Research Note 86-35

MEDITATION: RATIONALES, EXPERIMENTAL EFFECTS,

AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

Jasper Brener and Samuel R. Connally

Department of Psychology

University of Hull

0 for

ARI Scientific Coordination Office, London

Michael Kaplan, Chief]

BASIC RESEARCH E E T

Milton S. Katz, Director D T IC

Research Institute fo h eairladSocial Sciences

C., April 1986 **

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ARI Research Note 86-35 •

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Final Report MEDITATION: RATIONALES, EXPERIMENTAL EFFECTS85

AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES Sep________85

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Jasper Brener & Samuel R. Connally DAJA45-84-M-0439 .

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19. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse side If neceeeary nd Identify by block number)

Meditation, Relaxation Response, Breathing Control, Control of

Metabolic Rate, Attention, Attitude, Electroencephalography,

Autonomic Responses, Stress and Anxiety, Control of Drug Use,

Control of Hypertension.

20, ABTI ACT (CWAtue an reverse aid If nmcea amd Identify by block number)

This report provides a critical evaluation of the published work on

meditation. It consists of four major sections: Mystical Aspects of

Meditation, Psychological Effects, Physiological Effects and Methodological ..

Issues. It is found that Western versions of meditation diverge significantly

in their rationales and purposes from the Eastern practices on which they

are based. In the East, meditation is a religious practice that has spiritual

goals. Although it has retained a mystical flavour in the West, it is employed

Lprimarily as a means of counteracting the stresses of modern life. This

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application of meditation is thought to operate by inducing a state of bodily ,

and mental relaxation mainly through the control of attention and the regulation

of breathing. There is some evidence that meditative techniques have

therapeutic value in protecting against the pathogenic effects of stress.

However, it is not proven that they are significantly more effective than other

behavioural methods for inducing relaxation. Neither are the physiological

or psychological effects of meditation differenceAfrom those associated with . '

relaxation. Furthermore the effectiveness of both meditation and these other .-V- J

relaxation techniques appears to be strongly influenced by factors which have

not been systematically investigated such as the beliefs of subjects and their

confidence in the techniques. *-., ':

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PREFACE

This report describes the results of a one-year ,

Investigation of Meditation. Many beneficial effects ranging

from effective treatment of serious diseases, through

improvements in social, business and academic progress, to

personal bliss and even ecstasy, are claimed for the practice of

meditation. Its more ardent proponents go so far as to suggest

that the universal practice of meditation provides a key to world

peace. Extravagant claims of this sort are not unusual in the

domains of religion and politics. What differentiates the

claims of meditation from those emanating from these more

traditional sources, is that they purport to be based upon

publically-verifiable evidence. Certain Western brands of

meditation have encouraged and supported research and this has

led to the accumulation of a substantial database. What follows

represents an attempt to distill the major features contained in

this database. Neither of the authors of this report have

meditated or conducted experimental research on meditation.

Therefore, before embarking on this enterprise it was necessary

to generate an understanding of the nature and scope of the

subject.

This difficult matter is broached in the first section.

The roots of current Western meditational practices are found in

cultures that are quite remote from our own. Certain features

of meditation have been extracted from Eastern cultures where

they are indigenous and imported into the West. However with

cultural transplantation, the Eastern practices have been

redefined and only the most primitive vestiges of their initial

purposes remain in the Western versions. The complexity of this

issue Is illustrated by an attempt to represent the rationale and

goals of Eastern meditative practices. Although the mystical V.

tradition of the East is more profound than that of the West.

mysticism does have a place in Western thought. This may have '

provided a foothold for the rapid expansion of meditative

practices in the West over the past 20 years.

The second section deals with psychological processes that

are allied to Meditation. Psychology has a natural and

historical interest in the subject. After all, meditation

claims to be a method for influencing consciousness through the

regulation of attention. Furthermore, in its Western

incarnation, Meditation has been promoted as & powerful

psychotherapeutic method. In the case of Transcendental

Meditation at least, a state of deep bodily and mental relaxation

has been claimed. The reliable induction of such a state to

counteract the pathogenic effects of stress would have great

therapeutic potential. An appreciable scientific literature

devoted to examining the efficacy of meditation as psychotherapy

has grown up. Meditation Is also of interest to psychologists

because it provides detailed accounts of the behavioural

procedures necessary for its induction. This opens a potential . -

route for exploring the links between behaviour and

consciousness.

Iii
Pathways that may support such links have been most

explicitly described in physiological terms. It is therefore

unsurprising that physiological researchers have taken an active

interest in Meditation. One of the most cogent forces in

directing their attention to this subject were claims of

improbable, but empirically-testable, feats performed by

practitioners of meditation. Many of these feats defy the

Western scientific view of what is biologically feasible and yet

they appear to have been verified by scientists employing

currently-accepted standard methods of observation and

measurement. The third section examines the evidence for these

and other physiological changes that have been associated with

meditation.

The final major section of the report examines

methodological issues that arise in attempts to generate

scientific evidence of the effects of meditation. Many of the

problems encountered are similar to those associated with

research in clinical psychology and psychophysiology. Some of

them may be resolved by the adoption of recommended procedures of

Investigation. Others. which relate to the intrusion of belief

and committment in determining therapeutic outcome are more

intractable.

Although our studies have taken in only a fraction of the

available publications on the subject, it will be seen from the

bibliography that more than 300 articles and books have been

examined. Meditation is a complex subject that touches on a

numerous interesting and potentially important questions. It is

hoped that this report will provide the reader with an unbiased

view of the current state of the art.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. MYSTICAL ASPECTS OF MEDITATION 1

Introduction 1

A. Eastern Mysticism 3

i. Basic Beliefs 5

ii. The Goals of Buddhist Meditation 6

iii. Respiratory Manoeuvres and Postures 9

B. Transcendental Meditation 10

C. Western Mysticism 12

1. Christianity 12

ii. Spiritualism 13

D. Discussion 15

II. PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS 19

Introduction 19

A. Basic Processes 20

i. Transcendental Meditation 20

ii. The Unconscious 22

iii. Attention 25

iv. Attitude 27

B. Therapeutic Processes 28

i. Views of Stress and Anxiety 28

ii. Control of Stress and Anxiety 30

iii. Control or Drug and Alcohol Use/Abuse 32

iv. Cognitive Alterations 33

v. Control of Hypertension 35

C. Discussion 39

III. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 43 -. 5

Introduction 43

A. Electroencephalography and Meditation 44

i. Alpha Activity and Meditation U15

ii. Alpha Blocking Studies £6

iii. Theta Activity and TM 46

iv. Long-term EEG Studies £8

v. Comment on the EEG Studies £18

B. Transcendental Meditation and Associated

Physiology 49

i. Heart Rate 51

ii. Galvanic Skin Response 52

iii. The Electromyogram 53

iv. Comment on HR, GSR. and EMG Studies 54

C. Control of Metabolic Rate and Associated

Feats of Endurance 54.

i. Pit Burials 55

ii. Comment on Pit Burial Studies 61

D. The Relaxation Response 61

E. Discussion 63

. .i . . i . ' -I '" . * ... .% . ' ' I
..... . -. .. -

IV. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES 66

A. Explanations of the Effects of Meditation 66

B. Psychology and Behaviour 69

C. Meditation 72

D. Assessment of Physiological Responses 75

V. CONCLUSIONS 80

A. What is Meditation? 80

B. How does it work? 81

C. Does Meditation have any tangible value? 82

D. What would increase our understanding

of Meditation? 83

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY 85

V

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I. MYSTICAL ASPECTS OF MEDITATION

Introduction

Meditation as a practice. technique process, state of mind.

or means of salvation has always been a fundamental part of

Buddhism. the most psychologically developed of the world's

religious faiths. Although precise knowledge of its origins

have been lost, the practice of meditation has long been

associated with the Indian subcontinent and its environs. From

there, the practice spread into Tibet, China. Southeast Asia.

Japan and what is today Indonesia. A feature reflected by this

expansion into other cultures and geographic areas is a

remarkable ability to adapt to diverse civilizations and to

coexist with other religions. However. there has been less

assimilation with Islam and Christianity where meditative

techniques competed more directly with other methods of

salvation. Western religions, nonetheless, contain certain

analogous practices which have similar goals. The process of

assimilation has led to shifts of interest, in doctrine and

modification of techniques. This has contributed to the many

confusions surrounding the nature of meditation.

Currently, such confusions extend even to the amount of

information available for study. For example on one hand, when

contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to meditation some

authors describe "a voluminous literature devoted to meditation.

mostly in English" (Nalimov, 1982, p.127). while on the other

hand. Buddhist scholars have noted that the '... European

literature on Buddhist meditation is not very considerable.

What there is deals either with practices of the Southern

Theravadin school ... " (Conze, 1972, p.26) and of at least 17

anthologies in English alone, each "is woefully inadequate and

inevitably omits far more than it includes" (Conze, 1959,

p.11). Furthermore, it has been pointed out that different

systems of meditation promote approaches and practices which are

not only varied but also in conflict, and this has led to no

definition of meditation being universally accepted (Goleman,

1977).

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (SOED) defines

Meditation as sustained reflection or mental contemplation,

especially concerning some religious truth. The verb 'to

meditate' means 'to exercise the mind in thought/contemplation',

especially devotional contemplation (1560); 'to reflect upon.

study, or ponder' (1580); 'to design mentally, plan by revolving

in the mind' (1591). By 1609 it meant 'to think* and this

connotation is reflected in the publication of the 'Meditations'

of Rene Descartes addressing the philosophy and methods of

science. Later in 1700. 'to observe with intentness' was added

(SOED. II P.1300).

1 .
Other maJor dictionaries do not deviate significantly from

this authority; each employing definitions consistent with

Eastern traditions in the sense that meditation is perceived to

be principally a mental process. However. Occidental

interpretations of such events differ from those o the Orient.

where it is denied that meditation Involves thought, reflection

or contemplation. Indeed, Buddhists propose that 'stoppage of r.

thought' is a necessary precondition for serious advancement in

the practice of meditation. Moreover, the compilers or the SOED

do not give 'relitious truth' the emphasis Implicit In Buddhism,

although it is acknowledged that this may be a coal of

meditation.

Speciality dictionaries further embellish definitions of

meditation. English & English (1958) introduced additional

criteria to the definition in their dictionary or psychological

and psychoanalytical terms. In this, not only is meditation

'serious and sustained reflection or contemplation', in

accordance with the SOED. but it is also 'a quiet and relaxed

state'; an aspect of meditation that is typically emphasized by

the psychological and psychotherapeutic communities.

Such an expansion of the term highlights the growing Western

view of meditation as a physiological, as well a a psychological

phenomenon. Nevertheless, this definition does not involve the

mystical goal of orthodox Buddhist and Yogic meditators -

spiritual enlihtenment: a goal achieved through mystical union

with the Divine, which in turn, led ultimately to final 'release'

or 'liberation' from the perceived limitations of human

existence. The term 'mystical' has been commonly used to

describe states of consciousness involving feelings or 'bliss'.

'love'. 'unity' a sense of sacredness, altered perception of

space and time and an enhanced sense or reality, authenticity and

meaning (Stace, 1960).

Conze (1959) noted the vagueness of the term 'meditation'.

and stressed that serious meditation could only progress if

strict procedures are rollowed in its practice. If these are

put aside, then the aspirant is engaging not in meditation but in

something else, perhaps a relaxation technique. However.

predominantly Eastern practices have appeared in the West in a

much simpler and modified rorm known as Transcendental Meditation

(TM). This type or meditation claims to offer many or the

rewards of the more traditional versions without demanding

adherence to strict and austere lifestyles. In this, emphasis

is placed on the relaxation value of TM at the expense of

spiritual enlightenment.

2

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As beliefs and expectations have a direct bearing on

psychological and psychiatric research, the m.Lt1. features of

the Buddhist world view are fundamental to of the practice of

meditation. As a salvation methodology, it was instituted for

normal adults within the parent society, and not as a therapeutic

technique for the physically or mentally ill. In the West,

however, the therapeutic promise of meditation has provided the

Impetus for scientific research, whereas the mystical goals

representing the belief system of its original practitioners have

been ignored. Thus the concept has been wholly tr&ansmogrified.

Given these considerations, meditation may be more clearly

understood within the world view that it involves.

A. Eastern Mysticism

Although meditation is practiced by a number of Eastern

religions, it is an essential of Buddhism and more is written

about it in the context of this religion. Buddhism does not

concern itself with many issues central to the Christian

experience. Questions surrounding the existence of God, the

limits of his power and the creation of the universe have no I

direct bearing on the practice of Buddhism. In Buddhism the

universe was not created but has always existed, with neither

beginning nor end. However it experiences repeating cycles of

change which sequentially pass through periods of origination.

duration, destruction, and annihilation. Events occurring

within these cycles are M The universe is not ruled by

the caprice of any god or group of gods, but functions according

to the dictates of impersonal laws, the nature of which are only

knowable through the practice of meditation.

Conze (1972) has dealt with Buddhist meditation in detail,

and his efforts will be d-awn upon here, unless otherwise stated.

This position is justified on the grounds of his pre-eminence as

a Buddhist scholar, being a "Peerless analyst of all sects of

Buddhism, being well-versed in Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan,

Mongolian, and Japanese" (Peiris, 1973, P.70). Also. Conze

saw himself as a tr'& lator rather than an interpreter of

Buddhist Texts. Other major commentaries - VaJiranana. 1975;

ifyanaponika. 1962 - do not diverge significantly from his

presentations.

Buddhist meditations, as expounded in the Pali Canon, are

based largely upon the experience of Siddhartha Gautama (Gotama)

who was the Master Meditator and Founder of Buddhism. In

addition to the Canons, there are three major works in postcanonical (Theravadin) literature which specifically address

medita- ion at length and are frequently cited in the literature:

3
~J,

1) Rath al ZuLaltM is the unchallenged authority on meditation -.

from the position of the Mahavihara sect and contains over

550 pages devoted to the topic. J

11) Path to Liberation describes meditation from the position of

the Abhayagiravadin met. It predated, but was possibly

eclipsed by. Path of Puri t.

iii) Manual of a mystic is a much later Ceylonese handbook.

In this context the Yona Sutra of Patanjali, also heavily cited

by meditational researchers, should be mentioned. This is a

meditational manual In the yoga tradition, the authority or which

is equivalent to the Path of Purity in Buddhism.

The practice of Yoga has been closely associated with both

meditation and the use of physical exercises to induce altered

states of consciousness. The word 'yoga' is often translated

from Sanskrit as Ounion', meaning a union of the Individual

'Self' with the Absolute Cosmic 'Self' or Being - the ultimate

substrate or reality. This union is achieved in such a way as

to allow unenlightened human nature to be 'Joined to ', and

transformed by the Divine nature. In addition to yoga meaning . -

'yoke' in the sense of linking human nature to the Divine.

Sanskrit also defines yoga am 'meditation' or 'going into a

trance' (Evans-Wentz, 1958; Conze, 1972). In the Yoga Sutras

of Patanjali. Yoga represents an attempt to promote 'pure

consciousness', that Is. consciousness without obJect or content.

Yoga is not only a met of mystical beliefs, however, but also a

method for achieving psychological and bodily health.

Even a superficial examination of these sources reveals

meditation to be a complex matter involving every dimension of

life. For example, in India reincarnation or rebirth is widely

accepted and expressed through KARMA, the doctrine of 'acts' or

'deeds'. According to this doctrine, good behaviour brings

pleasant results, while bad behaviour is associated with evil

consequences. The acts performed in one's present life shape

the existence of the individual in subsequent reincarnations.

The belief In karma and rebirth reinforces the idea that people

could be born in good and bad places, that is, in one of the

three assumed levels of existence - the immaterial plane, the

material plane, or the plane of desire. The latter plane

corresponds to our natural world, the world of Aam.a&a, which is

inhabited by six types of beings; men, departed spirits, animals,

gods, demons and infernal creatures. In principle, excepting

departed spirits, an individual could be reborn as any one of

these types. However, it is considered most favourable to be

reborn as a human since human birth provides the individual with

a priviledged chance to attain spiritual knowledge.

14 .........................................

*'-*
(i) Basic sellers ;

The doctrine or the EQuZ abj&1 X luha is fundamental to the

Practice of Buddhism and is held in common by all Its various

sects and schools. ZLZAXM. Gautama argued that one must

reoognise that universal suffering is the central feature of the

everyday world - the world of sameara. sa-ndly, like all other A

aspects of the phenomenal world, such suffering is caused, Ile

principally by the innate Predisposition to desire. 'cling' or

'gramp' for pleasure, rebirth (becoming), eta. which are

expressed in bodily actions, speech and mind. Th±a is the

realization that escape from this situation is possible and

fa uth that meditation is the only means of Implementing 'release' from the conditions of suffering and rebirth.

In the Buddhist view only the ignorant and deluded tolerate

self-inflicted pain and are born again to suffering. These

realizations are, therefore, necessary steps in the practice of

meditation and for salvation from the World. in turn, aspirants

must set about purifying their minds, speech and behaviour - the

jnbja lahtrnld Pah. The details of the purification

procedure, and other aspects of Buddhism. need not be explored

here. Suffice it to say that moral purification (sile or sati)

- mindfulness - allegedly permits control of speech and

behaviour., but meditation calms, controls and enlightens the

mind. Hence. it has been noted that:

" 'Meditation' is a European term which covers three

different things, always clearly distinguished by the V"

Buddhists themselves. i.e.. mindfulness, concentration

and wisdom. Their mutual relation is not at once

obvious to Westerners unfamiliar with the tradition

and terminology."

(Conze, 1972. p.16.)

Mindfulness (sati), which Nyanaponlka Thera (1962) has called the

'heart of Buddhist meditation, concerns the initial stages of

meditation, and functions to induce calm and aid 'Insight' or

wisdom (panna) which is developed on the basis of concentration

(samadhL).

Buddhists assert that Individual existence in space-time is

possible only through the presence of some degree of greed-hatr*ed

delusion. If this delusion is totally transcended, then Cosmic

existence is obtained and individual existence ceases. The

characterology essays of both Pall and Chinese sources

distinguish six types of human behaviour associated respectively

with greed, hate, delusions, and fidelity, intelligence.

dilcurlon. The connotations carried by these terms are not

identical to those of the West however, as they refer to

behaviour totally on a spiritual plane.

5

77•%.
Not only are the abundance or dearth of the six behavioural

characteristics assessed in the aspirant meditator, but posture.

attitude to work and food. 'the way they look at things', and

mental states are evaluated from a spiritual perspective. Thus.

great efforts are made to ensure that the meditations assigned to

novices are appropriate to the characteristics and temperaments *.

of those who undertake them. These are often discussed as three

pairs of characteristics. in which each dyad share many common

attributes: greedy and faithful characteristics go together as do

hateful-intelligent, and deluded-discursive.

Hence. before spiritual concentration can commence, the turmoil

caused by: 1) the senses. 2) the passions, and 3) discursive

thinking, must be suppressed. This may be accomplished by using

the '40 subjects' of meditation, which include colours, earth.

water, corpses in various stages of decay, recollections of death

and morality, friendliness, compassion and 'stations' of

unlimited consciousness, among others. Amongst these subjects.

individuals of different temperaments will usually find a topic

suitable for meditation.

(ii) The Goals of Buddhist Meditation

In traditional Buddhist Scriptures the sage Nagasena spoke

of 28 'advantages of meditation'. Thus, meditation induces

longevity, strength, good repute, confidence, contentment.

gladness and joy among other things. Moreover. the practice was

also said to eliminate fear, pride, sloth, faults. ill-fame. and

to abolish 'rebirth in the world of becoming' (Conze. 1959).

Although breaking the cycle of death and rebirth is the ultimate

aspiration of meditators, incidental phenomena denoting

psychological and physiological health have provided the greatest

attraction to contemporary scientific researchers. The

psychophysiological stability purportedly induced by the practice

of meditation was seen to generalize to all occasions. This

state of internal balance produced a subjective freedom from fear

traditionally known as the 'Lion's Roar' of the monks. When

denuded of their religious connotations, the demonstration and

study of these effects falls within the domain of psychology and

physiology.

However, the scientific investigation of meditation has

proven more difficult than it first appeared. People of the %

West have often viewed the practice of meditation as

'unrealistic', probably because serious efforts in this direction

require withdrawal from the world and human affairs.

6
This perception of meditation is quite legitimate: Buddhist r

canonical scriptures consistently maintain that participation in

the everyday world virtually precludes the proper practice of

meditation. On this point Conze (1972) noted that:

"The upper ranges of the virtues of mindfulness.

concentration and wisdom demand a reformation of the conduct

of life which is treater than any layman is willing to

undertake. The higher mindfulness, and nearly the whole

range of concentration and wisdom, presuppose a degree of

withdrawal from the world which is incompatible with the

life of an ordinary citizen. Those who are unwilling to

make the sacrifices necessary to achieve a radical seclusion

from the world can practise these virtues only in very

rudimentary form. It is quite idle to pretend that they do

not involve a complete break with the established habits of

life and thought"

(Conze. 1972, P.38-39)

In this context, wisdom means 'insight' (vipassana) which

is the knowledge of things a they really are. In essence,

wisdom is the complete lack of spiritual ignorance, and becomes

an attribute of mind. Obtaining wisdom permits true reality to

be ascertained - a reality fundamentally different from the

everyday. common-sensical world.

The Canons are quite clear in stating that the ultimate goal

of meditation, a state of liberation called Nirvana, can only be

attained during moments of deep 'insight' (vipassana), although

this does not necessarily happen. If full insight is achieved

however, it may be a direct step to complete liberation. It is

not a mere intellectual appreciation or conceptual knowledge of

these characteristics, but a direct experience of them which is

obtained and mastered through rAn"e&A. meditations. These

reputed attributes of vipassana and other meditations are

currently holding the attention of the Western psychiatric

community. Together with Yogic techniques. Buddhist meditations

are increasingly contributing to Western psychological doctrine

and therapeutic practice. This reception by the clinical

community in particular is partly based on the observation that

'life style' is a significant predictor of premature mortality.

and is implicated in the top ten causes of death in the West.

As both techniques involve a degree of self-discipline concerning

all aspects of behaviour rarely seen in the lay population.

Western researchers are turning to the study of techniques

requiring a rigorous control of life style.

7
Such constraints have usually only been met by monks who

believe that spiritual improvement of mankind Is slowly achieved

through the gradual accumulation of Imerit', a produce of worthy

behaviour (the Law of Karma). The prescribed meritorious acts

usually concern morality, and in this respect they are similar.

In content and tone, to the ten commandments of Christianity. -

Engagement In a wide variety of behaviour*s maw accumulate 'merit'

for Present and future lives. However, imdittn is advocated

aS being the most efficient means or making rapid progress

towards ultimate reality with some forms of meditation being

recognized as more expeditious than others.

Six years of intense meditation were required by Got&ma to

become 'Enlightened', the necessary step to Buddhahood. Gotama

achieved complete spiritual knowledge while practicing

'mindfulness of breathing'. It was through this meditation that

he achieved final control over mind and body. Thus prepared, he

met and transcended Ma&. the King of Passions as well as his

sons: Gaiety, Caprice and Wantonness, and his daughtersl

Discontent, Pleasure and Thirst. Just as Christ refused the

Devil In the desert, so Gotama ignored both Nara and his family.

Buddhist scriptures have noted that this occasion was accompanied

by the complete extinction of selfishness and evil desire. He

is said to have subsequently experienced ultimate reality, after

which he spoke:

"Neither sorrow nor the conflict of this world

Nor Mara nor his daughters nor his army

Could shake my will. They are destroyed forever.

Let ever man try with will unflinching

To seek out Wisdom, he will surely obtain it.

When ones he has it then farewell to sorrow,

For sin and guilt will forever vanish."

(Rawding. 1975, p.30)

The 'wisdom' spoken of herse, refers to the full spiritual

knowledge arrived at through meditation and mindrulness of

breathing. This knowledge n.J.mga.i1 led to peace and

tranquillity, among other things. All sts of Gotama were

directed toward the goal of spiritual enlightment. those not so

focused were considered a waste of time. Henceforth, the

practice of meditation was considered primary to all human

behaviour by those who followed him.

In the opinion or Nyanaponika (1962) concentration on

mindfulness of respiration, cultivated and practiced, led to

peace and happiness; LmnediatelV causing every 'evil thought' to

disappear. The Scriptures elaborate sixteen methods by which

mindfulness of breathing may be practiced. Theme progressively

involve the detachment and rotation or consciousness through

different bodily parts, while remaining 'mindful' of breathing.

-7-8
All but the most simple of these are not recommended for the

average meditator, and need not be elaborated here. Progress in

concentration however, acquired by this meditation, Is believed

to be an important aspect of physical and mental health, although

from the Buddhist viewpoint such effects are only Incidental to

the practice.

(iii) Respiratory Manoeuvres and Postures

'Mindfulness of breathing* requires the adoption of its

complimentary posture: the Lotus position. This posture was

used by the Buddha when he engaged in this meditation and in

turn, it has become the posture of choice for all meditative

subjects. In this position the meditator sits cross-legged with

the solos of the feet facing upward. The outsides of the feet

rost on each contralateral thigh, perferably near the crotch.

The spine is maintained aS near vertical as possible, and the

arms are extended so that the hands rest on the knees. The

thumbs of each hand may be in contact with one of the fingers of

the same hand. As with the spine, the head Is held vertical.

The gaze is lowered through either half-closed or fully-closed

eyes, with 'mindfulness' pointed ahead (attention focused on the

end of the nose or on an imaginary point between the eyebrows).

The lotus posture is reputedly difficult for Westerners to

master, and more often the 'half-lotus' is used in these cases.

The 'half-lotus' is identical to the lotus except that only one

foot is placed on the contralateral thigh: the other foot is

tucked underneath its opposite thigh. In other versions of the

Posture, the buttocks rest on a cushion instead of the floor, and

the hands may be folded in the lap instead of resting on the

knees. The half-lotus posture Is deemed particularly

beneficial to novice meditators and, thus, to Westerners. The

exact combination of meditative subject and posture prescribed

for a given meditator depends upon Individual characteristics

which are assessed by a meditational instructor (guru).

In mindfulness of breathing, attention is initially

restricted to the sensation of breathing. All other mental

activity is considered intrusive and distracting: if the mind

'wanders', it is brought back to the breathing. With practice.

a host of psychophysiological changes occur, including altered

states of consciousness and deep relaxation. When 'mindfulnes'

has been mastered however, attention may detach itself from the

sensation of breathing to observe the development of patterns of

thought and other mental 'habits'

The medit&tional techniques practiced most often in the

West however, for example TM which is 'effortless' and requires only

brief periods of practice, may bear little similarity to those

9

..... . . . . . .. ,. ... ...... . ". -- ,.,' .... ......... .,.,... ,... . '
discussed In the Buddhist literature. Nevertheless. it Is

often asserted that meditations, In both the Buddhist and Hindu.

mode. may be tailored to the needs of Western man. This has led

to the assimilation of many technical terms from Buddhist

meditation into various Western 'styles'. Such an ondeavour

should proceed with caution, for although Buddhism Is equipped

with numerous terms, many defy accurate translation. Rhys

Davids. an eminent Pali scholar, during the Initial translations

of Canonical literature, confessed that it was difficult, If .*

indeed possible, to find any single English word for a Pali which

would convey Its full force without distorting its connotations

(Rhys Davids. 1965).

B. Transcendental Meditation

In contrast to the views of Buddhist meditators. Maharishi

Nahesh Yogi has presented Transcendental Meditation (TM) as a

natural, automatic process by which attention may be brought to the

level of 'Transcendental Being'. This state lies 'beyond' the

ordinary aenses of vision, audition, olfaction, taste, and

proprioception - Indeed. 'beyond' all thinking and feeling. In

common with mainstream Hinduism. both subjective and objective

existence are considered to be relative, and are subsumed under 4.

the permanent domain of Being. This is assumed to be a state of

pure consciousness - termed 'God' or 'Bliss' consciousness by

Maharishi, and asserted to be the source of all those events that,

when experienced at the conscious level, are known as thoughts. AThis state cannot be experienced at the level of thinking or

sensory perception, but may easily be experienced through the

system of TN. Indeed, the direct experience of T is claimed to

supercede all other types of knowledge of the meditative state -

including scientific knowledge.

It in claimed that TM progressively enables thought to be

experienced in Its 'initial Stages' of development. With

practice, the souao " _ of thought In experienced - the

transcendental 'field of being'. The mind is seen to be

automatically drawn towards the 'bliss-consciousnese' of Absolute

Bein by increasingly experiencing the 'charm' of the Journey.

This charm is derived from the natural tendency towards 'greater

happiness', an experience which is asserted to be pleasant to all

minds. Hence. "The mind Is charmed and so is led to experience

Transcendental Being" (Maharishi. 1966. p.55).

In 1958. Mah&rishi Mahesh Yogi founded the Spiritual

Regeneration Movement (SRM) with Its world headquarters and an

Academy of Meditation at Rishikesh in northen India. Dedicated

to the spiritual Improvement or mankind, the SRM attempted to

explain the universe in terms of the Science of Cr*eative

Intelligence (SCI) or its equivalent, the science of Being: a

'science' claimed to be "much more valuable for human life than

10

. . . . ..
all the sciences known so far" (Mararlshi, 1966, P. 21). it

embodies the principles of TM for the purposes of expanding

consciousness and contacting absolute, unmanifesated Being.

Reasoning very much in the Hindu mode, Mararishi offered T

ultimately as an Instrument to unite Individual being with

Universal Being, In which Jz*± ±ng was was seen as & direct linkbetween the Individual and the Divine.

It should be pointed out, however, that TM in viewed as the

'practical side' of the mystical concept of SCI. Creative

Intelligence allegedly pervades all nature - atoms, animals, men,

stars. ete. The practice or TM enables aspirants to experience

directly the source of creative Intelligence within themselves.

The proper application of SCI is claimed to possess unlimited

potential for good within the human species. We do not possess

sufficient knowledge of SCi to make worthy comment but it seems

that Maravishi Mahesh Yogi presents it as a solution to the

'chaos of experimentation and speculation' which he asserts

abounds In Western science.

In a well-managed campaign Maharishi brought TM to the West j

and called for its concerted scientific study, thus fulfilling

Jung's criterion (discussed In Chapter zz) for the acceptance of

meditation in the West: .

"The field of Being, or absolute existence, was for many

centuries considered in terms of mysticism. The present

sclentific age hesitates to assign value to anything

shrouded in the garb of mysticism, and that Is why the study

of Being, the absolute field of creation, has not been a

part of any branch of science until now.

The growth of scientific thinking in the present generation

has brought Being to the level of scientific study and

scrutiny. The present work [The Science of Being and the

Art of Living] i the first of Its kind in the long history

of human thought."

(Maharishi, 1966. p.20-21)

In Appendix I of that work it Is Claimed that TM, as a technique

for enlarging the conscious mind, Is a 'purely scientific

method' because it is: (i) systematic, (ii) not opposed to any

methods of scientific Investigation, (iii) universal In Its

application. (iv) open to verification by personal experience.

and (v) the end result Is found to be the same by everyone.

Although there are many parallels between Buddhist mystical

perspectives and those of TN. the practical Implementation of the

respective techniques could hardly be more different. Par

example Buddhist meditational practices require marked chances in

life style and personal habits; great dedication is expected of

11
monks and, with experience, periods of meditation may increase

significantly. Given the rigours of Buddhist meditations great

oaution is exercised In the selection of monks and in the

topics which are chosen for their meditations.

In contrast. TN to 'effortless' and may be practiced for short

periods by all and sundry, to the benefit of all. Moreover°

mystical and metaphysical features, so important in Buddhism.

have been de-emphasized in TM. indeed, practitioners of TM

assert that religious preference and beliefs do not impact on the

practice of TM. Typically. TM appears to the scientific and lay

communities as an automatic relaxation technique capable of 'destressing' the nervous system, an effect claimed by most types of

meditation but considered trivial by Buddhists.

Maharishi launched a 'World Plan' in 1972 to save a -

spiritually impoverished mankind and this program has been

extremely successful in drawing prospective meditators, at least

in the Western world. There has been enthusiastic and largely

uncritical acceptance of TM doctrine. and the subsequent

enunciation of untempered views may have been aided and abetted

by the fact that meditative traditions aso appear in some forms

of Chriatanity. These traditions have not gained an ascendency

equol to those of meditation in the East. although Christian

mysticism does possess a long history and Is supported by a rich

literature.

C. Western Mysticism

(i) Christianity

Meditative practices have been most prominent in Eastern

Christianity* where union with God was accepted as the goal of

Christian life. indeed, in mystical traditions the goal of such

techniques has been to merge the meditator and the object of

meditation, thereby transcending the subjoct/object distinction.

Traditions within the Greek Orthodox Church. especially in

Russia, have also incorporated the practice of techniques which

were similar to those or mainstream Hinduism, except for the

identity of a deity to which prayers or chants were continuously

directed. For example,. the 'hesychasm' tradition practiced

a variously worded prayer involving the name of Jesus Christ

(Jesus's Prayer) whose repetition was linked to respiratory

movements. Traditionally the practice could become so -

automatized that the tongue itself could seem to repeat the -

prayer - leading to a possible state of 'permanent prayer'

(NaIimov, 1982).

12

....... .. .. .. _z.. .. .. . __ ,. - " - ". %**** ".' ' " '' .. ... .. ", .? . ,." ." .". " " •
Another tradition, the Prayer of the Heart, also involved

breathing exercises during the constant recitation of a word or

prayer. Attention was focused on rhythmical breathing,

vocalizations and movements which purportedly Induced a state of

unassailability to suggestionsa leading to Divine love

(Ornstein. 1977). Similarly, Ornstein (1977) has drawn

attention to parallels between the meditative techniques of Zen

and Yoga and the repetitive chants of Hasidian and Cabalistic

traditions of Judaism. Traditionally, meditation and prayer

were largely devoted to inducing religious experiences in

practitioners.

In Western Christianity mystical experiences have been

viewed with greater caution. Although some mystics. St Teresa.

St John of the Cross. and St Paul, have been elevated to

sainthood in the Roman Catholic Church, others. Meister Eckhart

for example, have been prohibited by papal bull. Nonetheless,

meditation, especially as contemplation, was accepted by

Christians provided It was guided by the teachings of the Church.

Indeed, possibly the best known of Christian spiritual methods.

the 'Spiritual Exercises' or St Ignatius Loyola, were based on a

discursive or reflective form of mental prayer.

Meditation, however, has also been said to differ from

prayer "in that prayer is predominantly a verbal (silent or

vocal) turning to an external deity. Meditation Is not

necessarily directed to a deity, but is more concerned with

Inducing changes within the meditator himself" (Osis. st Al.

1973. P.109). Other accounts of the practice of meditation

within Christianity have noted the many variants of prayer' and

other devotionals e= designed to produce psychological and

behavioural changes within the practitioner (Nalimov. 1982).

Regardless of varying points of view, the general climate of

opinion is that the world-view held by those experiencing

meditation is largely responsible for the varying descriptions of

meditative states. These themes are developed In the more

Informative accounts or the practice of meditation within

Christianity which may be found in Goleman (1972). Ornstein

(1977). Nalimov (1982). and Benson (1975. 1978).

(ii) Spiritualism

In addition to Christian perceptions, various Spiritualistic

movements have done much to establish the popular image of

meditation In the West. Foremost among these have been such

organizations as the Theosophy society, founded in New York in

1875. This society laid the foundations for late nineteenth and

early twentieth century American Spiritualism and was a major

force In Presenting the religious and philosophical wisdom of the

East to Western societies. Early on it was comprised of a

diverse group of well-travelled members including such prominent

13

~. .- . . . . . .. . . .- *.- °' . ° -o " '- ...- . *. • . . . . , . ,* . . . .. .._ .. . . . ._ , ,_ , , . ... :. ,_. d • , . . , , . . . . " . .. -. , .- - .- . - . -.
Americans as Thomas Edison and Albert Doubleday. Later. it

attracted first rate Intellectuals such as the renowned linguist

Benjamin Lee Whorff. However, Its guiding light was Helena

Petrovna Blavateky or HPB as she perferred to known.

KPB believed that it was her 'mission' to Impart to the

Western world the 'Ancient Wisdom* of the East. In doing so.

she argued that the world's religions were but surface phenomena

of underlying universal principles. These included a Universal

Mind or Soul as the source of all reality and its derivatives.

matter and spirit from whose union consciousness was born.

These Theosophical views were often an indiscrimate mixture of

philosophy, relition and spiritualistic speculation, and tended

to legitimise their teachings by looking to ancient and distant

examples.

Hanson (1976) summarized the Theosophical interpretation

of meditation as articulated by H.P.B. to the London 'inner

group' in 1887:

The aspirant was asked to meditate 'logically and

consistently' on various states of consciousness in relation

to the Universal Mind or UNITY. This would reveal that the

normal state of consciousness was shaped by acquisitions and

deprivations, which in turn were meditated upon.

Deprivations included sensations, personality, possessions

and 'distinctions' such as those between friend and foe,

separations and meetings. etc. These were products of

self-delusion: meditation involved the continuous denial of

their reality and ended with the realization that

Individuals were without attributes.

Meditation on Aquisitions promoted the development of

altered perceptions, attitudes and memory. Acquiring

'universal' memory banished all dread, acquiring new

perceptions concerned the recognition of the 'limitation' of

all embodied beings and squiring different attitudes

Involved the adoption of a 'constant calm' or mentality of

'equilibrum' toward all existing things which was 'neither

love, hate or Indifference'. This mediation was completed

when the meditator was 'all Space and Time'.

Similarly, more recent Theosophical formulations of

meditation characterize It as "...the disciplined exercise of

awareness, utilizing such processes as recollcting, imagining.

and logically and creatively thinking, or intuitively perceiving,

which leads to comprehension of a subject within an Inclusive

conceptual framework" (Roor. 1976, p.78). The goal of such

meditations was Self-knowledge, personal growth, freedom and

creativity among other things.

14
Other Western spiritualistic views of meditation have

show a greater concern for bringing the meditator and God into

closer union. For example. Sechrist (1974) drew a distinction

between prayer and meditation. in that prayer is direct

supplication to God whereas meditation is the 'key' to

establishing receptive communication with Him. This is

accomplished because meditation attunes:

... ourselves mentally, physically and spiritually

to the spirit within and without so that God may

speak to us! It is simply a process of stilling

ourselves mentally and physically in order to

listen, to become aware. to feel His presence and

to receive His guidance and His strength."

(Sechrist. 1974, p.ii)

Dunlop (1948) has also acknowledged close links between

God and meditation in Western spiritualism. Her 'contemplative'

type of meditation involved concentration in the sense that a

mantra-like technique was used to prevent the intrusion of 'other

thoughts' into the field of consciousness; successful practice

"will help bring about the rebirth of the whole consciousness"

(Dunlop, 1948. p.50). Here it was not thinking, but a process

whose goal was the expansion of consciousness of God. Hence,

excepting Theosophical opinions, many spiritual interpretations

of meditation thought it to be made up of physical, psychological

and metaphysical processes which are a special form of

concentration which focused exclusively on thoughts of God.

D. Discussion

Historically the practice of meditation has its roots in

India. but today advocates and practitioners are found worldwide. The act of meditating has been primarily perceived as a

mental process, although it includes physical activities such as

breath control and the maintenance of certain postures.

Traditional literature has repeatedly asserted that the

psychological and physiological effects of meditation were

intimately bound up with respiration. Hence meditation

concerned not only the 'mind', but functions and behaviours of

the body as well.

In the East. claims regarding the effects of meditation have

followed from the metaphysical assumptions made by practitioners

concerning the nature of reality, human and otherwise. Govinda

(1976) noted that from the Buddhist's perspective:

"The precondition of ... meditation is the recognition of

divine or eternal qualities in man, qualities whose

awakening or realization constitutes the aim of religious

15

• :-.-- :- .'.'"". .- -- .-.-. : '.-----.".". .-.-.) -,:..-"-'-" " "2 :: -::2 '"".."-::2"'::2: -7-:".
life. If we do not believe in a supreme, all-transcending

value, inherent in man and attainable by him. then the very

reason and starting point for any kind of spiritual

aspiration is missing."

(Govinda. 1976. p.l4)

Within this mystical context, the rapid spiritual

improvement of mankind is believed to be assisted only by a

demanding engagement in meditation. Hence. profound alterations

in states of consciousness, held to be induced by these

techniques, have been closely linked with increased spiritual

knowledge by practitioners. As greater spirituality was seen as

the most treasured aspect of of human existence, meditation

became a most useful human activity. Moreover, many other

claims have emerged for its practice including the achievement of

psychological well-being, emotional stability, and elimination of

negative affect.

Eastern Christianity, Islam. Judaism and to a lesser extent

Western Christianity have promoted meditation as a means of

experiencing the presence of 'God' within the meditator. These

and other resemblances to Eastern meditations may be found in the

practice of contemplation, prayer and chanting. Universally.

changes in states of consciousness which were induced by these

techniques were highly valued and greatly enhanced the

spirituality of those experiencing them, regardless of their

preferences.

More recently practices have emerged in the West in simpler.

modified forms. For example, the highly popular type or

meditation known as TM has offered many of the rewards of the

more traditional versions without requiring adherence to strict

and austere lifestyles. By virtue of its foundations in Yoga

and mainstream Hinduism, TM carried a heavy mystical component.

However, emphasis was placed on the relaxation value of TM at the

expense of spiritual enlightenment. This aspect of TM was

promoted to counter some Western perceptions that the practice of

meditation was incompatible with everyday life.

Such perceptions usually revolve around 'withdrawal from the

world' either psychologically and or physically. Jung pointed out

that the active pursuit of introverted practices may diminish

individual capacity to interact realistically within society.

Sociologically, this notion has been incorporated Into major

works concerning mysticism, meditation and other types of

behaviour. Weber (1963). for example, thought that the

salvation-seeking mystic used techniques which required the

exclusion of most if not all 'everyday mundane interest'.

Furthermore, he suggested that values of universal love, searches

for ultimate meaning, and the deeply private nature of mystical

practices virtually precluded participation in the important

16
political and economic activities of Western society.

However in some segments of the population, the practice of

meditation may coexist with political activism. Wuthnow (1978)

examined the relationship between mystical and political

beh&viours in the San Francisco Bay area and noted that these are

not necessarily incompatible. Drawing on historical and tentive

empirical evidence, he concluded that mysticism and political ,'

activism may flourish together if secular corridors of power are

accessible and social roles are relatively undifferentiated

Thus given a nourishing environment, which In apparently provided P1

by some segments of American society, political involvement may

become a legitimate pursuit of the meditator.

The Western perception that meditation Involves a full-time

commitment, is not consistent with all variants of the practice.

For example, in Sri Lanka. the 'home' of Buddhist meditation,

practitioners seem to hold paradoxical views. Sinhalese take

Buddhist religious practices very seriously and support over 7000

temples and 21000 monks. Nevertheless, Maquet (1975) reported

that while meditation was held to be essential to the Buddhist

way of life, it wag largely unpracticed. Similarly, the

ultimate goal of life, complete 'liberation' - Nirvana, was

considered by most (85%) of the respondents to be beyond

acquisition in this life and the next few rebirths. Thus

whereas meditation may be the vehicle to salvation, rigorous

practice may be indefinitely postponed. Improved probability of

a rewarding present life and higher rebirth by karmic merit, was

considered a good compromise route to ultimate release.

Therefore as the rewards of the practice of meditation have

attracted an Increasing number of eager aspirants in the West, in

Societies where such are indigenous, the attitude seems to be

more practical.

Important contributions have emerged from the hard

sciences concerning meditative states and other altered states of

consciousness. Gellhorn and Kiely (1974) in particular,

attempted to account for meditative states and other altered

states of consciousness within the framework of orthodox

neurophysiology. Drawing on both physiological and clinical

evidence these authors conjectured that such states were derived

from changes of cortical and suboortical activity or the central

nervous system. Peripherally. muscular relaxation also

contributed to their manifestation. Exchanges in the

literature (Miles & Campbell. 1974; Kiely. 1974) subsequently

brought into sharp focus the possible impact of Philosophical.

psychological and physiological assumptions on scientific

research and explanation of the different types or meditative

procedures. %

17

%-r . . . . .
Moreover, in a review of 'mystical states of consciousness*. %

Davidson (1976) restated the proposals of Gellhorn & Kiely

(1974). and summarized many of the problems encountered in their

scientific study. Prominent among these are the variety of 1"

'full blown' mystical experiences and the vague nature of their

verbal description. For example, experimental studies directed

at characterizing meditation have frquently reported subjective

feelings of 'disembodiment'. 'floating' and distortions of space

and time (Nest. 1980. Tart, 1972). Such ter however, were

considered "outside the framework of current scientific

discourse" (Davidson. 1976. p.308).

Movements as diverse as Buddhist and transcendental

meditation. Theosophy. and Juncian and Transpersonal psychologies

have emphasized intrapsychic aspects of reality and the

alienation of the individual psyche from its cosmic environment.

Furthermore, meditation Is seen by these to be the method of

choice in overcoming this isolation, offering freedom from cares

and woos, suffering and pain in exchange for happiness and

delight, compassion and ecstasy.

Presently. popular interest in the various aspects of

meditation has led to a proliferation of instruction manuals.

guides and other 'textbooks' on the subject. The quality of

these vary considerably, ranging from simple presentations which

ma promise almost Instant effects to complex restatements of

ancient disciplines. Meditation and mystical states of

consciousness however, involve Ill-defined concepts which are

used on several levels of discourse and open to many

interpretations. Conflicting world views and life-styles also

greatly influence the degree of exposure, acceptance and practice ,,.

of meditation. Therefore. the types of meditation which are

practiced In the West have been simplified. By Eastern

standards, those tend to be elementary exercises with limited

goals, to the point that it has been suggested. perhaps

hyperbolically, that "most of the techniques are specially made

for America" (Chiatanya Yeti. 1974. P.37).

. - '

.................................................................................

....................................................................................................
II. PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Introduction

A wide range of psychological phenomena experienced by

meditators has been described and interpreted in traditional

Buddhist and Yogic literature. Comments abound concerning the

nature of cognition, sensation, perception and various states of

consciousness as well as the changes induced in these by the

practice of meditation. Although derived from the pursuit of

spiritual knowledge, some of the views held on these subjects are

broadly consistent with those of contemporary psychology, and

recently several translated Buddhist texts have drawn much praise

for their possible contributions to Western psychological

doctrine (Goleman, 1971; de Silva. 1984).

However, it has also been suggested that there may be

limitations to such contributions especially if Buddhist

meditations and their theoretical rationales are seriously

considered. For example, it has been noted that:

"Mental health is the goal both of the practitioner of

meditation and of the modern psychologist. Apart from that

there is little contact or similarity between them. They

differ profoundly in their definitions of mental health, in

their theoretical assumptions about the structure of the

mind and the purpose of human existence, and in the methods

which they prescribe for the attainment of mental health."

(Conze. 1972, P. 37-38)

Despite these potential problems however. Western

psychologists and psychiatrists have proposed reinterpretations

of traditional meditations, often recasting previous opinions to

serve their own needs. Transpersonal and Humanistic

psychologists have been especially active in merging concepts

from Eastern systems of meditation with current Western notions

about the structure and function of consciousness as well as

personality development and behavioural change. Practitioners

of various behavioural therapies have also drawn on meditative

procedures as a source of inspiration in the development of

relaxation techniques for the treatment of anxiety- and stressrelated disorders. Furthermore, psychotherapists, generally

suspicious of meditative techniques in the past, have begun to

explore their use in clinical settings (Kutz et "i. 1985).

Current psychological formulations of meditation frequently

adopt Buddhist and Yogic perceptions with an overlay of Western

psychological opinion. Most often, psychological effects of

meditative practices have been interpreted in terms of conscious

19 "-

<'- "'"'' ,' '" '_.'..'_.' " "" ." .'.' ,'2 L'. .'' '.'''_ '' '.' '* '-' " " ''" ".' '-' "." ".' "." .", .'- ". .". " " ". V".
and unconscious states. manipulations of attention and

attitudinal change. Although widely used, there has been little

agreement regarding definitions of these terms or the

appropriateness of their useage. In large part. during the

recent process of exploration and adaptation of meditative

techniques, there has been uncritical conflation of analogous

concepts from Eastern and Western psychological thought.

This. together with the widely differing opinions regarding

the nature of the psychological and therapeutic effects of

meditation within the scientific community has created &

situation which does not invite straight-forward systematic

discussion. The following presentation examines the basic

psychological processes associated with meditation as asserted by

Proponents of TM. and then moves to an evaluation the its

proposed therapeutic effects.

A. Basic Processes

(i) Transcendental Meditation

Goleman (1977) traced the origins of the techniques used in

TM to traditional yogic formulations of 'mantra' meditation, in

which a word is continuously repeated by the meditator to drive

out other thoughts and induce a state of calm. Maharishi (1966)

has claimed however, that it was a type of lost ancient wisdom

rediscovered by his mentor Swami Brahm&nanda Sa&raswati or 'Guru

Dev'. Drawing on this knowledge. Maharishi's concept of

psychology may seem unusual to the uninitiated reader.

particularly those brought up in the behaviourist tradition. It

nevertheless highlights the importance of certain conceptual

underpinnings which guide Interpretations of meditation,

especially Transcendental Meditation:

"The ultimate fulfilment of psychology lies in enabling the

individual mind to attune itself to the cosmic mind and to

remain so attuned; that is. in establishing a lasting coordination of the individual mind with the cosmic mind, so

that all activity in the individual mind conforms with

cosmic evolution and the purpose of cosmic life."

(Maharishi. 1966. p.263)

Mainstream Western psychology has yet to formulate a

coherent view of Cosmic mind or its relation to the

individual mind. Most psychological doctrines of individual

mind assume the existence of insubstantiable mental processes

such as thinking; processes which most doctrines of meditation

perceive as obstructive to the meditational process.

Interestingly, Maharishi's view of 'thought' is similar to that

20
of the behaviourist John Watson in that thinking is seen as a %

subtle form of speech. There the similarities end however, for

his description of how thinking occurs digresses radically from 'k

anything Watson had to saw on the subject. For Maharishi. V

thoughts arise as subtle events in the field of Being and become

Increasingly more gross until they enter the level of ordinary

thinking. His *clarification' of this point is quoted at length

as Maraharishils analogy of thought is frequently cited, almost

verbatim, in discussions of the 'mechanisms' of meditation

(Russell, 1976; Campbell. 1973, 1975; Forem. 1974):

"A thought starts from the deepest levels of

consciousness. from the deepest level of the ocean

of the mind, as a bubble starts at the bottom of

the sea. As the bubble rises, it gradually

becomes bigger. When it comes to the surface of

the water It is perceived as a bubble.

Mind Is like an ocean. The surface layers of the

mind function actively while the deeper levels

remain silent. The functioning surface level of

the ocean of mind is called the conscious mind.

Any thought at the surface level Is consciously

cognized, and it is at this level that thought is

appreciated as thought.

A thought starts from the deepest level of

consciousness and rises through the whole depth of

the ocean of mind until it finally appears as a

conscious thought at the surface. Thus we find 1

that every thought stirs the whole range of the

depth of consciousness but is consciously

appreciated only when it reaches the conscious

level; all its earlier stages of development are

not appreciated. That is why we say that, for

practical purposes, the deeper levels of the ocean -.-

of consciousness are as though silent".

(Maharishi. 1966. P.53-54)

The notion that 'mind' is made up of an unconscious.

undisturbed deep core with a tempestuous, conscious surface is

consistent with not only mainstream Hiduism. but also has

conceptual parallels in Buddhism and Western psychiatric

doctrine, especially Psychoanalysis. The psychoanalytic view

however, reverses the the analogy in that the deep core is

tempestuous and the surface calm. The very essence of TM

involves bringing individual attention to the level of this

normally unknown 'reality', the state of transcendental Being.

Not surprisingly, the adaptation of such concepts has been

associated with a number of equally abstract ideas. For

example, some authors have suggested that meditation induces a

21
unique t state of consciousness (Wallace. 1970). whereas

others have interpreted the meditative state as a fifth state of

consciousness as well as an adjundt to established

paychotherapies (Carrington. 1977). Maharishi (1966) has gone

a step further in proposing that TM is the "IlIm At state of

consciousness which may. as an Instrument of mental health.

replace other psychotherapeutic techniques altogether.

Consistent with Its history, meditation is frequently

associated with numerous altered states of consciousness (ASC).

The recent expansion of interest, shown by psychologists and

physiologists alike, in consciousness and its various states has

led to serious consideration of meditational techniques as

experimental and therapeutic procedures. The establishment of

professional associations devoted to Transpersonal and Humanistic

psychology, and the founding of new publications, such as the

Journal of Altered States of Consciousness, highlight the

increasing interest in these topics within the circles of

clinical psychology and psychiatry. Generally, the potential

therapeutic value of meditation has been seen to lie in its

capacity to protect the individual from the pathogenic effects of

stressful environment conditions.

(ii) The Unconscious

June (195) systematically examined meditation and the

psychlotical notions surrounding it's practice as part of his

comparative studies of Eastern and Western religions. He

thought that Yogic and Buddhist meditations had much to teach the

West about the 'inner man'. and some attributes of meditative states

such as 'oneness'. 'timelessness' and the dissolution of 'ego

boundaries' were seen as characteristic of a universal, Innate

psychic experience - his concept of the natItiva unnonneinua

(June. 1954). In his view. the goals of Eastern religious

practices were equivalent to those of Western mysticism.

especially when involving the expansion of the conscious ego's

'field of personality' into the unconscious 'self'.

However. Jung asserted that analogous concepts of mental

function, although related, required careful explaining, as they

were derived from alien cultures incorporating unfamiliar

metaphysical assumptions concerning the structure of the psyche.

Nonetheless, the concept of the unconscious was seen to give an

underlying unity to 'yogic' and analytical psychologies and has

been fundamental to the development of Western psychological

explanations of the effects of meditation. Within the

Jungian psychiatric framework, unconscious 'compensations' could

create conflict as they broke into consciousness, but if such

conflicts were resolved by Psychoanalysis, then a transformation

occurred in the psyche similar to some of those claimed by

Buddhist meditators (Jung, 1936). Moreover, he thought that

22
normally unknown mental contents could only be made known through

t AIA... that is, through learned, deliberately-practiced P

techniques such as meditation and psychoanalysis.

Although burdened with its own terminology. Jung's

interpretation of meditation is compatible with Buddhist

theology in that both perceive it to be an inward-looking

practice which must be used with caution, for it is not

considered to be appropriate for everyone. With its fixation

upon one's inner world, it encourages an introversion, that

conflicts with the typically extroverted Western way of dealing . with the environment. Characterizing meditative techniques as

the 'introverted prejudice' of the East. Jung concluded that the

inward-looking approach of meditation represented a 'surrender'

of consciousness to the unconscious - a dangerous indulgence that

could work against realistic interaction with the world. In

addition, Conze (1959) noted that the term 'meditation' implied

the elimination from the aspirant's life of activities

incompatible with its practice. As an 'extreme introversion',

it could open up a new reality beyond that commonly experienced

by ordinary men.

However. those aspects of meditation that Jung interpreted

as an inability to adequately relate to the real world, were

proposed by Buddhists to help "...sharpen perceptions, to see

things as they are" (Guenther & Trungpa, 1975, p.22).

Ultimately, practitioners of meditation aspired to

penetrate beyond states of consciousness and perception

altogether; mysterious and mystical aspects of meditation

which Westerners find very appealing. Noting this appeal, Jung

asserted that if a meditative system also claimed to be

aei rnJ_.t in the induction of its effects. Western practitioners

may find it irresistable. However the uncritical adoption of

meditative practices, as well as the blending of science and

magic may be misleading and possibly psychological dangerous

(Jung, 1936).

Hinduism also gives prominance to unconscious processes

during the practice of meditation. In this view the goal of

meditation is to create a state of spiritual knowledge - vidya.

which is contrasted with that of normal waking consciousness -

avidya. Avidya (spiritual ignorance) is a state brought about by

the influence of 'subsurface motivating factors', the vasanas.

These are analogous to unconscious urges and purportedly direct

the 'thought-flow' within individuals (Chinmayananda, 1974).

Consistent with Buddhism, a crucial step in the enterprise is

seen to be the control of the sense organs, whose function

depends on the mind. As attributes of the mind, they must be

dominated for spiritual development to proceed.

23

.." .
Generally. the control of sensation is achieved by the

restriction or concentration of attention. As concentration was

an essential element of consciousness for Jung. meditations

described as not involving concentration intrigued him.

Therefore when commenting on some 'most excellent' meditations.

purportedly claimed to be devoid of mental concentration, he

conjectured that they achieved their effects, not by 'being

centered' upon anything, but by 'dissolving' consciousness.

thereby helping to reveal the contents of the unconscious.

Hence, meditation became for Jung what dreams were for Freud.

i.e. "... a sort of Royal Road to the unconscious" (Jung. 195,

p.508).

Freud, although he wrote much less about the subject, was

more critical of the practice of meditation than Jung. He

identified the effects of meditation with the psychological

functions of ego regression and primary process thinking. These

were usually considered symptoms of psychopathology, whose

untutored manipulation was psychological dangerous. However, if

properly controlled, as in psychoanalysis, such functions could

contribute to psychological well being. Therefore, Freud and Jung,

key figures in Western psychiatry, held negative or cautionary

views regarding the practice of meditation within the context of

Western societies.

TM is the meditative system whose claims most closely fulfil

Jung's criteria for wide-spread acceptance in the West.

Paradoxically It is deeply steeped in typically Eastern mysticism

and at the same time is presented as a 'scientific' discipline

capable of being studied objectively. Together with claims

of the ability to produce immediate beneficial results in all

practitioners, it also has been asserted to be an 'effortless'

practice which requires no changes in individual life styles.

Collectively. these proposals have greatly helped to create a

more positive climate of opinion in the general population and

among the psychological community regarding meditation.

Several models of meditation, although consistent with that

* of Jung and open to his caution, do not assume that the practice

of such techniques are in any way dangerous. Thus, it has been

conjectured that: "Dreams are similar to meditation, except

meditation gains the reaction of the unconscious by a systemic

technique which is faster than depending on dreams"

(Kretschmer, 1969, p.224). From this perspective, the

unconscious mind is seen more as a source of 'creative

possibilities' than a dangerous uncharted territory. Meditation

in this sense was considered to be a superior therapeutic tool in

that it could 'provoke' the unconscious into using its proposed

creative possibilities as a healing device.

24~

2..". . . . .""." . .. " - "
(Iii) Attention 'a

In addition to the unconscious, attention is another

psychological concept which is central to most discussions of

meditation. The ability to voluntarily expand and contract the

field of concentration is a primary consequence of it's practice. F*

In an attempt to harness the therapeutic effects of meditation in

a practical psychiatric setting. Deikman (1966) developed a type

of 'experimental' meditation which he called Contemplative

Meditation. This procedure was similar to that of Dunlop (1948)

in that it involved restricting the field of attention to

suppress 'other thoughts*, thereby cultivating a receptive

attitude in the subject. Unlike Dunlop's contemplative

meditation, however. Deikman's procedure, did not lead to an

expanded consciousness of God, nor did it involve a deity at all.

Based on classical literature. it was described as 'perceptual

concentration' which restricted the focus of attention to a

single object. The subjects relinquished their customary mode

of thinking and perceiving in favour of "a procedure of

concentration without thinking" in which sensory input was

ignored (Deikman. 1963. P.329). When thoughts were stopped

and awareness of sensation diminished, a non-intellectual, nonanalytical contemplation of the meditative object (usually a vase

in Deikman's experiments) could be conducted.

To explain the effects of meditation. Deikman (1966) drew on

the views of Hartmann (1958) and Gill & Brenman (1959) concerning

the 'automatization' of perceptual and motor behaviours, a

process occurring through the gradual withdrawal of attention.

He proposed that the new and unusual perceptual experiences.

induced by meditation were derived from the disintegration of

automatic perceptual processes by "reinvesting actions and

percepts with attention" (Deikman. 1966. p.111). Focusing

attention enhanced the 'de-automatization' of established

perceptual processes. Regression of automatization. together

with the subsequent subjective experiences. were claimed to

contain the essence of the 'actual characteristics' of reality.

Hence. although formulated in psychiatric terms, this view adopts

the goal of traditional meditation concerning the achievement of

ultimate knowledge.

Deikman (1971) also developed the concept of 'bimodal'

consciousness in which each mode possessed distinctive

physiological features. The receptive mode was characterized by

the intake of information from the environment, increased

parasympathetic nervous system activity and enhanced alpha REG.

In contrast, the active mode which operates in concept with the %

movement of the striate musculature was manifested by a

dominance of sympathetic nervous system activity in response to

environmental stimulation. In Deikman's scheme, the receptive

mode gained ascendency in consciousness through meditation.

Similarly. Washburn (1978) proposed that meditation interfered

25

7
with the normal operations of the unconscious, and regular

practice brought *insight' into mental functioning. This

occurred either by the suppression of or resistance to

unconscious processes by concentrative or receptive meditation

respectively.

In more comprehensive discussions of meditation and

attention it has been stated that "all meditation systems are

variations on a single process for transforming consciousness.

The core elements of this process are round in every system, and

its specifics undercut ostensible differences between the variour

schools of meditation" (Goleman. 1977. p.106). Appealing to

the Viinuddhlma g (Path of Purity). Goleman (1977) categorized

twelve meditational systems according to their 'attentional

typology'. ie. in terms of their strategies ror retraining

attention: Concentration. Mindfulness. or Integrated.

Techniques of concentration rocus the mind on a fixed mental

object. They include such meditative systems as Kabbalah of

Judaism. Christian Hesychasm prayer. Sufism, Transcendental

Meditation. and several types or yoga. Techniques of

Mindfulness promote the mind watching itself, and may be round in e

Buddhism as well as contemporary systems such as that of

Krishnamurti. intellectual child of the Theosophists. Systems

which use both are classed as Integrated. These are the

traditional Buddhist systems of Theravada. Tibetan and Zen.

Goleman (1971) has also interpreted meditational systems as

nptpthe'Pkov, which is defined as "a procedure that accomplishes

the major goals of conventional therapy and yet has as its endstate a change far beyond the scope of most therapies...- an

altered state of consciousness" (Goleman. 1971. p.4). He

suggested that meditation maw become the major methodology of the

emerging Transpersonal Psychology. This 'fourth school' of

psychology is concerned with experiences - especially those which

take the subject beyond individuality, into mystical realms.

self-actualization. cosmic awareness, self-transcendence.

ecstasy, bliss. etc.; all highly ambiguous terms subject to many

different interpretations. Nonetheless, such suggestions are

consistent with the claims of Maharishi (1966) concerning the

possible role of the practice of meditation in the future

development of clinical psychology.

Shapiro (1980) discussed many of the problems implicit in

defining 'meditation'. but rather than viewing meditation as a

'metatherapy' saw it as a 'self-regulatory' strategy. He has

co-authored several critical reviews of the meditational

literature and, taken as a whole, these form a substantial

survey of research into the psychological and Physiological

effects of meditation (Shapiro &Giber. 1978; Shapiro & Walsh.

19841).

26

. .-.
For Shapiro. most meditational techniques involve 'specific. *.

attention-focusing strategies'. He believes that other

definitions are inadequate because they obscure what is 'really'

going on during the meditative process, that is "discrimination

training, covert self-instruction. etc." (Shapiro. 1980.

p.13). In an effort to rectify this situation he has provided

the following definition:

"Meditation refers to a family of techniques which

have in common a conscious attempt to focus

attention in a non-analytical way. and an attempt

not to dwell on discursive, ruminating thought."

(Shapiro, 1980. p.1)

In the final analysis. Shapiro perceived meditational

techniques to be self-regulatory strategies as well as methods to

achieve altered states of consciousness (ASC). The emphasis on

the avoidance of discursive thought and the suspension of

analysis when consciously 'focusing' attention, made Shapiro's

definition of meditation consistent with traditional Buddhist and

Yogic views, as well as those entering contemporary psychiatry.

(iv) Attitude

The concept of 'attitude' occurs often in both Eastern and

Western discussions of meditation. Accordine to Buddhist

tradition, both active and passive attitudes may be desirable.

depending on the context of the meditation and the proficiency of

the meditator. In Zen and TM however, a passive or receptive

attitude is most often encouraged. Many Western psychiatrists

(Deikman, 1963: Maupin. 1969; Carrington. 1977). also consider

meditation to be a classical way of developing the receptive

attitude, and view it as first and foremost. 'a deep passivity'.

combined with awareness. Hence, for them, meditation is partly

practice in the skill of being quiet and paying attention.

Furthermore, psychologists such as Naranjo & Ornstein (1972) have

maintained that the assumption of an appropriate attitude gave an

underlying unity to the diverse types of meditation. Indeed:

"It might be said that the attitude, or "inner

posture." of the meditator is both his path and his

goal. For the subtle and invisible 'how' is not

merely a how to meditate but a how to be. which in

meditation is exercised in a simplified situation

meditation is concerned with the development of

a presence, a modality of being. which is expressed

or developed in whatever situation the individual

may be involved."

(Naranjo & Orntein. 1972. p.8-9)

27

* 471

aR .
Moreover, @a trait that all types of meditation have in

common, even at the procedural level, gives us a clue to the

attitude we are trying to describe: all meditation is a 'dwelling

upon' something" (Naranjo & Ornstein. 1972. p.20). This view

of meditation is in conflict with that of Jung who thought that

dwelling upon something was n= a characteristic of meditation.

especially the more advanced practices. However, they were in

agreement concerning the religious aspects of meditation.

Naranjo conjectured that some of the altered states of

consciousness, induced by meditation - the so-called 'peak

states' - constituted the experiential core of all world

religions; an opinion, developed by Abraham Maslow and his

followers, which has wide currency in Western psychiatric

communities. Naranjo's tripartite classification of meditation

(the negative way. the way of forms, and the expressive way) has

been described in such psychiatric terms as internalization. .'-

introJection, and projection, respectively. However this system

has not been widely adopted, and has been eclipsed by that of

Goleman (1977).

B. Therapeutic Processes

(i) Views of Stress and Anxiety

Recently, the Alchohol. Druz Abuse and Mental health

Administration (ADAKHA) requested that the Board on Mental Health

and Behavioral Medicine, Institute of Medicine, National Academy

of Sciences report to the administration concerning:

1) current knowledge and opportunities for research within

ADAMHA mandate.

2) needs for future research.

3) benefits which have already accrued to public health from

relevant clinical and basic research.

As a result of this report the immense expenditure relating to

health disorders and health-related behaviours, falling within the

ADAMHA domain, was revealed. Briefly, the findings suggested

that mental disorders and substance addiction directly affect 30-

45 million Americans and cost $20 billion/year in direct health

care. The 'indirect' cost to society, however, includes loss of

productivity, higher crime rates, greater use of long-term care

facilities and more expenditure by the social services (APA

Special Suppl.. 1985) Added together, the total expenditure was

estimated to be a staggering $185 billion/year or approximately

15X of the Gross National Product of the US. Indeed mental

disorders are currently competing with cardiovascular diseases 2.

and cancer in terms of 'cost to society' (APA Special Suppl.,

1985).

28
These data support the view that anxiety states are one of

the main causes of psychological problems and chronic disorders

of mental health. Such states have been estimated to occur in

2-49 of the general population and in 16-2a of psychiatric

Patients (Lader. 1975; Wilkinson & Latif. 1974). It has also

been estimated that 30-70% of all patients currently being

treated by general practitioners. are suffering from conditions

which originate in unrelieved stress (Pitts. 1969).

Furthermore, the impact of even minor, subclinical symptoms of

anxiety has been associated with decreased work effectiveness and

contribute to absenteeism (Ganster " Al. 1982). Therefore.

it is not surprising that clinicians have attempted to develop

new techniques to alleviate these disorders.

Anxiety is thought to be caused by individual reactions to

real or imagined threats and is characterized by high levels of

sympathetic nervous system activity. Hence. a variety of

psychosomatic complaints usually accompany its expression.

These symptoms vary in severity and can, in some cases (eg.

hypertension) be fatal. Activation arising from tense muscles

has long been acknowledged as a source of heightened arousal.

Anxiety, in turn. may also increase tension in the striate

musculature, thereby creating a vicious cycle.

Jacobson (1938) proposed that progressive relaxation (PR) of

skeletal muscles may help break this cycle and therefore

alleviate the effects of anxiety. Progressive Relaxation

involved learning to tense and relax groups of muscles in an

orderly fashion with the goal of achieving a more profound state

of relaxation. Although PR was based upon a sound theoretical

rationale and involved a quantifiable target variable, EMG. it

was many years before it received the wide audience that it

perhaps deserved. Currently, however, PR is usually included

in most 'treatment packages' for anxiety, and the treatment

rationale of associating reduced anxiety with diminished arousal

is widely accepted.

Two contrasting conceptualizations of arousal/relaxation are

currently prominent in the research literature. On one hand.

there is a prevalent, more traditional model based on activation

theory (Duffy. 1972). which regards states of arousal and

relaxation as occupying extreme points on a linear continuum

(Benson. 1975). On the other hand a multi-process theory of

arousal accepts the existence of different forms of arousal.

Lacey (1967). in a review of the literature germane to activation

theory, concluded that it supported the idea of different forms

Fof somatic arousal. Is. electrocortical, autonomic and

behavioural. He argued that the mechanisms underlying the

expression of the different forms of arousal were usually intimately related and act in concert. however. It has been

conjectured that under certain stimulus conditions they may

exhibit dissociation or desynchrony (Schwartz eLl &l. 1978).

29

-, ' °° . . .• . - .• • / . . o . . o ° . . - . o . . .. , ....

. .L..J.;_. C . 2 ' . ..'.2<.'2,' ."."... 2 .: .'. ).:. ,.. .. .,., . '. •. ,,,,.2 -"., . - "__.'...:" .- ... . • ..-.. • '. :'i'M -';'" :":._.-.,, "..,..--... 
. .. - ;r .- .. . . . . , ... , L I . . . - . . - .. - - . '_

Regarding this point, factor analysis has been applied to

anxiety questionnaire scores obtained from psychiatric patients.

Two factors were identified. 'psychic' and 'somatic' anxiety,

which were claimed to accounted for most of the test variance

(Hamilton, 1959; Buss. 1962). Similarly, Schalling e. aL (1975)

and Schwartz et Al (1978) have more recently postulated that

anxiety is comprised of both cognitive and somatic components.

conjecturing that "a somatic (physical exercise) and a cognitive

(meditation) relaxation procedure" may have differential effects

on these different types of anxiety (Schwartz et . l. 1978.

p.321). E

Other prominent theories of anxiety have categorized forms

of anxiety in terms of their temporal properties. Speilberger

(1972). for example, distinguished between transitory anxiety

states (A-State) and relatively stable predispositions or anxiety

traits (A-Trait). The latter is viewed as measure of anxietyproneness from which predictions of state reactions may be made.

In general. 'ego-threatening' stressful situations have been

found to evoke greater increases in state anxiety for high-ATrait compared with low-A-trait subjects. However, situations

involving physical danger, such as threat of electric shock,

imminent surgery, or films depicting physically painful

accidents, apparently precipitate state anxiety responses which

are unrelated to levels of trait anxiety.

(ii) Control of Stress and Anxiety

In addition to greatly enhancing the spirituality of the

meditator, the practice of meditation has long been recognized

for its ability to develop a stable emotional and social life.

This aspect of the many effects of meditation has invited

therapeutic interest. Nevertheless:

"In recent years a few psychologists have shown some

interest in the therapeutical value of these (Buddhist]

meditations. Little has come of it. and this is not

surprising in view of the resistance which these meditations

are bound to encounter. It is agreed that anxiety is an

undesirable state that ought to be removed, - but what would

modern psychologists think of Sangharaksha's ... specifics

for the removal of fear? Sangharasha claims that anxiety

will be dispelled if we think of the excellence of the

merits of the Tathagata. or his image, of the Dharma, of the

Samgha, or if we meditate on morality and its prohibitions,

if we comprehend emptiness, study the six elements and the

twelve links, or practise compassion. A modern

psychologist will not be able to claim that these measures

are incapable of removing anxiety, but he will rightly

maintain that they are not likely to have much effect on his

patients as he finds them."

(Conze. 1972. P. 38)

30

i.... ........................ . .
The observations of Conze notwithstanding. meditation has

been one of several therapies employed as a means of reducing

anxiety. Others have included progressive relaxation.

biofeedback, psychotherapy and the administration of medication

among others. Traditional therapies however, have not

demonstrated a great deal of effectiveness in the treatment of

chronic anxiety (Miles et &1. 1951; Raskin. e-t &l. 1973;

Lazarus. 1963; Gelder. 1969). Extensive recourse to medication

has been made in an effort to counteract chronic anxiety, but

more recently alternative forms of treatment have been

considered. Behavioural strategies or *self-regulatory'

therapies have received greater attention as alternative

approaches to treatment which eliminate the risk of negative

side-effects associated with drug therapies. In this context.

it is interesting to note that both acute physical activity

(Byrd, 1965; de Vries. 1968, de Vries -t Al. 1977; Morgan. 1972)

and meditation/relaxation techniques (Wallace, 1970; Wallace & h

Benson. 1972; Benson & Wallace. 1972b; Benson e t al. 1975;

Fergerson & Gowan. 1976) are apparently capable of reducing

tension and anxiety., and improving psychological states. Hence

two procedures. representing opposite ends of the relaxation /

arousal continuum, are associated with a similar outcome - the

reduction of anxiety.

Thirteen studies concerned with the role of meditation in

the reduction of fears, phobias, stress and tension have been

reviewed by Shapiro & Giber (1978). Many of these used withinsubject designs, and gathered subjective data in the form of

verbal self-reports. Other data were assimilated by the

administration of pre-test and post-test anxiety scales and

questionnaries (Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. Spielber'ger

Trait/State Anxiety Scale. IPAT anxiety questionnaire, among

others) as well as through records kept by patients and their

relatives and friends. Some experimenters used the

methodologically stronger between-subjects design with control

groups. Regardless of experimental design however, all the

reviewed studies reported successful outcomes on several

dependent variables. The reviewers suggested that meditation

may form a promising clinical Intervention technique for a host -'-"

stress-related dependent variables including specific fears such

as those relating to examinations, elevators, being alone and

being in enclosed places, as well as global fears such as

generalized anxiety and anxiety neurosis.

Regarding this point, it has been reported that among other

techniques. transcendental meditation, relaxation training, and

frontalis EMG feedback may produce reductions in clinicallyassessed anxiety. Raskin wt al (1980) randomly assigned

subjects to these groups after gathering psychological, social.

and physiological data for a six week 'baseline period*. This

was followed by treatment and post-treatment periods of six weeks U

each, during which comparable data was obtained. In addition,

excepting three, subjects were followed-up for three to eighteen

31

_ ' _: -' ,: _3• ' 2_'. " '-_ : l _ ll'l -2 .',.t- 'l _'' :" : -"" , 'i-- " " ;- -2 _'- - : ' -" -'_ :: _t ,r I.-
months. It was noted that OX of the subjects who completed

treatment exhibited 'marked clinical improvement' regardless of

treatment group assignment. There was no significant

differences between groups with respect to degree of adherence to

practice regimens and in maintaining level of clinical

improvement, although many claimed increased anxiety with lack of

practice. Furthermore. "subjects reported that attempts to

relax In the face of anxiety., or even prior to expected anxiety,

were usually unsuccessful" (Raskin &.t A.1, 1980).

Although reductions in self-reported anxiety following the

practice of meditation have been frequently noted, these are not

always accompanied by decrements in behavioural or physiological

measures of anxiety (Delmonte. 1984a.f). For example, support

for a lack of a relation between verbal reports and physiological

expressions of anxiety can be round in a study by Kirsch & Henry

(1979) in a partial replication of Greenwood & Benson (1977).

In this, subjects with speech anxiety were randomly assigned to -'.

one of four conditions:

(i) systemic desensitization.

(Ii) meditation.

(iii) desensitization with meditation.

(iv) no treatment.

All three treatments were equally effective in reducing selfreported anxiety compared with untreated subjects. However.

reliable changes in physiological manifestations of anxiety such

as heart rate were reported only in those subjects who perceived

the treatment rationale as highly credible. Hence. doubts have

also been raised concerning the efficacy of 'behavioural

strategies' such as meditation, especially when they are the sole

treatment for chronic anxiety., although as adjunct therapies they

may be helpful (Raskin .M. A, 1980).

(iii) Control of Druz and Alcohol Use/Abuse

There has been much speculation concerning the possible role

of relaxation techniques in the treatment of alcohol and drug

abuse. Much of the experimental research in this area has been

directed toward Investigating the hypothesis that alcoholic

behaviour may be developed and maintained by the tension-reducing

properties of alcohol. Therefore therapeutically, relaxation

techniques might be used to lower the general state of arousal of

the alcoholic, thereby depriving alcohol of some of its proposed

tension-reducing capacities. In principle, an induced state of

relaxation could function as an alternative for the reduced

arousal that follows alcohol consumption and hence serve as a

coping technique in stressful situations. However, some

critical examinations of the literature regarding this

hypothesis, have concluded that experimental results have yet to

be convincing (Cappell & Herman. 1972).

32
* ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ '"..X ~ ~ .ip-r- ~ _ rip r rrUry'. rP.-p W~\N 

More recently, in a paper Partly devoted to a discussion of

methodological problems. Steffen at Al (1974) reported that as

blood alcohol levels increased. EMG responses decreased in

alcoholics. This negative correlation was statistically

significant, suggesting a tension-reducing effect of alcohol.

Hlgglns & Marlett (1975) studied the effects that the

anticipation of interpersonal evaluation had on alcohol

consumption of non-alcoholic males, and sueested that

interpersonal social stress may be a feature in excessive

drinking. Social stress has also been suggested as instrumental

in increasing drinking in alcoholics (Miller at Al. 1974).

Alcoholism is a complex clinical entity and alcoholics may

also suffer from anxiety or other stress related disorders.

Hence, individuals who abuse alcohol and other drugs may benefit

from the relaxed state induced by the practice of meditation.

Support for this possibility has largely been provided by studies

assessing the effects of meditation on self-reports of substance

usage (Benson & Wallace. 1972a: Shaffii &I AL. 1974; Winquist.

1977). These studies uniformly investigated the effects of TM.

and all employed retrospective questionnaires. This technique

is one of the most criticized of all procedures used to evaluate

treatment outcome, as it is particularly prone to bias in the

subject sample. The early reports reflect this and other

methodological flaws in a most glaring manner. However such

efforts, like the anecdotal reports, have served to encourage and

direct further research.

Benson & Wallace (1972a) mailed questionnaires to over 1800

practitioners of TM in order to obtain information concerning

drug use and attitudes to TM. before and after It's practice.

The response rate was an amazing 90%: all respondees reporting a

dramatic decrease or total abstinence in drug use. Despite the

criticisms directed towards 'retrospective' questionnaires the

results of this study have been widely cited and were eventually

printed in the Congressional Record. Other investigations.

again using questionnaires, have noted that meditation may help

to control or even eliminate alcohol and marijuana consumption

(Shafli ct Al. 1974).

(iv) Cognitive Alterations

Many testimonials and verbal reports claim that the practice

*of meditation induces feelings of peace, tranquility, and wellbeing. A number of studies appear to give 'scientific' support

to these testimonials. Investigations of the cognitive effects

of meditation have usually employed self-report and quesionnaire

techniques as well as various personality inventories and anxiety

scales. However, the quality of the techniques varies

considerably and salient behavioural measures are usually absent

in the discussions of experimental results.

33

S . " * . - - - .- ,- - , . -. .. .- *.- . . •- . -.-.-. •. . -.-. %.
Delmonte (1980. 1981. 198a.c. 1985a) has conducted a series

of studies on the 'predisposition to meditation' using various

self-reports, scales and questionnaires. These experiments were

designed to investigate psychophysiological and psychometric

predictors of responses to meditation. In general, he round

that subjects who gave favourable self-reports to meditation and

those who frequently practiced meditation reported less

psychological 'ill-health'. Furthermore, these subjects

(compared with those giving unfavourable self-reports) exhibited

lower (state) physiological arousal in terms of skin conductance.

EMG (front&lis) levels. digital blood volume and temperature, and

heart rate both during meditation and during rest. Blood

pressure levels were also lower in this group but the difference

was much less marked.

Generally, positive experiences have been associated with

meditation (Curtis & Wessberg. 1976; Osls 9l *A 1973; Tart, 1969;

West, 1980). although there have also been reports of negative

experiences (Tart, 1972; Kohr, 1977. 1978). The general

outcome of these studies was that aspirant medit&tors tended to

be more anxious, report larger drug use and exhibit greater

neuroticism than published population norms or comparison groups.

However, regular practice of meditation was associated with

decrements in anxiety and neuroticism to levels comparable with I

population norms. Delmonte (1984a) concluded that the clinical

value of meditation appeared to be confined to those subjects who

experience psychosomatic disorders or mild neuroticism but appear

psychologically 'well-integrated'. More severely

psychologically-disturbed individuals tended to respond

unfavourably to meditation in behaviour&l (practice).

experiential (self-report), and physiological terms.

West (1980) conducted a retrospective survey on the

experiences of meditators. and while only about half of the 315

meditators who were approached actually participated, the most

frequently registered subjective experience was 'mental

relaxation'. Less frequently. 'disembodiment'. 'reduction or

diffusion of sense of body boundaries' as well as 'distortions of

time perception' have been noted (Osis A.l., 1973; Tart, 1972).

Sensations of 'heaviness'. 'sinking' and 'floating' also

apparently characterize the meditative experience (Barmark &

Gaunitz, 1979; West. 1980).

Positive attitudes to both meditation and its perceived

benefits are most apparent in individuals who continue to

practice meditation compared with short-term meditators or

controls. Some experimental evidence suggests that this finding

may be accounted for in terms of both expectancy and selfselection (Delmonte. 1981).

34
(v) The Control of Hiypertension

Excessive and sustained elevations in blood Pressure are a

major cause of premature death in the West. The aetiology of

this disease, however. is not known in 80-90% of the cases.

although the remaining 10-20X may be traced to organic

pathologies, usually involving renal function. Hence. the

majority of cases of chronically elevated blood pressure are

classified as essential hypertension to distinguish them from

those of organic aetiology. Essential hypertension is

con3ectured to have a large psychosocial component to which renal

pathology may be secondary and has been treated by several

pharmacological interventions and behavioural therapies. The

contributions which psychological processes such as anxiety may

make to this pathology are receiving increased attention.

Epidemiological studies of hypertension have repeatedly

demonstrated that elevated blood pressure is associated with

western, industrialized urban lifestyles (Henry & Cassell.

1969). Such factors as inheritance. age. sex. weight, salt

Intake and cholesterol levels are known to contribute to the

development of hypertension, which is one of the ma3or risk

factors for coronary heart disease. However, in 90X of the

individuals with high blood pressure the cause is idiopathic and

the condition is referred to as essential hypertension. Several

well-defined stages in the progression of this disease have been

identified. Initially there is often a labile hypertension

manifested by transient phases of pressure increases. These are

thought to be due to increases in cardiac output associated with

autonomic over-reactivity to emotional excitement.

Work by Obrist and his colleagues has demonstrated that when

Individuals attempt to control challenging situations there is an

upsurge of sympathetic activity which produces excessive cardiac

responding relative to somatomotor demands. This gives rise to

tissue overperfusion which may. at first, be functional.

However with repeated elicitation these bouts of excessive

cardiac output may cause hypertrophy of the vasculature resulting

In increased total peripheral resistance and establish chronic

hypertension (Obrist. 1981).

However. the use of traditional psychotherapeutic methods

for the reduction of BP are derived from the psychodynamic model

of the aetiology of essential hypertension (Alexander. 1950).

This model proposes that hypertensives repress their aggressive

and hostile feelings thereby attenuating their expression. In

turn, this leads to 'conflict' between the individual and their

feelings which contributes through unspecified pathways, to an

increase in BP. The central assumption of this model is that the

resolution of conflict permits the release of 'pent-up', hostile

emotions which causes a subsequent reduction in SP.

35*
- VNI . 7-1- - - -A- TJ.--

Psychoanalytic therapy aims at the identification and

dissolution of such conflicts. In addition, hypertensives are

usually taught and encouraged to express their unsanctioned

emotions In a socially acceptable manner. thus establishing

effective 'defence' mechanisms. Although widely adopted, the

number of published empirical studies testing this hypothesis in

hypertensives Is small. making conclusions difficult (Reiser At

Al. 1951; Moses At al.. 1956).

In the West. the treatment of hypertension using techniques

inspired by Eastern religious practices has been systematically

Investigated by Patel (1973) and Benson mi al (1974 a.b) among

others. In two single-group studies Benson and his colleagues

evaluated the effect of TM on moderately hypertensive subjects.

Those with systolic pressures greater than 140 mm HE or diastolic

pressures above 90 mm He were recruited at introductory lectures

given by the Student International Meditation Society. The

instruction fee was waived and BP was measured for a baseline

period of six weeks. After initiation. S were followed up for

an average of 20-25 weeks with BP determinations being made when

the subject was not meditating. Benson At l (1974a) studied 22

untreated, borderline hypertensives with an average blood

pressure of 146.5 mmHg systolic and 94.6 mmg diastolic.

Subjects practiced the relaxation response for 25 weeks

after which the groups' BP fell to an average of 139.5 mmHg -"

systolic and 90.5 mmHe diastolic. Benson at Al. (1974b)

extended the investigation on medicated hypertensives whose

antihypertension medication and diet were controlled during the .

experiment. Again, significant decreases in both systolic and

diastolic blood pressure were reported. from a group mean of

145.6/91.9 mmHg to an average of 135/87 mmHg,

Blackwell g. a1 (1976) replicated the studies of Benson l.

&,I (1974b). examining seven individuals on established regimens

of antihypertensive medication. BP was determined four times

daily at home by the patient, with a weekly measurement at the

clinic by a nurse. TM practice began after a baseline period of

four weeks. Treatment BPs were determined 9-12 weeks after

initiation, and six months later, although subjects were not

supervised during the follow-up period. Tests of statistical

significance of treatment effects were performed on individual

rather than group data. When BP determinations took place at

the clinic. four out of the seven subjects showed reliable reductions

in both systolic and diastolic pressure, whereas one individual

exhibited a significant increase. From an average baseline

blood pressure of 138.8/97.7 mm He, the mean decrease for the

whole group was 4.2/1.6 mm He, systolic and diastolic pressure

respectively.

36

Ni.
F W %P 2 -V 7J

When SP was recorded at home. six out of seven subjects

demonstrated reliable decreases in systolic Pressure and five out

of the seven, showed significant decreases in diastolic pressure.

the average being 7.5/6.1 mm Hg respectively from mean pretreatment levels of 154.0/101.8 mm Hg. By the six month followup. medication had been increased for two subjects. clinical BP

data was missing for one participant, and home BP data was

missing for two subjects. Reliable decreases were exhibited by

three out of the four remaining subjects in systolic and/or

diastolic pressures recorded at the clinic, and three Sa

displayed decreases for pressures recorded at home (Blackwell

A1.X 1.. 1976). A

Patel (1973) used a treatment derived from yoga. previously

explored In India by Datey &I Al (1969). Twenty subjects were

treated in sessions lasting for half an hour. three times weekly

as well as with home practice for three months. They were

instructed to 'relax' In a supine position and to concentrate on

phrases similar to those used in autogenic training, such as

subvocalizIng 'relax9 with each expiration. In addition, they

were Instructed to diminish 'sympathetic activity' by modifying

auditory feedback provided of their electrodermal activity.

Although subjects did not receive immediate BP feedback. at the

end of each session they were told the values of their BP prior

to and after practice.

After training. the mean reduction of BP was 24.6/14.4 mm

Hg. from an average pre-treatment level of 159.1/100.1 mm Hg.

Medication had also been cut by 41%. Only four of the Ss

obtained neither a reduction In medication nor a reduction in BP.

One year later, the changes in systolic and diastolic pressures

were still statistically significant (p<.001) (Patel. 1975).

Single-group outcome studies, however, provide limited

evidence concerning the efficacy of treatment for hypertension.

Several possible alternative explanations may be proposed to

account for the reported effects. For example, results may be

Influenced by nonspecific factors relating to the therapy

situation, such as regular visits to a clinic, enthusiastic

attention from the experimenters or therapists, exposure to other

patients with similar problems, and expectation of beneficial

results (Brady j a., 1974; Shapiro a. a., 1954). Other

potential factors contributing to treatment outcome include the

effects of changes in diet. medication and 'life-style'. as well

as the effects of environmental changes unrelated to therapy such

as alterations in physical and social surroundings.

Moreover. in studies using medication dosages as a dependent

variable, the obtained reduction in the amount of drug required

may have occurred even without the intervention of therapy.

Indeed it has been shown that BP may remain low following the

37
reduction of medication even without other changes in management

(White. 1973). The force of these alternative explanations may

be lessened by the inclusion of control groups. Ideally. these

should be equivalent to the treatment group in all aspects whichN

might potentially affect BP. except for the treatment itself.

In one control group study. Stone & DeLeo (1976) reported

changes in BP resulting from a treatment based on Buddhist

meditation. Initial (baseline) BP levels were established by

averaging 14 pre-treatment determinations (7 supine and 7

upright) for each subject. Previously participants had been

diagnosed as borderline to mild hypertensives. and they were

selected for the experiment on the basis of their ability to

comprehend instructions, their motivation and their capacity to

adhere to the program. The non-randomly-assigned control group

was seen for BP determinations once a month for six months.

Blood pressure levels at the six month follow-up were determined

by the same procedure used to establish baseline levels.

Subjects were told to locate a quiet and secure environment. to

sit in a upright chair, loosen tight clothing, relax their

muscles, and to focus their 'minds' on counting their

respirations. After five 20-minute training sessions, they were

instructed to repeat the procedure for 10-15 minutes, twice

daily.

In addition to the determinations of BP. several clinical

assays were conducted includIng determinations of plasma

dopamine-B-hydroxylase (DBH) levels (a proposed index of

sympathetic nervous system activity) and plasma renin activity.

None of the subjects were taking medication and no restrictions

were placed on salt intake. After six months the treatment

group exhibited significant reductions in both systolic and

diastolic pressures compared with their pre-treatment baselines

and the control group.

Unfortunately. the control group in this study (5 subjects)

was approximately one-third the size of the treatment group (14

subjects) making it difficult to draw conclusions concerning

treatment differences. Also the validity of the assumptions of

the t-test procedures used to compare groups have been called

into question. In this the population variances of the two

groups were assumed to be agal and a statistically significant

difference between them was reported at the .05 level. Jacob

Al. Al (1977) conjectured that if these population variances were

in reality unequal, then the probability levels could be anywhere

between .17 and .006. The general clinical opinion was that the

great difference in group size mars this otherwise well-designed

and properly-executed experiment. Also the authors' conclusion

that BP reduction during treatment was associated with reduced

peripheral adrenergic activity and possibly with alterations in

the renin-angiotensin system has not withstood critical

examination (Jacob &I A1. 1977).

38 "

. . . ....- : . . ,, ' - .. .....

.. , .., .. . ... ..... ... . . .-... -: .. .. , > ,.. *.,, ..*.- ,. , ... * . . .- ., .* ., * . - :- -; ,,- , . , .
Studies such as these still lack the methodological rigor

associated with the random assignment of subjects to treatment or

control groups. This type of design is meant to control for

differences in the characteristics of subjects or their

environments and its use can aid attempts to control for

'placebo' or 'nonspecific' effects such as expectation of r,

improvment. attention from therapists, or credibility of the

alternative treatment.

Patel & North (1975) were aided by Miall, an experienced

epidemiologist, in an expansion of the therapy used by Patel

(1973. 1975). This included the presentation of educational

materials about hypertension, a concern for the effects of

emotions on bodily processes, a study of the physiology of

relaxation, and the use of biofeedback and self-control. Also

opportunities were provided for the patients to freely discuss

their problems with each other and the doctor. The practice of

relaxation techniques was incorporated into the daily routine of

each patient. Treatment lasted for 12, bi-weekly sessions and

home practice was carried out twice daily. During the

relaxation exercises in the later sessions, EMG feedback was

given instead of the previously-used skin resistance feedback.

Again, significant reductions in blood pressure were achieved.

Elsewhere, several factors which seemed to enhance the

effectiveness of treatment in the administration of meditation

and other relaxive techniques have been detailed (Patel, 1976).

When a confident practitioner was involved, the importance of the

placebo effect was stressed. The patient must persist in

complying with instructions until the target reduction in BP is

achieved. The modification of emotional responses was another

maJor objective and the appropriateness of the patient's

emotional reactions to arousing stimuli throughout the day was

reviewed. It was made clear to the patient that compliance with

the biofeedback and the muscular relaxation are not goals in

themselves, but were being used to facilitate a calm state of

mind. But for this to occur, it is not enough to practice

relaxation twice a day; the patient's life style and behaviour

when not meditating must be modified to reduce conflict and

promote 'peace'

C. Discussion

Psychosomatic diseases affect large numbers of people in the

Western world. Many psychological problems together with

several physical complaints are being increasingly attributed to

stress and anxiety. Widely-accepted models propose that there

are large differences in individual predispositions to anxious

behaviour in reaction to environmental and social demands. A

39

F'

. ..-:-:,

..'..'. .. .:-.:-<..'..';.....'. .. .-..- ..- . .. .... .....- ..'... '-.. .-. ... . . . . .- . . -. -. .. .. . . . - - . ..
variety of therapeutic interventions aimed towards the relief of

these disorders have emerged, but no ideal form of treatment has

been forthcoming. The conservative administration of medication

has most often been the method of choice, and although an

essential element in most therapeutic regimens, it may be

associated with unpleasant side-effects or addiction. Hence, in

addition to this predominant intervention, alternative approaches

to the relief of stress have attracted much attention.

Often the concept of the 'unconscious' plays a central role

in explanations of the psychological effects of meditation and

discussions typically revolve around the consciousness-expanding

consequences of meditation. These are seen to be brought about 4

primarily by the manipulation of attention. The adoption of an

appropriate attitude, usually (but not always) passive in nature.

is also considered to be important.

Meditation, as a form of therapy, has been seen from several

perspectives: psychotherapy. behavioural interventions of

various types, and transpersonal psychology among others.

Advocates of psychotherapy view meditation as 'adaptive

regression' in the service of the 'ego'. as Freudian 'primary

thought processes'. and as a Jungian 'Royal Road' to the

unconscious. Carrington & Ephron (1975a.b) have suggested that

the 'unstressing' process induced by the practice of meditation

is a form of catharsis by means of which previous traumatic or

stressful events are released spontaneously. On the other hand,

behavioural therapies envision meditation as a relaxation

technique which counteracts the harmful effects of everyday

anxiety and stress that are detrimental to both psychological and

physiological well-being.

These therapies are applied on the grounds that a particular

disorder has its source, directly or indirectly, in idiosyncratic

individual responses precipitated by stressful environmental

demands. It has been suggested that the beneficial effects of

meditations in which a 'mantra' is used in practice (such as TM).

may be derived from the stimulus qualities of the sound becoming

classically conditioned to a state of relaxation (Boals, 1978).

It may also act as systematic desensition (Goleman, 1971), and

reciprocally inhibit intruding or painful thoughts associated

with anxiety (Greenwood & Benson, 1977). However certain

individuals showing signs of mild psychological disturbance

appear to be more predisposed to benefit from the use of

meditation (Delmonte, 1984d).

A number of studies have suggested that the practice of

transcendental meditation may bring about remarkable reductions

in the abuse of drugs and alcohol. As well as such behavioural %

consequences, the practice of meditation has been associated with

subjective feelings of well-being and reduced physiological

i40

"I "". " :'" ", ,"" ,'"," - , "' " "" . ". . . -"""". " " "" " ' ' """"
been accepted within every society since the beginnings of

recorded history (Frank, 1973). In medicine, the concept of

the 'placebo' is associated with the striking effectiveness of

new procedures. especially when adminstered by enthusiastic

proponents of their efficacy (Frank. 1973; Shapiro. 1971).

This concept arose from the apparent therapeutic effectiveness of

almost all newly introduced pharmaceuticals, and eventually, it Y

became common practice in medicine to test all new drugs by

comparing them to pharmacologically inert substances or placebos.

As pharmacological studies proliferated, clinical improvement, in

Itself, was judged insufficient to support either the specific

action of a remedy or its theory of cure. Indeed. Shapiro

(1971) has argued that the history of medicine, until the 17th

century, was largely an account of this non-specific effect.

Critical accounts of the history of psychotherapy have

pointed out that it has drawn heavily on chemotherapeutic

approaches. (Rosenthal & Frank. 1956). In research using

chemotherapy, psychological events are looked upon as being among

a host of potential nonspecific (placebo) effects. Therefore it

has been argued that psychotherapy is concerned with those events

that chemotherapy views as artifactual and seeks to elimate.

Recently, psychotherapy has been called a 'powerful placebo' in

that it involves very effective non-physiochemical therapeutic

procedures (Wilkins. 1984). Similarly, biofeedback techniques

has been described as the *ultimate' placebo (Plotkin & Rice,

1981). By extension, as meditation has been perceived as

psychotherapy and grouped with other methods such as biofeedback.

it may also be viewed as a placebo. Methods are needed to

evaluate the inevitable claims of superior effectiveness for

particular new therapies and of 'specific activity' for their

active ingredients.

i 2

,:,,, , , ...... _~~~~~~~~..... ............. , *.*'' '. ,. ,,,.... ... ,... ,,.....,... .,
'V

I1. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Introduction

In addition to the normal mental states of waking. sleeping

and dreaming. Buddhist scriptures detail over a hundred altered

states of consciousness which may be induced by various types of

meditation. Davidson (1976) has pointed out that the goal of

some of these involve the induction of l, altered states

of consciousness, thought to be unique to their practice. The PC

most valued transcendental state. Nirvana, is difficult to

characterize as an actual 'state of consciousness'* however, as it

Is considered the negation of all 'conditi, nal' or 'relative'

existence. Given the shortness of human life, it is virtually

never achieved by any meditators. Other profound changes In

consciousness however. may be infrequently experienced by

dedicated meditators. The rarity of some of these states

obviously contributes to their resistance to scientific study and

Interpretation.

Nevertheless. many proponents of meditative techniques

(Yoea. Buddhism and TH among others) have held the view that at

least the mundane effects of meditation occur frequently enough

to be studied by the methods of Western science. Hence.

meditators have approached universities, to provide testimonials

concerning the benefits of meditation, and have volunteered to be 7

studied. Therefore, opportunities have arisen for the

experimental study of both the psychological and physiological

effects of meditation. It is claimed that some 'transcendental'

states of consciousness, reportedly experienced durinE the

practice of meditation, are associated with unique concomitant

physiological alterations.

A vast amount of nonscientific literature relating to the

metaphysics, the mechanisms and the outcome of meditative

practices may be found in religious sources and their

commentaries. However. Tart (1969). in discussing the

relationship between meditation and altered states of

consciousness, concluded that there is no scientific knowledge

concerning the effects of the practice of meditation. Since

then, however, numerous experiments have been conducted in an -

effort to establish a scientific database regarding meditation.

This was due, in part, to the assertion that the unusual

psychological events purportedly characteristic of the meditative

state are also reflected physiologically.

Although these physiological concomitants have been - "

described and interpreted in several ways, the study of the

electrical activity of the brain during meditation has been a

common area central to both psychological and physiological

43
-'- ~ ~ -- ~ r rf-- ~ ~ - - ~ ~ ~ - -. -- 

research, and will be presented first. Metabolic. autonomic and

somatomotor correlates of meditation will then be addressed.

especially in the context of TM. This will be rollowed by a

discussion of physiological chances associated with such feats of

endurance as pit burials. These changes resemble those

associated with the Relaxation Response which is broached later

in this section.

A. Electroencephalozraphy and Meditation

Electroencephalozraphy (EEG) ts both a technique and a

science. Electrical activities of the brain -

electroencephalograms - are recorded by electrodes placed on the

head. These recordings are then interpreted and related to

normal and abnormal activity of the cerebral cortex and by

extension, to other neural and somatic processes. Of particular

interest have been the cortical electrical concomitants of states

of consciousness, clinical syndromes, and traumatic insult and

inJury to the nervous system. In principle, the EEG spectrum

measured from living brains maw range in frequency from less than

one to treater than 75 Hz (cycles per second). The brain may

generate frequencies in excess of the latter value which can be

submitted to computer analysis. However. conventional penwriting instruments significantly attenuate these higher

frequencies making their description and interpretation

difficult.

There is general agreement among electroencephalogr&phers

concerning characteristic electrical activities of the brain

which are exhibited in normal, healthy adults. In general.

the frequency spectrum is separated into four 'bands':

1) Delta - less than 4hz.

2) Theta - 4-7 Hz.

3) Alpha - 8-13 Hz.

4) Beta - reater than 13 hz but most commonly studied between 13

and 35 Hz.

Typically each of theme bands or 'rhythms' forms the dominant

background EEG activity associated with certain behavioural

states. During the three major states of consciousness: waking.

sleeping and dreaming, the brain reliably generates patterns of

electrical activity which distinguish each from the others. if

a person is awake, alert and attending to immediate environmental

events. 'beta' activity is observed. 'Alpha' activity emerges

when vigilance is relaxed and when a resting posture is assumed.

'Theta' activity is commonly identified during the transition

from waking states to sleep. The large amplitude, slow delta

activity is a hallmark of deep sleep, and is periodically

punctuated by rapid eye movement (REM) activity (The

International Federation of Societies for EEG and Clinical

Neurophysiology. 1983).

44a

. . .- - - . - - - . o
The specific details of EEG topography vary from one report

to another. However. an overall pattern has emerged, especially

concerning the profile of TM. Soon after a meditation session

begins there is an increase in the amplitude of the slower

frequencies of the alpha rhythm (8-13 hz) as the intensity of

these frequencies (8-9 hz) becomes greater in the central and

frontal regions. The increased alpha activity tends to begin

over the parietal lobes and then migrates anteriorally. possibly

as far as the prefrontal area. Bursts or 'trains' of

frequencies of the slower theta rhythm also intermittently occur.

often concomitantly with alpha. Frequencies of the sleeping

delta rhythm are much less common but have been reported. More

often, the broad-banded, fronto-central beta rhythm punctuates

the alpha activity, a phenomenon known as beta 'spindling'

Electroencephalographers have recorded beta activity over

the frontal and central regions of the brain in healthy, waking

adults. In contrast. meditation studies have observed both beta

and the slower theta frequencies during the so-called 'deep'

states achieved by experienced meditators (Anand *.t A. 1961a.b;

Hirai. 1974). Banquet (1973) used spectral analysis to evaluate

the EEGs of twelve TM meditators. and reported three distinct

stages during the course of their 30-minute sessions: first

alpha. then theta, and finally beta. The latter stage was

attained by only four of the meditators, and consisted of high

amplitude (30-60 uV) beta waves at 20 and 40 Hz. which were

prominent over the whole scalp.

(i) Alpha Activity and Meditation

Alpha activity of the EEG is usually seen when the eyes are

closed as well as during sedentary mental activity, and it is

associated with relaxed, but awake, states which may border on

light drowiness. If a loud noise occurs or the eyes are opened

under such conditions, the frequency of the dominant background

EEG activity increases and alpha activity may be replaced by the

faster, less synchronous beta activity. Several studies

(Kasamatsu & Hirai. 1963: Wallace Pt al. 1971; Fenwick. 1974;

Corby &t Al. 1978) have reported slowing of electrocortical

activity during meditation. Others have repeatedly noted

substantial increases in alpha activity, particular in the Zen

(Kasamatsu ax. Al. 1966). Yogic (Anand eat &L, 1961a.b), and

Transcendental (Wallace. 1970; Banquet, 1973) types of

meditation. The magnitude and duration of these changes.

however, varies from study to study.

This implies a state of cortical relaxation consistent with

other behavioural processes. However, none of these studies

included an eyes-closed control group but compared meditation

with a premeditation eyes-closed rest procedure. Such

methodological inadequacies introduce the possibility of

45
yet 

a variety 

these 

of 

are 

alternative 

infrequently 

explanations 

entertained 

for 

(Delmonte. 

the observed 

1984e).

effects. I

Increases In alpha activity during meditation appear to be

similar to those associated with such techniques as relaxationhypnosis. alpha biofeedback training, progressive relaxation or

simply eyes-closed rest (Morse a-t LL. 1977; Warrenburg &t e L.

1980). However. one study on TM (Travis at Al. 1976) and

another on 'Christian' meditation (Akers et A l. 1977) failed to

find increased alpha production during meditation. Moreover.

Lukas (1973) randomly assigned subjects to groups. and reported

that a 'mock' mantra control group exhibited significantly more

alpha activity than the TM or resting group. Hence. to date.

there is not enough evidence to affirm that meditation has a

unique effect in terms of EEG patterning compared with other

hypnoidal techniques. Finally. the pleasant subjective

experiences which have been reported during states of enhanced

alpha activity (the alpha experience) are not unique to the

method of induction (meditation. biofeedback. etc.) and may not

even be related to alpha levels at all (Plotkin AZ el. 1976).

(ii) Alpha Blocking Studies

In normal, awake subjects, presentation of external stimuli

(usually lights and tones), or engagement in mentally effortful

tasks produces a sudden shift in the EEG spectrum towards faster

frequencies. This is known as 'alpha blocking' or

'disinhibition'. a well-established phenomenon and one which is

of great interest to researchers (Adrian & Matthews. 1934).

Typically. with repeated stimulation, these 'blockages'

attentuate and gradually disappear or h tuate (Becker &

Shapiro. 1981).

During meditation, however, it has been reported that alpha

blocking either does not occur at all. as in the case of the

Yogic 'samadhi' (ecstatic) state (Das & Gastaut. 1957) or that it

does not habituate to repeated external stimuli (Kasamatsu &

Hirai. 1966). These findings seem to be consistent with the

goals of the types of meditation involved. i.e. Zen meditation

attempts to turn attention outward, and regards all stimuli as

'novel' events to be dispassionately observed but not reflected

upon. On the other hand many Yogic forms of 'concentrative'

meditation urge the inward direction of attention to the

exclusion of all external stimuli (Delmonte. 1984b).

(iii) Theta and TM

The association between alpha activity and meditation

initially received considerable attention. However, more

~ . . . . . - . ~ . . - . . - . - . . . . . . . . . . .
recently the theta state has been the focus of Speculation.

This Is possibly because the psychological variables, most

consistently related to changes in theta activity, have been

subsumed under the general heading of 'attention'. For example.

converging evidence suggests that low voltage, irregular theta

activity, with an overlay of beta components. may be the

principle REG characteristic of the hnAgoic state (drowsiness)

(Dement & Kleitman. 1957; Liberson & Liberson 1965: Foulkes &

Vogel, 1965; Stoyva, 1973).

This state is characterized by decreasing ability on the

part of the organism to actively interact with the environment.

Furthermore. psychological phenomena such as autonomous, vivid

visual and auditory imagery (Stoyva. 1973). kinaesthetic

experiences (Oswald, 1962), and alterations in thought (Vogel e..

Al, 1966, 1972) reportedly accompany low voltage theta activity

during the hypagogic state.

Wallace (1970). studying TM. reported low-voltage theta

which appeared to be similar to EEG wave-forms seen during

drowsiness in four out of 15 subjects. Wallace r-t &1, (1971)

noted the same effect in five out of 36 subjects. In these

subjects. theta appeared in the frontal area simultaneously with

alpha dominance in other cortical areas. Zshihara & Yoshii

(1973) and Legewie &t Al (1969) also noted this phenomenon in

studies investigating theta states and problem solving.

Banquet (1973) pointed out that spectral analysis of the EEG of

meditators showed that power was largely concentrated in the 5 hz

region of the spectrum. In contrast, in four control subjects

power was distributed between theta and other frequencies,

suggestine drowiness. However, the 5 hz unimodal peak is not I%

consistent with the known characteristics of theta waves which

accompany drowiness (Schacter. 1977). Methodologically, due

to the complex nature of theta activity. this study might have

been improved had statistical analysis of the EEG spectra been

reported.

EEG patterns characteristic of drowsiness, as well as slow

eye movements have been observed by Fenwick &- A1 (1977),

indicating the hypnagogic state in a TM group during meditation.

They conjectured that TM may form a technique for holding the

level of consciousness constantly in the hypnagogic state.

Similarly, Younger g. aJ. (1975) studied eight practitioners of

TM. and found that, on average, about half of the meditation-time

was spent in waking alpha whereas the other half passed in states

of drowsiness or Stage 1I sleep.

Pagano et Al (1976) reported that during ten sessions of

meditation by each of five experienced transcendental meditators.

39X of the meditation-time was accompanied by wakeful EEG, 19X by

drowsy EEG. and 40X by sleep stages II, III. and IV. They

47

7~~ "". , .. %
further noted that EEG ratings of drowsiness and sleep compared

well with the subject's introspective identification of these "

states. It is worth noting, however that visual inspection of

the records was the only method of EEG analysis reported in these

three studies. Hence. it is difficult to compare the properties

of theta, reported in these experiments, with the features of the

meditational theta activity claimed by Banquet (1973).

(iv) Long-term EEG Changes

Other investigations have compared the responses of

meditating groups with eyes-closed control groups and have found

increases in both AIRIL& and .t±.& activity in meditators

(Banquet. 1973; Elson &t Al. 1977; Hebert & Lehmann. 1977; Lehrer

Al. 1980). These studies did not randomly assign subjects to

groups, nor did they pursue any potential long-term effects of

meditation, but compared self-selected (experienced) meditators

with controls on a single occasion. A longitudinal design which

included a three, six and nine month follow-up was employed by

Vassiliadis (1973). During the pretest condition meditators and

controls did not show any significant differences in terms of

frontal and occipital alpha activity. There were still no

significant differences between groups after three months.

However at six months, increased levels of occipital alpha

activity were noted in the meditation group. At the nine month

follow-up session there were no significant changes in frontal

alpha associated with this practice. Nevertheless. the

meditating group had reliably increased occipital alpha activity

as well as theta activity compared to controls. Moreover. these

increases appeared to be a direct function of the length of

practice of TM - a finding consistent with results from

systematic studies of Zen and pit burials of yogis. However. it

is not clear to what extent meditation was responsible for the EEG

effects observed, as meditative practice over time is a selfselective process and the degree of experience may be a '

significant factor (Delmonte, 1984e).

(v) Comment on the EEG Studies.

The studies reviewed here pose several basic questions of

interpretation. A number of authors have observed large

variability in alpha production within groups of subjects

(Banquet, 1973; Westcott. 1974: Younger ftt Al. 1975). whereas

others have noted a similar trend with regard to theta production

(Elson r A. 1977; Corby t A,. 1978; Warrenburg &t &1. 1980).

Westcott (1974) speculated that EEG patterns are related to

individual neurological traits which are enhanced during the

practice of meditation. It has also been suggested that large

individual variations in base-line alpha may be related to

.8
genetic and early environmental influences (Paskewitz. 1977).

Some explanations of the 'alpha experience' which have come

from studies using alpha biofeedback training emphasise the

importance of social psychological variables such as expectation

(set). demand characteristics of the experimental setting and the

degree of experienced success at the task (Plotkin. 1977).

Delmonte (1984e) has identified two interpretations emerging

from the evidence linking meditation. psychological states and

electrocortical activity:

1) Meditators may represent a self-selected group of individuals

who tend to take up and maintain the practice of meditation.

These individuals also tend to be high alpha and theta

producers compared with controls. This view has received

support from findings showing that meditators exhibit higher

alpha or theta levels than controls even when not meditating

(Kras. 1977; Tebecis. 1975).

2) 'STATE' effects of meditation may evolve into 'TRAIT'

effects. Two longitudinal studies have suggested that the

alpha activity of meditators is significantly greater than

that of controls both during and following meditation

(Glueck and Stroebel, 1975; Vassiliadis. 1973).

Theta activity, during Zen and TM, might be expected as

these procedures emphasize the role of focused attention and

concentration during meditation. However, similar techniques

encourage entry Into hypnagogic states (Stoyva. 1973) which are

also associated with theta. In addition, Bohlin (1971) has

argued that monotonous repetition of the mantra may induce a

sleep-like state. This latter interpretation is supported by

the finding that theta, during TM. is structurally similar to

theta associated with drowiness, and subsequent sleep. There

is obviously a need for further research in this area to discover

whether features of theta activity, during meditation, reflect

those seen in 'normal' subjects performing tasks which elicit

similar psychological states.

B. Transcendental Meditation and Associated Physiology

TM has attracted millions of followers, mainly due to its

presentation as an effortless, automatic technique which may be

used to experience not only 'Being' but also profound levels of

relaxation. Maharishi has associated relaxed states with a

lowered bodily metabolism, and has claimed that this is due to

the calming of the mind and nervous system by the practice of TM.

Indeed, a state of deep relaxation is a necessary prerequisite

for the experience of increasingly subtle levels of thought and.

49
1 . by extension, transcendental Being. Hence, the repetition of a * -

particular word (the mantra) is held to calm the nervous system.

which together with 'softer' breathing induces a lowered

metabolic state. The deeply relaxed bodily state is however.

accompanied by an alert mental state. Maharishi (1966) claimed

that the repeated experience of this state 'de-stressed' the

nervous system, thus alleviating the effects of excessive arousal

and anxiety. Furthermore, these induced states of 'maximum

relaxation' were asserted to be psychologically and

physiologically unique to TM which has been advocated as a viable

replacement for psychotherapy:

"It is time that the medical professions In

different countries considered the value of Being

and put to the scientific test the physiological

and psychological effects of transcendental

meditation so that the mental and physical health

of all people may benefit from Being. At this

time, in almost every country of the world. there

are people practising transcendental meditation who

would make good subjects for tests to determine the

physiological and psychological changes due to the

influence of Being. Many thousands of people have

found that their health becomes better, their

behaviour towards other people improves and harmony

in the atmosphere is maintained at all levels."

(Maharishi, 1966. p.208-209)

If validated, such claims could have important consequences

for the practice of Western medicine. Metabolic levels are

closely associated with behaviour: a low metabolism reflects

relaxation, quiescence or sleep whereas a high metabolic rate is

associated with arousal and movement. Sustained, excessive

levels of arousal or anxiety are believed to occur in response to

environmental stroesorn which. in turn, are perceived to be

principle 'risk factors' in the aetiology of psychosomatic

pathologies. Therefore, the experimental study of TM and its

unique states seems to be a worthy enterprise.

Maharishi (1966) has given an account of the physiological

effects of transcendental meditation from which proponents rarely

deviate. In this, he explained that:

"during meditation, as the mind proceeds to

experience the finer stages of thought, the whole

body becomes calm and quiet.

This quieting of the body naturally allows an

unusual degree of rest which itself stores energy

to an unusual degree. Certainly activity of the

mind and the nervous system is least in this state

and the mind quietens and becomes calm."

(Maharishi. 1966. p.329)

50 I.
This state is said to be brought about by a fall in the partial

pressure of C02 in the plasma, which in turn leads to a lessening

of respiratory amplitude. Respiratory frequency may also

decrease. Together these reductions are held to account for the

apparent diminished oxidative metabolism. Although

hyperventilation or 'forced overbreathing'. may cause a similar

fall In blood C02 levels and subsequently lower metabolism, it*s

occurrence was denied in this case.

Wallace (1970) was the first to conduct a systematic

investigation of TM using contemporary laboratory techniques to

measure the accompanying physiological processes. Some of his

more impressive findings included 20X decreases in V02 from rest

and a lowering of HR by an average of 5 bpm; values consistent

with those reported for Zen monks (Kasamatsu & Hirai, 1963).

However. in both studies the briefly-reported results were

derived from only a few selected subjects. Independent

replication of these studies would prove difficult if based

solely on the published information.

Subsequently, a series of reports emerged reporting

significant reductions in a number of physiological variables

during the practice of meditation. These have included heart

rate. blood pressure, ventilation rate. cardiac output, oxygen

consumption, carbon dioxide elimination and blood lactate

concentration. In addition, it has been reported that the

asynchronous, mixed frequencies characteristic of the 'awake' EEG

shifted to lower alpha frequencies, and the galvanic skin

resistance increased dramatically. This evidence has been

generally cited to affirm the view that meditation affects

physiological as well as psychological arousal.

(I) Heart Rate

Pioneering studies of Yogis in India concerning the effects

of meditation on heart rate (HR) yielded confusing results.

During various types of Yogic practices. HR increases (Das &

Gastaut, 1957; Wenger & Bagchi, 1961), as well as HR decreases

(Anand e A.1, 1961a) have been reported. However. other

researchers have noted inconsistent or insignificant changes in

HR during similar practices (Karambelkar .t Al. 1968). The

frequently cited Japanese investigations of the physiological

effects of Zen meditation (Akishige. 1968) did not report HR and

other physiological data in a systematic fashion, although

decreases in HR may be inferred from the direction of change of

other physiological variables. Broadly speaking, HR decreases

have been reported in studies either lacking a control group or

using a design insensitive to temporal effects such as comparing

values during meditation with pre-meditation rest levels.

il 51

° • . . . . . . " + " " - " 2 . . . . + " .

:: : "": 2 :" 2 2 " : :_::::; .:";" :;:;:: 9'/ ' """' " '' " ."- " *""%
Many investigators (Morse &t Al 1977; Puente. 1981; Malec &

Sipprelle. 1977; Travis .t al. 1976) have failed to report

significant decreases in HR during meditation. Furthermore.

experiments which have noted significant reductions in HR during

meditation following eyes-closed rest also report that such

changes do not differ significantly from those observed in a

control group (Walrath & Hamilton. 1976; Warrenberg. &t AL.

1980).

Those which have used stronger experimental designs such as

rAndnmlv assigning subjects to either meditation or control

conditions failed to find significant HR differences between

groups. Changes in HR from pre-meditation to follow-up periods

varying from 2-12 weeks have also failed to reach statistical

significance (Benson. "Z al. 1978; Rogers & Livingston. 1977;

Peters, e-t Al, 1977; Patel & Carruthers. 1977; Surwit. *.t A.L,

1978; Kirsch & Henry. 1979). Nonetheless, other longitudinal

studies have reported reliable decreases in MR associated with

meditation compared with both controls and pre-initiation levels

(Kubose 1976).

(ii) The Galvanic Skin Response

Wallace sZ Al (1971) and Orme-Johnson (1973) have emphasized

the stress-reducing properties of TM. The galvanic skin

response (GSR) Is an important physiological variable in

meditational research because it reflects activity of the

sympathetic nervous system. An increase In the frequency of

'spontaneous' GSRs or a fall in GSR baseline implies greater

sympathetic activity. A state of relaxation, or autonomic

stability is inferred from a rise in GSR baseline and fewer

'spontaneous' responses. An experiment by Orme-Johnson (1973)

Is heavily cited in discussions of the therapeutic value of

meditation. The results of this study indicated that meditators

produced significantly fewer spontaneous GSRs than resting nonmeditators, and suggested that meditation reduced arousal.

Recently however, Holmes (1984) convincingly argued that OrmeJohnson's results may be accounted for by the 'Law of Initial

Values', a well-established principle that should be considered

in the interpretation of psychophysiological data.

Morse et A. (1977) found that there were no significant

differences between meditation, instructed relaxation and

relaxation-hypnosis with regard to GSR. This finding is

consistent with the results of other studies which have reported

no significant state differences between the electrodermal

activity of meditating subjects and controls (Puente. 1981;

Malec & Sipprette, 1977; Wairath & Hamilton, 1975; Curtis &

Wessberg. 1976; Cauthen & Prymak. 1977).

52

K St~ . * * * . h..
As well as looking at levels of electrodermal activity,

others have studied reactivity in this domain to stressful

stimuli, and reported equivocal results. For example, using

relatively mild laboratory Ostressors', Lehrer .I Al (1980) and

Bradley & McCanne (1981) reported no significant differences In

electrodermal responsivity between meditation and control groups

exposed to aversive auditory stimuli. However Goleman &

Schwartz (1976). using the cold-pressor test, found more rapid

recovery (habituation) to the noxious stimulus in the meditating

group compared with controls. It was also noted that naive

subjects, meditating for the first time, showed a recovery

pattern similar to those of more experienced meditators. only

less marked. All of these studies were conducted with

practitioners of TM., who for purposes of analysis. maw be

considered a self-selected group (Delmonte. 1984r).

(iii) The Electromyogram

Electromyographic activity (EMG) reflects muscle tension and

is extensively reported in investigations using biofeedback,

progressive relaxation, autogenics, etc. However, as revealed

in the compilations of two prominent reviewers there is a dearth

of 1MG data relating to meditation research. Woolfolk (1975).

within the context of the 'psychophysiological correlates of

meditation' . does not even mention EMG. Holmes (1984) reviewed

the experimental evidence that meditation lowers somatic arousal.

but devoted only one sentence to O1MG Activity'. Two out of

four studies that apparently assessed EMG during meditation

suggested that the meditating group experienced less muscle

tension than a resting croup. However, no citations were given.

Woolfolk (1975) speculated that the almost immobile posture

assumed by many meditators. might have led to the opinion that

1MG recordings are redundant.

Nevertheless. Das and Gastaut (1957) found no muscular

electrical activity whatsoever during the practice of Raja Yoga

meditation, and Banquet (1973) reported similar findings with

respect to TM. Delmonte (1984c), using a counterbalanced

design, found that subjects had significantly lower frontalis EMG

levels during TM than during eyes-closed rest. This finding

agreed with a previous study which reported that meditators

demonstrated significantly lower frontalis EMG compared to

resting controls (Malec & Sipprelle. 1977). Morse &I Al,

(1977) found that both TM subjects and novice meditators taught

Benson's method showed significantly lower scalp - frontal,

temporal, parietal and occipital - muscle activity during

meditation than during either relaxation/hypnosis or simple eyesclosed relaxation. In contrast, Travis *t Al (1976) noted no .'

significant differences between meditators and controls with

respect to frontalis EMG levels. Similarly, Warrenberg si Al,

(1980) reported that meditators were not significantly different

in terms of frontalis EMG during meditation and eyes-closed rest,

53

I.
S .--

although, they apparently showed significant decreases from

baseline.

L

Zaichkowski &t &1 (1975) compared biofeedback. TM and

Benson's method in terms of EMG and reported that all treatment

groups produced significant decreases in frontalis EMG levels

over three months, compared with the control condition. In this

study all groups were randomly assigned except to the TM condition.

but all were pre-tested before intervention began. Raskin " "1

(1980). in a longitudinal study lasting more than three months.

found no significant differences between subjects with chronic

anxiety who were randomly assigned to TM. EMG biofeedback or

relaxation therapy; all groups showed significant decreases in

EMG activity. The decreases in muscle tension. however, were

not related to reductions in anxiety.

(iv) Comment on HR. GSR, and ENG Studies

Studies focusing on autonomic (HR and GSR) and

somatomotor (EMG) indices have generally found little difference

between effects of meditation and those associated with rest and

relaxation. Electrodermal evidence suggests that sympathetic

activity is reduced during meditation indicating lowered arousal.

Reductions in HR have also been associated with meditation

although these are often of negligible magnitude, and some

studies have even reported increases in cardiac activity. The

majority of EMG studies have directed attention towards activity

in the frontalis muscles. Less activity in this and other

muscle groups has been demonstrated, although similar effects

have been seen during relaxation. In general, the published

reports regarding both lone-term and short-term effects of the

practice of meditation on physiological responsivity are

contradictory and equivocal. Claims that meditation produces

changes in autonomic and somatomotor activity beyond those

normally found in eyes-closed rest., has received little support.

However. the physiological states associated with meditation have

been utilised by practitioners to facilitate certain feats of

endurance. These will be reviewed in the next section.

C. Control of Metabolic Rate and Associated Feats of

Endurance 5-

There is a widespread belief, long held in the East. that as

well as bringing spiritual enlightenment, the practice of yoga

and meditation can aid the voluntary control of certain

'involuntary' or autonomic physiological functions. More

recently, reports attesting to such control have gained wide

currency in the West, particularly since the emergence within

scientific psychology of new techniques such as biofeedback.

Yogis have displayed such feats as breaking chains and cutting

5-" 
palm leaves with the ringers, as well as displaying precise

control of individual abdominal muscles. Other claims include

the ability to endure great pain, stop the heart, markedly

diminish muscular activity, and reduce ventilation to

imperceptibility (Hoenig. 1968).

Perhaps the most remarkable skill involves the ability of

some yogis to remain buried underground for prolonged periods -

up to 28 days. These yogis not only survive, but apparently

surfer rew ill effects as a result of the experience. Of all

the Yogic feats, the ability to endure 'burial* has perhaps had

the greatest impact on the imagination of Western physiological

investigators. Therefore, the results of these field studies

have provided a powerful stimulus for the experimental

Investigation of meditation and zoga as techniques capable of

modifying important physiological processes.

The control of bodily metabolism is a very complex affair

involving behavioural, physiological, and hormonal processes.

The link between respiratory activity and metabolic rate is well

understood (Lambertson, 197) and the metabolic costs of many

everyday activities have been estimated (Conzolazio Ct A,.

1963). Increases in oxygen uptake, above basal and resting

levels. maw be largely accounted for by variations in the

activity of the striate muscles. In the eyes of Western science --

the results or pit burial studies suggested that bodily

metabolism can be intentionally lowered to levels which have

previously been considered incompatible with human life, and

these features cause this to be one of the first Yogic practices

to have been systematically studied.

(i) Pit Burials

Traditional writings do not describe 'Bhoogarbha Sazmadhi'

(pit burial) but it is by no means uncommon. The technique

involves the total lack of movement together with respiratory

manipulations which lower bodily metabolism (Hoenig, 1968).

Twpically-used methodology involves the confinement of volunteers

in a board-covered 'pit' or. above ground, in an air-tight box.

The meditative posture assumed under these circumstances is not

the traditional lotus position, however, but Shavasana - the

'corpse pose'. a prone posture of virtual immobility. Reports

of prolonged confinement lasting days or weeks have not been •

experimentally investigated, and in published studies subjects

have rarely remained in air-tight isolation for more than a few .0

hours. Nevertheless, such feats have made a deep impression on %,

Western observers, and have aroused interest in the Yogic

assertions that breathing exercises are responsible for inducing

states of lowered metabolism.

== i-5.
These exercises, called pranayama (a pause or holding in the

breathing cycle), involve manipulation of both respiratory rate

and the temporal ratios between inspiration. retention, and

exhalation. The time relations of the different parts of the A

respiratory cycle are of considerable importance to

practitioners, and their adroit management Is difficult. Once

mastered, however, pranayama purportedly enables the practitioner P..

to become 'independent' of bodily needs. In the language of

Eastern traditions the effects of the manipulation of ventilation

endowed the meditator with Rwa. =92ZnltupaI 

Regarding 'Pit burials'. Vakil (1950) witnessed a yogi. Shrl

RamdasJi. sealed in an air-and water-tight underground concrete

cubicle In which the six Internal walls were lined with thousands

of rusty iron nails. After the yogi had been encased for 56

hours, 1400 gallons of water were introduced into the cubicle

tirough a small hole made in the roof. which was afterwards

lunediately sealed. A further six and a half hours elapsed

until the chamber was opened and the yogi, In a state of stupor.

was lifted out. Upon examination, his heart rate. blood

pressure and respiration were within normal limits.

Unfortuately, these relevant measures were not determined during

the 'experiment' 2=r a. although, after a whiff of smelling

salts the yogi appeared none the worse for wear. Shri Ramdasji

was confined for a total of sixty-two hours, making this stay the '.e

longest recorded in Western scientific literature. Although

unknown in the West, such demonstrations are apparently not

uncommon in India where they may draw large crowds - 10.000 in

this case.

Reports of such feats of endurance attracted much attention

in the West. Those published in scientific journals have had an

impact on the perception and the experimental study of meditation

which has extended far beyond that which their number merits.

In India. they have also aroused official interest. and funding -

has become available for their study.

In 1960 the Indian Government set up a Committee to

scientifically investigate yogic practices as a part of a more

general examination of 'indigenous systems of medicine'. The

committee consisted of representatives of the Health and Education

Ministries as well as medical researchers. The primary object

of this project was to ascertain and assess the potential use of

yogic techniques in the management of psychosomatic disorders.

and involved trained medical personnel as well as the use of

modern electronic instrumentation. The major recipients of

governmental funding for this enterprise were two Institutes:

the Kaivalyadhama Lonavla Insititute and the All India Institute

of Medical Sciences. Both are noted for their scientific

research and for a lack of emphasis on the spiritual aspects of

meditative techniques. Furthermore, most experimental

Investigations of meditation conducted by Western researchers

56 -
have directly or indirectly involved these institutes.

The Chairman of the Committee. Dr. B.K. Anand. was also

director of research at the All India Institute, and he was

particularly interested in the metabolism of yogis during

'samadhi' (deep meditation). This interest was also shared by

Drs Bhole. Vinekar and Karambelkar. the directors of research at

Lonavla. Moreover, official interest in meditation has centered =

around the efficacy of yogic claims concerning improved health -

a fascination shared by the West. One of the first

methodological problems encountered was the selection of a 'real'

yogi as a subject for planned experiments. It was reasoned

that expert practitioners would generate results which more

accurately expressed the true effects of meditation compared with

those of novices or frauds.

Subject selection can present difficulties in all areas of

psychological and physiological research, but it becomes a

particularly acute problem in the experimental study of

meditation. At times, experimenters have been besieged by yogis

volunteering to be studied. On the other hand, the strict life

style of some practitioners may demand the complete avoidance of

contact with other people.

Wenger and Bagchi (1961) noted that among their subjects

were individuals who only practiced yoga for physical exercise or

for exhibition as well as many who were 'sincere followers of the

path' giving *excellent cooperation'. Some of the yogis

approached, however. 'refused any form of cooperation' including

conversation or the observation of their practices. Even under

less extreme conditions, appropriate fUb0, Sala-in continues

to be an issue hindering contemporary meditational research. It

does not. however, preclude experimental study. Anand si -J.

(1961). for example, solved this problem in their initial study

of yogic abilities by choosing as their subject Sri Ramanand

Yogi, co-director of the Patanjali Yoga Research Institute, and

an expert yoga instructor.

Anand &t &I (1961a) twice sealed Sri Ramanand in an airtight box. The first time a candle burned in the box with the

yogi. It went out after about three hours but Sri Ramanand

remained confined for a further five hours. The yogil's oxygen

uptake was inferred from the intermittently determined values of F

total oxygen and carbon dioxide in the box. However effects

relating to the first three hours are confounded as the amount of

oxygen burned by the candle was an unknown factor, thereby

rendering comments on the yogi's oxygen uptake during this period

speculative. During the remaining five hours, however, the

Yogi's average oxygen uptake was 12.2 liters/hour or 7.3 liters

less than his relatively high basal value of 19.5 liters/hour.

57

. . . .' -
On the second occasion the yogi stayed in the box, without

a candle. for ten hours. This time the average rate of oxygen

uptake was 13.3 liters/hour. slightly higher than during the

previous experiment. Oxygen uptake initially increased, then

fell as low as 10 litres/hour, and although it rose again during

the latter part of the session, values remained below those

expected under basal conditions. The activity levels of other

measured physiological indices, however, were not consistent with

the apparent lowered metabolic rate. For example, heart rate

was 85 bpm upon entering the box. It then fell to between 60

and 72 bpm until the last hour when it again rose above 80 bpm.

Respiration rate began at 20 breaths/minute. and generally

remained stable until the last two hours when it increased to 26

breaths/minute. Values given for oxygen and carbon dioxide

concentrations at the end of the experiment were 15.8% and 4.4%

respectively. The authors noted "... that in spite of breathing

an air whose oxygen content had fallen below 169 and C02 content

risen above 4%, Sri Ramanand did not show any hyperpnoea or

change in heart rate" (Anand atI; Al, 1961a. p.89). Carbon

dioxide levels of this magnitude are not, however, associated

with significant alterations in the activity of the heart, blood

pressure, oxygen uptake and related physiological processes.

Hence. these values are by no means abnormal considering the

experimental circumstances and the yogi's relatively high initial

metabolic rate. Nevertheless, the results were interpreted as

indicating that Sri Ramanand Yogi could voluntarily reduce his

oxygen uptake to significantly below basal requirements,

seemingly by as much as an impressive 40-50%. Anand ot L.Al

(1961) postulated that such effects were due to 'conditioning' of

the limbic system, a chain of thought that is consistent with

that of Western psychology. The process being as follows:

1) somatic activities are 'voluntary' and are regulated by the

neocortex (conscious brain).

2) visceral functions are 'involuntary' and are regulated by the

limbic system.

3) visceral functions cannot be influenced 'voluntarily'.

4) through yogic practices the limbic system is 'conditioned'.

" The assumption that the neocortex is the brain structure

responsible for consciousness and for voluntary movement of the

body has been a prominent part of Western psychological doctrine.

Similarly, the notion that visceral processes are insensitive to

neocortical influence and are solely regulated by subcortical

mechanisms is an extension of this argument. Whereas

psychologists use electronic instruments to 'condition' the

activity of neural structures controlling visceral responses,

yogis may carry out an analogous process through mental

activities such as meditation.

In an effort to replicate the experiment of Anand &I &-"

.. 58

........-... 7
(1961a). Karambelkar At &1 (1968) studied four subjects. One

was a professional yogic meditator. one was a novice and two were

non-yogis. The professional was 54 years old with a reported

basal oxygen uptake of 13.7 litres/hour. The other subjects

were younger; 14, 15 and 27 years of age with basal oxygen

uptakes of 18.0. 17.7 and 21.6 litres/hour. respectively. Each

subject was encased in an air-tight box for 12 to 18 hours.

During the confinement, the V02 of each subject was less than

that expected on the basis of their respective basal oxygen

uptake values. However there was a large between-subjects

variance in V02. ranging from 2-34X of subject's basal values.

These reductions were more marked at the beginning of the

session. and gradually decreased as confinement progressed. The

reduction in V02 exhibited a direct relationship to the subject's

prior experience of the breathing exercises used - pranayama.

All the subjects suffered great discomfort when C02 levels in the

box reached 5%. after which marked increases in heart rate, blood

pressure and respiration rate were recorded. The professional

subject sustained C02 concentrations as high as 7.7X before the

experiment was terminated. However, such levels of carbon

dioxide caused the yogi considerable distress.

Although V02 decreases were seen in all subjects (Yogi and

non-Yogi), none could demonstrate such a change outside the box.

Karambelkar et al concluded that the reductions in V02. during

confinement, represented n-rm-1 physiological responses to the

steadily increasing C02 levels. They suggested that pranayamic

techniques help to develop tolerance to the stress produced by

elevated C02 levels. This, in turn, would induce muscular

relaxation, and so reduce metabolic rates. As Karambelkar jat Al

have pointed out, the results of these studies are consistent

with the detailed studies of respiration by Haldane (1917).

This pioneer in respiratory physiology studied human

subjects in air-tight chambers and noted that C02 concentrations

above 5X were sensitive predictors of physical discomfort and

Increased respiration rate. In contrast, 02 concentrations were

relatively unimportant sources of psychological or physiological

distress. For example, oxygen concentrations as low as 8-9X did

not significantly alter breathing. In agreement with Haldane,

Consolazio gi Al (1947) found that an atmosphere composed of 5%

C02 and 12X 02 did not significantly impair the

psychophysiological efficiency of subjects. However, they noted r

that C02 levels above 5% were not well tolerated by normal.

healthy persons. Haldane once enclosed himself in an air-tight

tank for an hour without harm. In his opinion the oxygen

requirement of a man, lying perfectly still, is only about 1/2

cubic foot/hour. If these figures are applied to the pit burial .

studies, they can account for the survival of yogis buried for

the periods under consideration.

59

* ..-.. .9 . . . ..

. . . . . . . . .. . . . .

V. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
For example, the air-tight box used by Anand a t al (1961)

measured 6'xL'x4', with a capacity or 96 cubic feet. This would

provide enough air space to allow 19.2 hours of breathing time.

As Sri Ramanand stayed in the box for only 10 hours, he was

performing well within his capabilities. The box used by

Karambelkr St al (1968) measured 6 3/4' x 4' x 3 1/2', yielding

94.5 cubic feet or 18.9 hours breathing time. These subjects

were confined up to 18 hours, thereby approaching their

theoretical limits. Hence, rising C02 levels were reported and

the experiences of the subjects were consistent with the

environmental conditions, suggesting that experimental results

obeyed known physiological principles.

Similarly, Vakil (1950) accounted for the feat of Shri

Ramdaji by noting that the 216 cu.ft. capacity of the concrete

cubicle contained sufficient oxygen for 86 hours breathing time.

Hence, in principle the confinement could have continued for a

further 14 hours, although this would have been reduced somewhat

by the introduction of the water which would fill approxiately

186 cu.ft. He was deeply impressed by the fact that the middle

aged. 'emaciated' yogi has survived confinement for 62 hours

completely surrounded by rusty nails. 6 1/2 hours of which he was

up to his neck in water.

The experimenter's perception of metabolic function may also

colour reported results. For example. Hoenig (1968) noted that

the burial of Shri Krishna Iyengar was terminated for fear of the

yogi's life. However the yogi asserted that he could have

remained incarcerated for a further 36 hours, and volunteered to

do so. but his offer was rejected on medical grounds. The

dimensions of the pit were 2.5' x3' x4' (approx. 30 cu.ft.) or

large enough to meet the yogi's needs for the time period he

specified. In this sense, the yogi seemed to be more cognizant

of his metabolic needs than the researchers conducting the study.

Hoenig (1968) similarly accounted for the performance of Shri

S.R. Krishna Iyengar during burial at the All India Institute on

three occasions. In each case oxygen uptake was not directly

measured, and discussion focused on the levels of carbon dioxide "

at burial termination. All three experiments yielded similar

results - slightly less than 4% carbon dioxide concentrations in

the pit.

Regarding these points, Ikegami (1970) systematically

studied Zen postures and their metabolic costs. He reported

that the activity levels of selected muscles varied from posture

to posture. Since the metabolic rates of muscles differed, the

metabolism of the meditator also fluctuated. Zen priests

apparently exhibited markedly less (between a third and a half)

muscle activity than laymen. IKegami (1970) suggested that

postural stability and the 'mental attitude' of the meditator are

salient features in Zen Buddhism. Thus, subtle alterations in

posture, exhibited by novice meditators and measured by the EMG.

60 i %
may significantly increase metabolism. r..

(ii) Comment on Pit Burial Studies

Although meditation has been practised by Eastern devotees

for many centuries, it is only relatively recently that

associated scientific study has been conducted in the Western

world. Attention has focused Particularly on feats of endurance

claimed by practitioners. One of the most dramatic of these is

*1 the ability to remain confined with limited supplies of oxygen

for longer periods of time than has previously been thought

possible. By controlling their respiration and adopting certain

postures Yogis are able to perform in an apparently supernatural

way.

However respiratory activity is closely related to metabolic

rate and certain ventilatory manoeuvres result in hypometabolic

states. A lowered metabolism allows survival under conditions

of restricted oxygen availability, and might well explain the

success of pit burials. The limiting factor in such studies

appears to be the increasing levels of carbon dioxide. Under

these conditions the behavioup of the volunteers obeys known

physiological laws. However, many of the studies in this area

are methodologically flawed, especially concerning the

establishment of appropriate baselines against which the

experimental effects can be gauged.

D. The Relaxation Response

Consistent with the physiological changes associated with

pit burials are those comprising the Relaxation Response. This

Is thought to rely on an 'inr *te mechanism': a 'universal human

capacity' which allows a decrease in sympathetic nervous

impulses and hence a reduction In the activity of several vital

physiological functions. However. unlike the r-flaxIve 'Fight

or Flight' response of Cannon. to which it is a counterpoint.

"the Relaxation Response can be evoked only if time is set aside

and a conscious effort made" (Benson. 1975. p.125). It has

been asserted that the benefits attributed to the Relaxation

Response may be acquired with relative ease.

Benson. a cardiologist, has been actively conducting

research into the physiological effects of meditation for the

last 15 years. occasionally in collaboration with Wallace.

These two prominent researchers are in agreement concerning the

general experimental results of such studies. They differ

greatly. however, in their interpretation both of their own

experiments and those of others. Wallace has maintained that

the practice of TM induces definite psychophysioloical states.

61
including a specific state of consciousness. This has been

identified with the 'Transcendental' state of consciousness

described by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. V

Marked increases in V02. HR. SP. RR and EMG are

characteristic of increased energy expenditure, and are rellably

seen In situations demanding behavioural responses which are

expressed by the striate musculature. Cannon (1914. 1932)

systematized the experimental study of these variables by his

formulation of the 'Fight/Flight response'. which is

characterized by a dramatic activation of a hDpormotabole bodily

state in both humans and animals. Increased arousal and the

predominance of sympathetic control is a central feature of this

response, which Cannon interpreted as an 'Emergency Reaction'.

Subsequently, Hess (1957) demonstrated that electrical

stimulation of the posterior hypothalamus also increased activity

of the same physiological processes. He termed this the

Y.rpjrtU"I R-gona and it is associated with the mobilization of

energy which prepares the organism for motor expression in terms

of work. Today, the 'Emergency Reaction', the 'Ergotropic

Response' and the 'Energy Mobilization Response' are regarded as

closely-related or even equivalent phenomena.

Hess (1957) elicited a further response from the anterior

region of the same structure. This pattern of activity was

termed the Trophotpople R&&nDenft. and was marked by quiescence

and relaxation. Gellhorn (1965) extended this formulation by

convincingly associating the Trophotropic Response with dominance

of the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system

(ANS). Cannon. Hess, and Gellhorn emphasized that the multiple

(effector) response systems mediated by the ANS act in concert.

The behaviour of effectors innervated by the ANS was seen as an

outcome of Inteerated activity, possibly orchestrated by the

hypothalamus.

Benson (1975) has reviewed the findings of meditation

studies both within Eastern and Western religions and among cults

embraced by lay populations. He concluded that the various

effects, especially of TM, could be interpreted In terms of the

Relaxation Response, He claimed that altered states of

consciousness, described in the religious literature, comprised

testimonials from individuals who had experienced the Relaxation

Response in a religious context. As a result of his review.

Benson distilled the methodological minimum necessary to elicit

this response. This bears a striking similarity to procedures,

traditionally used in the East, which facilitate the practice of

meditation. In addition to using a mantra composed of numbers,

these are:

(1) a quiet environment - the quieter the better.

(2) a mental device - to counteract 'mind-wandering'.

(3) a passive attitude - considered by Benson to be the most

62

*~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~ A . . . . . . * * . . . *
important element in eliciting the relaxation response. k

(4) a comfortable position - to prevent undue muscular tension.

Each of these features has a direct parallel in other 'noncultic' types of meditation, such as Carrington's (1977)

'Clinically Standardized Meditation' (CSM). When speaking of b

these components collectively, the term Relaxive Meditation (RN)

is used, to distinguish them from the Relaxation Response (a

physiological entity).

Benson and his associates (1974a.b. 1978) have

systematically investigated the evocation or the Relaxation

Response by meditation, and have concluded that the physiological

profile, characterized by reductions in the activity of a variety

of physiological processes, could be interpreted as a

hivometabolie bodily state. Such a physiological state is in

direct contrast to that elicited by stressors and associated with

sympathetic activation together with autonomic. somatomotor and

humoral changes oriented towards increased energy expenditure.

It has been denied by Benson that £flm type of meditation can

induce 'specific' physiological changes or states of

consciousness. He noted that many meditative techniques

produce a physiological state similar to those associated with

such 'relaxation strategies' as autogenics. biofeedback.

hypnosis and progressive relaxation.

E. Discussion

The 'early' literature studies of Yogic practitioners and

meditators were intriguing but methodologically unsatisfying. A

wide variety of physiological indices were either measured or

inferred relating to metabolism, respiration, the viscera and the

striate muscles, but there was no adherence to strict

experimental procedures. In each case. the methodology arose

from whatever arrangements the experimenters could strike with

the subject at the time. Measurements and techniques were

inconsistent from study to study, and variables such as V02 were

sampled in different ways. Also the experimental oxygen uptake

values were compared with standard basal metabolic rates. Basal

states are difficult to achieve and require specific preexperimental behaviour and exacting test conditions. The

meeting of such criteria was apparently neither attempted nor

achieved in the early studies.

The subject population available for study has largely

determined the course of research on meditation. Due to the

self-imposed restrictions of communication and mobility, many

serious meditators cannot be approached. A considerable

proportion of research has used Westerners engaging in TM due to

63
their relative prevalence and the purported ease of the

technique. Naturally this subject selection has coloured the

results of investigations on meditation. A number of authors

have commented on such methodological difficulties and the

preliminary nature of many results. However, these have been

largely ignored and the results of 'pioneering' efforts have set

the trend for later studies, and &a a consequence the evidence is

confusing, equivocal and occasionally contradictory.

Claims that meditation precipitates unique physiological as

well A psychological states have led to extensive investigation

of the associated bodily changes. As well as inducing passive

physiological changes, the practice of meditation and yoga have

been used as a means of achieving control of certain autonomic

functions which are normally regarded as being involuntary. In

particular, the ability of some yogis to survive pit burial has

stimulated laboratory-based studies aimed at the replication of

the hypometabolic states associated with prolonged confinement.

The proportions of oxygen and carbon dioxide available seem to be

of critical importance in determining the duration of confinement

and the degree of discomfort experienced by the subject and are

not significantly different for meditators and nonmeditators.

A lowering of metabolism has been attributed to TM. and the

associated relaxation has been advocated as a means of

alleviating stress. Meditation. and TM in particular. have been

claimed to produce a unique physiological state. However Benson

has proposed that engagement in meditation forms one of a number

of strategies for inducing relaxation. A theoretical framework

which has emerged from this research suggests an interpretation

of the experimental results in terms of an Arousal - Relaxation

continuum. Both of these states are characterized by an

ensemble of co-varying phenomena including prominent

cardiorespiratory. striate muscular and nervous system

components. Arousal is characterized by an increase in the

magnitude and/or frequency of activity in these response systems

whereas relaxation has been associated with decreases. In

addition, the former state has been identified as a response to

stress. It follows that relaxation may be viewed as an 'antistress' response with potential therapeutic value. Meditation

has been advocated as a possible means of achieving this state.

Fenwick ej a1 (1977) reported that subjects often fall

asleep during meditation. This is consistent with other

findings that drowsy and sleep-like states can occur during

meditation. On this basis, these authors have challenged the

assertion that meditation induces a unique state of relaxation

superior to that of sleep. Similarly. Corby e.1 &1 (1978) have

questioned the current relaxation model of meditative states.

-suggesting that states of arousal may be observed in some

meditators. Doubts have also been raised concerning the

efficacy of several 'behavloural strategies' - meditation.

64

~ .~. . .
biofeedback, and progressive relaxation - when used as sole

courses of treatment for chronic anxiety, although as adaunct

therapies they may be helpful (Raskin rt aL. 1980).

Nonetheless, the conception of meditative states as

hiVDnmetabn1if is pivotal to most current physiological

interpretations of meditation. This state of lowered metabolism

has been inferred from measurable changes in several

physiological systems - respiratory, cardiovascular.

electrodermal and skeletal-muscular. Changes in functioning of

each of these indices must be interpreted with caution, however.

Decreases in the activity of one of these variables may occur

Independently of changes In any other variables, and without a

concominant lowering of metabolism. EEG indices of arousal may

not relate to other measures such as autonomic activity in the

straight-forward manner often assumed by researchers in

meditation. Darrow " £l (1946) suggested that the correlation

between EG and autonomic changes was opposite in direction

depending on whether the individual was in a resting or a highly

aroused state. Stennett (1957) found a curvilinear relation

between alpha amplitude and skin conductance values. These

covaried positively over the upper range, but in opposite

directions over lower ranges of electrodermal activity.

--4

65

%3.

,. *' "; q ' es w : ' :: * i ' :' ' "'" * ' . '.- . • ." . : . : .: . :, ." :"" .*.. ': :;,; a... :" ''
IV. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

The selection of a theoretically relevant issue or

hypothesis may be viewed as an important point of departure for

research and indeed many scientific controversies focus on what

constitutes an adequate experimental test of a scientific

hypothesis (Kuhn. 1962). It has been suggested that the

probability of having conducted the 'wrong$ experiment is a major

type of error to which experiments are prone (Mitroff &

Featheringham. 1974). Regardine meditation research, many

experiments apparently fail to test a relevant hypothesis or

theoretical prediction. Researchers have also argued about

which hypothesis may be the most experimentally fruitful,

although no single experiment is crucial to such evaluations

(Shapiro & Walsh, 1984; Lakatos, 1970).

The authors of several major reviews of Meditation research

(Smith. 1975; Shapiro & Giber, 1978; Holmes, 1984; Shapiro &

Walsh, 1984; Delmonte, 1985b) are in general agreement that

future research should attempt to clarify precisely the

theoretical rationale connecting the independent and dependent

variables. This would help elucidate the conceptualization of

meditation as a psychotherapeutic technique, a self-relaxation

strategy, an altered state of consciousness, a mode of salvation.

etc. We, therefore, commence a discussion of methodological

issues in meditation research by considering explanations that

have been advanced to account for the Phenomena associated with

this area of research.

A. Explanations of the Effects of Meditation

In the East, most systems of meditation possess techniques of

Intentional manipulation of attention and respiration, and they

have largely been seen and used as methods of salvation - with

great emphasis placed on induced mystical experiences.

Procedurally, an erect sitting posture is assumed together with a

passive attitude. If conducted in a quiet environment, this

Practice purportedly enables mental functions which are normally

unconscious to emerge in awareness, a major goal being to develop

an objective (non-attached) 'mental set' to these and all other

experiences. However. Veith (1958) noted that the East and West

are more markedly different in their respective concepts of

Psychic function than in almost any other aspect. In light of

the fact that some of the most influential formulations of

meditation are derived from systems of the Indian sub-continent.

mechanisms of meditation are often formulated in terms and

concepts which are pregnant with ambiguous connotations; such as

soul, mind, being. etc. All of these concepts evolved early in

the history of thought and, in the East, have remained largely

unchanged.

66

'%a . %'

,-. . . . . . .

. . . . ..-.... . . . . . . -... . . . . . . . . . "
In the West. they have had various attributes added or

deleted, as their responsibilities regarding psychic

function expanded and contracted They still lack precise

definition, and while useful on a spiritual level of discourse.

few experimentally testable hypotheses have been proposed or

systematically implemented. Despite consistent attempts to 4

strip it of its spiritual overtones, meditation presently carries

many mystical connotations that are refractory to scientific

study. Nonetheless, debates have emerged in the scientific

literature relating to mystical experiences and consciousness and

their possible neurological foundations. Psychological and

physiological discussions, for example, include meditation as a

type of relaxation training. In this, generalized anxiety and

its accompanying mentation are thought to be inhibited by the

practice of meditation, either by reciprocal inhibition of the

meditative state, or by evoking a classical conditioned

relaxation response. In both cases, the 'unstressing' process

claimed to occur during meditation links psychological

interpretations of meditation with physiological ones.

Although psychiatry has long recognized the potential

contributions of meditation to theories of mind, Jung (1936)

cautioned against its practice in the West. Nevertheless, by

indentifying the meditative state with his concept of the

'collective unconscious', he set the tone of later psychiatric

interpretations of meditation. Freud wrote less extensively on

meditation but nonetheless emphasised its similarity with

pathological regressive processes.

Many of the mechanisms described in the meditational

literature revolve around the concepts of attention and attitude.

Techniques which restrict attention by focusing on respiratory

movements, a sound or visual image are gaining wider currency in

Western psychiatry. While maintaining a passive attitude,

progressive restriction of the field of attention - finally to a

single object - purportedly induces a states of non-analytical

thought. In this state other mental activity is thought to

interfere with meditation. Several Important

psychophysioloeical changes ranging from deep relaxation to

marked alterations of emotional and coeitive content, including

'mystical states' may also be experienced. It has been

suggested that whereas several techniques induce similar

Physiological effects, the 'attentional focus' of each may differ 'N

in such a way as to permit classification on these grounds.

Much of the evidence about the effects of meditation has

been drawn from studies involving the determination of peripheral

physiological changes during its practice. Benson 2. a.1 (1974),

and Benson (1975) have proposed the collective term 'relaxation

response' for the inferred state of reduced arousal. It has

also been pointed out that many of these physiological changes

67

. • . ° . . . - . . '. %
are consistent with decreased sympathetic activity, possibly by

alterations in end-organ responsivity to norepinephrine. .

Gellhorn & Kiely (1974) modelled the effects of meditation on the

'trophotropic' response, inferring a dominance of parasympathetic

activity. The results of experiments measuring peripheral

physiological changes are by far the most numerous and constitute

consistent but inferential evidence for fluctuations in central

nervous system activity.

Studies measuring EG during meditation offer evidence of a

more direct nature concerning alterations of brain processes.

Generally increases in activity of the alpha and theta bands have

been reported during meditation, and although the details of i

experimental results differ, similar EEG changes have also been

noted during the practice of other relaxation techniques. An

increase in hemispheric 'coherence * has been another prominent

observation. The speculations surrounding these periods of

synchronous brain activity during meditation have been

influential in the formulation of models of meditation function.

and it Is usually inferred that right hemisphere activity

increases relative to the left.

Davidson (1976) has proposed that activation of the right

hemisphere of the brain leads to the emergence of nonverbal.

intuitive modes of experience which may underlie 'transcendental'

and other altered states of consciousness - peak experiences.

In addition, increased activity of the higher nervous centres of

the right hemisphere was implicated in the experience of

transcendental states. On both experimental and clinical

grounds, Geschwind (1982) associated the control of attention

also with the right hemisphere. As attention is regarded as a

central feature of meditation, this hypothesis is consistent with

Davidson's proposal.

Mechanisms of meditation are however, not restricted to

cortical processes and several subcortic&l structures and

neurotransmitter systems have also been implicated. Mandell

(1980) has suggested that 'hypersynchronous' activity between

the richly interconnected limbic, hippocampal-septal systems and

the temporal lobe me be responsible for the experience of

transcendental states. These shifts in neural activity are

mediated by inhibitory transmitter systems. Such notions allow

the formulation of testable concepts regarding meditation for

they suggest that specific neuroanatomical structures subserve

specific subjective phenomena. Meditation and other practices

may alter the activity of these structures and so induce altered

states of consciousness. All of these ideas are largely

speculative however, and have yet to be systematically

Investigated.

68 NP
B. Psychology and Behaviour

The experimental literature broadly supports the conclusion I

that the practice of meditation leads to a physiological state of

relaxation or 'least excitation'. It is also claimed by some

researchers that this state of bodily relaxation is accompanied

by a calm but alert mental state, lasting at least the duration

of the session and possibly beyond. Many of the beneficial

claims made for meditation involve it's ability to attentuate or

prevent the effects of stress on the central and autonomic

nervous systems through the induction of these states. However.

the experimental bases of these claims have been criticized on

several methodological grounds, such as subject selection.

experimental bias, and lack of control groups among others.

Research indicates that meditation is not significantly

different from more traditional techniques such as psychotherapy,

and behavioural procedures in Inducing states of relaxation.

Proponents of meditation have cast these results in a favorable

light by suggesting that, in terms of clinical improvement, it

may be at least as efficacious as other procedures. However,

these more established interventions, against which the effects

of meditation are assessed, have themselves been subjected to

grave criticisms concerning their own efficacy as therapeutic

procedures. This subject is not discussed in most literature

reviews of meditation. The value of meditation as a therapeutic

technique should therefore, be established using the same

criteria as are used in this general area of research.

A survey of members of the American Psychological

Association (APA) found that the Journal of Consulting and

Clinical Psychology (JCCP) was considered one of the most

prestigious periodicals among clinical psychologists in terms of

where they wished to publish and where they expected to find

important psychological material (Koulack & Keselman. 1975).

Articles reporting the effects of meditation and comparative

therapeutic results were increasingly among those published in

this and other Journals at that time - 1970's. During this

period, clinical researchers maintained that 'the fulfillment of

immediate responsibilities' was an important reason for their

studies, and the fundamental motivation that these researchers

attributed to themselves (for publishing in JCCP) was a concern

with social and scientific responsiblity (Kendall & Ford.

1979). However, in areas investigating and comparing the

efficacy of various therapeutic treatments, general

methodological laxity and equivocal experimental results have

been reported.

Maher (1978), then editor of JCCP. noted that of the 3500

papers submitted during his tenure, serious methodological flaws

accounted for the rejection of four of every five manuscripts

69
involving experimental research. He stated that "... it is not

possible to complete an editorial term without inferring . -

reluctantly that current doctoral research tiaining. as reflected

by recent submission to this journal. is deficient to the point

of being disasterous" (Maher. 1978. P.595). In an attempt to

redress this state of affairs. a special issue (1978. Vol.46,

no.1) was published which consisted of discussions of major Jmethodological problems in the evaluation of contemporary

experimental and clinical research. Several of the many

excellent papers included in that issue have a direct bearing on

important debates surrounding the efficacy of meditation and are

drawn upon below.

Extensive discussions of experimental designs and

methodologies have noted many common pitfalls (Campbell &

Stanley. 1966; Kazdin. 1973). Such problems as inadequate

replication, poor specification of the independent variable(s).

lack of random assignment to experimental conditions. and

inadequate data gathering and presentation were among those seen

as important.

In a critical examination of this area of research Frank

(1979) noted that the choice of experimental variables has been

guided by the need to produce publishable results, and not by the

pursuit of knowledge. Moreover, tacit assumptions in a

meditational or other program may be misleading concerning

therapeutic outcome, and the independent variables are too often

actuarial ones, such as aee. sex, and social class, which nave

been seen as indirectly related to the subject's responsivity to

a given procedure (Frank, 1979).

In addition to these difficulties, other problems have

arisen which affect the evaluation of meditation and other

therapeutic procedures. Giles (1984). for example, claims that

although there is considerable evidence of the 'special merits'

of behavioural treatment techniques, the acceptance or rejection

of this class of interventions has not been based purely on

amptr~nAl evidence. Instead. clinical researchers have been

Influenced by political and economic considerations within the

profession; a view shared by Wilson (1982) who also noted that

the treatments used for psychological disorders may be determined

and maintained by politico-economic factors.

This state of affairs has been observed in relation to

meditation as well. Kutz et al (1985) proposed that the

difficulties encountered in attempting to integrate meditative

techniques with psychotherapy have arisen from the entrenched

attitudes of psychotherapists. The separation of the two

techniques "...originates not only from a clash between different

philosophies but, on a deeper level, from the growth of defensive

sectarianism in modern mainstream psychiatry" (Kutz et al.

70 ..-.

~ ... r 3
1985. p.2). Although an APA Task Force proposed the serious

investigation of meditation as a therapeutic method in 1977.

currently the ethical guidelines endorsed by the American

Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric

Association do not include recommendations for the general use of

behavioural therapies as effective techniques for psychological

disorders (Giles. 1984).

In attempts to evaluate the efficacy of meditation and other

treatment procedures. adequate control for factors other than

those of immediate experimental interest have proven difficult.

Hence, in a clinical situation. patients (clients. subjects) seek

a particular treatment because they believe that it will be

effective. It is apparently a common clinical experience for

patients to have heard about a particular treatment and/or

therapist by word of mouth. Thus. the assignment of subjects to

various groups may be selective, particularly in the clinical

situation where individuals exert some choice on this factor.

Indeed, investigations have indicated that being able to select -- :-

treatment is highly related to therapeutic outcome independently

of the specific technique that is actually experienced (Devine

& Fernald. 1973; Gordon. 1976). In the same vein, the results

of some investigations have suggested that treatment effects also

depend on the context in which therapy is presented. 'Context'

refers to the 'atmosphere' of the treatment facility as well as

to the descriptions of techniques employed by the therapist

(Frank. 1973).

The 'set' of the subject on the initiation of treatment or

experiment, and the manner in which it is presented may differ

markedly across research laboratory and clinical settings. The

situation is further complicated by increasing cognizance of * ..

ethical standards of research which require investigators to

explicitly convey the nature of the treatment to the recipient.

This may include whether it is experimental in nature or possible

benefits and risks. and often involves the procurement of

informed consent. As this information may alter the context and

manner in which the treatment is provided, generalizing results

from a research to a clinical situation becomes more difficult.

It has been suggested that generalizability depends in part on

the similarity of the manner in which the treatment is presented

and the sets of the individuals who participate in treatment

(Kazdin, 1978).

This brief description of experimental difficulties

emphasizes the parallels between methodological problems

associated with investigating meditation and those examining

psychotherapy and relaxation techniques. They are but some of

the many methodological pitfalls facing researchers investigating

the efficacy of the various procedures used to treat

'psychophysiological' syndromes. The merits and shortcomings of

various experimental designs and their implications for research

71
are discussed in publications by Hersen & Barlow (1976). Kezdin

(1973). and Greenwald (1976).

C. Meditation

Until recently, most of the published studies of meditation %

have been conducted by researchers who were either meditators

themselves or who had close affiliations with meditators and

their organizations. Moreover, when adducing evidence to

support their claims, many of the proponents of meditation.

particularly those of TM. have drawn heavily on studies which

have not met the standards of peer review.

Other fundamental problems which hamper the objective study

of meditation is that it may not be appropriate to the general

climate of Western societies. For example:

"Contemporary psychology is a product of modern

civilization. Its main aim is help the mentally disturbed

to greater adaptations to the conditions of our society., to

keep them going within it. The meditations outlined here.

on the other hand, are meant for people who not only do

not want to adapt themselves to modern civilization, a

phenomenon unknown to them, but also to any form or social

life, and who want to get out of the world altogether."

(Conze, 1972. P.38)

The early study of Wallace (1970) noted that the greatest

obstacle to experimental research of meditation was subject

selection. He tried to solve this problem by employing

practitioners of TM. who he assumed were a homogeneous population

regarding the practice of meditation. This assumption receives

some support from several well-planned sociological studies of

religion which have been concerned with identifying those

segments of the population that have been attracted to meditative

practices. In general these studies have found that Zen, Yoga.

and TM attract similar kinds of people, as far as the variables

measured are concerned.

Wuthnow (1978) conducted a comprehensive survey of 1000

people in the San Francisco Bay Area regarding their attitude

toward new religions. personal religious beliefs and practices.

political opinions, values, and life styles. Data was gathered

by professional interviewers from the Survey Research Center,

University of California (Berkeley) as part of a larger study.

funded by the National Institute of Mental Health on changing

life styles . Subjects comprising the survey sample were drawn

to be representative of the three million people living in the

San Francisco-Oakland Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area.

72
excepting Marin County.

The results of two panel studies conducted at three year

intervals found four conditions whcih seem to greatly enhance the

likehood that a cultural innovation such as meditation will take

root and grow. Meditation flourishes in social conditions

where: (i) aspirants are exposed to it. (ii) they have the

opportunity to experiment with it. (ki) are Motivated to adopt -

it. and (iv) it carries legitimizing aspects that make it

believable (Wuthnow, 1978).

Those drawn to TM. Zen, and Yoga showed a significantly

greater tendency than the general Bay Area population, to believe

in occult and psychic phenomena of all types. For example, it

was reported that 75X of those showing a strong attraction to TM

were sure extra sensory perception (ESP) existed whereas only 38% ka

of those 'turned off' by it were so positive in their belief.

Intensity of belief was also associated with the experience of

ESP phenomena of various types (clairvoyance, telepathy. .-

precognition. etc.): 81% of the group strongly attracted to TM

claimed to have experienced ESP compared with 58X of those not so

inclined. Actuarially, those that are drawn to meditation tend

to be white, young, college educated and possess liberal values.

Many have only superficial interest in such things as the

traditional family and civic duties, whereas they exhibit stress

and excessive concern about problems such as money. job plans and

'finding meaning in life*. As this report indicates, researches

into the effects of meditation have drawn on the same and similar

subject populations when conducting experiments in this

geographical area.

Not only subjects, but experimenters too may be

biased. Smith (1984), in an account of his investigations of

the effects of meditation, called the decade of the seventies the

'messianic' period of such research. He noted that many

researchers (including himself) were new converts to meditation

and seemed to be more interested in substantiating beneficial

claims than conducting 'objective research'. Typically,

i experiments were designed to rQmonatt&at rather than av.iu-atmeditation. Smith noted that an enthusiastic experimenter may

greatly enhance the probability of 'positive' treatment outcomes

or 'significant' experimental results, and indeed he attributed

his own early successes to this factor. Unlike many others

however, he attempted to tighten experimental methodology to

control for factors which he concluded had previously been

largely ignored; subject expectancy of treatment outcome and the

effects of tust sitting'. Expectancy of treatment outcome was

controlled for by giving subjects a treatment rationale and

requiring that they follow a daily routine comparable to that of

TM. After six months, no reliable differences between groups

l were evident. A subsequent experiment involving the addition of

an 'anti-meditation' group and the measurement of over thirty

73

77
variables of therapeutic change again produced no differences

among groups (Smith. 1976. 1978).

These cogent points of experimental methodology have.

however, been largely ignored. Indeed, some researchers

have considered the interaction between expectant Patient.

credible treatment rationale and confident therapist to be the

principle features of a satisfactory treatment. Therefore

rather than 'control' for these factors, it has been suggested

that a positive outcome may be more readily obtained if the

experimenter practices the same type of meditation as the one

under study. Shapiro & Walsh (1984) conjectured that

researchers experienced in the practice of meditation may be able

to interpret the effects more adequately than nonmeditators.

particularly in a therapeutic setting.

These authors have also noted that experimenter bias,

subject expectation, treatment rationale and their interaction

are rarely controlled in experiments evaluating meditation.

Other critical reviews of the literature have suggested that the

application of increasing methodological rigor greatly diminishes

or completely eliminates the differences between meditation and

control treatment groups. (Davidson, 1976; Holmes. 1983. 1984;

Delmonte, 1985b).

Similarly. Carr-Kaffashan & Woolfolk (1979) noted the need

for assessment of, and control for expectations of the subject.

In a study of the effects of meditation on insomnia, these

authors concluded that a major methodological difficulty in

quantifying the therapeutic efficacy of various behavioural

strategies was the lack of comparable rationales and credibility

of treatments between groups. The control of the interaction

between the subject's expectation of treatment outcome and the

actual outcome of the procedure is perceived to be salient to

current experimental designs, regardless of whether such

procedures as meditation, biofeedback or progressive relaxation

are used. Furthermore, reports of the experimental

methodologies used, statistical analyses of experimental data.

interpretation of results and subsequent conclusions have been

too brief to be comprehended. It is imperative that

experimenters fully and accurately report details of procedures

used, thereby encouraging attempts at independent replication.

Of equal importance are inadequacies concerning an

explicitly stated hypothesis which would be tested by the

experiment. Similarly theoretical rationales, which may link

independent experimental variables and the selection of

dependent variables are rarely articulated. Furthermore,

instead of raising alternative explanations that may account for

experimental results, there has been a proclivity among

researchers to uncritically accept unsubstantiated authoritative

74
assertions. This has led to important issues being obscured

and neglected, encouraging mystification rather than an

elucidation of the phenomena. Zn response to this situation,

the issues outlined in this section have been emphasized in

szi~tjZaX reviews of the meditational literature and there Is a

growing insistence that these must be seriously addressed if

progress Is to be made in this area of research (Smith. 1975;

Woolfolk. 1975; Davidson, 1976; Shapiro & Giber. 1978; West.

1980; Shapiro & Walsh, 1984; Holmes. 1984; Delmonte. 1985ab).

D. Assessment of Physiological Responses

In most cases, reports of impressive psychophysiological

changes during meditation have occurred when the value of such

changes were compared with those determined during either a pretreatment baseline period, a post-treatment recovery period. or

both. Baseline/recovery periods, however usually have not been

long enough to permit an accurate determination of the values of

initial or resting levels of physiological activity. These

determinations are crucial because of the powerful effects that

these levels of activity have on the interpretation of those

subsequently recorded during experimental periods. Sometimes

the duration of pre/post-treatment baselines have been as short

as five minutes. with the values gathered during this period

being compared with those of a meditation period lasting five to

six times longer. Occasionally the establishment of a posttreatment baseline has been ignored altogether.

More often, pre/post physiological baselines are in the

order of twenty minutes duration, with a similar length for the

treatment period. Although these designs suggest a

methodological improvement, they have usually been marred by the

experiments consisting of only a single session. Less

frequently, studies with three or four sessions are reported and

those using five. ten or more sessions are rare. For the most

part, essential longitudinal 'follow up' data are missing.

In cases where such data have been gathered, they tend to

involve only a single determination of the variable of interest

at between three and six month intervals. At best, this state

of affairs greatly curtails the ability to generalize the results

beyond the experimental situation, and, at worst. may give a

misleading or inaccurate representation of the effects of the

meditative practices. The important temporal aspects of the

experimental designs have been much neglected variables, although

other longitudinal studies, unconcerned with meditation, indicate

that there can be statistically significant differences along a

number of physiological dimensions due to the passage of time

alone (Garfield, 1978).

75

...
Since the Relaxation Response has been claimed to induce a

hypometabolic state, the reliable documentation of reductions in

metabolic rate, assumes critical importance. Oxygen uptake

reflects the overall metabolic cost of all physiological

processes, and knowledge of its value is .3.E*DLAJ for the

coherent assertion of lowered metabolic states. Therefore

hypometabolic states may only be confidently inferred If

metabolic rate is actually measured. Despite results suggested

by both preliminary studies in India and later laboratory

experimentation, a number of unresolved methodological problems

remain.

One such issue concerns the manner in which V02 is measured.

In earlier work this variable was typically assessed at different

points during the experimental procedure. Most researchers,

using intermittent sampling of V02, tended to report relatively

large decreases compared with levels measured during *rest'.

Benson et Al (1975) attempted to replicate the results of Beery &

Benson (1974) using continuous, rather than periodic.

measurements. They found that the mean decrease in V02. while

significant, was greatly reduced, compared with earlier reports.

Only a 5X reduction in V02. from control periods, was reported.

This was in contrast with the 13X noted by Beery & Benson (1974).

However, reductions of a greater magnitude than 5X were observed

for short periods during meditation, and Benson concluded that

these data were consistent with earlier findings.

Another methodological issue concerns the V02 baselines used

to assess this measure during meditation. Fenwick nZ Al (1977)

found reductions in V02 of 4-5X, during meditation (TM) compared

to control conditions (sitting in an easy chair). These were

similar to the observations of Benson (1977). However.

differences In V02 levels increased to 109 when the seated

control conditions involved a hard, compared with an easy, chair.

Thus, apparently minor alterations in procedure may significantly

affect experimental outcomes. Fenwick At Al (1977) concluded

that 'true' basal V02 values representing states of genuinely

relaxed somatic activity need to be established. V02 levels

during meditation may then be compared to these basal values.

Similar recommendations have also been advocated concerning the

measurement of other physiological variables. The failure to

establish valid baselines will almost certainly result in

erroneous conclusions.

Warrenburg at l- (1980) have also addressed the problem of

appropriate physiological baselines against which the effects of

meditation might be assessed. In this study, both meditation

and progressive muscle relaxation were associated with 4-5X

reductions in V02. It was suggested that these results,

although reliable. maw be explained by the use of a 'low-stress *

baseline which might more accurately reflect true basal

metabolism. Extending the use of such baselines to Wallace's

76
-7% - .- - - -a - - -

(1970) findings, it is conjectured that his use of arterial

cannulation may have acted as a 'stressor' which elevated basal

levels and enhanced the apparent decreases in V02.

Methodological intrusiveness has been repeatedly condemned as an

impediment to the achievement of relaxed states.

Thus, some of the variance in experimental results may be

accounted for by the degree to which subjects are allowed to reduce

their basal metabolism before commencing meditation (Delmonte,

1984f). For example, Wallace *t ALL (1971) found decrements in

V02 of 17% below baseline, and a decline of 15% in C02

elimination. Significant decreases in respiratory frequency

(three breaths/minute) and minute ventilation (one liter/minute)

were also reported. This experimental design, however used

short periods of time to establish baseline data. Similar

results were obtained in a repeated measures experiment - a 13%

decrease in V02 occurred during the practice of relaxive

meditation compared with a seated, eyes-closed control period

(Beary & Benson, 1974). These studies have been criticized

for their failure to employ control groups, as well as for their

neglect of 'order effects' in the experimental design. Also

they did not address the effects of normal temporal change and

habituation to the laboratory (Delmonte, 1984f).

Factors such as the amount of time which has passed between

the ingestion of food and the experimental session may also

significantly affect the experimental outcome. Fenwick (1974)

reported a negligible reduction in C02 elimination (2X) in a

group of fasting meditators. whereas a non-fasting group

exhibited substantial (10X) decrements. Also meditators. rating

themselves as relaxed, experienced decreases In VO2 of only 2X of

the initial baseline, whereas subjects describing themselves as

tense, demonstrated a decrease In V02 of 12%. Warrenberg et Al.

(1980) found only a 4X decrease in V02 in a group of meditators

whose food intake had recently been curtailed. They suggested

that fasting and relaxation is associated with a 'floor effect'

(which obeys the law of initial values).

Most critical reviews agree with Delmonte (198a4f) regarding

I the use of V02 as an index of relaxation; the effects of

meditation do not appear to be significantly different from those

associated with other techniques fostering low arousal. In

general, data concerning the metabolic effects of meditation seem

to support Benson's (1975) bipolar model of the Relaxation

Response rather than the multi-process model of Schwartz at A l.

(1978). It seems that the practice of meditation is no more

effective in lowering metabolism than are established relaxation

techniques, and the attribution of special effects to meditation

is unwarranted (Delmonte, 1984f).

77
The experiments of Wenger & Bagchi (1961) and Wenger. Bagohi

& Anand (1961) have been mingled out by Wallace as comprising

the first systematic electrophysiological research of yoga

practitioners. These were considered to be 'careful studies'

which reported reliable changes in GSR and ventilation rate.

although no consistent changes in HR. BP and EEG during

meditation were noted. Regarding the subjects used. Wenger and

his colleagues suggested 'the possibility' that few of them were

skilled practitioners of yoga and meditation, but instead

possessed expertise in 'physical exercises and breath control'.

Hence. Wallace Interpreted the experimental results of Wenger &

Bagchi (1961) in terms of modification and control of autonomic

functions (autonomic balance) as distinct from the 'unique'

effects meditation.

To rectify this state of affairs Wallace (1977) conducted a

study in which twenty-seven 'normal' subjects each acted as their

own control in a n-am aJion s experiment. Each session comprised

four phases and lasted for a total of seventy minutes divided

into seven 10-minute blocks for data analysis:

1) a pre-measurement period of 15-30 minutes during which the

subject sat quietly with eyes open.

2) a 'precontrol' period in which measurements were recorded for

5-15 minutes with eyes open and for 10-20 minutes with eyes

closed.

3) a meditation period of 20-40 minutes.

4) a 'postcontrol' period with eyes closed for 10 minutes and

with eyes open for 5-10 minutes.

It is not clear, however, how long subjects actually spent

In each of the four phases of the session. For example, from

the text of the study it appears that some subjects spent 15

minutes in 1). 15 minutes in 2). 20 minutes in 3). and 5 minutes

in 4), whereas others spent 30, 35. 40 and 10 minutes

respectively. Assuming these values to be correct, It seems

that some subjects participated in sessions which were twice as "

long as others. Such a feature in the experimental design casts

suspicion on the results, and the interpretation of physiological

activity.

Although ten physiological variables were recorded. they

were not all determined for any given subject. Thus there was

no consistency in the way in which mean values were derived.

For example, data from 26 subjects contributed to the average EEG

value. V02 was measured in 20 subjects, skin resistance In 15.

and HR in 11. Arterial blood gases and BP were determined in 10

but not the same subjects, cardiac output in 5. respiration rate

In 6. minute ventilation in 4 and blood lactate in 2. Thus the

blood lactate findings, which have been widely cited in the

literature, were based on intermittent sampling or Iwo Subjects.

V02 data was pooled even though it was measured using two systems

78
(open and closed circuit). and despite the fact that the latter

was considered to be technically questionable. Moreover these

important recordings were complete for only six subjects and V02

mean values were derived from all 20 subjects in only three of

the seven 10-minute blocks. Nevertheless. Wallace's 1970 study ,

is viewed as 'seminal' in this area and has lent impetus to the

examination of the physiological effects of meditation.

It has not been the intention in this section to

overemphasize the inadequacy of attempts to use experimental

methods in the refinement of therapeutic techniques. Science.

being a human endeavour, is fallible. Many experiments yield

conflicting results, some contradictory; few studies, however.

are totally devoid of potentially useful information. Moreover.

It has been suggested that our inadequate understanding of the

nature of science contributes to the current state of affairs and

that "At this point in time ... no acceptable criterion has been

established for the demarcation or science from nonscience"

(Mahoney. 1978. p.660). Therefore. the aim of future

experimentation is not so much conducting the perfect experiment

but conducting ones which are progressively less fallible.

Among other things, this requires paying close attention to the

adequacy of current research methods and cautious interpretation

of their results.

79

a *. ... ' *.* -a

. . . . . . ... . . ... . . . . . . . . . .
V. CONCLUSIONS

Over the past 25 years there has been Considerable growth In

the scientific examination of meditation. This has been

encouraged primarily by its perceived potential as a costeffective therapeutic method for the treatment of stress-related

disorders. Basic research on the subject has also been

stimulated by reports that the Psychological and physiological

chances that accompany meditation are unique to its practice.

However, a generally-accepted corpus of knowledge has yet to

emerge. In part, this stems from a lack of concensus about what

meditation is, how to achieve it. and what its purposes are.

The picture is complicated by methodological problems that are

encountered in all attempts to examine the therapeutic value of

behavioural interventions. For example, there is a growing body

of opinion that therapeutic effectiveness may not lie in the

specific effects of particular methods but results from the

personal qualities of the patient, the therapist and their

interactions (Frank. 1979). Such explanations may account for

the few cases where meditation has been shown to be as effective

as other treatments (e.g. for hypertension).

A. What is meditation?

Meditation as it is practiced in the East is markedly

different from the Western variety. In its original form, it

requires great commitment and assiduous practice which in turn.

leads to the development of a mode of life and an associated

spiritual state that enables the individual to rise above the

mundane world. Western lifestyles only permit brief excursions

from the mundane and cannot easily assimilate the value systems

which provided the indigenous context of meditative practices.

Consequently, Western versions tend to be comprised of certain

procedural elements that have been extracted from their religiocultural contexts and tailored to meet the needs of technological

man. Nevertheless, Western meditation continues to be embedded

in a mystical superstructure, albeit one that is quite distinct

and in many ways antithetical to that from which it stemmed.

From an objective (some might sa. superficial) perspective.

meditation may be defined in terms of the procedures which are

employed for its Induction. These involve prominent postural

and respiratory manoeuvres coupled with a focusing of attention

on a repetitive stimulus. This practice gives rise to bodily

relaxation as manifested by a reduction in cardio-pulmonary

activity, striate muscular quieting and synchronous EEG patterns.

It is also reported to produce a narrowing of the field of

attention and results in state of consciousness that many find

pleasurable. The potential value of these effects in the

treatment of stress-related diseases has attracted the interest

of the scientific community. Although few well-controlled

80

dI
studies have verified the more extravagant claims made by

proponents of meditation, the relaxation effects outlined above

have been verified. Regardless of its outcomes, scientific

research on this subject has done much to raise the profile of

meditation in the West and to enhance the credibility of its

claims.

B. How does it work?

Ideally, the answer to this question would be provided by

tracing the pathways that mediate the effects of meditative

practices on the body and nervous system. This sort of answer

could in principle be approached in relation to the objectivelyverifiable bodily effects of meditation. However. the question

of how meditation achieves its psychological and therapeutic

effects is far more complex and its answer would be considerably

more convoluted. This is so because, as discussed below, the

answer would have to take account of how the credibility of the

technique is established.

The pathways through which the bodily effects of meditation

are produced have been studied but not to the extent that they

would seem to merit. Throughout recorded history, breathing ..

techniques have been central to the induction of the meditative

state. It seems highly probable that the breathing exercises

required of meditational aspirants are importantly implicated in

producing both its physical and psychological effects. An

obvious pathway for both classes of effects is through

alterations In blood chemistry. That modifications of breathing

Patterns may influence psychological state through this route is

indicated clearly In studies of the hyperventilation syndrome.

Excessive ventilation of the lungs which arises from, and

exacerbates, anxiety has a number of clearly defined physical and

psychological effects which are the opposite of those engendered

by Yogic breathing exercises. When these breathing exercises

are coupled with exclusive concentration on rhythmic respiration

or the repetition of a mantra. a vacant and relaxed state of

consciousness is apparently produced. This seems quite

plausible and conforms with expectations based on established

psychological and physiological principles.

The subjective appreciation of these changes may provide the

novice practitioner with proof of the effectiveness of

meditational practices although s/he may not be led to attribute

the subjective effects to alterations in blood chemistry brought

about naturally through normal bodily processes. Indeed the

novice meditator is primed with less technical, and to some, more

appealing explanations. The capacity to produce a discriminable

change in consciousness by following a behavioural prescription

provides the practitioner with 'proof' of the power of "selfcontrol" and a conviction in the validity of promised but yet-to81

2 -*
be-experienced effects. For example. meditation is presented as

a route to superior knowledge which transcends that produced by

*l sense data alone.

Available evidence suggests that in the West. meditation

tends to be practiced by White. college-educated individuals who

are somewhat more anxious and neurotic than average. Often.

they have an interest in, and report experiencing psychic and

supernatural phenomena. It is also possible that converts to

meditation are attracted by its mystical qualities: it permits

excursions into realms that may be forbidden by established

Western religions.

In trying to understand how the initiate first encounters

the practice of meditation, one cannot overlook the importance of

the effective advertisement and propaganda campaigns that have

been mounted in bringing meditation to the West. It has after

all, received the blessings of prominent figures as diverse as

the Beatles, Ram Das. Hans Selye and Buckminster Fuller.

Meditation grew most vigorously in the West during the "cultural

revolution" of the 1960s and 708. During this period, there was

much experimentation with alternative lifestyles and explorations

of other 'ways of being'. Meditation was offered as a sociallysanctioned alternative to drugs for achieving altered states of

consciousness and was brought to a wider audience through popular

music. television programmes and films. As mentioned earlier,

the respectability of meditation in the West has also been

established by presenting it in the context of scientific

investigation. Papers in highly respected scientific journals

by prominent researchers have provided evidence that may be *..

wholly convincing to the layman.

C. Does meditation have any tangible value?

The potential value of meditation has been perceived by the

medical and psychological communities to lie in its claimed

effectiveness in counteracting the effects of 'stress'. These

claims may be traced to the fabled ability of Yogis to reduce

* their metabolic rates to fractions of what has been considered

necessary for the maintenance of vitality. Although the

phenomena in question appear to have been somewhat exaggerated,

it is clear that practitioners of Yoga do have a highly developed

ability to relax under circumstances that in laymen would produce

panic. If this ability could be inculcated in patients

afflicted by stress-related diseases, it might have great value.

Indeed, many segments of the population could profit from the

ability to regulate the stress response. V.

%

82

% -
*.*

Some research has shown that treatment packages which include %

meditation are effective in decreasing blood pressure in both

medicated and non-medicated hypertensive patients. Moreover,

with continued practice such decreases may be maintained.

Reductions in anxiety and drue-use have also claimed to result

from the practice of meditation. However, it is not clear from

this research that the effects observed are a specific

outcome of the bodily relaxation induced unconditionally by the

practice of meditational procedures (e.g. controlled

respiration, repeating a mantra. etc.). It may be argued that

they are determined by such ephemeral processes as the patient's

belief in meditation and the therapists'confidence in the

treatment. Furthermore, it has not been shown that meditation

is more effective in promoting the relaxive anti-stress response

than other behavioural interventions. When such doubts

are raised concerning the unique effects of meditation, its

proponents frequently cite anecdotal reports that support its

superiority. Although perhaps convincing to the converted, such

reports do little to shift the scientific balance of evidence.

Nevertheless, the medically-relevant claims made for

meditation as in the treatment of anxiety and pain are worthy of

further investigation as are its effects on sustained attention.

D. What would increase our understanding of meditation?

(i) Better experimental design.

The meaning of experimental data reported in the

literature is often difficult to evaluate because factors such as

subject and experimenter expectations are not controlled for,

baselines are not adequately established and experiments are of

short duration. Furthermore procedures are often not reported

in sufficient detail to enable independent replication.

(ii) Brain process studies.

Although the data on the peripheral manifestations of

meditation are reasonably complete, there is little hard data

available on the central effects. The EEG studies provide

suggestions that during meditation, the electrical activity of

the brain moves towards the synchronous firing that is associated

with lowered arousal. Although these data are more directly

related to brain function than recordings taken from peripheral

effectors, they do not have very high resolution. It would

seem that recently developed techniques for examining regional

blood flow and metabolism in the brain could be employed

effectively to resolve a number of outstanding issues concerning

the central effects of meditation and the pathways through

83

• ..a -. , . -. . . . .... . ..- . . ., .. . ..:.i.). . - . - , "- . . i . i " . ,.. ' 2. 2 -. ,i -. .. 2 , . ...i - -
which its psychological manifestations are produced.

(iii) Investigations of the processes that lead individuals

to adopt meditation.

It has been shown that whether a patient has confidence in a

treatment is one of the most powerful determinants of its efficacy.

This appears to apply to meditation as well and Implies that

establishing such confidence has important therapeutic potential.

Some studies described in this report have found that certain

cultural milieus foster the growth of meditative practices and

encourage its adoption. Further studies along these lines could

help to shed light on the psychosocial mechanisms that underly

the growth of meditation in the West. Such processes may be

held responsible for establishing the context in which the

practice of meditation achieves the most profound effects.

8_ U..
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