliffs, trees, and cacti in the Southwest. These hawks 

often are tolerant of people and nest in urbanized areas. 

One of the most famous is “Pale Male,” which received 

much media attention when it nested on a building in 

Manhattan (New York City). 

Great horned owls use a wider range of nest sites and 

nesting habitats than any other raptor in North America. 

Great horned owls usurp tree nests built by other birds, 

most commonly red-tailed hawks or squirrels. They also 

use cavities in trees, cliffs, deserted buildings, and a 

variety of other nesting locations.

Mortality

In North America, shooting and trapping are not considered 

to be important mortality factors for northern goshawks. 

Goshawks are more actively persecuted in Europe in 

relation to private game bird farms. Habitat loss and 

degradation is the primary threat to nesting populations of 

northern goshawks.

Historically, the greatest source of mortality in red-tailed 

hawks has been intentional shooting by humans. Red-tail 

hawks face a variety of other human-related mortality 

issues that may be locally or regionally important, including 

collisions with vehicles (cars, trains, aircraft) and structures 

(towers, fences, wind turbines), electrocutions, and 

secondary poisoning from pesticides and lead ingestion.

Annual survival rates for great horned owls generally are 

unknown, but likely show patterns similar to those of 

hawks and other owls. Human-caused mortality, both 

direct and indirect, accounts for most of the deaths in 

great horned owls. Illegal shooting, non-intended 

secondary poisoning from pesticides, and collisions with 

vehicles, are common causes of mortality. 

Population Status

Northern goshawks are the least common of the three 

North America accipiters covered here, but overall they are 

fairly abundant regionally. With the exception of the Queen 

Charlotte Goshawk subspecies, the northern goshawk is 

not listed as federally threatened or endangered in North 

America. Goshawks are considered to be a management 

indicator species by the U.S. Forest Service because they 

are sensitive to habitat change.

Populations of red-tailed hawks in North America are 

stable or increasing. Red-tailed hawks are considered the 

most abundant hawk in North America, a trend that will 

likely continue due to this species’ adaptability and 

success in landscapes created by urban and exurban 

sprawl.

The great horned owl likely is stable or increasing across 

North America. They are very common, and local 

population densities are linked to the availability of prey. 

Habitat

Northern goshawks inhabit large forested areas during the 

breeding season and forage along grassland-forest edges, 

within forest openings, and within riparian areas. Nesting 

territories are 2.2 to 13.5 square miles. Goshawks typically 

have 1 or 2 core areas where much of their hunting and 

activities occur. Not much is known about wintering home 

ranges of northern goshawks.

Throughout its extensive range, the red-tailed hawk typical 

inhabits open areas interspersed with patches of trees or 

similar structures. Although it varies due to several factors, 

most notably food availability, territories of red-tailed 

hawks range from 0.5 to 1.0 square miles.

Great horned owls use a wide variety of habitats, including 

deciduous and coniferous forests, open and second-growth 

woodlands, swamps, orchards, and agricultural areas. They 

commonly occupy wooded residential parks and urban and 

exurban areas. Territories of great horned owls range from 

0.3 to 1.0 square miles, although floater owls that do not 

establish territories use areas approximately 5 times 

larger.

Page 12 WDM Technical Series—Hawks and Owls
Behavior

Northern goshawks typically are diurnal (or active during 

the day), and begin to hunt at first light. Goshawks are 

adapted to hunt on the wing, and can effectively chase 

down prey in brushy or wooded areas. They have been 

known to chase poultry into buildings. Goshawks roost 

alone, high in the tree canopy.

Red-tailed hawks are diurnal and feed during daylight 

hours. They hunt from perches or soar over areas and 

search for prey, diving down to take birds and mammals. 

They roost in trees with dense foliage, typically alone or 

with only 1 or 2 other hawks.

Great horned owls are nocturnal and typically hunt at night 

or early morning hours. They hunt from perches, listening 

and watching for the movements of prey. They roost in 

trees, snags, thick brush, buildings, and cavities.

Food Habits 

The northern goshawk is a bold, opportunistic predator 

that feeds on a variety of birds and mammals, but mainly 

on ground squirrels, tree squirrels, rabbits, hares, large 

passerine birds, woodpeckers, grouse, pheasants, other 

game birds, and crows.

The diet of red-tailed hawks can be extremely diverse, but 

usually contains small to medium-sized mammals such as 

mice and voles, tree and ground squirrels, rabbits and 

hares; game birds such as pheasants and quail; small 

birds such as starlings and blackbirds; and reptiles such as 

snakes and lizards. Red-tailed hawks also scavenge on 

fresh carrion, including road-killed animals.

Great horned owls have the most diverse prey profile of all 

North American raptors. They opportunistically feed on a 

wide variety of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, 

and invertebrates. Their diet typically consists of mammals 

such as ground squirrels, rats and mice, muskrats, woodchucks and skunks; but shorebirds, ducks, pigeons, doves, 

and other owls can be important. Nestlings and fledglings 

of many bird species, including raptors, also can be an important seasonal food for great horned owls. 

All hawks and owls in the United States are federally protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 USC, 

703−711). Hawks and owls typically are protected under 

state wildlife laws or local ordinances, as well. These laws 

strictly prohibit the capture, killing, or possession of hawks 

or owls (or their parts) without a special permit (e.g., Federal Depredation Permit), issued by the USFWS. State-issued 

wildlife damage or depredation permits also may be required. Permits are not required to frighten or harass depredating migratory birds unless the birds are endangered 

or threatened (see Table below).

Some hawks and owls may be common in one state but 

categorized as being threatened or endangered in another 

state. Consult with your local Wildlife Services, USFWS, and 

state wildlife agency personnel for permit requirements 

and information.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 13

Legal Status

Common Name Scientific Name Historic Range 

Endangered Status 

California Condor Gymnopyps 

californianus

U.S. (AZ, CA, OR) 

and Mexico

Northern 

Aplomado Falcon

Falco feromalis 

septentrionalis U.S. (AZ, NM)

Hawaiian

Hawk

Buteo

solitarius U.S. (HI)

Puerto Rican 

Broad-winged 

Hawk

Buteo platypterus 

brunnescens

U.S. 

(Puerto Rico)

Puerto Rican 

Sharp-shinned 

Hawk

Accipiter striatus 

venator

U.S. 

(Puerto Rico)

Everglade Snail 

Kite

Rostrhamus sociablis plumbeus U.S. (FL) and Cuba

Threatened Status 

Mexican 

Spotted Owl

Stix occidentalis 

lucida

U.S. (AZ, CO, NM, 

TX, UT) and Mexico

Northern 

Spotted Owl

Strix occidentalis 

caurina

U.S. (CA, OR, WA) 

and Canada

Queen Charlotte 

Goshawk

Accipter gentilis 

laingi

Canada (British 

Columbia)
Page 14

Acknowledgements

Figure 1. Photo by Brian E. Washburn, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC

Figure 2. Photo by Anson Eaglin, USDA-APHIS

Figure 3. Photo by Christopher Loftis, USDA-APHIS-WS

Figure 4. Photo by Todd Pitlik, USDA-APHIS-WS

Figure 5. Photo by Brian E. Washburn, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC

Figure 6. Photo by Brian E. Washburn, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC

Figure 7. Photo by Brian E. Washburn, USDA-APHIS-WS, NWRC

Figure 8. Photo by Jenny Washburn, USDA-APHIS-WS 

Figure 9. Photo by Jenny Washburn, USDA-APHIS-WS 

Figure 10. Photo by Jenny Washburn, USDA-APHIS-WS 

Glossary

Acclimate: A degredation in response to repeated 

stimulation such that the animal no longer reacts to the 

use of a scare tactic or device. 

Clutch size: The number of eggs laid in a nest by a 

breeding bird.

Floater: Adult raptor that fails to establish a territory and 

breed.

Pellet: The regurgitated mass of undigested parts of a 

bird’s food, consisting of undigested bones, feathers, fur 

and hair from prey items. 

Plumage: The layer of feathers that cover a bird and the 

pattern, color, and arrangement of those feathers.

Pyrotechnics: Flares or cartridges fired from a gun or 

launcher that produce a loud blast or scream accompanied 

by smoke and a flash of light.

Raptor: Also known as a bird of prey, a bird that hunts and 

eats other animals.

Relocation: The act of moving an animal from one spot to 

another. For example, moving a bat from your attic to the 

backyard.

Sexually dimorphic: A physical or observable difference 

between males and females of the same species.

Superciliary line: A line of feathers above a bird’s eye.

Translocation: The act of moving an animal outside of its 

original home range, usually a considerable distance away.

Key Words

Exclusion, Game birds, Hawks, Livestock, Owls, Poultry, 

Raptors, Trapping, Translocation

Citation

Wildlife can threaten the health and safety of you and 

others in the area. Use of damage prevention and control 

methods also may pose risks to humans, pets, livestock, 

other non-target animals, and the environment. Be aware 

of the risks and take steps to reduce or eliminate those 

risks. 

Some methods mentioned in this document may not be 

legal, permitted, or appropriate in your area. Read and 

follow all pesticide label recommendations and local 

requirements. Check with personnel from your state 

wildlife agency and local officials to determine if methods 

are acceptable and allowed. 

Mention of any products, trademarks, or brand names 

does not constitute endorsement, nor does omission 

constitute criticism. 

WDM Technical Series—Hawks and Owls

Disclaimer

Washburn, B.E. 2016. Hawks and Owls. Wildlife Damage 

Management Technical Series. USDA, APHIS, WS National 

Wildlife Research Center. Ft. Collins, Colorado. 17p.
Page 15

Resources

Artuso, Christian, C. Stuart Houston, Dwight G. Smith and Christoph Rohner. 2014. Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus), 

The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; The Birds of North America Online: 

http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/372

Berger, D. D., and F. Hamerstrom. 1962. Protecting a trapping station from raptor predation. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 26:203−206. 

Bird, D. M., and K. L. Bildstein (Editors). 2007. Raptor research and management techniques. Hancock House 

Publishing, Blaine, Washington, USA. 463 pp.

Bub, H. 1991. Bird trapping and bird banding. (English translation edition). Cornell University Press, Cornell, New York, 

USA. 330 pp.

Dunn, J. L., and J. Alderfer. 2011. National Geographic Field Guide to the Birds of North America. 6th Edition. National 

Geographic Society, Des Moines, Iowa, USA. 576 pp.

Elbroch, M., and E. Marks. 2001. Bird tracks and sign: a guide to North American species. Stackpole Books, 

Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania, USA. 456 pp.

Liguori, J. 2011. Hawks at a distance. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. 193 pp. 

Meng, H. 1971. The Swedish goshawk trap. Journal of Wildlife Management 35:832−835. 

Newton, I. 1979. Population ecology of raptors. Buteo Books, Vermillion, South Dakota. 399 pp. 

Preston, C. R. and R. D. Beane. 2009. Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, 

Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; The Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/

species/052

Squires, John R. and Richard T. Reynolds. 1997. Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), The Birds of North America 

Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; The Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/

bna/species/298

US Department of the Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service. 2005. Use of pole traps for capturing depredating raptors. 

Migratory Bird Permit Memorandum MBPM-4. Washington, DC. 5 pp.

US Department of the Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service Federally Listed Threatened and Endangered Species

www.fws.gov/endangered/

US Department of the Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Permits www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/mbpermits.html

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Damage Management Methods for Hawks and Owls

Page 16

Appendix 1 

 

Type of Control 

 

 

Available Management Options 

 

Exclusion  When practical and economical, confinement is the most effective method for 

protecting livestock 

 Confine free-ranging fowl in enclosures covered with netting or woven wire 

 House fowl at night to protect from owls 

 Use anti-perching devices (sheet metal cones, Nixalite®, Cat Claws®, or inverted 

spikes) on structures and poles 

Frightening Devices Air horns, scarecrows, and pyrotechnics as allowed by local laws and ordinances 

Habitat Modification Eliminate nearby perch sites (cut down large, isolated trees and snags)

Repellents None available

Toxicants None available

Trapping  State and federal permits are required

 Variety of live-traps (e.g., pole traps, Swedish goshawk traps, bal-chatri traps) 

 Raptors must be translocated far from the problem site where captured

Shooting  Can be authorized under certain conditions

 Federal depredation permits are used only when public health and safety is an issue 

and non-lethal methods are ineffective

Other Methods  Keep yourself, children, and small pets a safe distance (e.g., 500 feet) from active 

raptor nests

 Do not leave small pets (e.g., cats, small dogs) unattended outdoors 

 Provide safe enclosures or bring small pets inside at night
Range Maps for Northern Goshawk, Red-tailed Hawk, and Great Horned Owl. 

Maps by The Birds of North America Online, Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 

Page 17 Appendix 2

Range of the northern goshawk in North America. Range of the red-tailed hawk in North America. Birds in the 

breeding area (blue) are migratory. 

Range of the great horned owl in North America.