Forest Insect

& Disease

Leaflet 184

August 2017

U.S. Department of Agriculture • Forest Service

Western balsam bark beetle

Joel McMillin1, Danielle Malesky2, Sandra Kegley3, A. Steven Munson4

Western balsam bark beetle infestations have been reported since forest 

surveys began in the early 20th century. Outbreaks have affected the subalpine fir type throughout many areas of 

British Columbia with estimated losses 

of more than 423 million ft3

 (12 million m3

) occurring in the Prince Rupert Region between 1956 and 1965. 

More recently, area affected averaged 

100,000 acres (250,000 hectares) during 2003-2013 in southern British CoIntroduction

The western balsam bark beetle 

(Dryocoetes confusus Swaine, is 

an important mortality agent of

subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) in 

western North America. The beetle is 

less aggressive than tree-killing bark 

beetles in the genus Dendroctonus

(mountain pine beetle, D. ponderosae; spruce beetle, D. rufipennis; or 

Douglas-fir beetle, D. pseudotsugae) 

and usually attacks weakened (e.g., 

drought stressed) or downed trees. 

Commonly, less than five percent of 

trees in a forest stand are attacked in 

a year, but the cumulative impacts of 

chronic infestations over time can result in most of the mature subalpine fir 

within a stand being killed. Outbreaks 

can result in high numbers of trees being killed in a single year

(Figure 1). 

1

Supervisory entomologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest 

Health Protection, Intermountain Region, Boise, Idaho.

2

Entomologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Health 

Protection, Intermountain Region, Ogden, Utah.

3

Entomologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Health 

Protection, Northern Region, Coeur d’Alene, Idaho.

4

Supervisory entomologist (Retired), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Forest Health Protection, Intermountain Region, Ogden, Utah.

Figure 1. Subalpine fir mortality caused by 

western balsam bark beetle.
2

lumbia with mortality from this beetle 

as high as 70 percent in certain biogeoclimatic zones. Similarly, western balsam bark beetle infestations affected 

nearly 700,000 acres (1.7 million hectares) annually from 2001-2010 across 

the western US, with most subalpine 

fir mortality recorded in Colorado and 

Wyoming. An outbreak in the Bighorn Mountains of Wyoming killed 

more than 70 trees/acre (173 trees/

hectare) over a 6-year period reducing 

tree density more than 60 percent in 

infested stands. Corkbark fir (A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica) stand basal area 

was reduced by 5 to 70 percent during 

a late 1990’s outbreak in the Pinaleño 

Mountains of southern Arizona. 

Western balsam bark beetle has a close 

association with a fungus (Grosmannia dryocoetidis = Ceratocystis dryocoetidis) that is transmitted to trees it 

colonizes. During a 1957 survey of 

subalpine fir stands, only about 35 percent of tree mortality could be directly 

credited to western balsam bark beetle 

damage. Remaining trees survived 

attack by beetles, but apparently succumbed to coalescing lesions caused 

by introduced fungal infection that 

girdled the trees. Subsequent inoculation tests confirmed the pathogenicity 

of introduced fungi. Although host 

defenses often prevent initial beetle 

attacks, decreased tree vigor caused 

by fungal infection may also result in 

subsequent beetle attacks that are successful. Western balsam bark beetle 

also frequently colonizes trees weakened by root disease fungi (Armillaria 

spp., Heterobasidion spp.).

Hosts and Distribution

Western balsam bark beetle is common 

through much of the range of its primary hosts, subalpine fir and corkbark fir. 

Its distribution extends from southeast 

Alaska, British Columbia and Alberta 

south to Arizona and New Mexico, and 

from Colorado westward to Oregon 

(Figure 2). Western balsam bark beetle 

occasionally attacks Pacific silver fir 

(A. amabilis), grand fir (A. grandis) and 

white fir (A. concolor), and rarely Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), 

white spruce (P. glauca) and lodgepole 

pine (Pinus contorta) during outbreaks 

occurring in mixed species stands with 

subalpine fir.

External Evidence of 

Infestation

Needles of infested trees fade from 

green to yellowish-red the year following successful attack by western 

balsam bark beetle. Needles will then 

turn a brick-red color for approximately two years on dead trees (Figure 3). 

Eventually needles become dull-red for 

Figure 2. Distribution of western balsam bark 

beetle based on the range of its primary host 

trees subalpine fir and corkbark fir.
3

another 2 to 3 years, resulting in 4 to 5 

years of dead needle retention. Trees 

that successfully pitch out attacking 

beetles but are killed by pathogenic 

fungi may take more than one year to 

fade. The prolonged sequence of fading can make accurate assessment of 

new tree mortality during aerial surveys problematic. Moreover, in areas 

where root disease or balsam woolly 

adelgid occur, it may be difficult to distinguish between mortality caused by 

beetles versus these other agents. In 

addition, secondary bark beetles may 

contribute to subalpine fir mortality in 

trees already attacked by western balsam bark beetle.

External evidence of attack on tree 

boles is not readily apparent, making identification of recently infested 

trees difficult. During late summer, 

entrance holes and reddish-brown boring dust in bark crevices and around 

the base of freshly attacked trees may 

be visible; however, precipitation will 

often remove these signs by the next 

spring. The majority of attacks often 

occur well above breast height and into 

the upper crown, which also hinders 

diagnosis of beetle presence. Numerous streams of clear pitch can be evident, and may indicate unsuccessful 

attacks (Figure 4). Pitch streams full 

of boring dust are a sign of successful 

attack.

Occasionally fir engraver beetles, Scolytus ventralis, will also attack subalpine fir and corkbark fir; however, their 

horizontal egg galleries are easily distinguished from those created by western balsam bark beetle (see description 

in next section). Numerous secondary 

bark beetles may also be found on dead 

or dying subalpine fir, but they are generally smaller and have different egg 

gallery patterns than western balsam 

bark beetle.

Figure 3. Subalpine fir mortality caused by 

western balsam bark beetle. Trees with bright, 

brick red needles indicate trees attacked 1 to 

2 years previously. Older attacked trees have 

dull, red needles or have lost their needles and 

appear gray.

Figure 4. Pitch streaming indicative of 

subalpine fir tree under attack by western 

balsam bark beetle. Beetles are often 

unsuccessful in colonizing trees that exhibit 

such heavy pitch streaming.
4

that a one-year cycle may occur under 

appropriate environmental conditions. 

Adult beetle flight typically begins in 

early summer after daytime temperatures exceed approximately 60-68o F 

(15-20o C), but it can occur as early as 

late May. Male beetles initiate attacks 

on boles of susceptible hosts; boring 

into the phloem, excavating a nuptial 

chamber and releasing a pheromone 

that attracts females. Males are polygamous, mating with more than one 

female. Mated females construct egg 

galleries that radiate away from the 

nuptial chamber, forming a stellate or 

star-shaped gallery pattern (Figure 6). 

These egg galleries may score the outer sapwood. Females can produce up 

to three separate broods with the first 

occurring during initial gallery construction in mid-summer. Many females overwinter and extend their egg 

galleries the following spring to create 

a second brood. Some then emerge in 

summer to produce a third brood, either in the same or another tree. 

Identification and Life 

History

Adult western balsam bark beetles are 

shiny reddish-brown, and approximately 1/6 inch (3.4 to 4.3 mm) long 

(Figure 5). Their thorax is evenly 

convex, and hardened forewings are 

abruptly rounded without spines. Both 

male and female beetles have numerous “hairs” on the front of their foreheads (frons); however, this setal brush 

is more prominent on females and resembles a “crew-cut”. Late-instar larvae are 1/7 inch (3-4 mm) long with 

pale-tan head capsules and yellowwhite bodies that are characteristically 

c-shaped and wrinkled. Pupae are the 

same size as adults, are yellow-white, 

and many adult features such as legs 

and wing covers are recognizable. 

Although development studies on western balsam bark beetle demonstrate a 

2-year life cycle, it has been speculated 

Figure 5. Male (left) and female (right) western balsam bark beetles. Female western balsam bark 

beetles are identified by the denser and thicker setal brush located on the forehead. 
5

Upon hatching, larvae tunnel away 

from egg galleries to feed throughout 

the summer and into fall until freezing 

temperatures occur. A range of larval 

instars is found overwintering beneath 

the bark. Larval development continues the next spring and summer with 

the second winter spent as adults.

Studies from across the range of western balsam bark beetle suggest there are 

two principal flight periods each year; 

the first typically larger and comprised 

of newly emerged young adults and 

the second being primarily re-emerged 

second-year females. Initial flight is 

dominated by male beetles followed by 

an increasing percentage of females or 

a relatively equal number of both genders. In British Columbia, peak flights 

occurred in mid- to late-June and in 

mid-August through early September 

depending on latitude and moisture 

regime. Adult flight in northern Idaho 

and western Montana generally began 

in early- to mid-June and continued 

through September; with peak flights 

occurring in late-June/early-July and 

late-July/early-August. In northern 

Utah, peak flights occurred between 

mid-June to early-July, then 4-7 weeks 

later in August. In north-central Wyoming, adult flight initiated in early-July 

with peak flight activity observed in 

mid-July and late-August. In a fiveyear study of adult flight in Colorado, 

beetles commonly began dispersing in 

early- to mid-June with first peak flight 

occurring in early- to mid-July. Occurrence of a second peak varied between 

years and elevation. Based on limited 

studies in northern Arizona, flight initiation occurred the first week of July 

and peaked in mid-July. 

Figure 6. Stellate (star-shaped) egg galleries of western balsam bark beetle on the inner bark (A) 

and etched on the outer sapwood (B) of infested trees. Larval feeding galleries are smaller in width 

and perpendicular to egg galleries (seen in A). 

A B
6

Factors affecting tree and 

stand susceptibility and 

outbreaks

Generally, this bark beetle attacks 

small groups of host trees at a somewhat low, but steady level each year in 

infested stands. During endemic population phases, western balsam bark 

beetle infests old, stressed or damaged trees and fresh host material on 

the ground, such as wind breakage and 

blowdown. Outbreaks typically begin 

as a result of certain environmental 

conditions (extended drought) or largescale disturbances such as windthrow 

(Figure 7).

Susceptibility of individual trees to attack by western balsam bark beetles 

may be related to specific traits. In a 

comparison of attacked and unattacked 

subalpine fir in British Columbia, successfully attacked trees typically had 

slower growth and smaller crowns and 

were older, but not necessarily bigger. 

Increased susceptibility of older trees 

seemed to be associated with effects of 

senescence and declining host vigor. 

Trees with low vigor are slower growing and produce less secondary resin 

which results in beetles having higher 

successful attack rates compared to 

vigorous, faster growing trees with 

more resin production. Pioneering 

male beetles attacking vigorous trees 

may be overwhelmed by host defenses 

and therefore unable to release aggregation pheromones needed to successfully colonize trees. Although western 

balsam bark beetle may show preference for larger-diameter size classes/

older trees; during intense outbreaks 

or as larger diameter host trees are 

depleted, smaller-diameter trees may 

also be attacked. This pattern of attack 

is typically observed during periods of 

prolonged drought when host tree resin 

production has been significantly reduced. In addition, smaller diameter 

Figure 7. Dense stands of corkbark fi r impacted by western balsam bark beetle during an

extended drought on the Sandia Mountains, New Mexico.
7

trees can be attacked as a result of 

spillover from successful attacks on 

neighboring large-diameter trees. 

Tree mortality caused by western balsam bark beetle may also be related to 

forest stand conditions and site characteristics. Significant positive linear 

relationships were found between the 

amount of tree mortality and percentage of subalpine fir trees in a stand, 

subalpine fir basal area, and subalpine fir stand density index following 

a western balsam bark beetle outbreak 

during the late 1990s and early 2000s 

in the Bighorn Mountains of Wyoming. 

These findings suggest that inter-tree 

competition caused by high tree density and basal area results in increased 

susceptibility to western balsam bark 

beetle. Forest stands impacted during 

the outbreak in Wyoming were dominated by subalpine fir (>80 percent), 

which may also explain the high rate 

and level of mortality (>50 percent of 

subalpine fir tree density and basal 

area). In stands with a smaller component of subalpine fir (<50 percent), factors such as abundance of large-diameter host trees and level of root disease 

may be more important in determining 

the amount and rate of tree mortality. 

During a similar timeframe in southern 

British Columbia, the highest levels of 

tree mortality occurred in the driest, 

coldest Engelmann spruce-subalpine 

fir biogeoclimatic zone compared with 

wetter, warmer sites. 

Disturbance events (windthrow, avalanches) and host stress caused by 

drought, defoliation and root disease 

have all been implicated in the initiation of western balsam bark beetle 

outbreaks or maintaining chronic levels of infestation. Corkbark fir basal 

area was reduced by more than 50 percent in many stands due to a western 

balsam bark beetle outbreak in southeastern Arizona following defoliation 

caused by looper defoliation, Nepytia 

janetae, and winter storm damage. 

Similarly, western balsam bark beetle 

population increase and associated 

tree mortality was observed following 

a 1993 storm that caused windthrow 

and tree breakage over a large area 

in northern Wyoming. Egg galleries 

were observed in all diameter classes 

of fir blowdown greater than 4 inches 

(10 cm). Felled trees in Colorado had 

highest attack rates on bole sides and, 

to a lesser extent, on the underside during endemic conditions, although there 

was no surface preference for attack 

on felled trees exposed to high populations in British Columbia.

Management Options

Vegetation management

Generally, subalpine fir grows at highelevation sites with a limited season 

for vegetation management activities. 

Lack of accessibility can prevent removal of currently infested trees to 

suppress building beetle populations. 

In addition, difficulty in identifying currently infested trees can affect 

timely removal. If sanitation treatments are implemented, they should 

occur following flight activity in August or before adult flight in June. 

Prompt removal or destruction of host 

material generated from windthrow or 

logging slash is recommended to prevent population increase or suppress 

populations. Similarly, removing trees 

weakened by causes other than root 
8

disease will mitigate successful attacks. Caution should be exercised in 

areas of known root disease pockets 

because partial cutting can increase 

root disease spread. 

Because western balsam bark beetle 

prefers less vigorous trees, silvicultural treatments that improve tree growth 

and vigor may be an effective management strategy. Treatments that lower 

subalpine fir basal area or stand density index, percentage of fir in a stand, 

and stand age could reduce inter-tree 

competition for limited resources, increase individual tree vigor and lower 

stand susceptibility to damage caused 

by western balsam bark beetle. Increasing age class diversity and promoting younger age classes would also 

presumably limit stand level impacts 

caused by western balsam bark beetle. 

Because subalpine fir stands over 100 

years old in British Columbia sustain 

continuous attack from western balsam bark beetle, it is recommended to 

use a rotation age less than 100 years. 

Although encouraging a healthy fir 

component through active management in high-value sites such as developed ski areas makes intuitive sense, 

specific silvicultural guidelines in fir 

dominated stands that result in lowering susceptibility to beetle attack have 

yet to be fully developed. Furthermore, thinning in spruce-fir stands can 

increase windthrow risk thereby providing a preferred habitat for western 

balsam bark beetle development.

Pheromones

Pheromones may provide another alternative for managing beetle populations. Pheromones for western balsam 

bark beetle have been identified and 

shown to be effective in manipulating beetle populations and dispersal. 

Commercially available attractant 

pheromone lures or baits containing 

exo-brevicomin can be used to monitor beetle flight or concentrate dispersing beetles into stands scheduled for 

harvest. Based on studies in British 

Columbia, baiting two trees per active 

spot is recommended for containment 

and concentration of small isolated infestations, while baiting trees on a 164 

foot (50 meter) grid is recommended 

for larger areas. One study demonstrated that stands can be successfully 

co-baited for both western balsam bark 

beetle and spruce beetle when trying 

to manage populations of both bark 

beetle species. Baited trees less than 

8 inches (20 cm) in diameter were not 

typically attacked. Therefore, select 

larger, older or less-vigorous trees for 

baiting.

Although a trap out strategy to suppress western balsam bark beetle 

populations has not been documented, 

high quantities of beetles collected in 

funnel traps and attraction of beetles to 

freshly felled trees suggest this might 

be a feasible tactic. This suppression 

strategy could be used to address a 

small, local population of insects. All 

baited standing trees, felled trap trees 

and adjacent infested trees from spillover effects must be removed or treated on site (e.g., burned or bark peeled) 

to kill all beetle life stages before adult 

flight occurs.

Western balsam bark beetle response to 

its aggregation pheromone, exo-brevicomin, was inhibited by endo-brevicomin in both laboratory assays and 
9

field studies. Endo-brevicomin is not 

commercially available and additional 

field studies are required to determine 

its efficacy and deployment methods. 

Combining non-host volatiles with 

endo-brevicomin may enhance repellency effects but further research is 

required to document the effectiveness 

of this technique. If pheromones are 

used for manipulating behavior or distribution of beetles, treatments should 

be deployed by early-June for the 

northern Rockies and late-June for the 

central Rockies and Southwest.

Acknowledgements

Earlier drafts of this leaflet were improved through thoughtful reviews 

provided by Kathy Bleiker, Ken Gibson, Matt Hansen, Lorraine Maclauchlan and Art Stock. 

Photo Credits

Authors’ photos

Sandra Kegley (Figure 4), Joel McMillin (Figure 6A)

Non-authors’ photos

USDA Forest Service - Ogden Archive 

(Figure 1), Elbert L. Little, Jr., USFS 

(Figure 2), Kenneth Gibson, USFS 

FHP R1 (Figure 3), Thomas A. Shahan, Oregon Department of Agriculture 

(Figure 5), David Beckman, Idaho Department of Lands (Figure 6B), Daniel 

Ryerson, USFS FHP R3 (Figure 7).

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12

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