Large-Scale 

Offshore 

Wind Power 

in the United 

States

EXECUTIVE 

SUMMARY

September 2010
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Large-Scale 

Offshore 

Wind Power 

in the United 

States

EXECUTIVE 

SUMMARY

September 2010

NREL/TP-500-49229

Authors:

Walter Musial, NREL

Bonnie Ram, Energetics
Acknowledgements

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) would like to acknowledge the experts in the wind community, too numerous to 

mention, that have played an important role in the publication of this report. NREL also thanks the U.S. Department of Energy, Energy 

Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of Wind and Water Power Technologies for their financial and technical support for the research 

and production of this report.

Major chapter contributors in alphabetical order include: Karen Bushaw-Newton,1 Sandy Butterfield,2 Dennis Elliot,2 Fort Felker,2 Maureen Hand,2

 Steve Haymes,2 Donna Heimiller,2 Alan Laxson,2 Nora Phillips,1 Russell Raymond,1 Amy Robertson,2 Marc Schwartz,2 Walter 

Short,2 Aaron Smith,3 Wendy Wallace.1

Peer Reviewers in Alphabetical Order: Maureen Bornholdt,4 Fort Felker,2 Jeremy Firestone,5 Patrick Gilman,6 Maureen Hand,2 Mary Hallisey-Hunt,7

 Laurie Jodziewicz,8 Jason Jonkman,2 Willett Kempton,9 Andrew Levitt,9 Jim Manwell,10 Bonnie McCay,11 Rachel Pachtner,12

Aaron Smith,3 Laura Smith Morton,6 Tim Redding,4 Amy Robertson,2 John Rodgers,13 Heidi Souder.2

Report Editors and Production Coordinator: Kathleen O’Dell2 and Rene Howard.14

Graphic Images and Figures: NREL and Energetics Incorporated.

 Energetics Incorporated, Washington, D.C.

 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado

 Sustainable Power Consulting

 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement

 University of Delaware

 U.S. Department of Energy

 Georgia Institute of Technology

 NRG Bluewater Wind

 University of Delaware

 University of Massachusetts

 Rutgers University

 Cape Wind Associates

 Union of Concerned Scientists

 WordProse, Inc.

1

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3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

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13

14
1 

Executive Summary

Introduction

Offshore wind power is poised to deliver an essential 

contribution to a clean, robust, and diversified U.S. 

energy portfolio. Capturing and using this large and 

inexhaustible resource has the potential to mitigate 

climate change, improve the environment, increase 

energy security, and stimulate the U.S. economy. 

The United States is now deliberating an energy 

policy that will have a powerful impact on the nation’s 

energy and economic health for decades to come. This 

report provides a broad understanding of today’s wind industry and the offshore resource, as well 

as the associated technology challenges, economics, permitting procedures, and potential risks 

and benefits. An appreciation for all sides of these issues will help to build an informed national 

dialog and shape effective national policies.

Opportunities in Offshore Wind Power

In common with other clean, renewable, domestic 

sources of energy, offshore wind power can help to 

build a diversified and geographically distributed 

U.S. energy mix, offering security against many 

energy supply emergencies—whether natural or 

man-made. Wind power also emits no carbon 

dioxide (CO2) or other harmful emissions that 

contribute to climate change, ground-level pollution, 

or public health issues. 

The United States’ offshore wind energy resources 

can significantly increase the wind industry’s 

contribution to the nation’s clean energy portfolio. 

The United States is fortunate to possess a large and accessible offshore wind energy resource. 

Wind speeds tend to increase significantly with distance from land, so offshore wind resources 

can generate more electricity than wind resources at adjacent land-based sites. The National 

Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) estimates that U.S. offshore winds have a gross potential 

generating capacity four times greater than the nation’s present electric capacity. While this 

estimate does not consider siting constraints and stakeholder inputs, it clearly indicates that the 

U.S. offshore wind capacity is not limited by the magnitude of the resource. 

Developing the offshore wind resource along U.S. coastlines and in the Great Lakes would help 

the nation to:

• Achieve 20% of its electricity from wind by 2030. In assessing the potential for supplying 

20% of U.S. electricity from wind energy by 2030, NREL’s least-cost optimization model 

"Wind power isn't the silver bullet that 

will solve all our energy challenges—

there isn't one. But it is a key part of a 

comprehensive strategy to move us 

from an economy that runs on fossil 

fuels to one that relies on more 

homegrown fuels and clean energy."

President Barack Obama,

April 2010

Under conservative assumptions 

about transmission, fossil fuel supply, 

and supply chain availability, the 

United States could feasibly build 54 

GW of offshore wind power by 2030.

20% Wind Energy by 2030,

U.S. Department of Energy, 

July 2008

*Based on the model scenario optimizing total delivered 

cost for conventional and wind resources. For other 

assumptions, see www.nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/41869.pdf

 
2

found that 54 gigawatts (GW)1

• Revitalize its manufacturing sector. Building 54 GW of offshore wind energy facilities 

would generate an estimated $200 billion in new economic activity and create more than 

43,000 permanent, well-paid technical jobs in manufacturing, construction, engineering, 

operations and maintenance. Extrapolating from European studies, NREL estimates that 

offshore wind will create more than 20 direct jobs for every megawatt produced in the 

United States.

of added wind capacity could come from offshore wind. 

Achieving 20% wind would provide significant benefits to the nation, such as increased 

energy security, reduced air and water pollution, and the stimulation of the domestic 

economy. 

• Provide clean power to its coastal demand centers. High winds abound just off the coasts 

of 26 states. More specifically, suitable wind resources exist near large urban areas where 

power demand is steadily growing, electric rates are high, and space for new, land-based 

generation and transmission facilities is severely limited. These characteristics provide 

favorable market opportunities for offshore wind to compete effectively in coastal regions.

Status of the Offshore Wind Industry

The United States leads the world in 

installed, land-based wind energy capacity, 

yet has no offshore wind generating 

capacity to date. Since Denmark’s first 

offshore project in 1991, Europe has held 

the lead in offshore wind, having installed 

more than 830 turbines with grid 

connections to nine European countries (see 

Figure 1-1). Almost all of the 2,300 

megawatts (MW) of installed capacity has 

been built in shallow waters (less than 30 

meters deep). The market is continuing to 

expand, with Europe planning to add 

another 1,000 MW in 2010. An additional 

50,000 MW is being planned or is under 

development for 2011 and beyond. Interest 

in offshore wind is now spreading to 

Canada, China, and the United States. 

Although the United States has built no 

offshore wind projects so far, about 20 projects representing more than 2,000 MW of capacity 

are in the planning and permitting process. Most of these activities are in the Northeast and MidAtlantic regions, although projects are being considered along the Great Lakes, the Gulf of 

Mexico, and the Pacific Coast. The deep waters off the West Coast, however, pose a technology 

challenge for the near term. 

 1 1 gigawatt = 1,000 megawatts

Figure 1-1. Nameplate generating 

capacity of offshore wind projects 

(1991–2010)
3

Untested regulatory and permitting requirements in federal waters (outside the three-nauticalmile state boundary) have posed major hurdles to development, but recent progress is clarifying 

these processes. Most notably, after 9 years in the permitting process, the Cape Wind project off 

of Massachusetts was offered the first commercial lease by the Department of Interior in April 

2010.The U.S. Department of the Interior bears responsibility for reducing the uncertainties and 

potential risks to the marine environment and making the federal permitting process more 

predictable under the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (In June 2010, the Minerals and 

Management Service [MMS] was reorganized and renamed Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Regulation and Enforcement [BOEM]). Some states have been proactive in 

promoting offshore wind demonstration projects in their own waters close to shore, which may

provide a more efficient regulatory path to meet their renewable energy obligations, while jumpstarting a new locally grown industry. 

A Powerful U.S. Resource

Offshore winds tend to blow harder and more uniformly than on land, providing the potential for 

increased electricity generation and smoother, steadier operation than land-based wind power 

systems. The availability of these high offshore winds close to major U.S. coastal cities 

significantly reduces power transmission issues. 

The offshore wind resource in the United States has been sufficiently documented at a gross 

level to suggest an abundance of potential offshore wind sites as shown in Figure 1-2. 

Figure 1-2. United States offshore wind resource by region and depth for

annual average wind speed sites above 7.0 m/s.
4

The gross resource has been quantified by state, water depth, distance from shore, and wind class 

throughout a band extending out to 50 nautical miles from the U.S. coastline. This total gross 

wind resource is estimated at more than 4,000 GW, or roughly four times the generating capacity 

currently carried on the U.S. electric grid. This estimate assumes that one 5-MW wind turbine 

could be placed on every square kilometer of water with an annual average wind speed above 7.0 

meters per second (m/s). As shown in Figure 1-2, this gross resource is distributed across three 

main depth categories, increasing from 1,071 GW over shallow water (30 meters), to 628 GW 

over transitional waters (between 30 and 60 meters in depth), and to 2,451 GW over deep water 

(deeper than 60 meters). However, this wind mapping effort does not currently account for a 

range of siting restrictions and public concerns. These gross resource values will likely shrink by 

60% or more after all environmental and socioeconomic constraints have been taken into 

account. Further study is also required to determine optimal spacing of turbines based on array 

effects, which could reduce the density of the potential offshore wind development.

For now, this complex process of identifying suitable sites is left up to state and local authorities, 

which are working with federal entities to develop a marine spatial planning framework. In spite 

of the resource potential and benefits to the nation, the development of offshore wind as an 

energy source for the United States faces several significant challenges and barriers that stem 

from technology limitations, high cost, regulatory and institutional uncertainties, and potential 

environmental and social risks. A sustained, nationally focused research and development 

initiative is needed to address these challenges and inform decision makers and public policies.

Technology Status and Trends

Although Europe now has a decade of experience with offshore wind projects in shallow water, 

the technology essentially evolved from land-based wind energy systems. Significant 

opportunities remain for tailoring the technology to better address key differences in the offshore 

environment. These opportunities are multiplied when deepwater floating system technology is 

considered, which is now in the very early stages of development.

The opportunities for advancing offshore wind technologies are accompanied by significant 

challenges. Turbine blades can be much larger without land-based transportation and 

construction constraints; however, enabling technology is needed to allow the construction of a 

blade greater than 70-meters in length. The blades may also be allowed to rotate faster offshore,

as blade noise is less likely to disturb human habitations. Faster rotors operate at lower torque, 

which means lighter, less costly drivetrain components. Challenges unique to the offshore 

environment include resistance to corrosive salt waters, resilience to tropical and extra-tropical 

storms and waves, and coexistence with marine life and activities. Greater distances from shore 

create challenges from increased water depth, exposure to more extreme open ocean conditions, 

long distance electrical transmission on high-voltage submarine cables, turbine maintenance at 

sea, and accommodation of maintenance personnel. 

A primary challenge for offshore wind energy is cost reduction. Developing the necessary 

support infrastructure implies one-time costs for customized vessels, port and harbor upgrades, 

new manufacturing facilities, and workforce training. In general, capital costs are twice as high 

as land-based, but this may be partially offset by potentially higher energy yields—as much as 

30% or more. As was experienced with land-based wind systems over the past two decades, 

offshore wind costs are expected to drop with greater experience, increased deployment, and 
5

improved technology. To make offshore wind energy more cost effective, some manufacturers 

are designing larger wind turbines capable of generating more electricity per turbine. Several 

manufacturers are considering 10-MW turbine designs, and programs, such as UpWind in the 

European Union, are developing the tools to allow these larger machines to emerge.

Figure 1-3 provides a brief overview of the technology status in each depth category and some 

representative design options.

Figure 1-3. Status of offshore wind energy technology

In shallow water, the substructure extends to the sea floor and includes monopoles, gravity bases, 

and suction buckets. In the transitional depth, new technologies are being created, or adapted 

from the oil and gas industry, including jacket substructures and multi-pile foundations, which 

also extend to the sea floor. At some depth it is no longer economically feasible to have a rigid 

structure fixed to the sea floor, and floating platforms may be required. Three idealized concepts 

have arisen for floating platform designs, including the semisubmersible, the spar buoy, and the 

tension-leg platform, each of which use a different method for achieving static stability. 

Although it is not yet known which of these designs will deliver the best system performance,

designers seek platforms that are easy to install and minimize overall turbine loads. To determine 

this optimized design point, advanced computer simulation models need to be developed and 
6

validated. As shown in the figure, most of the projects now reside in shallow water, and only two 

projects to date use transitional structures. One Norwegian demonstration project, Hywind 

(launched in 2009), uses a deepwater floating design.

Table 1-1 summarizes the key attributes of the resource and technology needed for large-scale 

offshore wind development in the United States. 

Table 1-1. Summary of Key Project, Resource, and Technology Attributes 

Economics of Offshore Wind Power

Offshore wind projects are analyzed in terms of their initial installed capital cost (ICC) as well as 

their life-cycle costs, also known as the levelized cost of energy (LCOE). Cost projections of 

either type for the U.S. market are difficult because of the many regulatory and technical 

uncertainties and the lack of U.S. market experience. Although the European market is based on 

a more developed supporting infrastructure and substantially different regulatory, policy, and 

physical environments, preliminary analyses of that experience provide some potentially useful 

insight.

As in the case of land-based projects, the ICC for offshore wind power has been increasing over 

time. Costs jumped approximately 55% between 2005 and 2007, leading to an estimated average 

capital investment of $4,250 per kW for an offshore wind project in 2010. The wind turbine itself 

contributes 44% of this total. In general, capital costs are expected to increase with distance from 

land and water depth, and decrease as the size of a project increases, as a result of economies of 

scale. As the technology matures, prices are expected to decline.

Technology 

Depth Class Depth

Number of 

Projects 

Worldwide

U.S. Gross 

Offshore 

Wind 

Resource 

above 7.0 

m/s (GW)

U.S. Gross 

Offshore 

Wind 

Resource 

above 8.0 

m/s (GW)

Technology Description

Shallow 

Water 0 – 30m 42 1,071 457

Uses fixed-bottom monopile and gravitybase substructures with proven turbine 

technology adapted from land-based 

systems. 

Transitional 

Depth

30m –

60m 2 628 549

Uses fixed-bottom jacket (lattice) or multipile substructures to provide stiffer base 

for turbines; similar to shallow water. 

New vessels for deeper deployments may 

be needed. 

Deepwater >60m 1 2,451 1,951

Floating substructures decouple from the 

bottom and allow site independence,

which may allow greater degree of mass 

production and less work at sea. Typical 

substructures under consideration include 

semi-submersibles, spar buoys, and 

tension-leg platforms. New optimized 

turbines will be developed.
7

The LCOE calculations, or the cost of energy produced over the anticipated 20-year life of a 

project, are based on a range of factors, many of which are currently unknown and must be 

projected. In addition to the ICC, these include operations and maintenance (O&M) costs, the 

cost of financing, amount of energy to be generated, long-term system reliability, and 

decommissioning costs. 

Operation and maintenance costs are higher for offshore wind turbines than for land-based 

turbines, primarily because of access issues. It is simply more difficult to perform work at sea. 

Although more research is needed to determine the range of these offshore O&M costs, some 

reports estimate they are two to three times higher than on land and can reach 20% to 30% of the 

LCOE.

The LCOE for offshore wind is heavily influenced by the relatively high ICC and the cost of 

financing. A significant part of the financing cost is based on the perception of financial risk and 

project uncertainties. These risk perceptions could potentially be lowered through research on 

virtually all of the factors that make up the LCOE for offshore wind, but the larger impacts will 

come from confidence built on deployment experience.

Under reasonable economic assumptions, offshore wind can be expected to penetrate the U.S. 

market on a large scale without introducing substantial new technology—such as large-scale grid 

storage or smart grid load management. Although these analyses are still preliminary, NREL’s 

Regional Energy Deployment System (ReEDS) model (formerly called the Wind Deployment 

System [WinDS] model) shows offshore wind penetration of between 54 GW and 89 GW by 

2030 when economic scenarios favoring offshore wind are applied. These cases used 

combinations of cost reductions (resulting from technology improvements and experience), 

rising natural gas prices (3% annually), heavy constraints on conventional power and new 

transmission development in congested coastal regions, and national incentive policies. 

Furthermore, analyses indicate that if wind energy is to supply 20% of the nation’s electricity by 

2030, offshore wind will be an essential component.

Regulatory Pathways for Siting and Permitting

Although the United States has a long history of managing energy-related extractive industries 

(e.g., oil and gas) on federal lands and in federal waters, there is no institutional knowledge about 

offshore wind energy facilities. Offshore wind power is a relatively new energy industry with 

about a 20-year demonstration history in European seas and less than a 10-year operational 

history for utility-scale projects. As such, the regulatory and institutional structures for offshore 

wind energy are just now emerging in the United States. 

BOEM was assigned jurisdiction over leasing of federal waters (greater than 3 nautical miles 

from shore in all but Texas and the west coast of Florida) for ocean energy technologies under 

the Energy Policy Act of 2005. Secretary Salazar issued the final rule governing easements and 

rights of way for offshore wind on the outer continental shelf in April 2009. Several projects are 

now in early permitting stages under BOEM regulations and developer’s estimate that approvals

may take as long as 7 to 10 years – longer than permitting approvals for most other types of 

energy facilities

States desiring offshore wind supplies to meet their renewable energy goals and project 

developers seeking economic development opportunities have identified potential sites in state 

waters. State projects are typically near shore and have marginally lower wind resources, but 
8

there is a perception that state institutions and regulations provide an accelerated approval

process. Regardless of these perceptions, state waters will not be able to provide enough sites for 

large-scale offshore wind power in the United States. To accelerate the deployment of offshore 

wind energy, the federal government needs to partner strategically with states where offshore 

wind development is planned or underway. The formation of several BOEM state task forces and 

the Atlantic Offshore Wind Energy Consortium, involving 10 governors, are steps taken in 2010

that proactively engage interested and affected parties and could help mature the regulatory and 

stakeholder engagement processes. 

Environmental and Socioeconomic Risks

Risks associated with offshore wind energy are not as serious or potentially catastrophic 

compared with other energy supply technologies. Also wind turbines can be deployed relatively 

quickly to reduce greenhouse gases, reduce other air emissions and help conserve water

resources. Potential risks in deploying offshore wind projects can typically be reduced through 

development and use of best management practices, mitigation strategies, and adaptive 

management principles. Although risks are site-specific, research at European installed projects 

and U.S. baseline studies are building the knowledge base and helping to inform decision makers 

and the public.

Primary stakeholder concerns regarding offshore wind power facilities include: 

Marine animal populations: Although European studies conducted to date suggest that the 

impacts of offshore wind facilities on marine animal populations are minimal, U.S. studies 

will be required to gain a better understanding of the potential risks and to mitigate any 

harmful effects.

Visual effects: Coastal residents in view of an offshore wind farm may voice concerns about 

visual impacts. More research is needed to better understand coastal communities and their 

ability to accept changes to the seascape. 

Property values: Studies conducted on land-based wind projects show minimal to no impact on 

real estate prices and property values as a result of the presence of wind turbines; however, 

extensive studies have not been conducted on coastal communities.

Noise: Based on European studies and experiences to date, the most significant environmental 

impact stems from the noise associated with pile driving during the construction phase. 

Mitigation strategies may be effective in reducing this risk. Alternative technology can also 

be implemented if appropriate to avoid some of the pile driving activity.

Tourism: Impacts on tourism may be a concern to some communities that are dependent on 

beach vacationers and the resulting local revenues and tax base, but the evidence is 

ambiguous and actual effects appear to be minimal.

Marine safety: The possibility of a ship colliding with a turbine poses a potentially significant 

risk to the marine environment from fuel leaks from a disabled ship or to human safety 

should the turbine collapse. No reported incidents have occurred to date.

Research is also needed to fill gaps in the knowledge base and prioritize risks based on analysis 

of uncertainties and potential impacts. Several important gaps and uncertainties include visual 

effects, public perception of deployment risks, endangered and migrating species, conflicting use 
9

of military and recreational spaces, and construction impacts. BOEM and other federal and state 

agencies are beginning to fill these gaps with baseline surveys and studies. Sector-by-sector 

impact analyses, however, as required with NEPA documentation, are limited in revealing the 

true risks to the ocean or lake ecologies. Applying an integrated risk framework that compares 

costs and benefits of deploying offshore wind as opposed to another energy option is needed to 

inform decisions about the actual risks. Developing prudent siting policies will likely avoid 

coastal areas with intense competing uses and sensitive habitats and will reflect the sensitivities 

of multiple stakeholder groups. Siting strategies are needed that go beyond narrow technical 

appraisals of sites to include collaborative approaches with potential host states and 

communities. Well-developed risk communication and stakeholder involvement strategies need 

exploration and are essential to the successful development of offshore wind projects.

Findings and Conclusions

Overall, the opportunities for offshore wind are abundant, yet the barriers and challenges are also 

significant. In the context of the greater energy, environmental, and economic concerns the 

nation faces, accelerating the deployment of offshore wind could have tremendous benefits to the 

United States. Technological needs are generally focused on making offshore wind technology 

economically feasible and reliable and expanding the resource area to accommodate more 

regional diversity for future U.S. offshore projects. Prudent siting strategies that involve 

stakeholders at the site would reduce potential risks. Removing deployment barriers can help 

support the first projects in the competitive energy supply market, with the objective of reducing 

long-term uncertainties. In the short term, reducing risk will stimulate economic growth, 

accelerate permitting time frames, and help address important aspects of climate change 

mitigation. Although offshore wind alone cannot solve the nation’s energy problems, this report 

concludes that with effective research, policies, and commitment, it can play a significant and 

vital role in future U.S. energy markets. As a result, it should be considered a necessary part of a 

diverse sustainable energy portfolio along with energy conservation and efficiencies.

Download the full report at www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/40745.pdf (PDF)
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