An Overview of Pleistocp P 

Dune n Geor and 

Morphology, Distribution, Age, 
AVAILABILITY OF BOOKS AND MAPS OF THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Instructions on ordering publications of the U.S. Geological Survey, along with prices of the last offerings, are given 

in the current-year issues of the monthly catalog "New Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey." Prices of available U.S. 

Geological Survey publications released prior to the current year are listed in the most recent annual "Price and Availability 

List." Publications that may be listed in various U.S. Geological Survey catalogs (see back inside cover) but not listed in 

the most recent annual "Price and Availability List" may be no longer available. 

Reports released through the NTIS may be obtained by writing to the National Technical Information Service, U.S. 

Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA 22161; please include NTIS report number with inquiry. 

Order U.S. Geological Survey publications by mail or over the counter from the offices given below. 

BY MAIL 

Books 

Professional Papers, Bulletins, Water-Supply Papers, Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, Circulars, publications 

of general interest (such as leaflets, pamphlets, booklets), single 

copies of Earthquakes & Volcanoes, Preliminary Determination of 

Epicenters, and some miscellaneous reports, including some of the 

foregoing series that have gone out of print at the Superintendent 

of Documents, are obtainable by mail from 

U.S. Geological Survey, Map Distribution 

Box 25286, MS 306, Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225 

Subscriptions to periodicals (Earthquakes & Volcanoes and 

Preliminary Determination of Epicenters) can be obtained ONLY 

from the 

Superintendent of Documents 

Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 

(Check or money order must be payable to Superintendent 

of Documents.) 

Maps 

For maps, address mail orders to 

U.S. Geological Survey, Map Distribution 

Box 25286, Bldg. 810, Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225 

Residents of Alaska may order maps from 

U.S. Geological Survey, Earth Science Information Center 

101 Twelfth Ave. - Box 12 

Fairbanks, AK 99701 

OVER THE COUNTER 

Books and Maps 

Books and maps of the U.S. Geological Survey are 

available over the counter at the following U.S. Geological Survey 

offices, all of which are authorized agents of the Superintendent of 

Documents: 

• ANCHORAGE, Alaska-Rm. 101, 4230 University Dr. 

• LAKEWOOD, Colorado-Federal Center, Bldg. 810 

• MENLO PARK, California-Bldg. 3, Rm. 3128, 345 

Middlefield Rd. 

• RESTON, Virginia-USGS National Center, Rm. 1C402, 

12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. 

• SALT LAKE CITY, Utah-Federal Bldg., Rm. 8105, 125 

South State St. 

• SPOKANE, Washington-U.S. Post Office Bldg., Rm. 

135, West 904 Riverside Ave. 

• WASHINGTON, D.C.-Main Interior Bldg., Rm. 2650, 

18th and C Sts., NW. 

Maps Only 

Maps may be purchased over the counter at the following 

U.S. Geological Survey offices: 

• FAIRBANKS, Alaska-New Federal Bldg., 101 Twelfth 

Ave. 

• ROLLA, Missouri-1400 Independence Rd. 

• STENNIS SPACE CENTER, Mississippi-Bldg. 3101 
An Overview of Pleistocene and Holocene Inland 

Dunes in Georgia and the CarolinasMorphology, Distribution, Age, and Paleoclimate 

By H.W. Markewich and William Markewich 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 2069 

Inland dunes in the Southeastern United States represent 

periods of low precipitation and (or) monsoon conditions 

with persistent and (or) recurrent west and southwest 

winds. Geomorphic position, stratigraphic position, and 

carbon-14 ages suggest that the most recent period of 

dune formation began some time after 15 ka and ended 

between 5 ka and 3 ka 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON 1994 
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GORDON P. EATON, Director 

For sale by U.S. Geological Survey, Map Distribution 

Box 25286, MS 306, Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and 

does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

Published in the Eastern Region, Reston, Va. 

Manuscript approved for publication August 25, 1993. 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

Markewich, H.W. (Helaine W.) 

An overview of Pleistocene and Holocene inland dunes in Georgia and the Carolinas : 

morphology, distribution, age, and Paleoclimate I H.W. Markewich and William 

Markewich. 

p. em. - (U.S. Geological Survey bulletin ; 2069) 

"Inland dunes in the Southeastern United States represent periods of low precipitation and 

(or) monsoon conditions with persistent and (or) recurrent west and southwest winds. 

Geomorphic position, stratigraphic position, and C-14 ages suggest that the most recent 

period of dune formation began some time after 15 ka and ended between 5 ka and 3 

ka." 

Includes bibliographical references. 

Supt. of Docs. no.: 119.3:2069 

1. Sand dunes-Georgia. 2. Sand dunes-North Carolina. 3. Sand dunes-South 

Carolina. 4. Geology, Stratigraphic-Pleistocene. 5. Geology, StratigraphicHolocene. I. Markewich, William. IT. Title. ill. Series. 

QE75.B9 no. 2069 

[GB635.G4] 

557.3 s-dc20 

[551.3'75'09758] 93-36751 

CIP 
CONTENTS 

Abstract .......................................................................................... . 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

Purpose, Scope, and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 

Dune Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 

Climate..................................................................................... 3 

Temperature and Precipitation.................................................... 3 

Evaporation and Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 

Winds................................................................................. 6 

Vegetation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 

Stream Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

Black-Water Streams.............................................................. 14 

Clear-Water Streams . . ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

Regional Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

General Description and Distribution of Inland Dunes............................ 14 

Georgia.............................................................................. 14 

South Carolina and North Carolina............................................. 15 

Particle-Size Distribution, Mineralogy, and Grain Micromorphology.......... 18 

Erosion, Oxidation, and Pedogenesis . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 20 

Erosion .. .......... .... .. ...... .......... ...... ........ .......................... .... 20 

Oxidation............................................................................ 21 

Pedogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 

Dune Age................................................................................. 21 

Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 

Are Inland Dunes in the Southeastern United States Eolian?.................... 23 

How Are Inland Dunes in the Southeastern United States Distributed? .. .. . .. 24 

What Are the Ages of Inland Dunes in the Southeastern United States?...... 24 

How Do the Ages Compare with the Ages of Inland Dunes in Other Parts 

of the United States?........................................................ 25 

Arizona and Northwestern New Mexico....................................... 25 

Colorado.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

Texas and New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

Wyoming............................................................................ 26 

Kansas and Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

Middle Continent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

Middle Atlantic and Northeastern United States . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . 26 

Do Inland Dunes in the Southeastern United States Fit Global Models and 

Paleoclimatic Data? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

Global Climate Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

Paleoclimate Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

Pollen Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

Faunal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

Archeological Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

Summary........................................................................................ 28 

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 

References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 

III 
IV CONTENTS 

FIGURES 

1. Location map showing boundaries of the Blue Ridge, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain physiographic provinces 

from Georgia through Pennsylvania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 

2. A, Map of Georgia, South Carolina, and southeastern North Carolina with county outlines, dune field 

locations, and climate data and, B, Outline of dune fields on islands and low terraces of the Altamaha River 

valley, near Jesup, Ga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 

3. Topographic map of small dune fields associated with Carolina bays, A, Near Dover, Ga., and, B, Near 

Bennettsville, S.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 

4. Map showing mean annual precipitation and mean annual evaporation for the Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, 

Piedmont, and Coastal Plain physiographic provinces of Georgia.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 

5. Plot of average daily maximum and minimum temperature summarized by month for localities in the 

Georgia Coastal Plain.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 

6. Plot of mean monthly precipitation for localities in the Georgia Coastal Plain . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 

7. Rose diagrams showing, A, Hourly wind observation data from eight Coastal Plain cities in Georgia, South 

Carolina, and North Carolina and, B, Drift potential, resultant drift potential, and resultant drift direction 

for winds greater than 11 knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 

8. Topographic expression of largest dunes in the region along the Ohoopee River, near Cobbtown, Ga. .. ...... ... 16 

9. Topographic expression of smaller dunes east of the Little Ohoopee River and Ohoopee River flood plains..... 17 

10. Topographic expression of low, fluvially modified dunes along the Altamaha River near Jesup, Ga. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 18 

11. Rose diagram showing paleowind directions for inland dunes .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 19 

12. Cross sections showing relations of dunes to river valleys and substrata of the, A, Ohoopee River, B, 

Altamaha River, and, C, Satilla River . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .... . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .... . .. .. .. ... . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 20 

13. Map showing location of large older dunes and small younger dunes near junction of Bull Creek, Canoochee 

River, Lotts Creek, and Mill Creek in Georgia............................................................................... 21 

14. Aerial photograph of Carolina bays and dunes in the Cape Fear River valley near Elizabethtown, N.C. .. ..... .. 22 

15. X-ray diffraction pattern of <2-tJ.m fraction from 1.2-m depth in small dune adjacent to Ohoopee River 

near Reidsville, Ga................................................................................................................. 23 

16. X-ray diffraction patterns of <2-tJ.m fraction from large dune on eastern side of Little Ohoopee River near 

Covena, Ga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 

17. Map of United States showing areas of dune formation and calculated wind direction during the latest 

Pleistocene and early Holocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

TABLE 

1. Particle-size distribution data for dunes along the Savannah River, Jasper County, S.C. .... ..... ...... .. .. .. .. ..... .. 19 
An Overview of Pleistocene and Holocene Inland 

Dunes in Georgia and the CarolinasMorphology, Distribution, Age, and Paleoclimate 

By H.W. Markewich1 and William Markewich2 

ABSTRACT 

Vegetated, inactive, quartz sand dunes, 1 to 25m high 

and 7 m to 4 km long, are east and northeast of streams, 

rivers, and Carolina bays in parts of the Georgia, South 

Carolina, and North Carolina Atlantic Coastal Plain. 

Unstratified, symmetrical, filled-in crescent- or U-shaped 

dunes predominate. A few of the smaller dunes associated 

with Carolina bays are parabolic. Average phi size of the 

quartz sand ranges from 1. 0 along the Neuse River in North 

Carolina to 1.68 along Coastal Plain rivers in southeastern 

Georgia. 

In Georgia, 8- to 25-m-high dunes have coalesced to 

form 10- to 50-km-long, elongate dune fields, adjacent on 

the east and northeast to southeast-flowing Coastal Plain 

rivers such as the Ohoopee. Locally, 2- to 4-km-wide sand 

sheets lie leeward of the dune fields. Smaller dunes, 3 to 8 

m high, lie adjacent to stream segments trending east-west, 

north-south, south-southwest, or southeast. Dunes that are 1 

to 3 m high are most common east and northeast of Carolina 

bays and are the most common inland dunes in South 

Carolina and North Carolina. They cover large areas of the 

Pee Dee and Cape Fear River valleys. 

Most dunes lie between 48 and 160 km of the coast, 

in the area that presently has the region's lowest mean 

annual precipitation (1, 118-1 ,250 mm) and the lowest 

precipitation-to-evaporation ratio ( 1.1: 1. 0). Dune axes indicate formation by west winds in south-central and southwestern Georgia, west and southwest winds in southeastern 

Georgia, and southwest winds in the Carolinas. 

At least two sets of dunes are present. Each set 

represents several dune-forming episodes. Older dunes are 

generally larger than younger dunes and, except where 

reactivated, are characterized by relatively smooth, whaleback upper surfaces. Reactivated surfaces of older dunes 

1

U.S. Geological Survey, Atlanta, GA 30360. 2

2174 Leafmore Drive, Decatur, GA 30033. 

have irregular surface topographies that are similar in 

appearance to the knob-and-kettle topography of younger 

dunes. Relief on the upper surfaces of younger dunes is 

commonly 1 to 5 m. 

Stratigraphic position suggests that all dunes are 

younger than 500 ka, that dune-forming episodes occurred 

during and (or) subsequent to each major glaciation, and 

that the most recent episode was initiated sometime after 15 

ka and ended sometime before 3 ka. 

Dunes were forming in parts of the Western, Central, 

and Northeastern United States during this same 12,000-

year interval (15 ka-3 ka). The presence of dunes of similar 

age in so many areas of the United States suggests that 

severe and protracted droughts, with persistent or recurrent 

unidirectional winds, were common to glacial and to 

transitional glacial-interglacial climates in the late Quaternary. Their presence in the Southeastern United States 

suggests that the magnitude of climate change in the 

continental United States was greater than previously 

believed. 

INTRODUCTION 

Inland dunes and associated sand sheets cover thousands of square kilometers in the Coastal Plain physiographic province of Georgia, South Carolina, and North 

Carolina in the Southeastern United States (fig. 1). Most 

studies of inland dunes have been in areas where the climate 

is semiarid to arid, where vegetation is sparse, and where 

dunes are commonly 30 to 100 m high, morphologically 

distinct (parabolic, barchan, star, and so on), and stratified. 

In contrast, the Southeastern United States is characterized 

by a humid to wet, warm-temperate to subtropical climate, 

dense oak-hickory and (or) pine forests, and relatively small 

apparently unstratified inland dunes. Although some inland 

dunes in Georgia are 8 to 25 m high, 2 to 4 km long, and 

easily identifiable, most inland dunes in Georgia and the 

Carolinas are 1 to 7 m high and less than 1.0 km long and 
2 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

EXPLANATION 

WX:}}j Study area 

l!l~ill!illlijjjjjj~~~~ Fall Zone 

100 200 300 KILOMETERS 

Figure 1. Boundaries of the Blue Ridge, Piedmont, and Coastal 

Plain physiographic provinces from Georgia through Pennsylvania. The Fall Zone marks the area where crystalline rocks of the 

Piedmont and the overlying sediments of the Coastal Plain are 

exposed in stream valleys. 

do not have morphologically distinct form. The most 

common dune shape is a filled-in crescent or U. Dune 

composition is simple, generally more than 95 percent 

medium and fine quartz sand. The sand is unstratified 

structureless, nutrient poor, and drought susceptible, with 

negligible water-holding capacity. 

None of these dunes are active. Most are adjacent on 

the east and northeast to south-southeast-trending segments 

of the region's rivers and streams (fig. 2). Some are 

adjacent to shallow depressions known as Carolina bays 

(fig. 3). The height and areal extent of individual dunes and 

dune fields vary greatly. Locally, sand sheets extend from a 

few hundred meters to several kilometers leeward of large 

dunes, thinning to a feather edge from a maximum thickness of 6 to 7 mat the dune face. 

The presence of inland dunes in the Southeastern 

United States indicates that this region has been affected by 

surficial processes that are not presently active. The number 

and height of dunes, the size of the dune fields, and the 

thickness and width of adjacent sand sheets suggest that 

droughe conditions prevailed for extended periods of time 

and were accompanied by persistent or recurring unidirectional winds. The dunes are in the part of the Southeastern 

United States that presently has the lowest mean annual 

precipitation and the highest lake and pan evaporation. This 

coincidence of dunes with the driest part of the region 

- suggests that the present precipitation pattern was established sometime during the Quaternary and that a large area 

or subregion of the Southeastern United States has been 

more affected by Quaternary climate changes than the 

region as a whole has been. 

PURPOSE, SCOPE, AND METHODS 

This paper gives an overview of inland dunes in the 

Southeastern United States. Included are descriptions of 

dunes and dune fields and of the environment in which they 

occur. One small dune field is located in the eastern Gulf 

Coastal Plain in southwestern Georgia; others are in the 

southeastern Atlantic Coastal Plain of Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina (fig. 2A). Descriptions in the text 

are generalized from 50 field observations. 

Cross sectional views of the dunes were afforded by 1-

to 16-m-high exposures in numerous borrow pits, in cutbanks along streams and rivers, and along railroad and 

highway rights-of-way. Dunes were hand augered where 

there were no exposures. Geomorphic position and surface 

morphology were interpreted from aerial photographs and 

(or) topographic maps and checked by field observation. 

Geographic distribution was determined by analyses of 

available topographic maps (1:24,000, 1:100,000, and 

1:250,000 scales), aerial photographs (1:15,000 and 

1:20,000 scales), and site visits. Field descriptions included 

observations on mineralogy, grain size, internal structure, 

pedogenic development, color, thickness, and surface morphology. Except for a few samples, there were no detailed 

grain-size analyses. Grain-size data from these localities 

and from other published and unpublished sources are 

included. Mineralogical analysis of the clay fraction was by 

X-ray diffraction. The sand fraction was split for heavy and 

light minerals, and minerals were petrographically identified. Because of the low heavy-mineral content, consistently less than 1 percent and commonly less than 0.5 

percent, we did not attempt grain counts. Local vegetation 

was described by using common names. Age determinations were based on analyses of geomorphic and stratigraphic position, as well as carbon-14 analyses of datable 

material. 

3

The reader is referred to Thomas (1962) for a literature review and a 

discussion of drought, specifically of drought in a region having a humid 

to wet-temperate climate. For the purposes of this study, drought relates to 

soil moisture and, therefore, to the relations among evaporation, transpiration, and precipitation. 
DUNE ENVIRONMENTS 3 

Inland dunes in the Southeastern United States are 

inactive. Modern climatic data suggest that, at present, 

winds are not sufficient in duration or velocity to form 

dunes and that precipitation is too great to allow dune 

formation. Therefore, these data define a set of conditions 

in which dunes neither form nor reactivate when disturbed. 

The climatic data are summarized herein. 

Geomorphic, sedimentologic, pedologic, and palynologic data from published and unpublished studies were 

integrated with available carbon-14 data to identify periods 

in the Pleistocene and Holocene during which there was 

active dune formation in the Southeastern United States. 

The times of dune formation were then compared with 

published data on periods of dune formation in other parts 

of the United States. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

We would like to thank the many people who gave of 

their time and knowledge in discussing inland dunes of the 

Southeastern United States. These include R.E. Carver, 

University of Georgia, Athens; M.P. Schale, North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, Raleigh; B.J. Thames, 

Georgia Geologic Survey, Atlanta; Mack Thomas, R.L. 

Wilkes, Herschell Paulk, Allen Rigdon, and Steve 

Lawrence, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Soil 

Conservation Service (SCS), Ga.; B.N. Stuckey, USDA, 

SCS, Columbia, S.C.; and R.F. Carter, U.S. Geological 

Survey, Atlanta, Ga. J.S. Olson, Lenoir City, Tenn.; P.A. 

Delcourt, University of Tennessee, Knoxville; and D.R. 

Muhs, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colo., contributed 

many thoughtful discussions on the nature of paleoclimates 

during periods of dune formation and on the timing of 

nationwide dune-forming episodes. We also thank C.A. 

Bush of the U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, for providing 

the software for generating the sand rose diagrams. 

DUNE ENVIRONMENTS 

CLIMATE 

The Atlantic Coastal Plain of the Southeastern United 

States, excluding Florida, borders the Atlantic Ocean 

between 30°30' and 35°00' N. lat and 75°30' and 85°30' W. 

long (fig. 1). The climate of the region is humid to wet, 

warm-temperate to subtropical (Kohler and others, 1959). 

Sea breezes moderate the climate along the coast, but 

generally the climate is warm and humid. Summers are long 

and hot; winters are short and mild. 

Budel (1977) and Hardy and others (1982) included the 

Southeastern United States in the areas of temperate monsoons that occur on the eastern margins of major landmasses 

such as central China and eastern Australia. Unlike monsoonal areas having distinct seasons of rain and drought, 

areas of temperate monsoons have total mean annual 

precipitation (MAP) between 1,000 and 2,000 mm, experience rainfall throughout the year, and have a distinct 

summer precipitation maximum. The weather is dominated 

by tropical maritime air masses, hot and humid summers, 

with occasional tropical cyclones, and mild winters. In 

North America and Asia, occasional incursions of polar 

continental air bring unseasonably cold conditions during 

the winter months. 

Inland dunes in the Southeastern United States are 

coincident with the area having the region's lowest MAP 

(1, 118-1,250 mm) (figs. 2A, 4). In addition, mean monthly 

precipitation (MMP) is less than mean monthly evapotranspiration (MME) for 5 to 7 months of the year (van Bavel 

and Carreker, 1957). Because the area has no active dunes, 

its present climate can be considered a datum for conditions 

in which dunes do not form. 

In the following sections, climatic data for this region, 

particularly Georgia, are summarized. Data on MAE (mean 

annual evaporation), MAP and MMP, temperature, and 

prevailing winds are shown graphically in figures 4-7. The 

figures summarize published and unpublished data collected 

by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

National Weather Service. Some of these data have been 

published in county soil survey reports (Aydelott and 

others, 1965; Paulk, 1968, 1986; Barnhill, 1977; Dudley, 

1978). Other sources of climate data include Plummer 

(1983), Carter and Stiles (1983), Kohler and others (1959), 

Visher (1954), and van Bavel and Carreker (1957). 

TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION 

The northeast-trending, 80- to 120-km-wide, elliptically shaped area in which the dunes occur extends from 

central Georgia through southeastern North Carolina (fig. 

2A). Specific temperature data for the area are spotty. 

Temperatures range from 40 oc average annual high, to -6 

oc average annual low, with mean annual temperatures 

from 10 to 20 °C. 

In east-central Georgia, where the largest dunes occur 

along Coastal Plain rivers, the highest and lowest recorded 

temperatures in this century are 42.5 °C (in July 1952) and 

-15.6 oc (in January 1966), respectively. Average daily 

maximum and minimum temperatures for coastal and southcentral Georgia are shown in figure 5. 

None of the air temperatures shown in figure 5 

accurately reflect the summertime air temperatures atop the 

inland dunes. Jerry McCollum (in Justus, 1976) indicated 

that air temperatures atop the dunes are 8-11 oc hotter than 

air temperatures of the surrounding terrain. The effects of 

the higher temperatures have resulted in floral and faunal 
.j:::. 

~ 

0 

< tr1 

~ 

< 

~ 0 

"'1 

(/) 

~ -34° d 

(j 

,-~ 

\ o'"'1 

+33° 

78° 

.... ~.<..\G o"<c'l' 

~.<..VV +32° 

79° 

EXPLANATION 

~ Eolian sand dunes 

adjacent to streams 

and rivers 

--- Line of equal mean annual 

evaporation, in millimeters 

(Kohler and others, 1959) 

Area where mean 

annual precipitation 

is >1,118 and <1,270 mm 

0 25 50 75 100 MILES I I I I I I I I I 

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS 

Figure 2A. Counties, location of dune fields, and climate data for Georgia, South Carolina, and southeastern North Carolina. Drainages are 1, Flint River; 

2, Satilla River; 3, Alabaha River; 4, Little Ocmulgee River; 5, Altamaha River; 6, Ohoopee and Little Ohoopee Rivers and Pendleton Creek; 7, Canoochee 

River; 8, Ogeechee River; 9, Savannah River; 10, Great Pee Dee River; 11, combined valleys of the Cape Fear and Black Rivers; and 12, Neuse River. Dunes 

and dune fields present along smaller rivers and streams and adjacent to Carolina bays cannot be shown at this scale. 

~ > z 

0 

::r:: 

0 

5 

(j 

tr1 

z 

tr1 

~ g 

(/) 

~ 

z 

0 

~ ~ 

0 

> 

> z 

0 

..., 

~ (j 

~ c 

z 

~ 
DUNE ENVIRONMENTS 5 

1 2 3 MILES 

I I I I I 2 3 KILOMETERS 

Figure 2B. Late Pleistocene and (or) Holocene dune fields 

(shaded areas) on midchannel islands and low terraces of the 

Altamaha River valley near Jesup, Ga. (Jesup, Ga. , 1:100,000 

quadrangle). Topography of some of these dunes shown in figure 

10. 

communities unique to the dunes, as discussed in the 

sections titled "Vegetation" and "Faunal Data." 

The area in which most inland dunes are located has 

the region's lowest MAP (> 1,118 and < 1,250 mm) (figs. 

1 MILE 

1 KILOMETER 

Figure 3A. Dune field (shaded) with about 9 m total 

relief adjacent to freshwater-filled Carolina bay (Jarrell 

Pond) in southeastern Georgia (Dover, Ga., 1:24,000 

quadrangle; 10-ft contour interval). The bay has formed in 

terrace deposits of the Ogeechee River. 

2A, 4); central Georgia's MAP ranges from 1,118 to 1,168 

mm (fig. 4). This area of Georgia has an average annual 

runoff of 225 to 325 mm and the lowest streamflow in the 

State (Thomson and Carter, 1955, 1963). In drought years 

such as 1954, central Georgia receives 550 to 700 mm 

precipitation, which is 40 to 50 percent less rainfall than 

normal. In these years, surface runoff is minimal, and the 

near-surface water table drops below the bottom of the 

stream channels. The result is negligible to no streamflow. 

EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 

Kohler and others ( 1959) showed that lake evaporation 

in the central Georgia Coastal Plain is about 1, 100 mm/yr 

(figs. 2A, 4). Visher (1954) indicated that annual pan 

evaporation in south Georgia was about 1,375 mm. Van 

Bavel and Carreker (1957) calculated evapotranspiration in 

1 MILE 

1 KILOMETER 

Figure 3B. Dune field (shaded), 2 to 3m high, associated with 

a drained Carolina bay in northeastern South Carolina (Bennettsville South, S.C., 1:24,000 quadrangle; 5-ft contour interval). The 

bay has formed in terrace deposits of the Pee Dee River whose 

present channel is located about 3.2 km to the southwest. The 

source area for sand in the small dune field (stippled) northwest of 

the bay is the Pee Dee River modem flood plain. Dashed line 

indicates the drained bay boundary. 
6 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

~ Valley 

and 

Ridge 

EXPLANATION 

Line of equal mean annual precipitation (mm) 

Fall Zone 

Line of equal mean annual 

evaporation (mm) 

Blue Ridge 

~ 

~ 

Piedmont Coastal Plain 

Figure 4. Mean annual precipitation (modified from Carter and 

Stiles, 1983) and mean annual evaporation (Kohler and others, 

1959) for the Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, Piedmont, and 

Coastal Plain physiographic provinces of Georgia. Letters designate cities and towns referred to in the text or in figures 5 and 6: 

A, Augusta; Al, Albany; B, Brunswick; D, Dublin; G, Glennville; J, Jesup; M, Macon; S, Savannah; V, Vidalia; W, Waynesboro; Wy, Waycross. The Fall Zone marks the area where 

crystalline rocks of the Piedmont and the overlying sediments of 

the Coastal Plain are exposed in stream valleys. 

the east-central Georgia Coastal Plain to be about 986 

mm/yr. 

Other data (van Bavel and Verlinden, 1956) suggest 

that evapotranspiration in the coastal area of North Carolina 

is about 900 mm and that pan evaporation in the Hofmann 

Forest (about midway along the North Carolina coast) is 

about 1,250 mm (Daniels and others, 1978). 

Van Bavel and Carreker (1957) compared precipitation 

to calculated evapotranspiration in east-central Georgia and 

found that they were nearly equivalent, but that for 6 

months of the year evapotranspiration exceeded precipitation. In drought years, the precipitation deficit is magnified; 

the 550 to 700 mm annual precipitation is significantly less 

than the 1,000 to 1,300 mm average MAE. In drought 

38 

32 

~ w 27 a: 

::> 

1-

<( 

a: 

~ 21 

~ 

w 

1-

> ....J 

<{ 16 

Q 

w 

t!) 

<( 

ffi 10 

> <( 

5 

r~ 

/ 

/ 1111 111111 1 ter- _J 1111 Ill Ill nw 11

1 1

1 r-r 

II II MIN 

Ill II 

Ill' I 

II II 1111111 Vidalia, Dublin, ~~ ~ __ Waynesboro, Augusta, 

I

I Macon 1 

=-- 11 I \ \ I :=::== Savannah, Glennville, ~~-~-~ Brunswick, Jesup 

-1~---L--~--~~---L--~--~~--~--~--~ 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 

Figure 5. Average daily maximum and minimum temperature 

summarized by month for localities in the Georgia Coastal Plain. 

In the summer months, cities within 56 km of the coast (Savannah, 

Glennville, Brunswick, and Jesup) have lower maximum and 

higher minimum temperatures than do those cities farther inland 

(Vidalia, Dublin, Waynesboro, Augusta, and Macon). In winter 

months, coastal cities have both higher maximum and higher 

minimum temperatures than do cities farther inland. 

years, the MAP:MAE (0.6:1.0 and 0.5:1.0) more nearly 

approximate those of semiarid and arid terrains. 

WINDS 

Data on the region's winds are spotty. Historical data 

from the tum of the century indicate that, in specific months 

and (or) on a yearly basis, prevailing winds in the central 

Georgia Coastal Plain are from the west (for example, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, 1898, 1909-17 (particularly 

1912)). Hodler and Schretter (1986) suggest that strong 

west winds in southern Georgia are possible during the 

winter months, depending on the locations of regional lows 

centered over the central Mississippi Valley. Figure 7 A 

summarizes much of the available wind data for the Coastal 

Plain in Georgia and the Carolinas. Data show that the 

strongest winds are predominantly from the west and that 

they occur in the winter months. 

Figure 7 B shows sand rose diagrams (for winds greater 

than 11 knots (about 5.5 m/s)), drift potentials, and resultant drift directions of several localities in Georgia and South 

Carolina. The data show that a significant percentage of all 

winds ·are from the western quadrants, primarily during the 
DUNE ENVIRONMENTS 7 

178 

E 152 

E. 

z 

0 

i= 127 

11111~1~'1111 ~ a: 

u 

w 

a: 102 a.. 

>- lrtJ ...J 

I 

1-

z 

0 76 

~ 

z 

<( 

w 

~ 51 1111111 Vidalia, Dublin, 

Waynesboro, Augusta, 

Macon 

Savannah, Glennville, 

25 Brunswick, Jesup 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 

Figure 6. Mean monthly precipitation for localities in the 

Georgia Coastal Plain. Cities within 56 km of the coast (Savannah, 

Glennville, Brunswick, and Jesup) have higher total precipitation, 

higher summer precipitation, and a longer summer period of high 

precipitation than do cities farther inland (Vidalia, Dublin, 

Waynesboro, Augusta, and Macon). 

winter months. The data do not suggest the presence of 

persistent strong winds necessary for dune formation. 

Data for coastal areas, such as Brunswick, Ga., show 

a variable wind pattern except for a pronounced reversal of 

direction from the west in the winter months to the northeast 

in the late fall. (This reversal is due primarily to the effect 

of barometric lows in the North Atlantic Ocean in the 

autumn months, resulting in strong northeastern winds 

along the coast.) Data indicating predominantly west or 

southwest wind direction are from the area of the largest 

dunes in southeastern Georgia in a zone 50 to 150 km inland 

of the Atlantic coast (see data for Alma, Ga., in fig. 7B). A 

small dune field on the eastern side of the Flint River at 

Albany, Ga. (fig. 4), is the westernmost limit of identified 

dune fields in Georgia. Wind data for Albany show a 

dominant southwest wind. 

Of all the annual drift potentials given in figure 7 B, 

only one, Hunter Army Airfield (AAF), Ga. (drift potential=84), falls within the range of annual drift potentials 

given by Fryberger and Dean (1979, table 16, p. 150). The 

annual drift potential for Hunter AAF, Ga., barely makes 

the lowest wind energy environment category for desert 

regions. In addition, the weighting factors used for calculating relative rates of sand transport will certainly be 

different for humid vegetated terrains than those for semiarid or arid terrain. Intuitively, the result ~ill be less drift 

for the same wind speed in wetter, more vegetated terrain. 

The proximity of the dunes to the source area of the sand, 

the filled-in U shape of the dunes, and the extremely steep 

frontal toe or slip face of the dunes, as well as the lack of 

evidence for significant dune migration, all suggest that 

Pleistocene and Holocene dunes in the Southeastern United 

States formed in geographically and climatically restricted 

areas where drift was minimal. 

Available wind data for the region are from large 

upland flats generally used for aviation. No data are 

available for wind conditions in the river valleys where 

more than 90 percent of the area's dunes are located. To 

determine true drift potentials for the region, the following 

specific data are needed: (1) the relative increase and 

subsequent decrease in wind velocity as the wind moves 

across the valley (descent, transversal, and ascent); (2) the 

effect(s) of wind zonation or funneling along valleys parallel to the dominant wind direction; and (3) the effect(s) of 

vegetation type (tree, grass, shrub) on wind velocity. A 

weighting factor for drift potentials in humid to wet, 

vegetated terrain also has to be calculated. 

VEGETATION 

Thick deposits of quartz sand in Georgia, South 

Carolina, and North Carolina generally have floral communities that are distinctive from those on adjacent, less 

sand-rich substrata. The thickest and most areally extensive 

sand deposits are present along the Fall Zone (fig. 1) and are 

alluvial, marine, colluvial, or eolian in origin. These 

deposits range in age from the Late Cretaceous to Holocene 

but were not part of this study. Deposits having the highest 

quartz sand content (generally >95 percent) are on the 

eastern and northeastern sides of streams and rivers at 

altitudes below 80 m. Generally, these deposits have dunal 

morphology and consist of nutrient -poor, highly permeable, 

fine and medium quartz sand that has extremely low 

water-holding capacities. These are the deposits discussed 

in this report. 

The combination of the relatively higher air and soil 

temperatures, the near equivalency of the MAP and MAE, 

and the high permeability and very low water-holding 

capacity of the sand permits the growth of unique floral and 

faunal communities on the dunes and dune fields. The 

uniqueness of the floral communities was recognized early 

in the settlement of Georgia (Hawkins, 1799), but these 

communities were not described until the early part of this 

century (Harper, 1906). Some years later, Wells and Shunk 

(1931) described similar vegetation on thick sand deposits 

in the Coastal Plain of North Carolina. 

Because some work on dunal chronosequences has 

been based on sequential variation in vegetative communi-
+32° 

79° 

EXPLANATION 

+33° 

78° 

••••••••••• Winter month (January) 

( ~.-~. ~Sum; mon;h (J~lyJ 

,l ) 20 20 

-34° 

• ' I \ ,,.........._ / "!>'\~~ 

Lh:"'\!t~~;_,,,· 

PERCENT HOURLY OBSERVATIONS 

OBSERVATION INTERVAL 1939-1984 

~·". JM •.• • ,;,: ' -~ ...... 1'.· 

DATA COLLECTED AT A SPECIFIC STATION DURING VARIOUS YEARS 

Figure 7A. Rose diagrams summarizing hourly wind observation data from 1939 to 1984 from 

eight Coastal Plain cities in Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina. Diagrams show percent of 

time wind blew from a given direction in January (dotted line) and July (solid line) and percent time 

during those months that winds were calm (January, upper number in center of rose; July, lower 

number in center of rose). Meteorological stations: (A) Albany, Ga. (31°35' N. lat, 84007' W. long); 

(B) Brunswick, Ga. (31°15' N. lat, 81°28' W. long); (C) Robins Air Force Base (AFB), Ga. (32°38' 

81° 

N. lat, 83°36' W. long, about 45 km south of Macon); (D) Alma, Ga. (about 45 km west-southwest 

of Jesup), (E) Fort Stewart, Ga. (31°53' N. lat, 81°34' W. long, about 50 km west of Savannah); (F) 

Shaw AFB, S.C. (33°58' N. lat, 80°28' W. long); (G) Myrtle Beach AFB, S.C. (33°41' N. lat, 

78°56' W. long); (H) Pope AFB, N.C. (35°10' N. lat, 79°01' W. long). Unpub. data from National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Asheville, N.C. 

00 

~ 0 

I 

0 

"T1 

tl.l 

~ 

d 

~ 

~ ::r: 

0 

5 

~ 

; 

tj 

tl.l 

~ 

z 

~ 

~ 

~ 

~ 

I tl.l 
DUNE ENVIRONMENTS 9 

JAN FEB N MAR APR 

DP= 12 I OP= 12 DP= 7 

DP• 6 ADP• 

·~ RDP= 

'~ RDP• 4 

i RDP• 3 o/ 

MAY JUN JUL AUG 

DP= 2 DP= DP• 1 DP• 1 RDP= 1 \!) RDP• 0 G) RDP• 1 6) @RDP= 0 

SEP OCT NOV DEC 

DP= 4 DP= 4 

0/- 3 ~P- 2 RDP• 2 -{?! RDP• 2 

DP• 2 DP• 1 ~ 

ANNUAL SUMMARY 

OP• 45 

RDP= 

"~ 

Albany, Georgia 

Figure 7 B. Sand rose diagrams showing drift potential 

(DP), resultant drift potential (RDP), and resultant drift 

direction (arrows) for winds greater than 11 knots (about 5.5 

m/s) (monthly and annual data). Thin lines are drift potential 

vectors (mm) that are proportional in length to potential 

amount of sand drift from a given direction toward the center 

of the circle. Arrows are resultant drift potential vectors 

(mm), a measure of relative sand-moving capability of 

wind, derived from reduction of surface wind data through a 

weighting equation. Directions of arrows indicate resultant 

drift directions, or the net trend of sand drift. Meteorological 

stations: Albany, Ga. (31°351 N. lat, 84°071 W. long); Fort 

ties (Olson, 1958b,d; Walker and others, 1981), we have 

included a summary of published descriptions of vegetation 

on inland dunes in Georgia and North Carolina. Our field 

observations, however, suggest that vegetation differences 

are more probably related to sand thickness, and possibly 

grain size, and not to age of deposit. 

Much of Georgia's dune sand is covered with what 

Wharton (1977, p. 180-185) called the "Dwarf Oak Forest" 

(Longleaf Pine-Turkey Oak). 

... an open canopy forest usually on conspicuous sandhills and deep sands 

on ridge tops ... an extremely dry forest of small deciduous oaks seldom 

over 15 ft (4.6 m) high, with or without longleaf pine overstory ... much 

open sand, litter absent, often with conspicuous ground lichens, cactus, 

yucca, and other xeric plants ... forests occur on deep sand ridges parallel to 

and east of major streams in the Coastal Plain .... Turkey oak, blue jack oak, 

dwarf post oak, and longleaf pine are dominant trees .... 

Wharton's "Dwarf Oak-Evergreen Shrub Forest" has a 

smaller areal extent and is present in areas where the sand is 

1942-46, 1948-72 

Stewart, Ga. (31°53 1 N. lat, 81°34 1 W. long, about 50 km 

west of Savannah); Hunter Army Airfield (AAF), Ga. 

(32°01 1 N. lat, 81°08 1 W. long, at Savannah); Brunswick, 

Ga. (31 °15 1 N. lat, 81°281 W. long); Robins Air Force Base 

(AFB), Ga. (32°381 N. lat, 83°361 W. long, about 45 km 

south of Macon); Alma, Ga. (about 45 km west-southwest 

of Jesup); Shaw AFB, S.C. (33°581 N. lat, 80°281 W.long); 

Myrtle Beach AFB, S.C. (33°41 1 N. lat, 78°561 W. long); 

Pope AFB, N.C. (35°10 1 N. lat, 79°01 1 W. long). Unpub. 

data from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Asheville, N.C.; equations from Fryberger and Dean, 

1979. Station locations shown on figure 4 or 7A. 

exceptionally deep and somewhat coarser than in areas of 

the "Dwarf Oak Forest." 

... This habitat is particularly evident on the dunes along the Ohoopee 

River .... environment occurs on deep coarse sands ... a striking habitat with 

rare evergreens, such as rosemary ... and evergreen woody mints ... as 

dominant ground cover .... Trees can be quite old at small diameters. One 

oak (4 inch [10.2 em] diameter) was about 60 yrs old, another (6 inch [15.2 

em] diameter) approximately 138 yrs. Trees are turkey oak and longleaf 

pine. Shrubs included rosemary (Ceratiola ericoides), red basil (a woody 

mint) (Calamintha coccinea), blue flowering woody mint (Calamintha 

ashei), shrub goldenrod (Chrysoma paucijlosculosa), jointweed 

(Polygonella polygama) .... Herbs include sand spikemoss (Selaginella 

arenicola), nailwort (Paronychia sp.), a lichen (commonly called British 

soldier) .... 

The vegetative community on inland dunes in North 

Carolina differs somewhat from that in Georgia. The 

following description of the "Xeric Sandhill Scrub" community was provided by M.P. Schale (North Carolina 
10 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

JAN FEB N MAR APR 

DP• 2 G DP• 3 

~ I DP= 

43~ DP= 2 & RDP• 2 RDP= 2 RDP• RDP= 

MAY JUN JUL AUG 

DP= 1 DP• 0 DP= 0 DP• 0 

RDP• 0 v @oP- 0 @RDP• 0 (9RDP• 0 

SEP OCT NOV DEC 

DP= 0 

~~=- 1 DP• @ DP= 

(9oP· 0 ROP= 1 RDP= 32~ 

ANNUAL SUMMARY 

DP= 

RDP= 179~ 

Ft. Stewart, Georgia 1967-70, 1973-78 

Figure 7B. Continued. 

JAN FEB N MAR APR 

I DP• 16 

"'"~ DP= 10 

ROP• 

OP= 9~ RDP• DP~ 10 

RDP• 

~ 

MAY JUN JUL AUG 

DP• 4 DP• 3 DP• 2 

tt/DP= Cf}DP• 1 

~~== 2 RDP= 0 @- 1 1 

SEP OCT NOV DEC 

DP= 6 /5:-0~= 4 

3 P.P= DP• 

4 

3 

RDP= 4~ RDP• 

OP= 5 

2 ~ 

ANNUAL SUMMARY 

~ :: + 

Hunter MF, Georgia 1948-70 

Figure 7B. Continued. 
JAN 

DP• 3 

ROP• {)1 

MAY 

DP= 3 

RDP= 1 \35 

SEP 

A- 4 

DP• 3 

Figure 7B. Continued. 

JAN 

DP• 

RDP• \~ 

MAY 

DP• 1 

RDP= 0 ® 

SEP 

DP= 0 0!) RDP= 0 

Figure 7B. Continued. 

DUNE ENVIRONMENTS 

FEB N MAR 

I DP& 6 

~ DP• 5 

RDP= 2 RDP• 2-Q 

JUN JUL 

DP= 2 DP• 1 

®RDP• ®RDP• 0 

OCT NOV 

DP= 3 

RDP• 0 /{. 5 

P• 

ANNUAL SUMMARY 

Brunswick, Georgia 1945-46, 1951-70 

FEB 

DP= 

RDP= 

4 

3 ~ 

JUN 

DP• 0 

RDP• 0 ® 

OCT 

DP= 1 

RDP• 0 

N 

I DP= 5 

RDP• 3 

DP• 0 

RDP= 0 

DP= 2 

RDP= 2 

ANNUAL SUMMARY 

-. 

~- ~ .. ~ ~ 

MAR 

~ 

JUL 

v 

NOV 

Q 

Robins AFB, Georgia 1967-70, 1973-79 

11 

APR DP• 5 

RDP= 2 

<t; 

AUG 

DP• 1 

@RDP• 1 

DEC 

DP• 3 (;) RDP• 1 

APR 

DP= 3 

RDP= 2 

~ 

AUG 

DP= 

(5!RDP= 

0 

DEC 

DP• 

RDP= 

3 

2 ~ 
12 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

JAN 

DP= 5 

RDP• 

4~ 

MAY 

DP• 5 

RDP• 4rr 

SEP 

DP= 

RDP• 1 

~ 

Figure 7B. Continued. 

JAN 

DP= 6 

ROP• 

~ 

MAY 

DP• 2 ROP• 1 & 

SEP 

@DP• 1 

RDP• 1 

Figure 7B. Continued. 

FEB N MAR 

I DP• 6 

DP= 5 RDP• 

RDP• 

4~ 4lf 

JUN JUL 

DP• 1 DP• 1 

RDP• 1 <!) RDP• 1 & 

OCT NOV 

DP= 1 

~ DP= 1 

RDP• 1 RDP• 1 

~ 

ANNUAL SUMMARY 

DP• 39 

Alma, 

RDP= 

Georgia 

~ 1954-58 

FEB N MAR 

r 

DP• 6 DP• 6 ROP= RDP= 2q 4~ 

JUN JUL 

DP= DP= 0 

RDP= 0 

~ ROP= 0 6) 

OCT NOV 

~DP• I DP= 

RDP• 1 -@ ROP= 

ANNUAL SUMMARY 

OP= 

~ 

RDP• ~ 

Shaw AFB, South Carolina 1974-78 

OP= 

RDP• 

DP• 

RDP• 

5 

I 

OP• 5 

APR 

4rr 

AUG 

1& 

DEC 

RDP• 4 ~ 

APR 

DP• 5 

RDP• 

3~ 

AUG 

DP• 

C9RDP• 

0 

DEC 

OP= 4 -G RDP• 2 

0 
DUNE ENVIRONMENTS 13 

JAN FEB N MAR APR 

I DPz 5 

RDP• 2 

~ Q >? DP= 4 -<) DP= 3 RDP• 1 RDP• 2 DP• 4 

RDP• 2 

MAY JUN JUL AUG 

DP• 2 DP• 1 DP• 1 DP= 1 

RDP= 1 

C!> ~RDP• 1 ~RDP= 1 ~RDP• 1 

SEP OCT NOV DEC 

DP• 0 

®DP• 1 ~RDP• G ~ 0 DP= 2 RDP= 0 RDP• OP= 3 

RDP= 2 

ANNUAL SUMMARY 

DP• 

RDP"' 

Myrtle Beach AFB, South Carolina 1969-70, 1973-81 

Figure 7B. Continued. 

JAN FEB N MAR APR 

DP= 8 I DP= a DP• 7 

RDP= 

~ RDP• 

·~ RDP• 

DP• 

RDP= 

6 

2 ~ 5~ 

MAY JUN JUL AUG 

DP= 2 DP= 1 DP= 0 DP• 0 ROP= 1 

~ RDP= 0 v RDP• 0 @ ~ROP• 0 

SEP OCT NOV DEC 

DP= 1 DP= 2 OP• 3 

(?I OP• ® ~ RDP= 1 

~ ROP• 2 RDP• ROP• 0 

ANNUAL SUMMARY 

DP• 22 

RDP= 13 

/ 

Pope AFB, North Carolina 1970-80 

Figure 7B. Continued. 
14 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

Natural Heritage Program, Raleigh, NC 27611, written 

commun., 1990). 

... open canopy of Pinus palustris with an open to dense understory of 

Quercus laevis. Occasional Quercus margaretta, Sassafras albidum· 

... Diospyros virginiana may occur ... sparse low shrub layer ... of Guylussacia dumosa and Toxicodendron toxicarium is sometimes present. ... Sand 

barren variant, on the most excessively drained sands which support only 

sparse woody and herbaceous vegetation ... occur primarily on aeolian sand 

deposits and Carolina bay rims. 

STREAM CHARACTERISTICS 

BLACK-WATER STREAMS 

Although small dunes are present along larger clearwater streams and rivers, the largest dunes and most 

extensive inland dune fields are located at altitudes of less 

than 80 m along whiskey-colored, black-water streams 

whose drainage basins lie wholly within the Coastal Plain 

physiographic province. These streams have wide, treechoked, meandering channels with slow-moving water; 

wide, swampy, tree-covered flood plains; and interfluve 

swamps at the head of many small tributaries. The chemistry, sediment load, and discharge pattern of these streams 

greatly influenced and (or) controlled the availability of 

sand during dune-forming episodes. 

Maximum average discharge values of the three blackwater streams associated with the most extensive dune 

fields are 27.3 m3/s for the Ohoopee River at Reidsville, 

Ga., 26.7 m3/s for the Satilla River at Waycross, Ga., and 

12.6 m3

/s for the Canoochee River at Claxton, Ga. (Inman, 

1971; data from gaging stations nearest the dune fields). 

During droughts, these large Coastal Plain streams, as well 

as most smaller streams, have negligible flow, due in large 

part to the ground-water table dropping below the level of 

the streambed. 

Cherry ( 1961) described the black water of Lower 

Coastal Plain streams in Georgia as having high color 

(commonly >300 platinum cobalt units), pH values commonly less than 6.0 (in many streams <5.0), a greater 

quantity of organic than inorganic materials in suspension, 

and high iron contents. Beck and others ( 197 4) formulated 

similar conclusions and characterized the waters as having 

low suspended load, low ionic strength, low pH values, a 

predominance of organic over inorganic constituents, and 

relatively high concentrations of iron and aluminum. 

The effects of the organic-rich, low-pH, black water 

on the sediment through which it flows has not been 

adequately studied, but as pH lowers and organic matter 

increases, the suspended sediment load decreases and the 

percent quartz sand in the alluvium increases (Cherry, 1961; 

Stokes and others, 1984; Perlman, 1985; H.W. Markewich, 

unpub. data). Chelation, adsorption, and dissolution are the 

processes apparently responsible for the decrease in clay 

content of the alluvium (R.L. Malcolm, U.S. Geological 

Survey, Denver, Colo., oral commun., 1991). The result is 

stream alluvium having an average quartz sand content of 

95 to 98 percent that was derived from surrounding sediment having a 30 to 70 percent kaolinitic clay content 

(H.W. Markewich, unpub. field data, 1985-90). During 

periods of low water, when the flood-plain and channel 

sand is subaerially exposed, the alluvium is susceptible to 

wind erosion and becomes an available source area for 

windblown dune sand. Dunes associated with black-water 

streams are present both on alluvial terraces and on eastern 

valley walls, where they form long ramps extending from 

the valley floor to the interfluve. 

CLEAR-WATER STREAMS 

Some small dunes and dune fields are present on the 

flood plain and terraces of high-discharge, regional, clearwater rivers such as the Savannah, which drains the Coastal 

Plain, Piedmont, and Blue Ridge provinces, and the Altamaha, which drains the Coastal Plain and Piedmont provinces. Generally, these rivers have lower organic matter 

content, higher pH values (6.0-6.5), lower color (about 75 

platinum cobalt units), and greater suspended sediment load 

than do Coastal Plain streams. The average discharge values 

of regional drainages, where adjacent to dunes, are an order 

of magnitude greater than those of Coastal Plain rivers 

(283-453 m3

/s, the range in average discharge for regional 

drainages in South Carolina and Georgia, as compared to 12 

and 28 m3/s, the maximum average discharge values for the 

Canoochee and Ohoopee Rivers, respectively, in Georgia) 

(Gunter and others, 1983; Bennet and others, 1984; Stokes 

and others, 1984). Dunes present on the eastern and 

northeastern sides of regional drainages are generally 

smaller than dunes associated with Coastal Plain streams 

and rivers. They are commonly present on channel-bar 

deposits, midchannel islands, and low terrace surfaces and 

not as sand ramps on the eastern valley walls. 

REGIONAL SYNTHESIS 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND DISTRIBUTION 

OF INLAND DUNES 

Most inland dunes in Georgia and the Carolinas occur 

in an area between 48 and 160 km from the coast that has a 

MAP of less than 1,250 mm, a MAE of about 1,100 mm, 

and black-water streams with average discharge values less 

than 28 m3/s. 

GEORGIA 

Veatch and Stephenson (1911) first discerned the 

geographic distribution and essential character of dunes in 
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS 15 

Georgia. They noted that the sand hills slope toward the 

streams that they border; that the sand is gray, yellow, or 

light brown, unconsolidated, and structureless; that the sand 

belts may reach a width of as much as 3-5 km; that they lie 

parallel to the streams, generally on the eastern or left sides 

of the streams; and that the sand deposits appear to be at 

higher elevations than the accumulations of loose sand on 

nearby river or stream terraces. They suggested that the 

sand deposits were of fluvatile origin with subsequent 

shifting and in part redeposition by wind. 

Hurst and others (1966), in their study of part of the 

Coastal Plain in south-central Georgia, described the dunes 

as "massive drifts," commonly more than 4.5 m thick and 

1.6 km wide along the eastern sides of the major streams. 

They noted that the drifts extend along the entire eastern 

banks of the larger streams and that the sand exhibits little 

or no stratification or crossbedding. They suggested that the 

sand was concentrated in drifts during Holocene time by 

prevailing southwesterly to westerly winds. 

By using Landsat imagery, Pickering and Jones (1974) 

recognized the parabolic (crescent) shape of the dunes and 

noted that dunes having the best parabolic form occur along 

S. 20° E.-trending reaches of the Ohoopee, Canoochee, 

Altamaha, and Savannah Rivers. Dunes along some of the 

rivers, such as the Altamaha, extend to the river mouth and 

merge with Pleistocene coastal dunes. 

Axes of inland dunes in Georgia indicate formation by 

west winds in the central Coastal Plain and by west and 

southwest winds nearer the coast. The main source areas of 

the dune sand were stream channels and flood plains (figs. 

8-12). A few small dune fields are adjacent on the east to 

shallow depressions locally referred to as Carolina bays 

(fig. 3A). The bays served as source areas for the dune sand. 

Dunes in Georgia vary greatly in size and extent (figs. 

10, 12-14). Dunes along small first order streams are 

commonly only 1 to 3 m thick and several tens of meters 

across. One- to 2-m-high and 3- to 10-m-high dunes are 

common along regional drainages such as the Altamaha and 

the Savannah. The highest (8-25 m) and largest dunes are 

adjacent to streams in southeastern Georgia, where drainage 

basins lie wholly within the Coastal Plain. The largest of 

these dunes occur where two or more stream valleys, at 

least one parallel to the prevailing wind direction, intersect 

(fig. 13). 

Commonly, the dunes and dune fields along the 

clear-water regional drainages are on flood plains and 

terraces and downstream from confluences with major 

black-water Coastal Plain tributaries (see the distribution of 

dunes along the Altamaha and Ohoopee Rivers on fig. 2A). 

None of the dunes are as large as those along Coastal Plain 

drainages. 

Along higher order Coastal Plain streams in Georgia, 

such as the Ohoopee River, 10- to 25-m-thick, 2- to 

4-km-long dunes coalesce to form 20- to 80-km-long linear 

dune fields (fig. 8). The dunes form sand ramps that climb 

20 to 40 m up the eastern valley wall of the Ohoopee River 

valley (figs. 8, 12A) or large U-shaped forms on low 

terraces (fig. 9). Locally, dunes that form ramps on the 

valley sides extend beyond the crest of the interfluve (fig. 

8). Wedge-shaped sheets of sand extend from a few 

hundred meters to 6.0 km leeward of the dunes. Thickness 

of the sand sheets ranges from a maximum of 7 m near the 

dunes to about 20 em (minimum recognizable thickness) at 

leeward limit. Where dunes coalesce, short, straight, westflowing ephemeral streams define the boundaries of individual dunes (fig. 8). 

At several localities in Georgia, at least two sets of 

dunes are present, such as on the flood plain and valley side 

northeast of the Satilla River near Waycross (fig. 12C), or 

piggybacked onto older and larger dunes east of the 

Canoochee River near Claxton (fig. 13). Although they 

have been described as parabolic (Pickering and Jones, 

1974), most dunes are a filled-in crescent or U shape; they 

generally do not have the windward-pointing arms characteristic of parabolic dunes. The whaleback upper surfaces of 

some of the younger dunes and (or) reactivated surfaces of 

older dunes are characterized by a hummocky, knob-andkettle topography (figs. 8-10). The smooth back-slope 

surfaces of some older dunes suggest that they were 

minimally affected by the most recent dune-forming 

event(s). 

SOUTH CAROLINA AND NORTH CAROLINA 

None of the dunes adjacent to southeast-flowing 

streams in South Carolina and North Carolina are higher 

than 10m, most are less than 8 m high, and many are less 

than 2m high. Dunes less than 2m high are not identifiable 

on many of the quadrangle maps of the area because their 

height is less than the commonly used 5-ft topographic 

contour. They are identifiable on most aerial photographs 

and on satellite imagery. 

Most dunes are adjacent to streams, but at several 

localities dunes extend from Carolina bay to Carolina bay 

and cover large areas of the flood plains and low terraces 

(fig. 14). In the Carolinas, dune axes indicate formation by 

southwest winds (Thorn, 1967; Carver and Brook, 1989) 

(fig. 14). In the valleys of the Cape Fear and Pee Dee 

Rivers, dune morphology indicates that there was some 

cross-valley migration. However, most inland dunes in the 

Carolinas have the filled-in U shape and are directly 

adjacent to the channel and (or) terrace sand source. These 

characteristics suggest that the dunes did not migrate far, if 

at all, from the original site of deposition. 

As in Georgia, at least two sets of dunes have been 

identified in the Carolinas. Thorn ( 1967) recognized two 

sets associated with the Great Pee Dee River and a few of its 
16 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

Eolian 

sand 

[2] 

Terrace and 

flood-plain 

alluvium 

WJ 

Miocene(?) 

sediments, 

undifferentiated 

Figure 8. Topographic expression of large, 20- to 25-m-high, 

coalescing dunes adjacent on the east to the Ohoopee River flood 

plain in the south-central Georgia Coastal Plain (Cobbtown, Ga., 

1:24,000 topographic quadrangle; 10-ft contour interval). Locally, 

intermittent or ephemeral drainages mark dune-to-dune boundaries 

and the contact between dune slip faces and the ridge-forming 

1 MILE 

1 KILOMETER 

Miocene(?) substrata. Differences in topographic expression 

between dunes, and (or) between the windward and leeward part 

of an individual dune, suggest that, at the surface, a few meters of 

sand were reactivated during the most recent dune-forming event. 

Line weight of dune boundary is heavier where boundary departs 

from topographic contour. 
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS 17 

1 MILE 

1 KILOMETER 

EXPLANATION 

Terrace and (or) 

flood-plain alluvium 

Eolian sand Alluvium and (or) 

Miocene (?) sediments, 

undifferentiated 

Swampy flood plain Intermittent and (or) 

ephemeral stream 

Figure 9. Eolian sand dunes, 5 to 15m high, on low terraces to the east of the Little Ohoopee River and Ohoopee River flood plains 

(Covena and Nunez, Ga., 1:24,000 quadrangles;lO-ft contour interval). Representative contours show the contrasting morphologies of 

the eolian dune sand and the stream-deposited or stream-modified alluvial sand. Substratum is a middle to upper Miocene(?), highly 

weathered, red-orange to purple, locally pebbly (quartz), fluvial, clayey (kaolinitic) sand or sandy clay. 

tributaries in northeastern South Carolina. He suggested 

that one set of low ( <3 m high) dunes blocked the mouths 

of remnant channels on the lowest terrace and that another 

older set blanketed the surface of the next higher terrace. 

Soller (1988) discriminated two dunal assemblages by 

using mineralogy and geomorphology in the lower Cape 

Fear River valley in southeastern North Carolina. He noted 

that the mineralogical differences were not sufficient for 

field mapping but that geomorphic differences were pronounced, with the best developed dunes adjacent to the 

Cape Fear and Black Rivers. 

Daniels and others ( 1969) studied small, structureless 

bodies of eolian sand adjacent on the east to the Neuse River 

and one of its tributaries in the Coastal Plain of North 

Carolina. They observed that (1) individual dunes along the 

Neuse River are between 2 and 5 m high, (2) dunes are 

present from the highest interfluves to just above the flood 

plains, and (3) individual dunes are generally less than 1.5 

km long but the .coalesced dunes form linear fields that 

extend up to 8 km along the river. They suggested that the 

morphologies and geomorphic positions of the dunes indicate several periods of formation. 
18 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

1 MILE 

1 KILOMETER 

EXPLANATION 

Eolian sand Rood-plain and (or) 

terrace alluvium 

Swampy flood plain 

Figure 10. Eolian sand dunes, 3 to 15 m high, on Altamaha River midchannel 

islands and low terraces about 32 km downstream from the confluence of the 

Ohoopee and Altamaha Rivers near Jesup, Ga. (Doctortown, Ga., 1:24,000 

topographic quadrangle; 5-ft contour interval). Representative contours show the 

dunal morphology. The truncated southwestern boundaries of the dunes suggest 

postdepositional erosion by floodwaters. 

PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION, MINERALOGY, 

AND GRAIN MICROMORPHOLOGY 

Most inland dunes on the southeastern Atlantic Coastal 

Plain are unstratified and structureless. Bedding, if apparent 

at all, is thin and near the base of the dune. Neither our 

observations nor previously published data suggest any 

recognizable trends in particle-size distribution, either vertically within a dune or with increasing distance from source 

area (Daniels and others, 1969; Hails and Hoyt, 1969; 
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS 19 

Thames, 1982). Table 1 gives particle-size distribution data 

for the upper meter of sand in late Pleistocene and (or) 

Holocene dunes along the Savannah River (Jasper County, 

S.C.; 32°33' N. lat, 81°15' W. long). 

Generally, the dune sand in Georgia is (1) medium to 

fine with a mean grain size of 1.68 phi (0.31 mm) (Hails 

and Hoyt, 1969; Thames, 1982), (2) moderately to moderately well sorted, and (3) symmetrical to fine skewed and 

mesokurtic to leptokurtic (Thames, 1982). Daniels and 

others (1969) showed that most dune sands along the Neuse 

River in North Carolina are in the 1-phi size range and that 

there is little vertical variation in sand size. Soller (1988) 

showed that all dunes in the lower Cape Fear River valley 

have a mean between 1. 2 and 1. 6 phi and are better sorted 

than the river sands. This size range for inland dune sand in 

the Southeastern United States agrees with the 1- to 2-phi 

size range (0.5--0.25 mm) for inland dunes as reported in 

Ahlbrandt (1979). 

Sand in Georgia's inland dunes is predominantly 

(commonly >98 to 99.8 percent) medium and fine, subangular to subrounded quartz. Thames (1982) showed that 

potassium feldspar ranged from 0 to 2.1 percent, but the 

average potassium feldspar content was less than 0.6 

percent. We found less than 1 percent potassium feldspar in 

all dune sand, even where superjacent to alluvium of 

regional drainages. No plagioclase feldspar has been identified. Medium and coarse quartz sand grains are commonly 

pitted and (or) frosted and conchoidally fractured. Thames 

(1982) considered the conchoidal fracturing, the distinctive 

"rolling" topography of the grain surfaces, and a high 

degree of occurrence of upturned plates over much of the 

surface area of the grains as evidence for an eolian origin of 

the sand. 

Heavy minerals everywhere constitute less than 1. 0 

percent of the dune sand. Our observations and those of 

Thames (1982) suggest that, at most localities, heavy 

~ Altamaha 

~ Satilla River 

Ohoopee, Little Ohoopee, Flint, 

Canoochee, and Savannah Rivers, 

Pendleton and Lotts Creeks 

40 

30 

20 

N 

I 

10 Observations 

I 

s 

Figure 11. Rose diagram showing paleowind directions for 

dunes in the Atlantic Coastal Plain of south Georgia as indicated 

by dune axes. Number of observations indicated by distance 

outward from center. 

minerals constitute less than 0.5 percent. No variation in 

heavy-mineral content with depth has been observed; however, neither has there been a detailed study of the effects of 

weathering. Preliminary background gamma radiation 

measurements (taken for potential dating by optically stimulated luminescence) suggest that heavy-mineral content 

may decrease with increasing distance from the sand source 

(H.T. Millard, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colo., 

oral commun., 1992). This decrease may indicate sorting 

with distance from source area or it may indicate more than 

one age of dunes. 

Opaque minerals compose about half of the heavymineral suite. Of these, we identified ilmenite, leucoxene, 

limonite, hematite, and magnetite. Non-opaque minerals 

Table 1. Particle-size distribution data (in weight percent) for dunes along the Savannah River, Jasper County, S.C. 

[Two sites; both at 32°33' N. lat, 81°15 ' W. long] 

Horizon Sand 

Horizon thickness Silt Clay Texture designation Very Very Total 

(inches) Coarse Medium Fine coarse fine sand 

Site 1 

All 0-3 0.27 20.33 64.02 14.08 1.29 95.25 1.37 3.38 Sand 

Al2 3-7 .22 23 .17 60.26 14.94 1.41 95.83 .71 3.45 Sand 

Cl 7-23 .21 20.47 66.17 11 .93 1.22 96.68 .25 3.07 Sand 

C2 23-80 .16 18.37 68.22 11.80 1.45 98.91 .22 .87 Sand 

C3 80-90 .20 32.69 60.54 5.09 1.48 99.22 .16 .62 Sand 

Site 2 

AP 0-10 0.32 29.14 59.86 10.15 0.53 95.67 3.89 0.44 Sand 

A2 10-88 .21 24.07 64.13 11.06 .52 96.07 3.57 .36 Sand 

c 88-106 0.0 21.26 64.14 14.19 .41 98.15 1.64 .21 Sand 
20 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

METERS 

A 

42 

36 

24 

12 

METERS 

24s 12 . Altamaha R1ver 

0 I I 

B 0 

METERS 

c 

1520 

I 

1520 

3040 

3040 

4560 

METERS 

I 

4560 

METERS 

EXPLANATION 

Dune Alluvium Miocene (?) sediments, 

undifferentiated 

Base of dune 

Figure 12. Cross sections showing relations of dunes to river valleys and of dune sand to substrata of, A, the west-facing valley 

side of the Ohoopee River (Cobbtown, Ga., 1:24,000 quadrangle); B, the "second bottom" or first terrace on the eastern side of the 

Altamaha River (Altamaha SE., Ga., 1:24,000 quadrangle); and C, the flood plain and west-facing valley side of the Satilla River 

(Blackshear, Ga., 1:24,000 quadrangle). Vertical exaggeration approximately lOX. 

include, but are not restricted to, sillimanite, tourmaline, 

epidote, hornblende, and staurolite. 

Although the percent fines in the inland dune sands of 

Georgia is always less than 10, generally less than 5, and 

commonly less than 2, the relative percent does vary with 

depth. The upper meter of dune sand commonly has 

between 2 and 5 percent silt and clay derived from very 

minor additions of eolian material and (or) by weathering. 

From about 1 m depth to the base of the sand dune, the 

percent silt and clay in the dunes is also variable but is 

always less than 2 percent; the variability is attributed to 

differences in source material composition. 

The <2-f.Lm fraction of dune sediments in Georgia is 

primarily quartz and kaolinite with minor vermiculite, illite, 

halloysite, microcline, and lepidicrosite or goethite (figs. 

15, 16). The kaolinite is the result of weathering of the 

small percentage of labile minerals in the dune sands and 

(or) represents addition of airborne material from the 

surrounding terrain. The <2-f.Lm quartz may represent an 

original size fraction and (or) a subsequent airborne addition. The <2-f.Lm fraction is primarily present as coatings 

on sand grains but does constitute a measurable size fraction 

in the upper meter of the dune sand and at irregular intervals 

throughout the deposit. Clay minerals are mixed, but 

kaolinite is dominant. The crystallinity of clay-sized minerals in the surface few meters is less than at depth in the 

older dunes-possibly the result of dissolution by low-pH, 

high-organic surface water moving downward through the 

litter layer into the sand. 

Data from Georgia suggest that younger dunes have a 

more complex mineral assemblage than do older dunes 

(figs. 15, 16). In the Cape Fear River valley of North 

Carolina, Soller (1988) noted a similar mineralogic difference between older and younger dunes. He showed that the 

clay fraction in the younger dunes was mixed but in the 

older dunes was kaolinitic. He suggested that there has been 

greater alteration of the fine fraction in the older dunes and 

that the source area of fines in the younger dunes was 

nearby upland surfaces on weathered Coastal Plain sediments. 

EROSION, OXIDATION, AND PEDOGENESIS 

EROSION 

Generally, inland dunes in the Georgia and the Carolinas have retained their initial U shape (figs. 8-10, 13, 14) 

and exhibit only minor evidence of erosion. Although field 

observations confirm that there is some channel flow across 

the surface of the dunes during extremely high precipitation 
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS 21 

I 

2 MILES 

I 

2 KILOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

Dune Sand 

-

·. 

Holocene and (or) 

Pleistocene 

Pleistocene 

I I I I I 

Hachures on sides 

of Miocene (?) 

fluvial and (or) 

Pliocene fluviaV 

marine deposits 

Figure 13. Location of 3- to 20-m-high dunes across the valley 

from the junction of east-west-trending valleys of Bull Creek and 

the Canoochee River and north-south-trending valleys of Lotts 

Creek and Mill Creek in Georgia. Younger piggyback dunes are 

stippled; larger, older dunes are shaded. Maximum altitude of 

dunes is 48 m; flood-plain altitude is between 10 and 13 m. 

events, gullying is not a major erosional process. Overland 

flow and gullying are minimized due to high permeability 

(>50 em/h) of the sands, but water moving as overland 

flow can be seen in the first hour or so of a major storm, 

particularly where there is abundant vegetation and surface 

litter. As a storm continues, water begins to move rapidly 

through the highly permeable sand. 

We made no attempt to study the reasons for the initial 

water repellency of dunes in the Southeastern United States. 

Studies have been conducted on the role of microflora in the 

water repellency of sandy soils in Australia (Bond, 1964; 

Bond and Harris, 1964; Roberts and Carbon, 1972) and on 

the role of humidity in inducing the repellency of sandy 

soils (Jex and others, 1985). Amundson and Tremback 

(1989) recently commented on overland flow on, and water 

repellency of, vegetated coastal dunes near San Francisco, 

Calif. They state that the origin of the repellency is 

unknown, "but appears to be a consequence of hydrophobic 

organics derived from the litter" (p. 1802). They suggest 

that the reader refer to Ma'Shum and others (1988) for a 

more complete discussion of hydrophobic substances in 

soils. 

OXIDATION 

Oxidation of dune sand is minimal. In younger dunes 

having pronounced hummocky topography, oxidation 

depths are between 2.5 and 3m. Older dunes are generally 

oxidized to depths between 5 and 6 m. Oxidation colors in 

the dune sand are pale and only locally differ significantly 

between older and younger dunes. The unweathered color 

of the dune sand is very pale brown with a hue of 10 YR or 

2. 5 Y, a value of 4 to 8, and chroma of 3 to 8. Dune sand 

along regional drainages such as the Savannah River can 

have a slightly redder color due to oxidation of the slightly 

higher percentage of labile minerals (still generally <2 

percent). 

PEDOGENESIS 

Most dune sands in Georgia and the Carolinas lack 

significant soil development. Argillic horizons are rare. 

Cambic horizons are common in dune sand along regional 

drainages such as the Savannah but not in dune sand along 

Coastal Plain streams. Where present, cambic horizons 

have a maximum of 5 percent clay. 

In a few localized areas, where dune thickness is less 

than 3 m, lamellae have developed in the dune sand. 

Lamellae composition is primarily iron oxide and minor 

clay content. Where present, lamellae are 5-25 mm thick 

and occur near the base of the dune. 

Most dune soils are mapped as Typic Quartzipsamments, extremely droughty, highly permeable (>50 em/h), 

and excessively drained, with very low available waterholding capacity. Depth to seasonal water table is everywhere greater than 2m, at most localities greater than 3m, 

and at many localities greater than 7 m. 

Buried A horizons are not common but do occur in 

both older and younger dunes. Limited field data suggest 

that they are more common in the older dunes. Where 

observed, the buried A horizons are thin and discontinuous 

and have a low content of disseminated organics. 

DUNE AGE 

In Georgia, there is a dearth of datable material from 

dunes, interdunes, and terrace alluvium. Geomorphic position, surface morphology, depth of oxidation, and degree of 

soil development suggest that, below 10 m altitude, all 

inland dunes in southeastern Georgia are younger than the 

marine Pamlico sequence (considered to be between 500 ka 
22 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

Figure 14. Aerial photograph of Carolina bays and dunes in the 

Cape Fear River valley near Elizabethtown, N.C. Singletary (A) 

and White (B) Lakes are perennial water-filled depressions. Other 

bays are swamps, or were swamps, and have been drained for 

agricultural use. Small fields of low U-shaped and parabolic dunes 

and 200 ka) and that many are younger than the Princess 

Anne (250 ka to 100 ka) and (or) Silver Bluff (120 ka to 40 

ka) sequences (see Markewich and others, 1992, for review 

of recent literature on Pliocene and Pleistocene marine 

deposits). Reconnaissance mapping suggests that duneforming episodes were associated with periods of low or 

rising sea level (H.W. Markewich, unpub. field data). 

A carbon-14 age of 14,690±250 yr B.P. (Laboratory 

No. W-5790, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va.) has 

been determined for wood taken from point-bar sediments 

associated with a low terrace or "second bottom" of the 

Altamaha River near its junction with Ten Mile Creek 

extend northeastward from the bays, cover much of the valley 

floor between the bays, and locally have migrated into adjacent 

bays. No bays or dunes are present on the most recent valley fill 

directly adjacent to the Cape Fear River or its tributaries. Arrow 

indicates flow direction. 

(31°51'50" N. lat, 82°07' W. long; Altamaha SE., Ga., 

1:24,000 quadrangle). Numerous morphologically distinct 

sand dunes are present on a matched terrace about 1 km 

downstream and across the river from this sample locality. 

The position of the dunes on this low terrace suggests that 

they are younger than 15 ka. 

A carbon-14 age of 3090 ± 100 yr B. P. (Laboratory 

No. W-6369, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va.) is 

available for wood from flood deposits on a low terrace of 

the Ogeechee River, just southwest of Savannah (32°00'31" 

N. lat, 81°18'08" W. long). These deposits are associated 

with a low terrace that is geomorphically younger and 
DISCUSSION 23 

14.2 

4.27 

10.0 7.2 

v K L HO 

3.56 

3.35 

~ II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

K OM Q 

Figure 15. X-ray diffraction pattern of <2-J.Lm fraction (primarily extremely thin coatings on quartz grains) from 1.2-m depth in 

small, 2-m-high dune on eastern side of Ohoopee River about 3 

km west-southwest of Reidsville, Ga. (Reidsville West, Ga., 

1:24,000 quadrangle). The dune is located about 7 m above the 

modem flood plain. H, halloysite; I, illite; K, kaolinite; L, 

lepidicrosite; M, microcline; Q, quartz; V, vermiculite. Diffraction measured in angstroms. 

topographically lower than the adjacent dunes; this association suggests that dune formation ceased prior to 3 ka. 

Soller (1988) suggested that at least two sets of dunes 

are present in the lower Cape Fear River valley of southeastern North Carolina and that the most recent duneforming interval was from about 8 ka to 6 ka. He also 

suggested that the older dunes were greater than 30 ka and 

were possibly the same age as the Carolina bays (200 ka to 

60 ka). Soller's work agrees with that of Daniels and others 

(1969), who identified at least two different deposits of 

eolian sands along the Neuse River in North Carolina and 

suggested that the older dunes were greater than 30 ka and 

that the younger dunes were less than 11 ka. 

DISCUSSION 

ARE INLAND DUNES IN THE SOUTHEASTERN 

UNITED STATES EOLIAN? 

Since originally described, most inland dunes in the 

Southeastern United States have been ascribed an eolian 

origin (Veatch and Stephenson, 1911; Hurst and others, 

1966; Daniels and others, 1969; Pickering and Jones, 1974; 

Carver and Brook, 1989). The structureless, unstratified 

nature of the sand is difficult to explain by eolian processes, 

v 

2.0 m 

2.7 m 

3.7 m 

Figure 16. X-ray diffraction patterns of <2-J.Lm fraction (primarily extremely thin coatings on quartz grains) from a large 

15-m-high dune on eastern side of the Little Ohoopee River 

(Covena, Ga., 1:24,000 quadrangle). Depth shown in meters. Fe, 

goethite; K, kaolinite; M, mica; Q, quartz, V, vermiculite. 

Diffraction measured in angstroms. 

but the crescent shape, the geographic distribution, grain 

size, and sorting suggest deposition by wind. The lack of 

internal structure and the low content of fines suggest that 

the dunes formed in vegetated terrain directly adjacent to 

sand source areas-flood plains, low terraces, and (or) 

Carolina bays-or that the dune sand is so well sorted that 

bedding cannot be distinguished. 

Several publications address dune formation in vegetated terrain, but only a few discuss dune formation in 

humid to wet climates. Hack (1941) suggested that the 

nearly symmetrical parabolic dunes in northern New Mexico resulted from the accumulation of great quantities of 

sand in areas where plants have been aggressive enough to 

survive being covered. He stressed the importance of "bare 

space" as source areas for dune sand in vegetated regions 

and suggested streambeds as a common source. He suggested that bare space was extended by inhibition of 

vegetative growth in downwind areas as sand was picked 

up, transported, and redeposited. 

Olson (1958b-d), from his work on the shore dunes of 

Lake Michigan, did not feel as strongly about the role of 

vegetation-free areas in dune formation. He suggested that 

vegetation can actually cause dunes to form and postulated 

that vegetation dissipates the energy of wind burdened with 

sand, which in tum forces the wind to drop part of its load. 

Daniels and others (1969) suggested that the lack of 

internal structure and the abrupt thinning at their eastern 

edge indicated that the dunes along the Neuse River in 

North Carolina were formed by sand blown into standing 

vegetation. They felt that Cooper's (1958, 1967) precipitation ridge explanation for the encroachment of Oregon's 
24 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

and California's coastal dunes into vegetated terrain could 

be applied to dunes along the Neuse. 

Many of the processes identified in these studies 

probably were involved in the formation of inland dunes in 

the Southeastern United States. The unstratified character of 

dune sand in this region is probably due in part to the 

interference of vegetation (tree canopies, trunks, and roots, 

as well as understory trees and shrubs) with airfall layering 

and grain transport. It is also probable that some layering or 

bedding has simply not been recognized due to the uniform 

grain size and monomineralogy of the sand, both of which 

inhibit recognition of internal layering or structure. Bioturbation also may have contributed to the destruction of any 

recognizable bedding. 

We hypothesize that the dunes formed as the result of 

wind erosion of great quantities of sand from exposed flood 

plains, terraces, and Carolina bays and the accumulation of 

that sand on adjacent vegetated terraces and (or) valley 

sides. The low content of <63-J..Lm material in the dune 

sand also suggests that the surrounding upland surfaces on 

weathered Coastal Plain fluvial and marine sediments were 

vegetated during periods of dune formation. 

The interrelations among valley shape (topography), 

sand availability, wind strength, and duration of duneforming conditions determined dune size and dune field size 

and distribution. 

HOW ARE INLAND DUNES IN THE 

SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES 

DISTRIBUTED? 

Although almost all inland dunes in the Southeastern 

United States occur in an area having average MAP less 

than 1 ,250 and MAP:MAE about 1.1: 1. 0, dunes vary 

greatly in size and shape depending on local topography, 

wind direction, and availability of sand. Only small and 

intermediate dunes (1-8m high, <1 km long) are present 

on the wide flood plains and low terraces of regional 

drainages such as the Altamaha and Savannah Rivers in 

Georgia, the Great Pee Dee River in South Carolina, and 

the Cape Fear and Black Rivers in North Carolina. These 

dunes commonly have hummocky surfaces and steep frontal 

toes. We hypothesize that the relatively small size is due to 

(1) a higher content of fines in the source sand, which 

would reduce its susceptibility to wind erosion; (2) the 

lesser effect of drought on streams having significantly 

greater discharge (less flood-plain and channel sand subaerially exposed); and (3) continual modification and (or) 

attenuation of the dunes by shifting stream channels and 

floodwaters (fig. 10), in the manner suggested by Mader 

(1983) in his study of Mesozoic paleodune sand in central 

Europe. Consistent shifting of fluvial channels and flooding 

of overbank areas inhibit development of large eolian sand 

accumulations in flood plains. 

Large dunes in the Southeastern United States are 

associated with rivers like the Ohoopee and Ogeechee in 

southeastern Georgia that have average discharge values an 

order of magnitude less than the regional drainages and 

relatively narrow, steep-walled valleys. These large whaleback dunes form sand ramps up the eastern wall of the 

stream valleys; locally the ramps extend onto or beyond the 

interfluves. Because of their valleyside positions, these 

dunes are not as affected by flooding as are dunes along the 

larger rivers. As sand is blown onto the valley wall, both 

dune height (between 10 and 25m) and length (up to 4 km) 

increase. The largest dunes occur where two or more 

southeast- and (or) east-trending stream segments join, such 

as at the confluence of Bull Creek, the Canoochee River, 

Lotts Creek, and Mills Creek just east of Claxton, Ga. (fig. 

13). In geomorphic positions such as this, the combined 

factors of a large sand source and a topographic alley for the 

wind form exceptionally large dunes. 

Small dune fields that extend from and (or) have 

migrated into Carolina bays are more like those formed on 

flood plains and terraces of the area's regional drainages 

than the ramp-forming dunes in the narrower Coastal Plain 

valleys. Dune height is generally less than 3m. Total width 

of an individual dune field is generally less than 2 km. 

Some fields have coalesced to cover valley floors and choke 

small drainages. Some larger fields extend from the edge of 

one bay into the bowl of another (see features described on 

fig. 14). These smaller dunes and broad, low dune fields are 

characteristic of river valleys in northeastern South Carolina 

and southeastern North Carolina, such as the Great Pee Dee 

and the Cape Fear-Black River valleys, respectively. We 

hypothesize that the low relief of the region, and the limited 

number of black-water Coastal Plain streams oriented perpendicular or parallel to prevailing wind, has resulted in few 

to no large ramplike dunes so characteristic of Georgia's 

Coastal Plain streams. 

WHAT ARE THE AGES OF INLAND DUNES IN 

THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES? 

Geomorphic and stratigraphic positions suggest that 

dunes in the southeastern Georgia Coastal Plain formed 

during the late Pleistocene glacial and (or) immediate 

postglacial period. Carbon-14 analyses indicate that the 

most recent dune-forming episode began some time after 15 

ka and ended some time before 3 ka. 

Thorn (1967, 1970), Thames (1982), Soller (1988), 

and Carver and Brook ( 1989) have written on the spatial and 

the temporal relations between dunes and Carolina bays in 

the Southeastern United States. Thames (1982) did not 

comment on the absolute age of dunes or bays but considered Carolina bays in southeastern Georgia to be younger 

than the area's dunes. Thorn (1967, 1970), from his work in 

northeastern South Carolina, thought that the relations 
DISCUSSION 25 

NATIONAL ATlAS 

U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Figure 17. Areas of dune formation in the United 

States and calculated wind direction during the latest 

Pleistocene and early Holocene (between about 15 ka and 

3 ka). Data from Hack, 1941; Olson 1958a; Schafer and 

Hartshorn, 1965; Daniels and others, 1969; Thorn, 1970; 

Ahlbrandt, 1973; Saucier, 1978; Denny and Owens, 

between dunes and bays indicated formation of dunes and 

bays by west-southwest and southwest winds, that locally 

dunes had modified some of the bays, and conversely that 

some bays had formed on dunal topography. He considered 

both dunes and bays to be less than 30 ka. Carver and Brook 

(1989) discussed paleowind directions in the Atlantic 

Coastal Plain during the late Pleistocene and reviewed the 

literature on the origin(s) and age(s) of Carolina bays. They 

accepted the interpretation of Thorn ( 1967, 1970) that 

Carolina bays and dunes were coeval and formed by 

southwest winds around 30 ka. 

While studying the Pleistocene fluvial and marine 

stratigraphy of the Cape Fear River valley, Markewich and 

Soller (1983) and Soller (1988) suggested that Carolina 

bays formed between 60 ka and 200 ka, thus supporting 

Frey's (1951) estimate of 100 ka for Singletary Lake, a 

large bay in the Cape Fear River valley. Soller ( 1988) 

considered it probable that some of the older dunes were 

formed contemporaneously with Carolina bays, that the 

younger dunes greatly postdated the bays, and that some 

dunes were as young as 5 ka. 

1979; Ahlbrandt and Fryberger, 1980; Gile, 1981, 1988; 

McFadden and others, 1983; Schultz, 1983; Wells and 

others, 1983, 1990; Gaylord, 1984; Keen and Shane, 

1985; Price and others, 1988; Soller, 1988; Carver and 

Brook,1989; Stone and others, 1991; and this study. 

Data from Georgia and the Carolinas suggest that all 

dunes are younger than 500 ka and that the most recent 

dune-forming episodes occurred in the 12,000-year interval 

between 15 ka and 3 ka. 

HOW DO THE AGES COMPARE WITH THE 

AGES OF INLAND DUNES IN OTHER PARTS OF 

THE UNITED STATES? 

Evidence suggests that, during the late Pleistocene and 

early Holocene, dunes formed in many different regions of 

the United States. Areas of the United States having dunes 

younger than 15 ka are shown in figure 17. A short 

summary of data from a few of these areas is given in the 

following paragraphs. 

ARIZONA AND NORTHWESTERN NEW MEXICO 

Hack ( 1941) suggested that the youngest dunes in the 

western Navajo Country of Arizona were middle Holocene 
26 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

in age and formed by west winds. He recognized that older, 

Pleistocene age dunes also were present and that, in many 

places, they were overlain by younger dunes or mass 

gravity deposits. Recently Schultz (1983), McFadden and 

others (1983), and Wells and others (1983, 1990), on ·the 

basis of previous work and their own investigations, suggested a late Pleistocene age for the major dune-building 

event in the San Juan basin of New Mexico and showed that 

the younger dunes in northwestern New Mexico date from 

about 13 ka and are as young as 1.5 ka. 

COLORADO 

Price and others (1988) analyzed samples from pedons 

along two southwest-northeast transects in eolian deposits 

of southwestern Colorado. On the basis of argillic horizon 

development and a carbon-14 age determination of a musk 

ox vertebrae in the upper eolian deposit, they suggested a 

late Pleistocene age (about 15 ka) for these deposits. They 

implied that most eolian deposition in southwestern Colorado had ended prior to the beginning of the Holocene. 

TEXAS AND NEW MEXICO 

Gile (1981, 1988) reported on dunes ranging in age 

from less than 0. 1 ka to middle Pleistocene in western 

Texas and eastern New Mexico (Bailey County Sandhills on 

the southern High Plains). The dunes were formed by west 

and southwest winds. He concluded that alluvium deposited 

by an ancestral Pecos River was the source of the eolian 

sediments. He interpreted the sandy C horizons, which 

separate sets of pedogenetic horizons, as evidence of 

multiple episodes of sedimentation and soil burial. He 

correlated his oldest dune sands with the Peoria loess and an 

age between 25 ka and 15 ka; the next oldest with the 

Monahans Interval, from 13 ka to 11 ka (Haynes, 1975; 

Oldfield and Schoenwetter, 1975}; and the youngest with 

the arid time between 11.5 ka and 7 ka (Haynes, 1968, 

1975). 

WYOMING 

The Ferris-Lost Soldier dune field of south-central 

Wyoming lies in what Gaylord (1984, p. 1) described as a 

"topographically-regulated 'corridor' of high wind." He 

concluded that (1) eolian activity in the area began between 

13.36 ka and 10.94 ka; (2) the most active periods of 

Holocene dune building were between 7. 66 ka and 5. 94 ka, 

and for about 1 ,500 years sometime after 5. 94 ka; (3) dunes 

began to stabilize after 4.54 ka due to rising local water 

tables and revegetation; and ( 4) a short period of dune 

reactivation occurred about 0.3 ka. 

Ahlbrandt (1973) suggested that dune-forming intervals in the Killpecker dune field in south-central Wyoming 

were between 11.25 ka and 10.65 ka, and 7 ka and 3 ka, 

and that the dune fields not only continued to be active into 

the latest Holocene but also have never completely stabilized. 

KANSAS AND NEBRASKA 

The dunes of northwestern Nebraska have always been 

controversial in the number of events represented, in 

postulated source areas, and in time(s) of formation. After 

considering the work of Ahlbrandt and Fryberger (1980), 

Ahlbrandt and others (1983), and previous investigators, as 

well as conducting their own palynological investigations, 

Wright and others (1985) concluded (1) that the massive 

dunes of the Nebraska Sandhills are predominantly preHolocene, 12 ka to 9 ka, in age and (2) that the younger, 

smaller dune fields located along the Dismal and Middle 

Loupe Rivers are probably Holocene in age, 5 ka to 3 ka 

and 8.5 ka to 7 ka, respectively. Ongoing studies suggest 

that the Nebraska dune fields as well as others in the High 

Plains formed in the Holocene and that the youngest dunes 

may be as young as 1.5 ka to 0.3 ka (D.R. Muhs, U.S. 

Geological Survey, Denver, Colo., oral commun., 1992). 

MIDDLE CONTINENT 

Keen and Shane ( 1985) reported middle Holocene sand 

dunes in east-central Michigan. Fields of Pleistocene to 

Holocene dunes along the Indiana shore of Lake Michigan 

were studied by Olson (1958a-d). Late Pleistocene and (or) 

Holocene dunes also are present in the White River valley 

and the Kankakee Plain of western Indiana (see Miles and 

Franzmeier, 1981). Cooper (1938) suggested that dunes of 

the upper Mississippi Valley were possible late Pleistocene 

climatic indicators. Saucier (1978) suggested that sand 

dunes in the Western Lowlands of eastern Arkansas were 

paleoclimatic indicators that were probably deposited 

between 22 ka and 18 ka, at least in part during Peoria time, 

30 ka to 12 ka. Recent work suggests that sand dunes in the 

Western Lowlands of the Mississippi River valley may be 

post-Peoria, nearer 9 ka. 

MIDDLE ATLANTIC AND NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES 

Dunes on the Delmarva Peninsula have been included 

in the Pleistocene Parsonsburg Sand by Denny and Owens 

(1979) and Denny and others (1979). The dunes are similar 

in morphology, particle-size distribution, internal structure, 

and origin to dunes in Georgia and the Carolinas. Denny 

and others (1979) and Denny and Owens (1979) thought 

that dunal morphology suggested at least two periods of 

dune development by northwest winds. Peat beds at or near 

the base of the upland dunes range in age from about 30 ka 

to 13 ka. Younger dunes, on the southeastern and eastern 
DISCUSSION 27 

sides of some of the larger rivers, were not dated but were 

considered Holocene (Denny and Owens, 1979). Microfloral assemblages from peat beds in the older dunes suggest 

that dune-forming events were synchronous with glacial 

maxima. 

Schafer and Hartshorn ( 1965) called the dunes in 

glacial Lake Hitchcock the most extensive in New England. 

The dunes lie on the eastern side of the Connecticut River 

on lake bottom, delta, and terrace sediments. The position 

of the dunes adjacent to and on lake sediments suggests that 

the dunes formed during the most recent early postglacial 

interval. Stone and others (1991) reported a 14.33±0.43 ka 

age for wood in eolian sand associated with a paleoperiglacial feature in Lake Hitchcock sediments. This date also 

suggests an early postglacial time for eolian activity in New 

England. 

DO INLAND DUNES IN THE SOUTHEASTERN 

UNITED STATES FIT GLOBAL MODELS AND 

PALEOCLIMATIC DATA? 

GLOBAL CLIMATE MODELS 

Street and Grove ( 1979) provided a bibliography 

(through 1978) of the available literature on late Pleistocene 

and Holocene paleoclimates. In their summary article, they 

noted that ( 1) from 21 ka through the remainder of the 

Pleistocene, aridity intensified in the tropics of Africa, 

South America, and the Caribbean and that lake levels were 

low in Florida and the Yucatan; (2) a decrease in sea-surface 

temperatures resulted in suppression of monsoons and 

diminished global moisture transport; and (3) during the 

glacial period, both the tradewinds and the middle latitude 

westerlies strengthened and the westerlies were probably 

displaced equatorward. 

Kutzbach and Wright (1985) suggested that, at about 

18 ka, during full glaciation, the jet stream was split around 

the North American ice sheet and that the southern branch 

of the stream was much stronger than at present over the 

southern part of the United States. Berger and others (1985) 

supported the idea that the last deglaciation occurred in 

pulses and suggested that ( 1) the initiation of deglaciation 

occurred some time after 14 ka, (2) there was a pause in 

deglaciation from about 11 ka to 10 ka, and (3) after this 

pause, deglaciation continued into the Holocene. Kutzbach 

and Street-Perrott (1985) suggested a global pattern of 

aridity in the Northern Hemisphere during the early Holocene. They concluded that the Northern Hemisphere had an 

enhanced seasonal or monsoonal climate during the early 

Holocene and that the monsoonal climate was at its extreme 

at 9 ka and 6 ka, during the postglacial maxima. All these 

data are in agreement with the postulated time of the most 

recent dune-forming episodes in the Southeastern United 

States-beginning sometime after 15 ka and ending 

between 5 ka and 3 ka. 

PALEOCLIMATE DATA 

The occurrence of latest Pleistocene to middle Holocene dunes in the Western, Central, Northeastern, and 

Southeastern United States suggests that, during the transition from glacial to interglacial periods, the climate of the 

United States included periods of drought characterized by 

persistent and (or) recurrent strong unidirectional winds. In 

the Southeastern United States, the effects of drought 

conditions included a lowering of the regional water table 

and subsequent reduction in flow or the drying up of marty 

streams and rivers. Paleoclimate data corroborate the occurrence of drier climates in the Southeastern United States 

during the latest Pleistocene and the early Holocene and 

suggest that these climate conditions were established 

during the most recent full-glacial inte~al. Evidence for 

periods of aridity in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene 

in the Southeastern United States is seen in the pollen, 

faunal, and archeological records. 

POLLEN DATA 

Whitehead (1965, 1973), Watts (1975, 1983), and 

Delcourt and Del court ( 1985) reviewed the pollen record for 

the Southeastern United States for the past 20,000 years. 

Pollen data from Georgia and adjacent parts of Alabama 

indicate at least two periods of relatively xeric conditionsfrom some undetermined time to about 30 ka and between 

14 ka and 5 ka. The latter period corresponds to the time 

given for abrupt surface temperature warming in the Caribbean and increasing aridity in the Northern Hemisphere 

(Kutzbach and Street-Perrott, 1985). 

Published literature on pollen stratigraphy in Georgia 

and the Carolinas contains few data on Pleistocene climates 

before 30 ka and only some from around 30 ka. Watts 

(1973) established the G-4 Pinus-Quercus-Herb zone in 

29,630± 1,400 yr B.P. bog sediments in Bartow County, 

northwest Georgia, and suggested that this zone indicates a 

prairielike herb-rich grassland, locally treeless, with some 

pine and oak. Markewich and Christopher (1982) reported 

on the relative frequencies of spores and pollen from late 

Pleistocene carbonaceous clays (27,740±520 yr B.P.) 

incorporated in the valley fill of Uphapee Creek, a tributary 

of the Tallapoosa River in east-central Alabama. They 

suggested that the relatively high content (27 percent) of 

herbaceous composites in an oak-pine and minor hickory 

pollen assemblage indicated a floral assemblage having 

many more herbaceous plants than was common in the 

middle or late Holocene. 
28 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

Palynological data from Goshen Springs in southeastem Alabama also suggest a climate drier than that of the late 

Pleistocene. Delcourt (1980) showed that forest canopy 

dominance shifted from southern pines to oaks at about 26 

ka and that, from 26 ka to about 8.5 ka, Goshen pond was 

seasonal and had large annual water-table fluctuations. 

Delcourt (1980, p. 382) commented on late Pleistocene 

climate change in this part of the Southeastern United 

States, "During the Altonian and early Farmdalian Substages of the Wisconsinan, a climatic trend toward 

increased droughtiness or pronounced seasonality of precipitation is consistent with the paleohydrologic evidence 

provided by the aquatic pollen types and the plant macrofossils." 

At about 8. 5 ka, the palynologic and plant macrofossil 

records indicate a reestablishment of a permanent pond at 

Goshen Springs, which Delcourt interpreted as indicating a 

decreasing trend in the severity of summer drought. His 

data indicate that, at Goshen Springs, southern pines were 

fully reestablished by 4. 7 ka. 

Pollen data suggest that, from 8.5 ka to 5 ka, the 

climate of the extreme south-central Georgia and northcentral Florida Coastal Plain was drier than at present and 

was characterized by dry oak forests and intervening 

savanna or prairie (Watts, 1969, 1971). The increasing 

wetness of eastern Alabama during this time period suggests 

that there was a more rapid transition from drier to wetter 

conditions in eastern Alabama than in southern Georgia. 

The present pattern of precipitation (fig. 4), with eastcentral Alabama wetter than south- and east-central Georgia, probably was established or reestablished during this 

time period. 

FAUNAL DATA 

Paleofaunal evidence for latest Pleistocene and Holocene climates that were drier than present is not as direct as 

the paleofloral data. Late Pleistocene faunal assemblages 

suggest that species living on the Georgia Coastal Plain 

during the Wisconsinan glacial maximum immigrated into 

the Valley and Ridge province of northwest Georgia during 

the postglacial maximum warming trend (Holman, 

1985a,b) in the latest Pleistocene and (or) early Holocene. 

We suggest that this immigration may have been driven by 

the lack of water, as well as by increasing temperatures. 

Tenuous but corroborating evidence for dry periods in 

the latest Pleistocene and early Holocene may be the 

presence of Gopherus polyphemus in the Coastal Plain 

sandhill regions of Georgia and the Carolinas. This tortoise, 

more common to Texas, probably migrated eastward during 

the late Pleistocene and (or) early Holocene when climatic 

conditions were favorable and now exists as an isolated 

remnant faunal population. 

ARCHEOLOGICAL DATA 

Although relatively few archeological data are available from dunes in the Southeastern United States, available 

data from terrace deposits indicate significant climate 

change, from drier to wetter conditions, during the middle 

Holocene in Georgia. Brooks and others ( 1986) suggested 

that the shifts in fluvial depositional regimes in the lower 

Savannah River valley, and in the Indian subsistencesettlement patterning in the same region, followed a change 

from drier to wetter conditions sometime between 5 ka and 

3 ka. A similar change in river pattern, from braided to 

meandering, also has been suggested for older (middle 

Wisconsinan) terraces along the Little Pee Dee River 

(Thorn, 1967, 1970), thus implying that many such changes 

in climate occurred during the late Pleistocene in the 

Southeastern United States. 

SUMMARY 

The central and eastern parts of the Coastal Plain of 

Georgia, South Carolina, and southeastern North Carolina 

are characterized by extensive fields of unstratified quartz 

sand dunes adjacent on the east and northeast to streams, 

rivers, and Carolina bays. The dunes appear to have 

accumulated by sand blown from flood plains into adjacent 

vegetated terrain. There is little to no evidence of dune 

migration. Filled-in, U-shaped (crescent) dunes predominate. Locally, 2- to 4-km-wide sand sheets lie leeward of 

large dunes. The dunes occur in that part of the region 

having the lowest MAP ( < 1 ,250 mm) and lowest MAP: 

MAE (about 1.1: 1.0). The largest and highest dunes and the 

longest dune fields are associated with narrow Coastal Plain 

river valleys. Smaller, lower dunes, many of which form 

areally extensive dune fields, are associated with the broad 

valleys of major regional drainages and with shallow 

depressions known as Carolina bays. 

Dune formation occurred when the region's paleoclimate was characterized by (1) low local and regional water 

tables, which resulted in low stream discharge values for 

regional drainages and extremely low- to no-discharge 

low-order tributaries; (2) low MAP and MAP-to-MAE 

ratios (probable MAP, <700 mm, and MAP: MAE, 

0.5:1.0) and a more monsoonal climate; and (3) strong, 

persistent or recurring west and southwest winds. Under the 

present climate of the Southeastern United States, inland 

dunes are neither reactivating nor forming. Therefore, the 

present climate serves as a datum for conditions not 

favorable to dune formation. 

The inland dunes formed where several climatic, 

topographic, and geochemical conditions were met. If any 

one of the conditions was not met, then dunes did not form. 

Conditions included the following: 

( 1) A specific range in orientation of stream segments and 

(or) Carolina bays: (a) primarily stream segments or 
REFERENCES CITED 29 

Carolina bays oriented about S. 20° E. in Georgia and 

about S. 40° E. in southeastern North Carolina and (b) 

some short stream segments oriented east-west, northsouth, and southwest-northeast. 

(2) An adequate sand source, either sandy channel and 

flood-plain deposits, Carolina bay rims, or the bays 

themselves. The largest dunes formed along low-pH, 

organic-rich, black-water drainages that have average 

discharge values of less than 28 m3 /s and relatively 

narrow stream valleys, such as the Ohoopee and 

Canoochee River valleys in Georgia. 

(3) Strong, recurrent or persistent winds-from the west 

in the central Georgia Coastal Plain, from the west and 

southwest in the southeastern Georgia Coastal Plain, 

and from the southwest in the Coastal Plain of the 

Carolinas. 

(4) MAP of less than 1,250 mm (probably <700 mm, or 

> 700 mm but a strongly monsoonal climate). 

(5) MAE of about 1,100 mm. 

In Coastal Plain stream valleys, dunes are most common across from or just downstream from a confluence of 

two or more streams. Along regional drainages, the first 

appearance of dunes is just across from or downstream from 

the confluence of a regional drainage with a major Coastal 

Plain tributary, such as the first occurrence of dunes along 

the Altamaha River immediately downstream from its 

confluence with the Ohoopee River. 

Geomorphic relations and weathering and pedologic 

data indicate that there are at least two sets of dunes in the 

study area, each of which represents at least two duneforming episodes. In Georgia, the two sets can best be seen 

along the Satilla and the Canoochee Rivers. Two sets of 

dunes also are present along the Great Pee Dee River in 

South Carolina and along the Cape Fear and Neuse Rivers 

in North Carolina. 

Field evidence from recent work in southeastern Georgia indicates that ( 1) the oldest deposits of quartz sand 

having recognizable dunal morphology are younger than the 

Pamlico sequence of marine sediments (younger than 500 

ka and possibly younger than 250 ka); (2) numerous 

deposits are less than 50 ka; (3) dunes on the flood plains 

and low terraces are between 15 ka and 5 ka; and ( 4) the 

younger the dune, the greater the relief on the dune surface. 

Geomorphic, floral, faunal, and archeological evidence suggests that, by some time between 5 ka and 3 ka, 

the climate of the Southeastern United States had become 

less monsoonal and (or) MAP had increased and that dune 

formation had ceased. 

Although paleowind directions, as determined from 

dune axes, compare favorably with modem wind directions, 

sand rose plots generated from historical wind data suggest 

that modem winds are incapable of significant dune formation. To verify this conclusion, more data are needed from 

stream valleys where dunes are located. 

The coincidence in time of formation (between 15 ka 

and 5 ka) of latest Pleistocene and early Holocene dunes in 

parts of the Southeastern, Western, Central, and Northeastem United States suggests that drought and high winds were 

common throughout the country during this 10,000- to 

12,000-year interval. 

CONCLUSIONS 

As Saucier stated in his paper on the sand dunes of the 

Western Lowlands of the Mississippi River alluvial valley 

(1978, p. 23): 

The real significance of the eolian features is thought to be their witness to 

the types of climatic/ecologic changes that occurred in the region and 

which have gone largely unrecognized by physical and social scientists. 

More attention must be given to evaluating the significance of even 

seemingly minor ecological changes on both man and the shaping of this 

physical environment. 

The legacy of dune-forming episodes in the Southeastem United States is tens of thousands of square kilometers 

of land (in an area 100 km wide and 400 km long) mantled 

by excessively drained, droughty, low-nutrient sand. These 

areas have marginal agronomic economies and are more 

susceptible to climatic deterioration than is the region as a 

whole. The presence of the dunes in such a large part or 

subregion of the Southeastern United States suggests that 

the degree of climate change associated with glaciation and 

(or) with glacial-interglacial transitions in the continental 

United States may have been greater than previously recognized. Even in the Southeastern United States, climatic 

conditions were probably not acceptable for sustainable 

agriculture. An evaluation of the effects that such a climate 

would have on the area today seems like a logical avenue 

for future investigation. 

REFERENCES CITED 

Ahlbrandt, T.S., 1973, Sand dunes, geomorphology and geology, 

Killpecker Creek area, northern Sweetwater County, Wyoming: University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo., Ph. D. 

dissertation, 174 p. 

---1979, Textural parameters of eolian deposits, in McKee, 

E.D., ed., A study of global sand seas: U.S. Geological 

Survey Professional Paper 1052, p. 21-51. 

Ahlbrandt, T. S., and Fryberger, S. G., 1980, Eolian deposits in 

the Nebraska Sand Hills, chap. A of Geologic and paleoecologic studies of the Nebraska Sand Hills: U.S. Geological 

Survey Professional Paper 1120, p. 1-24. 

Ahlbrandt, T.S., Swinehart, J.B., and Maroney, D.G., 1983, The 

dynamic Holocene dune fields of the Great Plains and Rocky 

Mountain basins, U.S.A., in Brookfield, M.E., and Ahlbrandt, T.S., eds., Eolian sediments and processes, v. 38 of 

Developments in sedimentology: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 

379-406. 
30 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

Amundson, R.G., and Tremback, B., 1989, Soil development of 

stabilized dunes in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco: Soil 

Science Society of America Journal, v. 53, p. 1798-1806. 

Aydelott, D.G., Paulk, H.L., and Bacon, D.D., 1965, Soil survey 

of Wayne County, Georgia: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Soil Conservation Service, 74 p. 

Barnhill, W.L., 1977, Soil survey of Lenoir County, North 

Carolina: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation 

Service, 67 p. 

Beck, K.C., Reuter, J.H., and Perdue, E.M., 1974, Organic and 

inorganic geochemistry of some coastal plain rivers of the 

Southeastern United States: Geochimica et Cosmochimica 

Acta, v. 38, p. 341-364. 

Bennet, C.S., Hayes, R.D., Gissendanner, J.W., and Herlong, 

H.E., 1984, Water resources data, South Carolina water year 

1983: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Data Report SC-83-1, 

342 p. 

Berger, W.H., Killingley, J.S., and Vincent, E., 1985, Timing of 

deglaciation from an oxygen isotope curve for Atlantic 

deep-sea sediments: Nature, v. 314, p. 156-158. 

Bond, R.D., 1964, Field studies on water repellent sands, pt. 2 of 

The influence of the microflora on the physical properties of 

soils: Australian Journal of Soil Research, v. 2, p. 123-131. 

Bond, R.D., and Harris, J.R., 1964, Effects associated with 

filamentous algae and fungi, pt. 1 of The influence of the 

microflora on physical properties of soils: Australian Journal 

of Soil Research, v. 2, p. 111-122. 

Brooks, M.J., Stone, P.A., Colquhoun, D.J., Brown, J.G., and 

Steele, K.B., 1986, Geoarchaeological research in the coastal 

plain portion of the Savannah River valley: Geoarchaeology, 

v. 1, no. 3, p. 293-307. 

Budel, Julius, 1977, Klima-Geomorphologie [Climatic geomorphology]: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 443 p. 

[Translation by Lenore Fischer and Detlef Busche, 1982.] 

Carter, R.F., and Stiles, H.R., 1983, Average annual rainfall and 

runoff in Georgia, 1941-70: Georgia Geologic Survey, 

Department of Natural Resources, Hydrologic Atlas 9, 1 pl. 

Carver, R.E., and Brook, G.A., 1989, Late Pleistocene paleowind 

directions, Atlantic Coastal Plain, U.S.A.: Palaeogeography, 

Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 74, p. 205-216. 

Cherry, R.N., 1961, Chemical quality of water of Georgia 

streams, 1957-1958: Georgia State Division of Conservation, 

Department of Mines, Mining and Geology, Georgia Geological Survey Bulletin 69, 100 p. 

Cooper, W.S., 1938, Ancient dunes of the upper Mississippi 

Valley as possible climatic indicators: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, v. 19, p. 193-204. 

---1958, Coastal sand dunes of Oregon and Washington: 

Geological Society of America Memoir 72, 169 p. 

---1967, Coastal dunes of California: Geological Society of 

America Memoir 104, 131 p. 

Daniels, R.B., Gamble, E.E., and Boul, S.W., 1969, Eolian 

sands associated with coastal plain river valleys-Some 

problems in their age and source: Southeastern Geology, v. 

11, p. 97-110. 

Daniels, R.B., Gamble, E.E., Wheeler, W.H., Gilliam, J.W., 

Wiser, E.H., and Welby, C.W., 1978, Water movement in 

surficial coastal plain sediments, inferred from sediment 

morphology: North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station 

Technical Bulletin 243, 31 p. 

Delcourt, P.A., 1980, Goshen Springs-Late Quaternary vegetation record for southern Alabama: Ecology, v. 6, no. 2, p. 

371-386. 

Delcourt, H.R., and Delcourt, P.A., 1985, Quaternary palynology 

and vegetational history of the Southeastern United States, in 

Bryant, V.M., Jr., and Holloway, R.G., eds., Pollen records 

of late Quaternary North American sediments: American 

Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, p. 

1-37. 

Denny, C.S., and Owens, J.P., 1979, Sand dunes on the central 

Delmarva Peninsula, Maryland and Delaware: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1067--C, 15 p. 

Denny, C.S., Owens, J.P., Sirkin, L.A., and Rubin, Meyer, 

1979, The Parsonsburg Sand in the central Delmarva Peninsula, Maryland and Delaware: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1067-B, 16 p. 

Dudley, T.A., 1978, Soil survey of Dillon County, South Carolina: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation 

Service, 108 p. 

Frey, D. G., 1951, Pollen succession in the sediments of Singletary Lake, North Carolina: Ecology, v. 32, p. 518-533. 

Fryberger, S.G., and Dean, Gary, 1979, Dune forms and wind 

regime, in McKee, E.D., ed., A study of global sand seas: 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1052, p. 

137-169. 

Gaylord, D.R., 1984, Recent eolian activity and paleoclimate 

fluctuations in the Ferris Lost Soldier area, south-central 

Wyoming: University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo., Ph. D. 

dissertation, 266 p. 

Gile, L. H. , 1981 , Soils and stratigraphy of dunes along a segment 

of farm road 1731, Bailey County, Texas: Lubbock , Tex., 

Texas Tech University, International Center for Arid and 

Semi-Arid Land Studies and Department of Plant and Soil 

Science, 78 p. 

---1988, The Sandhills project soil monograph-A study of 

soils and landscapes on the Southern High Plains: Las 

Cruces, N.Mex., New Mexico State University Library, Rio 

Grande Historical Collections 88003-0006, 331 p. 

Gunter, H.C., Hill, C.L., and Dillard, T.E., 1983, Water 

resources data, North Carolina water year 1983: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Data Report NC-83-1, 533 p. 

Hack, J.T., 1941, Dunes of the western Navajo country: Geographical Review, v. 31, p. 240-263. 

Hails, J.R., and Hoyt, J.H., 1969, The significance and limitations of statistical parameters for distinguishing ancient and 

modern sedimentary environments of the lower Georgia 

Coastal Plain: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 39, p. 

559-580. 

Hardy, R., Wright, P., Kington, J., and Gribbin, J., 1982, The 

weather book: Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 224 p. 

Harper, R.M., 1906, A phytogeographical sketch of the Altamaha 

Grit region of the Coastal Plain of Georgia: Annals of New 

York Academy of Sciences 17, no. 1, p. 1-415. 

Hawkins, B., 1799 [reprinted 1938], A sketch of the Creek 

country in the years 1798-1799: Americus, Ga., American 

Book Co., Georgia Historical Society, pagination unknown. 

Haynes, C.V., Jr., 1968, Geochronology of late Quaternary 

alluvium, in Morrison, R.B., and Wright, H.E., Jr., eds., 

Means of correlation of Quaternary successions: Salt Lake 

City, University of Utah Press, p. 591-631. 
REFERENCES CITED 31 

---1975, Pleistocene and Recent stratigraphy, in Wendorf, F., 

and Hester, J. J. , eds .. , Late Pleistocene environments of the 

Southern High Plains: Fort Burgwin Research Center Publication 9, p. 57-96. 

Hodler, T.W., and Schretter, H.A., eds., 1986, The atlas of 

Georgia: Athens, Ga., University of Georgia, Institute of 

Community and Area Development, 273 p. 

Holman, J.A., 1985a, Herpetofauna of Ladds Quarry: National 

Geographic Research, v. 1, no. 3, p. 423-436. 

---1985b, New evidence of the status of Ladds Quarry: 

National Geographic Research, v. 1, no. 4, p. 569-570. 

Hurst, V.J., Crawford, T.J., and Sandy, John, 1966, Mineral 

resources of the central Savannah River area: U.S. Department of Commerce, Technical Assistance Program, v. 1, 467 

p., and v. 2, 231 p. 

Inman, E.J., 1971, Flow characteristics of Georgia streams: U.S. 

Geological Survey open-file report, 262 p. 

Jex, G.W., Bleakley, B.H., Hubbell, D.H., and Munro, L.L., 

1985, High humidity-induced increase in water repellency in 

some sandy soils: Soil Science Society of America Journal, v. 

49, p. 1177-1182. 

Justus, Lucy, 1976, Mystery of the misplaced dunes: Atlanta, Ga., 

February 22, 1976, The Atlanta Journal and Constitution 

Magazine, p. 19-20, p. 22-23. 

Keen, K.L., and Shane, L.C.K., 1990, A continous record of 

Holocene eolian activity and vegetation change at Lake Ann, 

east-central Minnesota: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 102, p. 1646-1657. 

Kohler, M.A., Nordenson, T.J., and Baker, D.R., 1959, Evaporation maps for the United States: U.S. Weather Bureau 

Technical Paper 37, 13 p., 5 pls. 

Kutzbach, J.E., and Street-Perrott, F.A., 1985, Milankovitch 

forcing of fluctuations in the level of tropical lakes from 18 to 

0 kyr BP: Nature, v. 317, p. 130-134. 

Kutzbach, J.E., and Wright, H.E., Jr., 1985, Simulation of the 

climate of 18,000 years BP-Results for the North American/North Atlantic/European sector and comparison with the 

geologic record of North America: Quaternary Science 

Reviews, v. 4, p. 147-187. 

Mader, Detlef, 1983, Aeolian sands terminating an evolution of 

fluvial depositional environment in Middle Buntsandstein 

(Lower Triassic) of the Eifel, Federal Republic Germany, in 

Brookfield, M.E., and Ahlbrandt, T.S., eds., Eeolian sediments and processes, v. 38 of Developments in sedimentology: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 583-612. 

Markewich, H.W., and Christopher, R.A., 1982, Pleistocene(?) 

and Holocene fluvial history of Uphapee Creek, Macon 

County, Alabama: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1522, 

16 p. 

Markewich, H.W., Hacke, C.M., and Huddlestun, P.F., 1992, 

Emergent Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments of southeastern 

Georgia-An anomalous, fossil-poor, clastic section, in 

Fletcher, C.H., III, and Wehmiller, J.F., eds., Quaternary 

coasts of the United States: SEPM Special Publication 48, p. 

173-189. 

Markewich, H.W., and Soller, D.R., 1983, The Cape Fear 

River-A late Quaternary drainage [abs.]: Geological Society 

of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 15, no. 2, p. 56. 

Ma'Shum, M., Tate, M.E., Jones, G.P., and Oades, J.M., 1988, 

Extraction and characterization of water-repellent materials 

from Australian soils: Journal of Soil Science, v. 39, no. 1, 

p. 99-110. 

McFadden, L.D., Wells, S.G., and Schultz, J.G., 1983, Soil 

development on Late Quaternary eolian deposits in San Juan 

Basin, northwest New Mexico, in Wells, S.G., Love, D.W., 

and Gardner, T.W., eds., Chaco Canyon country, a field 

guide to the geomorphology, Quaternary geology, paleoecology, and environmental geology of northwestern New Mexico: Albuquerque, N. Mex., University of New Mexico, 

Department of Geology, American Geomorphological Field 

Group, p. 167-175. 

Miles, R.J., and Franzmeier, D.P., 1981, A lithochronosequence 

of soils formed in dune sand: Soil Science Society of America 

Journal, v. 45, p. 362-367. 

Oldfield, F., and Schoenwetter, J., 1975, Discussion of the pollen 

analytical evidence, in Wendorf, F., and Hester, J.J., eds., 

Late Pleistocene environments of the Southern High Plains: 

Fort Burgwin Research Center Publication 9, p. 149-177. 

Olson, J.S., 1958a, Wind velocity profiles, pt. 1 ofLake Michigan dune development: Journal of Geology, v. 66, p. 

254-263. 

---1958b, Plants as agents and tools in geomorphology, pt. 2 

ofLake Michigan dune development: Journal of Geology, v. 

66, p. 345-351. 

---1958c, Lake-level, beach, and dune oscillations, pt. 3 of 

Lake Michigan dune development: Journal of Geology, v. 

66, p. 473-483. 

---1958d, Rates of succession and soil changes on southern 

Lake Michigan sand dunes: The Botanical Gazette, v. 119, p. 

125-170. 

Paulk, H.L., 1968, Soil survey of Bulloch County, Georgia: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 75 p. 

---1986, Soil survey of Burke County, Georgia: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 130 p. 

Perlman, H.A., 1985, Sediment data for Georgia streams, water 

years 1958-1982: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

84-722, 101 p. 

Pickering, S.M., and Jones, R.C., 1974, Morphology of aeolian 

parabolic sand features along streams in southeast Georgia 

[abs.]: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 6, p. 387-388. 

Plummer, G.L., 1983, Georgia rainfall-Precipitation patterns at 

23 places, 1734-1982: Athens, Ga., The Georgia Academy 

of Science, 119 p. 

Price, A.B., Nettleton, W.D., Bowman, G.A., and Clay, V.L., 

1988, Selected properties, distribution, source, and age of 

eolian deposits and soils of southwest Colorado: Soil Science 

Society of America Journal, v. 52, p. 450-455. 

Roberts, F.J., and Carbon, B.A., 1972, Some chemical characteristics of the hydrophobic skins, pt. 2 of Water repellence in 

sandy soils of south-western Australia: Australian Journal of 

Soil Research, v. 10, p. 35-42. 

Saucier, R.T., 1978, Sand dunes and related eolian features of the 

lower Mississippi River alluvial valley: Geoscience and Man, 

v. 19, p. 23-40. 

Schafer, J.P., and Hartshorn, J.H., 1965, The Quaternary of New 

England, in Wright, H.E., Jr., and Frey, D.G., eds., The 

Quaternary of the United States: Princeton, N.J., Princeton 

University Press, p. 113-128. 
32 AN OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE INLAND DUNES IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS 

Schultz, J.D., 1983, Geomorphology and Quaternary history of 

the southeastern Chaco dune field, northwestern New Mexico, in Wells, S.G., Love, D.W., and Gardner, T.W., eds., 

Chaco Canyon country, a field guide to the geomorphology, 

Quaternary geology, paleoecology, and environmental geology of northwestern New Mexico: Albuquerque, N. Mex., 

University of New Mexico, Department of Geology, American Geomorphological Field Group, p. 159-166. 

Soller, D.R., 1988, Geology and tectonic history of lower Cape 

Fear River valley, southeastern North Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1466-A, 60 p. 

Stokes, W.R., III, Hale, T.W., Perlman, J.L., and Buell, G.R., 

1984, Water resources data, Georgia, water year 1983: U.S. 

Geological Survey Water-Data Report GA-83-1, 365 p. 

Stone, J.R., Ashley, G.M., and Peteet, D.M., 1991, Cross 

section through a post-Lake Hitchcock surface depressionNew 14C dates and evidence for periglacial origin [abs.]: 

Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 

23, no. 1, p. 135. 

Street, F.A., and Grove, A.T., 1979, Global maps of lake-level 

fluctuations since 30,000 yr B.P.: Quaternary Research, v. 

12, p. 83-118. 

Thames, B.J., 1982, Origin of sand ridges along streams in 

southeastern Georgia: Atlanta, Ga., Emory University, M.S. 

thesis, 113 p. 

Thorn, B. G. , 1967, Coastal and fluvial landforms, Horry and 

Marion Counties, South Carolina: Louisiana State University 

Press, Coastal Studies Series 19, 75 p. 

---1970, Carolina bays in Horry and Marion Counties, South 

Carolina: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 81, p. 

783-814. 

Thomas, H.E., 1962, The meteorologic phenomenon of drought 

in the southwest: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

372-A, 43 p. 

Thomson, M.T., and Carter, R.F., 1955, Surface water resources 

of Georgia during the drought of 1954: Georgia State Division of Conservation, Department of Mines, Mining and 

Geology, Information Circular 17, 79 p. 

---1963, Effect of severe drought ( 1954) on streamflow in 

Georgia: Georgia Geological Survey Bulletin 73, 97 p. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1898, Climatological report for 

November, 1897: Georgia Section of the Climate and Crop 

Service of the Weather Bureau, v. 1, no. 8, 8 p. 

---1909-17, Annual summaries of climatological reports for 

the years 1908 through 1916: Georgia Section of the Climatological Service of the Weather Bureau, variously paginated. 

van Bavel, C.H.M., and Carreker, J.R., 1957, Agricultural 

drought in Georgia: Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station 

Technical Bulletin 15, 41 p. 

van Bavel, C.H.M., and Verlinden, F.J., 1956, Agricultural 

drought in North Carolina: North Carolina Agricultural 

Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 122, 60 p. 

Veatch, J.O., and Stephenson, L.W., 1911, Preliminary report on 

the geology of the Coastal Plain of Georgia: Georgia Geological Survey Bulletin 26, 466 p. 

Visher, S.S., 1954, Climatic atlas of the United States: Boston, 

Harvard University Press, 403 p. 

Walker, J., Thompson, C.H., Fergus, I.F., and Tunstall, B.R., 

1981 , Plant succession and soil development in coastal sand 

dunes of eastern Australia, in West, D.C., Shugart, H.H., 

and Botkin, D. B. , eds. , Forest succession-Concepts and 

application: New York, Springer-Verlag, p. 107-131. 

Watts, W.A., 1969, A pollen diagram from Mud Lake, Marion 

County, north-central Florida: Geological Society of America 

Bulletin, v. 80, p. 631-642. 

---1971 , Postglacial and interglacial vegetation history of 

southern Georgia and central Florida: Ecology, v. 52, no. 4, 

p. 676-690. 

---1973, The vegetation record of a mid-Wisconsin interstadial in northwest Georgia: Quaternary Research, v. 3, p. 

257-268. 

---1975, Vegetation record for the last 20,000 years from a 

small marsh on Lookout Mountain, northwestern Georgia: 

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 86, p. 287-291. 

---1983, Vegetational history of the Eastern United States 

25,000 to 10,000 years ago, in Porter, S.C., ed., The Late 

Pleistocene, v. 1 of Late Quaternary environments of the 

United States: Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 

p. 294-310. 

Wells, B. W. , and Shunk, I. V. , 1931 , Vegetation and habitat facts 

of coarse sands in the Carolinas: Ecological Monograph, v. 1, 

p. 466-520. 

Wells, S.G., Bullard, T.F., Smith, L.N., and Gardner, T.W., 

1983, Chronology, rates, and magnitudes of late Quaternary 

landscape changes in the southeastern Colorado Plateau, in 

Wells, S.G., Love, D.W., and Gardner, T.W., eds., Chaco 

Canyon country, a field guide to the geomorphology, Quaternary geology, paleoecology, and environmental geology of 

northwestern New Mexico: Albuquerque, N. Mex., University of New Mexico, Department of Geology, American 

Geomorphological Field Group, p. 177-186. 

Wells, S.G., McFadden, L.D., and Schultz, J.D., 1990, Eolian 

landscape evolution and soil formation in the Chaco dune 

field, southern Colorado Plateau, New Mexico: Geomorphology, v. 3, p. 517-546. 

Wharton, C.H., 1977, The natural environments of Georgia: 

Georgia Geologic Survey, Department of Natural Resources, 

227 p. I 

Whitehead, D.R., 1965, Palynology and Pleistocene phytogeography of unglaciated eastern North America, in Wright, 

H.E., Jr., and Frey, D.O., eds., The Quaternary of the 

United States: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, p. 

417-432. 

---1973, Late-Wisconsin vegetational changes in unglaciated 

eastern North America: Quaternary Research, v. 3, p. 

621-631. 

Wright, H.E., Jr., Almendinger, J.C., and Gruger, J., 1985, 

Pollen diagram from the Nebraska Sandhills and the age of 

the dunes: Quaternary Research, v. 23, p. 115-120. 

*U.S. G.P.0.:1994-301-077:80092 
SELECTED SERIES OF U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PUBLICATIONS 

Periodicals 

Earthquakes & Volcanoes (issued bimonthly). 

Preliminary Determination of Epicenters (issued 

monthly). 

Technical Books and Reports 

Professional Papers are mainly comprehensive scientific 

reports of wide and lasting interest and importance to professional 

scientists and engineers. Included are reports on the results of 

resource studies and of topographic, hydrologic, and geologic 

investigations. They also include collections of related papers 

addressing different aspects of a single scientific topic. 

Bulletins contain significant data and interpretations that are 

of lasting scientific interest but are generally more limited in scope 

or geographic coverage than Professional Papers. They include the 

results of resource studies and of geologic and topographic 

investigations, as well as collections of short papers related to a 

specific topic. 

Water-Supply Papers are comprehensive reports that 

present significant interpretive results of hydrologic investigations 

of wide interest to professional geologists, hydrologists, and 

engineers. The series covers investigations in all phases of 

hydrology, including hydrogeology, availability of water, quality 

of water, and use of water. 

Circulars present administrative information or important 

scientific information of wide popular interest in a format designed 

for distribution at no cost to the public. Information is usually of 

short-term interest. 

Water-Resources Investigations Reports are papers of an 

interpretive nature made available to the public outside the formal 

USGS publications series. Copies are reproduced on request 

unlike formal USGS publications, and they are also available for 

public inspection at depositories indicated in USGS catalogs. 

Open-Flle Reports include unpublished manuscript 

reports, maps, and other material that are made available for 

public consultation at depositories. They are a nonpermanent form 

of publication that may be cited in other publications as sources of 

information. 

Maps 

Geologic Quadrangle Maps are multicolor geologic maps 

on topographic bases in 7.5- or 15-minute quadrangle formats 

(scales mainly 1:24,000 or 1:62,500) showing bedrock, surficial, 

or engineering geology. Maps generally include brief texts; some 

maps include structure and columnar sections only. 

Geophysical Investigations Maps are on topographic or 

planimetric bases at various scales; they show results of surveys 

using geophysical techniques, such as gravity, magnetic, seismic, 

or radioactivity, which reflect subsurface structures that are of 

economic or geologic significance. Many maps include 

correlations with the geology. 

Miscellaneous Investigations Series Maps are on planimetric or topographic bases of regular and irregular areas at 

various scales; they present a wide variety of format and subject 

matter. The series also includes 7 .5-minute quadrangle photogeologic maps on planimetric bases that show geology as interpreted 

from aerial photographs. Series also includes maps of Mars and 

the Moon. 

Coal Investigations Maps are geologic maps on topographic or planimetric bases at various scales showing bedrock or 

surficial geology, stratigraphy, and structural relations in certain 

coal-resource areas. 

on and Gas Investigations Charts show stratigraphic 

information for certain oil and gas fields and other areas having 

petroleum potential. 

Miscellaneous Field Studies Maps are multicolor or blackand-white maps on topographic or planimetric bases for 

quadrangle or irregular areas at various scales. Pre-1971 maps 

show bedrock geology in relation to specific mining or mineraldeposit problems; post-1971 maps are primarily black-and-white 

maps on various subjects such as environmental studies or 

wilderness mineral investigations. 

Hydrologic Investigations Atlases are multicolored or 

black-and-white maps on topographic or planimetric bases 

presenting a wide range of geohydrologic data of both regular and 

irregular areas; principal scale is 1:24,000, and regional studies are 

at 1:250,000 scale or smaller. 

Catalogs 

Permanent catalogs, as well as some others, gtvtng 

comprehensive listings of U.S. Geological Survey publications are 

available under the conditions indicated below from the U.S. 

Geological Survey, Map Distribution, Box 25286, Bldg. 810, 

Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. (See latest Price and 

Availability List.) 

''Publications of the Geological Survey, 1879-1961" may 

be purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book form 

and as a set of microfiche. 

''Publications of the Geological Survey, 1962-1970" may 

be purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book form 

and as a set of microfiche. 

''Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey, 1971-1981" 

may be purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book 

form (two volumes, publications listing and index) and as a set of 

microfiche. 

Supplements for 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, and for 

subsequent years since the last permanent catalog may be 

purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book form. 

State catalogs, ''List of U.S. Geological Survey Geolelk 

and Water-Supply Reports and Maps For (State)," may be 

purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback booklet form 

only. 

''Price and Avallability List of U.S. Geological Survey 

Publications," issued annually, is available free of charge in 

paperback booklet form only. 

Selected copies of a monthly catalog ''New Publlcatioos 

of the U.S. Geological Survey" are available free of charge by 

mail or may be obtained over the counter in paperback booklet 

form only. Those wishing a free subscription to the monthly 

catalog "New Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey" should 

write to the U.S. Geological Survey, 582 National Center, Reston, 

VA 22092. 

Note.-Prices of Government publications listed in older 

catalogs, announcements, and publications may be incoaect. 

Therefore, the prices charged may differ from the prices in 

catalogs, announcements, and publications. 
~·. 

7'.; ,.,~~~ 

' ~ 

~,:j:;,.: 

I 

.. 

r. 

I 

r; 

,, 

•if:.,. 

~~-r· 

;;