Jeb Barzen

Founder

Private Lands Conservation, LLC

Spring Green, Wisconsin

(Former) Director of Field Ecology

International Crane Foundation 

Baraboo, Wisconsin

Ken Ballinger 

Vice President of Development

Arkion Life Sciences, LLC

New Castle, Delaware

Human-Wildlife Conflicts

As sandhill crane populations continue to 

grow in the United States, so too does crop 

damage, property damage to homeowners, 

and the risk of crane collisions with 

aircraft. Whooping crane populations also 

continue to grow, but with a global 

population of about 500 individuals (as of 

2017), damage is rare and problems often 

require different solutions due to the 

species’ endangered status.

The behavioral characteristics and habitat 

needs of sandhill (Figure 1) and whooping 

cranes set the stage for conflict between 

these birds and people. Recognizing 

behavioral differences between territorial 

and non-territorial cranes greatly improves 

the effectiveness of any management 

effort. 

Crops

Crop damage is the most common and 

economically significant crane damage 

management problem. Cranes eat planted 

seeds, especially corn. In spring, damage 

can be intense, as cranes often gather in 

germinating cornfields. Cranes do not feed 

on seedlings, but rather the planted seeds, 

which are vulnerable until the endosperm 

Wildlife Damage Management 

Technical Series

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service

Wildlife Services

January 2017 Sandhill and 

Whooping Cranes

Figure 1. An adult sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) with a 

1-week old chick.

Quick Links

Human-Wildlife Conflicts 1

Damage Identification 3

Management Methods 4

Economics 8 

Species Overview 8

Legal Status 13

Glossary & Key Words 14

Resources 15 

Appendix 16 
is fully metabolized by the plant. The period of vulnerability 

depends on soil temperature and typically lasts from 

planting to 17 days after germination. Cranes will continue 

to forage in these fields on other resources even after the 

plants are no longer susceptible to damage. 

Non-territorial sandhill cranes are unpredictable in their 

habitat use and can disperse across a landscape of 

25,000 acres. Dispersed sandhill cranes can quickly 

congregate into flocks of 50 to 100 birds and cause 

significant damage in a short time. Non-territorial sandhill 

cranes cause most of the damage to planted cornfields.

In spring, a crane eats on average about 400 kernels of 

corn per day. Some cranes will not feed in agricultural 

fields, while other will eat up to 800 corn kernels per day. A 

flock of 100 cranes foraging in a planted cornfield for 3 

days can eat about 240,000 kernels or 100 percent of 

about 8 acres. Damage, however, typically is spread out 

over the entire field and includes about 20 to 30 percent 

of the planted seeds (Figure 2).

Damage levels occasionally reach 50 to 60 percent. Often, 

entire fields must be replanted, at a significant cost to the 

grower. 

The timing of planting is important in determining patterns 

of damage. If several fields are planted at the same time, 

damage may be spread out over a larger area and be 

relatively minor in any one field. Fields planted much 

earlier or later than the average planting date are more 

susceptible to damage. This is especially true for lateplanted fields because cranes conditioned to feeding on 

planted corn compete for the diminishing supply.

Territorial sandhill cranes seldom cause significant 

damage because their density is low. They damage field 

edges located near wetlands where they are nesting. 

Whooping cranes have been seen eating planted corn 

seed. Those involved in human conflicts have been 

territorial birds from reintroduced flocks.

Landscapes

Sandhill cranes occasionally damage lawns by digging in 

the soil for beetle or other insect larvae (Figure 3). This 

problem most often occurs with newly seeded lawns, 

especially where old fields are converted to turfgrass. 

Structures

Cranes can damage homes, automobiles, and commercial 

buildings. Although lawns that surround structures likely 

are the primary attractant, reflective surfaces, such as 

windows, sliding glass doors, and automobiles, are also 

alluring to cranes. A territorial crane looking at a reflective 

surface sees an intruding crane and responds as it would 

to any potential competitor (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Damage to a new lawn by cranes digging for insect larvae.

Page 2 WDM Technical Series—Cranes

Figure 2. Stand reduction in a cornfield caused by sandhill cranes. The 

extensive brown areas of the field left and below the dashed line have 

virtually no seedlings. Corn to the right and above the dashed line was 

treated with a repellent whereas the remaining field was not.
The reflected threat displays escalate, leading to an attack 

by the territorial crane, sometimes resulting in damage to 

the property and injury to the bird. Non-territorial birds do 

not respond to reflections in a similar manner. 

Power lines pose a significant threat to cranes. Cranes 

often collide with the upper static wire of lines located near 

flight paths, resulting in damage to both the birds and the 

powerlines. 

Human Health and Safety

Cranes can be a threat to people and property through 

collisions with aircraft. Territorial cranes can cause longterm problems at airports near wetlands because they 

defend specific areas and are attracted to the open, shortgrass habitat around runways. 

It is illegal to feed sandhill or whooping cranes in Florida. 

This law was developed because extensive development in 

previously rural areas brought nesting cranes and humans 

into close contact. Cranes were habituating to humans 

through their handouts and habituation can lead to rare, 

but serious, injuries. Cranes can become aggressive, 

especially when defending young. This degree of 

habituation can occur anywhere. As both cranes and cities 

expand their distribution, the problem may become more 

widespread. 

Cranes probe for food in loose soil. When the first leaf of a 

corn plant emerges, the endosperm still remains in the 

seed. The leaf provides a visual cue that leads foraging 

birds to the planted kernels that lay just below the soil 

surface. Birds readily remove planted seeds and discard 

the attached leaves (Figure 5). Planted seeds are 

vulnerable to foraging cranes until the endosperm is fully 

metabolized by the plant. 

Crane damage to planted seed in agricultural fields is easy 

to distinguish from damage caused by pheasants or 

turkeys because cranes are the only species that probe for 

seeds rather than scratch the soil surface to expose seeds. 

Cranes can efficiently remove planted seeds that occur in a 

row at predictable intervals (Figure 6). Sometimes a small 

amount of soil is mounded to the side of a single hole 

where the bird has dug with its beak. Although cranes can 

dig in any soil, they prefer loose soils, such as sand or silt. 

Cranes damage turf by digging with their bills rather than 

probing (Figure 3). Feathers often are seen near probe 

holes.

Page 3

Figure 4. Reflective surfaces can attract sandhill cranes, occasionally 

resulting in damage to the structure or crane.

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Damage Identification

Figure 5. Small leaves of corn seedlings lay adjacent to holes where 

cranes have removed the seeds.
Sandhill cranes also cause agricultural damage to potato 

and small grain crops. Although cranes may eat some 

potatoes, most damage is caused by cranes exposing the 

potatoes to sun and by scratching or eating only part of the 

potato. In standing grain crops, cranes will eat ripening 

seeds or knock them to the ground. In swathed fields, 

cranes eat grains in windrows. Such damage to swathed 

rows can be severe during crane migration.

Reflective surfaces, such as windows, that are attacked by 

cranes often have extensive smears of blood on the 

surface or adjacent areas (Figure 7). These encounters are 

stressful for both the bird and people. 

Solutions for managing crane damage tend to be more 

effective if the social status of the offending cranes is 

considered. Methods that exclude or disperse birds from 

an area are more difficult to use against territorial cranes 

because these birds often adapt to disturbances in order 

to remain in their territory. Territorial birds cannot breed if 

they have no territory. Non-territorial birds are more flexible 

in their habitat use and are more easily deterred. 

Though many different control methods have been used to 

prevent crane damage, few have been effective over large 

areas or for long periods of time. Cranes are intelligent, 

long-lived birds that often acclimate to tools designed to 

prevent them from foraging on or using certain resources. 

Prevention and control methods for sandhill and whooping 

cranes are similar. However, many methods may not be 

used with whooping cranes as they are listed as a federally 

Endangered Species in some areas of the United States. 

Habitat Modification

Two forms of habitat modification are used to manage 

cranes: 1) structural modification, and 2) supplemental 

feeding.

Structural Modification

Homeowners, producers and others may need to modify 

their property or the storage of their property to reduce 

destructive crane behaviors. Anything that creates a lifesized reflection of a crane is susceptible to attack by 

territorial cranes. Remove or cover the reflective surface 

that is causing the problem. Park cars in garages or use a 

car cover. Install shutters or opaque tarps over windows. 

Page 4

Figure 7. Bloodied window where a sandhill crane attacked its reflection.

WDM Technical Series—Cranes

Management Methods

Figure 6. Holes left by sandhill crane probing for planted seeds.
Attach decals or long strips of bird tape to windows. 

Cranes, however, may continue to attack reflections that 

are visible through screens and other physical barriers. 

Cranes may not leave the area because they tenaciously 

maintain their territories. 

Powerlines kill cranes that collide with them and are 

subject to damage, especially when installed in areas with 

high crane use, such as between night roosts and daytime 

feeding areas. If possible, reroute or bury powerlines in 

areas frequently used by cranes.

Supplemental Feeding and Lure Crops

Extensive supplemental feeding programs have been used 

worldwide to prevent migrating and wintering cranes from 

damaging fall or winter-seeded fields and standing 

cornfields, as well as to support tourism. For example, 

these programs have occurred in Israel, to keep staging or 

wintering Eurasian cranes (Grus grus) in the Agamon 

wetland from damaging nearby agricultural fields; in 

northern Germany to protect germinating winter wheat 

fields during fall migration; in Japan to support 

overwintering red-crowned (Grus japonensis), white-naped 

(Grus vipio), and hooded cranes (Grus monacha); and in 

Spain were excess seeding is done to provide food for 

wintering Eurasian cranes while allowing some seeds to 

germinate. In all cases, the feeding programs attracted 

cranes and reduced foraging in outlying areas as long as 

the supplemental food was available. Over the long term, 

however, crane numbers increased dramatically, resulting 

in a decrease in the effectiveness of the lure crops. Where 

supplemental food supplies did not keep pace with 

population increases, cranes expanded foraging flights out 

from the treatment area and damage resumed, often at a 

greater rate than before supplemental feeding began. 

Extensive feeding programs are expensive. In some places, 

the cost of feeding is offset by income from tourists who 

come to see the birds or farmers experiencing the damage. 

To be sustainable, tourism or farm income needs to be 

linked to the feeding expense such as is done to some 

extent in the Hula Valley in Israel (Figure 8).

Frightening Devices

The use of frightening devices is the most common 

management method for reducing crane conflicts. Propane 

cannons, flags and streamers, powerline diverters, and 

pyrotechnics all are designed to elicit fright or avoidance 

responses. These devices range greatly in their 

effectiveness, manner of deployment, and duration of 

effectiveness. Frightening devices often move birds from 

one field to the next, so damage is dispersed rather than 

eliminated. Though it can be argued that dispersing the 

problem may decrease the damage for any one field or 

farmer, the likelihood is high that cranes will habituate to 

field disturbances and damage will resume.

Auditory

Propane cannons and pyrotechnics have been used to 

disperse cranes from cropfields and airports. These are

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 5

Figure 8. Habituation of Eurasian cranes (Grus grus) to tractors used 

for feeding (top) and viewing (bottom) cranes in the Hula Valley, Israel.
effective when the individual cranes that encounter them 

are naïve to the devices. Any deterrence is soon lost, 

however, especially if the resources of concern are highly 

preferred by cranes. Auditory frightening devices work best 

on cranes at staging areas where stop-over times often are 

short. 

Visual

Powerline diverters make powerlines easier to see by flying 

cranes. Powerline diverters come in a variety of forms that 

differ in ease of attachment, longevity, and function. Firefly 

units move and reflect light at wavelengths that are readily 

seen by birds. The units, however, are deployed vertically 

and may fall within the blind spot of cranes (directly 

forward). Pigtail diverters (Figure 9), are horizontally 

oriented and more readily seen by cranes. Diverters can 

reduce, but not eliminate, the risk to powerlines that are 

already in place. 

Reflective streamers attached to fences may divert cranes 

from small fields. However, given their cost and the time 

required to install them, streamers may only be costeffective for high-valued crops. Lasers have been used to 

disperse some species of birds at night, but they have not 

been used to reduce or prevent damage by cranes.

Biological

Guard dogs can be used to patrol sensitive areas to 

prevent crane damage, but they are labor intensive and 

have a limited area of effectiveness. Where individual 

fields tend to be smaller, dogs may be a viable deterrent.

Repellents

Registered as Avipel®, 9,10 anthraquinone (AQ), can be 

applied as a powder or liquid to seeds of most grain crops. 

AQ causes distress in the gut of birds that ingest treated 

seed, which leads to an aversion to the food. While gut 

receptors are sensitive to AQ, other receptors also function 

to facilitate aversion. Tested birds have the ability to detect 

AQ through taste, sight, and smell. Researchers observed 

marked cranes foraging in treated corn fields, and saw 

birds that sampled planted kernels in treated rows shake 

their heads and spit out the kernels. The same birds 

quickly moved to foraging on waste corn and insects 

between rows.

Some plants express AQ during the maturation process to 

aid in seed dispersal. High concentrations of AQ in unripe 

fruit are thought to deter consumption by birds. Once ripe, 

the plant withdraws AQ from the fruit. Birds eat the fruit 

and disperse the viable seeds. Some insects also 

concentrate AQ in their bodies which is thought to deter 

bird predation. 

AQ is registered for row crop seed treatment in 26 states 

on an experimental basis, mostly under a U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Section 24(c) 

Special Local Need registration. The manufacturer, Arkion 

Life Sciences, LLC, is seeking a full EPA Section 3 label. 

Follow all label requirements when applying Avipel®. AQ is 

the only product that can be legally used in the U.S. to 

repel cranes from planted agricultural seeds. Both methyl 

anthranilate and limonene were field-tested as seed 

treatments, but neither substance was shown to be 

effective.

AQ has no known long- or short-term negative effects on 

cranes and is considered non-toxic to birds. Field studies of 

a marked population of sandhill cranes over more than two 

Page 6 WDM Technical Series—Cranes

Figure 9. A close up view of a pigtail diverter used on a powerline.
decades indicate that no long-term, cumulative effects are 

caused by widespread annual use of AQ. One multi-year 

study involving marked cranes over a 16,000-acre area in 

Wisconsin showed no difference between crane mortality 

or productivity rates in AQ-treated versus untreated areas. 

Repellent-treated seeds do not necessarily prevent cranes 

from using and foraging in crop fields. Cranes with an 

aversion to the treated seeds can distinguish one food 

item from another and usually forage on other food items 

(i.e., earthworms, insects) in the same field without 

causing damage. Therefore, it is not necessary to disperse 

cranes from AQ-treated fields. Allowing birds to stay in a AQ

-treated field reduces the chance that the cranes will 

acclimate to the repellent and prevents the problem from 

being moved elsewhere. Since cranes inevitably switch 

their diet from seeds to other foods as seedlings grow, the 

repellent simply changes the timing of when corn or other 

crops become unavailable.

Trapping 

Trapping of cranes to reduce damage is impractical in 

most situations. Most populations of sandhill cranes are 

too large for trapping to significantly alter their size. 

Trapping can be used to remove individual cranes when 

they cause harm or threaten people or property. Whooping 

cranes have been removed from problem areas three 

times: 1) near an ethanol plant where a crane endangered 

itself by frequenting construction areas, 2) near an airport 

were a crane on a runway caused safety concerns, and 3) 

in a zoo where officials were concerned that a free-flighted 

male would become aggressive towards zoo visitors. In all 

three cases, the captured birds were part of reintroduced 

flocks that were classified as “experimental and nonessential” under the Endangered Species Act. 

Shooting

The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 provides for the 

issuance of depredation permits to kill specified numbers 

of sandhill cranes causing damage, but only after nonlethal options have been tried and failed. Most depredation 

permits allow the use of rifles or shotguns to take cranes. 

All laws, regulations, and ordinances pertaining to use of 

firearms and ammunition apply and vary by jurisdiction. In 

Wisconsin, where sandhill cranes breed and crop damage 

complaints occur, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service issues 

depredation permits only after USDA Wildlife Services 

confirms the damage and that non-lethal methods have 

failed to alleviate the problem. Procedures for issuing 

depredation permits differ in other states. Depredation 

permits for whooping cranes are rarely issued. 

Furthermore, regulated hunting of sandhill cranes is 

allowed in 15 states and requires both federal and state 

licenses. Documentation is lacking, however, to determine 

whether hunting or other lethal means of removing sandhill 

cranes reduces crop damage. 

Handling

Both federal and state licenses are required before any live 

crane can be handled. Cranes are large, have very sharp 

toenails and stout, pointed bills—all of which can severely 

injure a handler. It is important to obtain proper training 

before handling any live crane. Generally, eye protection, 

long-sleeved shirts and long pants are required. Cranes are 

best held with the head located behind the handler’s body, 

the body under an arm and supported by one hand while 

the other hand is used to control the feet (See Ellis et al. 

1996 for more information).

Translocation/Relocation

The capture and translocation/relocation of cranes is not 

recommended. Captured cranes typically are placed in 

captivity because of concerns they will continue to cause 

conflicts, if released.

Euthanasia

Shooting is the most common method of humane killing for 

cranes. 

Disposal

Unless specific exemptions are provided, such as using 

carcasses as deterrents, all lethally-removed cranes should 

be buried or incinerated. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 7
There are no economic estimates for sandhill crane 

damage to crops nationwide. Statewide estimates are 

approximated by wildlife and agricultural agencies. For 

example, Wildlife Services in Wisconsin received 265 

complaints regarding sandhill crane damage to field crops 

in 2013, with reported damage estimated at $1.9 million. 

In Wisconsin, about 2.8 million acres of corn are grown 

within 3⁄4 mile of emergent wetlands potentially used by 

cranes for roosting. Although cranes do not occur in all of 

these wetlands, treating for crane damage on a landscape 

scale is impractical, costly, and exceeds the capability of 

any single organization or government agency. The use of 

AQ as a repellent can be implemented at smaller, but still 

significant, scales by farmers who are directly impacted by 

crane damage (Figure 10). Typically, the farmer’s cost of 

applying AQ is about 3 percent the cost of planting or less 

than 10 percent of the average amount of damage that 

occurs to an untreated field, not including the cost of 

replanting. 

The sandhill crane (Grus canadensis, Figure 1) is a longlived, member of the crane family (Gruidae) and the most 

numerous of the 15 crane species found worldwide. Over 

the last 50 years, the species has grown from a rarity─ 

requiring extensive protection─ to an abundant, 

widespread species. As their populations have increased, 

so too have their conflicts with people.

With less than 500 individuals remaining, the whooping 

crane (Grus americana, Figure 11) is one of the most 

critically endangered species in North America. 

Identification

Cranes are among the largest birds in North America. 

Sandhill cranes stand nearly 5 feet tall and whooping 

cranes are even taller. They fly with their necks stretched 

out forward and feet stretched out backward. They stand 

and roost on the ground rather than perching in trees. 

Physical Description

Within North America, there are six types of sandhill crane 

that vary in size and weight. The largest is the greater 

sandhill crane which averages 4.5 to 5 feet tall and 10 to 

14 pounds. By foraging on high-energy foods in the fall, 

sandhill cranes can increase their body mass by as much 

as 3 pounds. The arctic-breeding lesser sandhill crane, is 

the smallest type, standing 3 to 3.6 feet tall and weighing 

6 to 7 pounds. Male whooping cranes average 13 pounds 

and females weigh about 11 pounds. 

Sandhill crane plumage is gray, but it often takes on a 

rusty color in early spring from iron-rich mud that they 

preen into their feathers. Sandhill cranes in some areas, 

such as the Pacific Northwest, remain gray all year 

because they are not exposed to iron. Rusty-colored 

plumage of spring gradually is molted through the summer, 

so by fall most sandhill cranes appear gray. Adult sandhill 

cranes have red skin on the top of their heads and white 

feathers on their cheeks. 

Whooping cranes are mostly white, with black and red 

markings on their head. Their wings have black primaries 

Page 8 WDM Technical Series—Cranes

Figure 10. Acreage of anthraquinone-treated corn seed to repel cranes in the upper Midwest states of 

Wisconsin (WI), Michigan (MI) and Minnesota (MN), 2006-2016. 

Economics

Species Overview
that are very noticeable in flight, but are not visible when 

the wings are folded. Unlike sandhill cranes, whooping 

cranes do not preen wetland soils into their feathers. Thus, 

their plumage appears white year-round. 

Range

Migratory sandhill cranes breed in arctic to temperate 

environments, from eastern Siberia through most of 

Alaska, Canada, and the northern third of the U.S. (Figure 

12). Non-migratory sandhill cranes breed in Florida, 

southern Mississippi, southern Georgia (Okeefenokee 

Swamp), and Cuba. 

In winter, most sandhill cranes can be found in the 

southeastern U.S. from southern Indiana to the Gulf and 

Atlantic Coasts. In the West, most sandhill cranes winter in 

more distinct groups that range across northern Mexico, 

California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. 

Historically, whooping cranes nested in three distinct 

ecosystems: 1) the sub-arctic and taiga, 2) the upper 

tallgrass prairie in temperate North America, and 3) the 

coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico. Of these breeding 

areas, only the migratory population that breeds in Wood 

Buffalo National Park, Canada, and winters at Aransas 

National Wildlife Refuge, Texas (Figure 13) survived a 

severe bottle-neck in the 1940s when this population was 

reduced to 14 or 15 birds. Since then, the remnant 

migratory population has increased, and 3 of 4 

reintroduction projects that have been attempted are still 

extant, although none is self-sustaining. An Eastern 

Migratory Population (EMP) currently breeds in southern 

Wisconsin and winters in the southeastern U.S. In addition, 

a non-migratory population is being re-established in the 

coastal plains of Louisiana. A different non-migratory 

population also was reintroduced to Florida during the 

1990s, but reintroduction efforts in this area have ceased 

with the population being declared unsustainable. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 9

Figure 11. A banded adult whooping crane (Grus americana).

Figure 12. Range of the sandhill crane in North America.
Voice and Sounds

Both crane species have two distinctive calls that are 

heard easily at a distance. Males or females in flight or on 

the ground give a guard call, while a bonded pair gives the 

unison call in a synchronized duet only while on the 

ground. The guard call of sandhill cranes is a loud rattle 

that carries up to 1.5 miles; a bird uses it when it is 

disturbed or feels threatened. For whooping cranes, the 

guard call is a 2-noted blast that sounds like “whoop.” For 

sandhills, the unison call is a duet where the male begins 

with a 1-note rattle and the female quickly follows with a 2-

note, higher-pitched bark. The male to female cycle of 

calling is repeated several times as part of one 

synchronous vocalization. Unison calls from both the male 

and female sound as if they are from a single bird. It is 

given to form or maintain pair bonds and as a territorial 

defense. The unison call for whooping cranes sounds like a 

series of whoops rather than rattles typical of the sandhill 

cranes. 

Tracks and Signs

The footprint of a sandhill or whooping crane is easy to 

distinguish from that of a turkey or other large bird that 

perches in trees. Cranes are adapted to walking on the 

ground and have a reduced back toe (hallux) that prevents 

them from perching in trees. Crane tracks reflect the three 

forward toes without an extensive imprint from the hallux 

(Figure 14). Turkeys and herons, on the other hand, have 

footprints with three anterior toes and one large hallux. 

Reproduction

Both sandhill and whooping cranes reach sexual maturity 

at 2 to 3 years of age. In dense breeding populations, 

however, the age that birds can obtain a territory, and thus 

successfully breed, often is 5 to 7 years. Cranes typically 

lay two eggs in initial nests of the season and one egg in 

replacement nests, if the first nest is lost. When two chicks 

hatch from the same nest, only one typically survives. One 

chick either starves, is killed by a predator, or is killed by 

its sibling before fledging. Only one clutch is raised per 

year. 

Nesting

Cranes build their nests in emergent wetlands, but sandhill 

cranes sometimes nest in uplands. Crane nests typically 

are low mounds built from the dominant vegetation in the 

area. 

Mortality

Annual mortality rates for adult sandhill cranes average 

8.3 percent per year in the eastern population and does 

not differ between males and females. The annual 

mortality rate in the EMP of adult whooping cranes is about 

10 percent. Cranes have higher mortality rates during their 

first year of independence than during subsequent years. 

Page 10 WDM Technical Series—Cranes

Figure 13. Range of whooping cranes in North America.
Primary causes of adult mortality include predation, 

poisoning (i.e., mycotoxins from peanut fields), collisions 

with powerlines, illegal shooting, and disease. 

Population Status

Populations of sandhill cranes were dramatically reduced 

or eliminated in the early 20th century, but some have 

recovered to healthy levels. Recovery was most dramatic 

where wetlands remained and cranes adapted to foraging 

in agricultural fields. The frequency and severity of crop 

damage rose as populations recovered. 

Sandhill cranes are abundant throughout much of North 

America, numbering 600,000 to 700,000, although some 

non-migratory subspecies are considered critically 

endangered (Mississippi sandhill crane, G. c. pulla; and 

Cuban sandhill crane, G. c. nesiotes) or near threatened 

(Florida sandhill crane, G. c. pratensis) under the 

Endangered Species Act. A few migratory populations are 

still small (i.e., Colorado River Valley Population of greater 

sandhill cranes) and are thus of concern. 

Whooping cranes number only 400 to 500 birds in the wild 

and are located in four groups: 1) the EMP is a 

reintroduced, migratory flock of about 100 birds that 

resides east of the Mississippi River and summers 

primarily in Wisconsin and winters from Illinois to Florida; 

2) a flock of about 50 non-migratory birds is being 

reintroduced into Louisiana; 3) about eight birds remain of 

a non-migratory flock that was established in Florida; and 

4) a wild, remnant population of 329 birds is slowly 

increasing in size and migrates between Wood Buffalo 

National Park (Alberta and Northwest Territories, Canada) 

and Aransas National Wildlife Refuge (Texas). 

Habitat

Most sandhill cranes are migratory. In summer, ideal 

habitat includes a mix of shallow emergent wetlands that 

are located near upland areas. Cranes prefer uplands 

dominated by short vegetation, less than 1.5 feet in height. 

In spring, agricultural fields near wetlands where cranes 

nest offer excellent upland habitat and are used heavily. 

Cranes build their nests in emergent wetlands and usually 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 11

Figure 14. The rear toe (hallux) of a mature sandhill crane is less than half the 

length of a great blue heron’s (A). As a result, tracks from sandhill cranes do 

not show the imprint of the hallux (B), whereas it is present for the heron (C).

A 

B 

C 
roost at night in open water portions of these same 

wetlands. Although both territorial and non-territorial birds 

forage in uplands and wetlands during the day, territorial 

birds typically feed in uplands adjacent to their nesting 

wetlands, while non-territorial birds fly 1 to 2 miles from 

their nighttime roosts to upland fields. 

Cranes are relatively safe from predators in agricultural 

fields where the low vegetation makes it difficult for 

predators to approach undetected. The open space of 

upland fields also provides a place for crane socialization, 

an activity that is especially important to non-territorial 

birds.

In the winter, cranes roost in shallow, open river streams or 

open wetlands and often fly out to agricultural fields during 

the day. Cornfields are the most common habitat that 

cranes forage in during the day, but migrating cranes also 

hunt for small animals in wet meadows and pastures. 

Cranes return to open water areas to roost at mid-day. 

During the winter, cranes forage up to ten miles from 

wetlands where they roost, and home ranges of either 

species can be up to 19 square miles.

In the summer, whooping cranes use similar types of 

wetlands, but tend to spend more time in wetlands than do 

sandhill cranes. Whooping cranes occasionally feed in 

uplands, especially agricultural areas up to 12 miles from 

nesting territories. Whooping cranes also forage in 

agricultural fields after harvest during the fall and winter. 

Whooping cranes tend to be territorial during the winter in 

the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge and forage 

predominantly in estuarine areas, although they 

sometimes fly out from winter territories for fresh water or 

non-wetland foods, such as acorns. 

Behavior

Sandhill and whooping cranes are intelligent, territorial, 

and long-lived omnivores that are highly philopatric (tend to 

return to or remain near a particular site or area year after 

year). Both species are diurnal throughout the year. 

Although North American cranes are excellent flyers, they 

spend most of their time on the ground. Territorial cranes 

develop home ranges that are predictable and relatively 

small (0.5 to 1.1 square miles for sandhill cranes and 1.4 

to 1.8 square miles for whooping cranes). Non-territorial 

birds of either species are much more mobile and have 

home ranges of 12 to 160 square miles. During the 

summer, non-territorial cranes congregate in flocks that 

vary from 1 to 100 individuals. In the spring, most nonterritorial cranes are found within 3⁄4 mile of a roosting 

wetland, but individual birds often will fly up to three miles 

away to feed. Non-territorial birds select habitats on any 

given day in an unpredictable manner, covering areas up to 

5 to 10 times larger than areas frequented by territorial 

birds. Non-territorial sandhill cranes account for about half 

of the overall summer population of this species. Whooping 

cranes in the EMP fly up to 12 miles from their nesting 

territory on a daily basis, occasionally during incubation 

and frequently after losing their nest. 

At night, both species of cranes prefer to roost in shallow 

wetlands or rivers. Occasionally either species will roost in 

shallowly-flooded agricultural fields and even in dry 

agricultural fields, if vegetation is sparse. 

Food Habits

Sandhill and whooping cranes eat similar foods. While in 

upland fields, cranes feed on seeds, such as corn left over 

from the previous year’s crop, insects, earthworms, planted 

seeds, tubers, snakes, rodents, eggs, and young birds. 

Corn, wheat, barley, rice, and sunflower seeds are 

desirable foods. In wetlands, sandhill and whooping cranes 

eat a variety of animals, including birds (mostly nestlings 

and eggs), rodents, snakes, frogs (adults and tadpoles), 

insects, fish, snails, mussels, crayfish, and turtles. In 

addition, cranes eat a wide array of plant material, 

including tubers, rhizomes, seeds, berries, and flowers. 

Since whooping cranes spend more time in wetland 

habitats, they tend to eat more of these foods than do 

sandhill cranes. 

Page 12 WDM Technical Series—Cranes
Whooping cranes and some subspecies of sandhill cranes 

(Mississippi, Florida, and Cuban) also are protected under 

the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Under this statute, the 

wild migratory population of whooping cranes in central 

North America is fully protected anywhere it occurs in 

Canada or the U.S. The extant reintroduced populations, 

however, are classified as “experimental and nonessential” under the ESA. This classification provides more 

flexibility in dealing with management issues that occur 

during reintroduction efforts. The experimental, nonessential designation applies to whooping cranes in the 

EMP and in non-migratory populations of Louisiana and 

Florida.

Federal and state permits are required to capture and 

possess cranes or crane parts, such as feathers. The 

USFWS is responsible for all permits obtained under either 

the MBTA or the ESA. In at least some states, the USFWS, 

in close cooperation with USDA Wildlife Services, 

administers take permits for removing sandhill cranes 

involved in agricultural damage. State permits for the 

capture of cranes can be obtained through state natural 

resource agencies. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 13

Both sandhill and whooping cranes are protected under 

the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) of 1918. This law 

strictly prohibits the capture, killing, or possession of 

sandhill and whooping cranes without proper permits. 

However, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) can 

issue depredation permits under this act for the shooting 

of sandhill cranes that cause agricultural damage or 

threaten human health and safety. No federal permit is 

required to use non-lethal management methods to reduce 

damage by sandhill cranes.

State laws also apply to various crane populations. For 

example, the small breeding population of sandhill cranes 

in Ohio is considered a species of management concern 

even though it is part of the larger eastern population of 

sandhill cranes which contains more than 70,000 birds. 

Additionally, in Florida it is illegal to artificially feed 

whooping or sandhill cranes. Check with the appropriate 

regulatory agencies in individual states for a more 

comprehensive analysis of state laws. 

Legal Status
Page 14

Acknowledgements

Figure 1 and 11. Photo by Ted Thousand

Figure 2. Photo by Anne Lacy

Figure 3. Photo by Jason Welter

Figure 4. Photo by David and JoAnn Schoengold

Figure 5. Photo by Tim Bender

Figure 6. Photo by Su Liying

Figure 7. Photo by Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation

Figure 8. Photo by Efi Naim

Figure 9. Photo by Endangered Wildlife Trust

Figure 10. Data provided by Arkion Life Sciences, LLC

Figure 12 and 13. Maps by International Crane Foundation

Figure 14. Illustration by Stephanie Wright; Photos by Joshua Libson, MPG Ranch

The International Crane Foundation provided support for much of the human-crane mitigation information provided in this document. 

The following people graciously provided editing or contributed content to this document: Stephanie Aken, Nancy Douglass, Deanne 

Endrizzi, Yuko Haraguchi, Scott Hygnstrom, Anne Lacy, Zev Labinger, Julie Langenberg, Kerryn Morrison, Robert Russell, Mark Tobin, 

and Eva Szyszkoski. Production of this publication was supported by the USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services. 

Glossary

Diurnal: Active mainly during the day 

Endosperm: The part of a seed that acts as a food source 

for the developing plant embryo.

Fledging: The stage of a bird’s life when the wing feathers 

and muscles are sufficiently developed to enable flight. 

Hallux: Posterior-oriented toe. 

Omnivore: Eats both plants and animals.

Pyrotechnics: Flares or cartridges fired from a gun or 

launcher that produce a loud blast or scream accompanied 

by smoke and a flash of light. 

Staging Area: During migration, a stopping point where 

birds rest and feed to improve body condition and increase 

body fat. 

Key Words

Birds, Cranes, Consumption of planted seed, Grus 

americana, Grus canadensis, Diverters, Powerline collision, 

Sandhill cranes, Seed repellents, Territorial cranes, 

Whooping cranes

Citation

Wildlife can threaten the health and safety of you and others in the area. Use of damage prevention and control 

methods also may pose risks to humans, pets, livestock, 

other non-target animals, and the environment. Be aware 

of the risks and take steps to reduce or eliminate those 

risks. 

Some methods mentioned in this document may not be 

legal, permitted, or appropriate in your area. Read and follow all pesticide label recommendations and local requirements. Check with personnel from your state wildlife agency and local officials to determine if methods are acceptable and allowed. 

Mention of any products, trademarks, or brand names 

does not constitute endorsement, nor does omission constitute criticism. 

WDM Technical Series—Cranes

Disclaimer

Barzen, J. and K. Ballinger. 2017. Sandhill and Whooping 

Cranes. Wildlife Damage Management Technical Series. 

USDA, APHIS, WS National Wildlife Research Center. Ft. 

Collins, Colorado. 16p.
Page 15

Resources

Arkion LLC website (http://www.arkionls.com) Accessed October 27, 2014.

Ellis, D.H., G.F. Gee, and C.M. Mirande, editors. 1996. Cranes: their biology, husbandry and conservation. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service, Washington D.C. and International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin. 1996. XII, 308p.

International Crane Foundation. Unpublished data collected over 27 years by International Crane Foundation staff 

regarding crane/human conflicts and management. http://www.savingcranes.org Accessed March 6, 2015.

Lacy, A., E.Cullen, J. Barzen, and S. Schramm. 2013. Protect your corn from cranes. University of Wisconsin Extension Bulletin A3897, Madison, Wisconsin. 4pp.

Meine, C.D. and G.A. Archibald, eds. The cranes: status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. 294 pp.

Tacha, T.C., S.A. Nesbitt and P.A. Vohs. 1994. Sandhill Crane. Pp. 77-94 in Migratory Shore and Upland Game Bird 

Management in North America. T.C. Tacha and C.E. Braun, eds. International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas. 223 pp.

Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management http://icwdm.org Accessed July 27, 2015.

National Wildlife Control Training Program (http://wildlifecontroltraining.com) Accessed July 27, 2015. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Damage Management Methods for Sandhill and Whooping Cranes

Page 16

Appendix 

 

Type of Control 

 

 

Available Management Options 

 

Exclusion Not practical

Fertility Control None registered

Frightening Devices Propane cannons and associated pyrotechnics

Habitat Modification Lure crops and artificial feeding

Repellents 9,10 Anthraquinone (AG), registered as Avipel®

Shooting Only allowed for sandhill cranes; Requires state and federal permits

Toxicants None registered 

Trapping Impractical in most situations; Requires state and federal permits